El Museo de Arte Africano Arellano Alonso de la Universidad de Valladolid, es una institución sin ánimo de lucro creada en el año 2004. Cuenta con una excepcional colección de arte procedente de África subsahariana donada por la Fundación Alberto Jiménez-Arellano Alonso, parte de la cual se exhibe en tres salas ubicadas en el Palacio de Santa Cruz. Además, periódicamente organiza actividades divulgativas y formativas encaminadas a acercar la cultura y el arte africano a todos los interesados en el continente africano.

Desde su apertura en 2004 se mostraron los dos tipos de arte. El gran prestigio de la colección de arte africano desembocó en la remodelación de las salas y desde el 21 de abril de 2010 las tres salas muestran gran parte de los fondos de la Fundación. En la exposición se recogen las culturas africanas más importantes en el trabajo del barro a lo largo de la historia. En el año 2012 se inauguró la tercera sala (Sala de San Ambrosio) bajo el nombre de “Reino de Oku”.

A partir de 2015 tomó el nombre de Museo de Arte Africano Arellano Alonso.

La colección reúne cerca de 130 esculturas realizadas con barro cocido, un material milenario y frágil, de conservación compleja y de difícil hallazgo. Algunas de las culturas representadas son: Cultura Nok, Ifé, Reino de Benín, Sokoto, Jukun, Komaland, Ashanti, Katsina, Dori, Mangbetu, Paré, Djenné, Ségou, Igno, Cham, Longuda, Bankoni, Yoruba, Agni, Mambila o Bura, entre otras y que están expuestas en la Sala Renacimiento y en el Salón de Rectores.

Los ejemplares datan desde el siglo V a.C. hasta el XX de nuestra era y algunos son piezas excepcionales como la única pareja conocida a nivel mundial de la cultura Jukun (de la que apenas hay una docena de piezas en el mundo), una de las pocas cabezas conocidas de la cultura del antiguo reino de Benín realizadas en terracota (fechada en el siglo XVI) o conjuntos significativos, como es el formado por catorce piezas de la cultura Nok, primer ejemplo de escultura figurativa en terracota del África negra, junto a la egipcia.

El principal elemento iconográfico de esta colección es la cultura humana: figuras que dan cobijo a espíritus, representan antepasados o constituyen imágenes de poder. Pequeñas humanas completas o incompletas son también las cuarenta piezas de una cultura que, en 1985, se puso al descubierto por unas excavaciones realizadas por la Universidad de Ghana en el norte del país y que pasó a denominarse como Komaland.

La otra parte importante de esta colección de arte africano está compuesta por esculturas realizadas en bronce u otros metales con una colección de monedas africanas tradicionales y objetos etnográficos. Parte de estos fondos, los de carácter etnológico, se encuentran expuestos en la galería de San Ambrosio donde también está expuesta la colección más reciente de la Fundación que recrea el Reino de Oku, situado al oeste de Camerún. Está compuesta por objetos vinculados al rey que utiliza durante las recepciones reales, fiestas o ceremonias rituales.

Fon Sintieh II es el monarca de Oku. En 2006, éste comenzó a negociar con Ramón Sanz para la firma de un acuerdo en el que se nombra a la Fundación Alberto Jiménez-Arellano Alonso " (...) su embajadora para la promoción de los valores culturales y artísticos en Europa". Además de dicho acuerdo, se ha producido la llegada de más de cien objetos de diferentes materiales a Valladolid y constituye la incorporación más reciente a las colecciones de arte africano de la Fundación Arellano Alonso. Estos objetos reflejan las tradiciones, creencias y organización social de este reino. Dichos objetos pueden visitarse en la exposición permanente "El Reino de Oku", en la Sala de San Ambrosio del Palacio de Santa Cruz de Valladolid.

Dentro de la muestra destacan las regalias, es decir, objetos cuyo uso está reservado exclusivamente al soberano. Son piezas, en su mayoría talladas en madera, que ponen de relieve el gran desarrollo de este arte que ha alcanzado, en general, en todo Camerún. Entre estas regalías destacan las camas de jefatura, los tronos rituales o los vestidos tradicionales que sólo el Fon (el Rey) puede vestir en determinadas ceremonias.

También llaman la atención las máscaras de algunas de las Sociedades Secretas tradicionales que aún cuentan con gran relevancia en la sociedad de Oku y cuyas actividades y objetos deben permanecer en el más estricto mistero. Las Sociedades son las encargadas de frenar los comportamientos antisociales que amenacen el bienestar general o atenten contra las costumbres tradicionales, manteniéndose así la armonía y la paz social. Los castigos son aplicados por sus "máscaras", que tienen una carga mágica, sinónimo de "medicina", que es lo que les da su poder y les dota de vida. Por eso "danzan" en ceremonias y rituales tradicionales de todo tipo (judicial, funerarios, entronizaciones...). Cuanto más agresiva sea su danza y más repulsivo sea su aspecto, mayor será su poder.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Arte_Africano_Arellano_Alonso

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anexo:Obras_del_Museo_de_Arte_Afric...

The Arellano Alonso Museum of African Art at the University of Valladolid is a non-profit institution created in 2004. It has an exceptional collection of art from sub-Saharan Africa donated by the Alberto Jiménez-Arellano Alonso Foundation, part of the which is exhibited in three rooms located in the Palacio de Santa Cruz. In addition, it periodically organizes informative and educational activities aimed at bringing African culture and art closer to all those interested in the African continent.

Since its opening in 2004, both types of art have been shown. The great prestige of the African art collection led to the remodeling of the rooms and since April 21, 2010, the three rooms show a large part of the Foundation's funds. In the exhibition the most important African cultures in the work of clay throughout history are collected. In 2012, the third room (Sala de San Ambrosio) was inaugurated under the name “Reino de Oku”.

From 2015 it took the name of Arellano Alonso Museum of African Art.

The collection gathers around 130 sculptures made with fired clay, an ancient and fragile material, of complex conservation and difficult to find. Some of the cultures represented are: Culture Nok, Ifé, Kingdom of Benin, Sokoto, Jukun, Komaland, Ashanti, Katsina, Dori, Mangbetu, Paré, Djenné, Ségou, Igno, Cham, Longuda, Bankoni, Yoruba, Agni, Mambila o Bura, among others and which are exhibited in the Renaissance Hall and in the Rectors' Hall.

The specimens date from the 5th century B.C. until the 20th of our era and some are exceptional pieces such as the only world-known pair of the Jukun culture (of which there are only a dozen pieces in the world), one of the few known heads of the culture of the ancient kingdom from Benin made in terracotta (dated in the 16th century) or significant ensembles, such as the one made up of fourteen pieces from the Nok culture, the first example of figurative terracotta sculpture from Black Africa, together with the Egyptian one.

The main iconographic element of this collection is human culture: figures that shelter spirits, represent ancestors or constitute images of power. Complete or incomplete little humans are also the forty pieces of a culture that, in 1985, was uncovered by excavations carried out by the University of Ghana in the north of the country and which was renamed Komaland.

The other important part of this collection of African art is made up of sculptures made in bronze or other metals with a collection of traditional African coins and ethnographic objects. Part of these collections, those of an ethnological nature, are on display in the gallery of San Ambrosio where the Foundation's most recent collection that recreates the Kingdom of Oku, located in the west of Cameroon, is also exhibited. It is made up of objects linked to the king that he uses during royal receptions, parties or ritual ceremonies.

Fon Sintieh II is the monarch of Oku. In 2006, the latter began to negotiate with Ramón Sanz for the signing of an agreement in which the Alberto Jiménez-Arellano Alonso Foundation is named "(...) its ambassador for the promotion of cultural and artistic values in Europe". In addition to this agreement, the arrival of more than one hundred objects of different materials has taken place in Valladolid and constitutes the most recent addition to the Arellano Alonso Foundation's African art collections. These objects reflect the traditions, beliefs and social organization of this kingdom. These objects can be visited in the permanent exhibition "The Kingdom of Oku", in the San Ambrosio Room of the Palace of Santa Cruz de Valladolid.

Within the exhibition, regalia stand out, that is, objects whose use is reserved exclusively for the sovereign. They are pieces, mostly carved in wood, that highlight the great development of this art that has reached, in general, throughout Cameroon. These royalties include chiefdom beds, ritual thrones or traditional dresses that only the Fon (the King) can wear in certain ceremonies.

The masks of some of the traditional Secret Societies that still have great relevance in Oku society and whose activities and objects must remain in the strictest mistero are also striking. Societies are responsible for stopping antisocial behaviors that threaten the general welfare or violate traditional customs, thus maintaining harmony and social peace. Punishments are applied by their "masks", which have a magical charge, synonymous with "medicine", which is what gives them their power and gives them life. That is why they "dance" in traditional ceremonies and rituals of all kinds (judicial, funeral, enthronements ...). The more aggressive your dance is and the more repulsive your appearance, the greater your power.

#495 EXPLORE JAN 19,2011 mujer bereber en el tren de asilah a meknes(marruecos).

toda la vida social bereber está estructurada en torno a un concepto fundamental para la comprensión de las relaciones entre sexos: el honor o nnif familiar.

la preservación de esta cualidad moral se erige como base de la cohesión familiar y social, instituyendo a los hombres del principio de autoridad para ejercer un férreo control sobre todos los miembros de la familia y, especialmente, sobre las mujeres, que se consideran como los pilares de la moral y la vida privada familiar.

el comportamiento de las mujeres del núcleo familiar revierte directamente en el prestigio social del patrilinaje. consecuentemente, en el seno de este sistema social, "la mujer se verá abocada al papel de madre y esposa, responsable del honor del padre y la perpetuación de su nombre, considerándola un objeto prohibido para los demás".

la interiorización desde la infancia de conceptos tales como ihya (pudor), horma(respetabilidad), qdâr (infundir respeto) o hachuma (vergüenza) posibilita el aprendizaje del estricto código de conducta que les permitirá el desempeño de los roles que el patrilinaje le tiene destinados: ser una madre fecunda y una fiel esposa.

"reflections"

berber woman in the train between asilah and meknes(morocco).

all berber social life is structured around a key concept for understanding the relationships between the sexes: the honor or family nnif.

the preservation of the moral quality stands as the foundation of family and social cohesion, establishing the principle men of authority to exercise strict control over all family members, and especially on women, which are considered the pillars of morality and family privacy.

the behavior of women in the family paid directly into the social prestige of patrilineage. consequently, within this social system, "the woman will be doomed to the role of wife and mother,responsible for the honor of the father and the perpetuation of his name,considering it forbidden for others".

internalization from infancy to concepts such as ihya (modesty), qdâr (command respect) or hachuma (shame) learning enables strict code of conduct that will allow the performance of roles that you have patrilineage intended: to be a fertile mother and faithful wife.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

El Pont de Biscaia, Pont Penjant o Pont Palacio (Bizkaiko Zubia, en euskera) és un pont amb barqueta transbordadora que uneix les dues ribes de la ria del Nervión a Biscaia al País Basc, i va ser inaugurat el 1893. El pont enllaça la vila de Portugalete amb el barri de les Arenes, que pertany al municipi de Getxo, així com les dues vores de la ria de Bilbao. La seva construcció es va deure a la necessitat d'unir els balnearis existents en ambdós marge de la ria, destinats a la burgesia industrial i als turistes de finals del segle XIX, sense interrompre el tràfic de vaixells a l'entrada de la ria.

Tant en el procés de disseny del pont, com en la seva construcció va intervenir l'enginyer i empresari francès Ferdinand Arnodin, expert tant en la fabricació de cables com en la construcció i reparació de ponts penjants. Arnodin és autor del pont transbordador de Rochefort, a França, el perfil del qual és molt semblant, en efecte, al de Biscaia. La construcció del pont, que es va realitzar entre 1890 i 1893, no va estar exempta de problemes i dissensions entre Palacio i Arnodin, la qual cosa va provocar la contínua intervenció mediadora del prestigiós enginyer francès A. Brüll, que havia estat president de la Societat d'Enginyers Civils de França[2]

El pont té 61 metres d'altura i 160 metres de longitud. Es tracta d'un pont penjant amb una barqueta transbordadora per al transport de vehicles i passatgers. Va ser el primer pont d'aquest tipus construït al món i per això va servir de model de nombrosos ponts construïts en Europa, Àfrica i Amèrica. El Pont de Biscaia és considerat actualment el pont transbordador en servei més antic del món.

Pàgina a la UNESCO World Heritage List.

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Ⓒ Saúl Tuñón Loureda

La Gran Vía es una de las principales calles de Madrid (España). Comienza en la calle de Alcalá y termina en la plaza de España. Es un importante hito en la ciudad desde su construcción a principios de siglo XX visto desde el punto de vista comercial, turístico y de ocio. En éste último aspecto es famosa por sus cines, si bien en los últimos años algunos de ellos han cerrado y otros se han reconvertido con gran éxito al teatro musical, por lo que el tramo comprendido entre la plaza de Callao y la de España se conoce como el Broadway madrileño. El tramo comprendido entre la red de San Luis y la plaza de Callao alberga en la actualidad numerosas tiendas de cadenas internacionales de moda.

Además de para servir como vía de comunicación este-oeste de la ciudad, la Gran Vía fue planificada como punto de encuentro de los ciudadanos y como área recreativa y comercial. En estos dos aspectos, supuso un cambio en las costumbres de los madrileños, ya que albergó los primeros grandes almacenes de la ciudad, escaparates de lujo, grandes salas de cine o cafés que se harían muy frecuentados durante sus primeras décadas de vida.

El primer tramo, entre Alcalá y la Red de San Luis, estuvo dedicado desde el comienzo al comercio de lujo, a imitación de otras calles surgidas en el siglo XIX por toda Europa, como la Rue de la Paix (París); Regent Street (Londres) o la Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (Milán). Cabe destacar tiendas de moda como Almacenes Rodríguez, Samaral o Sánchez-Rubio; joyerías como Aldao, Brooking, Grassy, Perera o Sanz; concesionarios de automóviles, como Chenard-Walker, Fiat, Ford o Hispano-Suiza; cafés como el Abra, Chicote, Pidoux o Sicilia Molinero; compañías de seguros como La Unión y el Fénix o Seguros La Estrella; y hoteles, como el Hotel de Roma. Aunque todavía perdura alguna firma de prestigio, a partir de los años sesenta del siglo XX este uso comenzó a decaer, dando paso a otros establecimientos menos especializados. También se instalaron en esta zona varios casinos, los centros de reunión de la alta burguesía de principios del siglo XX.

El segundo tramo, hasta Callao, es el más espacioso, como corresponde a su antiguo diseño de bulevar. Desde el comienzo, con la apertura de la estación de metro de Gran vía en 1919, fue un continuo ir y venir de gentes. Aquí, por ejemplo, se abrieron los primeros grandes almacenes de Madrid, los Almacenes Madrid-París, inaugurados en enero de 1924 y siendo uno de los primeros de la ciudad en contar con escaleras mecánicas, tras su quiebra el edificio sería comprado por Sepu (Sociedad Española de Precios Únicos) en 1934 para la apertura de su sucursal en Madrid. Otros dos grandes almacenes, El Corte Inglés y Galerías Preciados, surgieron junto a la plaza de Callao. También se establecieron numerosas compañías de seguros, la mayoría propietarias de los edificios en que se ubicaban. A partir de los años cincuenta, con el auge del turismo y la instalación de numerosos hoteles, se produjo su época dorada, con la apertura de cafés, bares y salas de fiestas, como el famoso Pasapoga. También son de destacar, característica que comparte con el siguiente tramo, los edificios que se construyeron para albergar, de modo polivalente, salas de cine y teatro, como el Palacio de la Música o el Cine Avenida. En los años 80, en Gran Vía 25, abrió sus puertas una tienda de la emblemática cadena de venta de discos Madrid Rock.

El tercer tramo, hasta la plaza de España, albergó espacios destinados al ocio, como cines, teatros, salas de fiestas y cafeterías “a la americana”, y comercios como librerías y tiendas de tejidos, entre otras. También edificios completamente de oficinas. Durante la Guerra Civil, por su proximidad al frente situado en la Ciudad Universitaria y en la Casa de Campo, esta zona de la Gran Vía fue la que más se resintió. Destacan de nuevo los edificios dedicados a salas de cine como el Palacio de la Prensa, el Callao, el Capitol, el Coliseum, el Rialto, el Imperial o el Lope de Vega.

En la actualidad, alrededor de 50.000 coches circulan diariamente por la Gran Vía y, en hora punta, lo hacen 185 autobuses. Hay cuarenta y un hoteles, quince sucursales bancarias, cuatro cines (llegaron a ser 12), tres teatros y dos museos. Dispone de ciento cuatro papeleras y ciento nueve farolas.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_V%C3%ADa#La_Gran_V.C3.ADa_en_l...

Gran Vía (literally "Great Way") is an ornate and upscale shopping street located in central Madrid.Now, the street is known as the Spanish Broadway, and is one of the streets with more nightlife in Europe. It is known as the street that never sleeps. It leads from Calle de Alcalá, close to Plaza de Cibeles, to Plaza de España.

The lively street is one of the city's most important shopping areas, with a large number of hotels and large movie theaters; it is also noted for the grand architecture prevalent among many of its buildings. Now, most of the theaters are being replaced by shopping malls.

It is considered a showcase of early 20th century architecture, with patterns ranging from Vienna Secession style, Plateresque, Neo-Mudéjar, Art Deco and others.

Conception

In the mid 19th century, Madrid's urban planners decided that a new thoroughfare had to be created, connecting the Calle de Alcalá with the Plaza de España. The project required many buildings in the center of the city to be demolished, earning it the name of 'an axe blow on the map'. Decades after the first plans were made, construction still hadn't started and the media ridiculed the project, cynically calling it the 'Gran Vía' or 'Great Road'. Finally in 1904 it was approved and construction started a couple of years later. The last part of the street was completed in 1929.

The new road created opportunities for architects, who had the ability to create large buildings in the latest architectural styles. The first eye catching building starting from the Calle de Alcalá is the most famous of all, the Edificio Metrópolis or Metropolis Building. The landmark was built between 1907 and 1911 after a design by the architects Jules and Raymond Février. The original statue was replaced in 1975 by a statue of a winged Goddess Victory.

A bit further along the Gran Vía, on the left hand side is another landmark, the Edificio Grassy, another corner building with a small tower, built in 1917. Visible from here is the tower of the Telefónica Building, the first European skyscraper built between 1926 and 1929 for the Spanish telecommunications company. The 88-meter (290 ft) building was the tallest in Madrid and was designed by an American, Louis S. Weeks.

Plaza del Callao

Farther towards the Plaza de España, the Gran Vía crosses a small square, the Plaza del Callao, named after the battle of El Callao. This square is the heart of cinematic Madrid, with about six movie theaters. One of them, the Capitol, is located in a beautiful Art Deco building.

However, recent changes in building rules have allowed the reform of the theaters into more lucrative shopping centers.

The last part of the Gran Vía, constructed between 1925 and 1929 leads to the Plaza de España, a large square dominated by two skyscrapers built in the 1950s, the symmetric Edificio España and the Torre de Madrid. Here the Gran Vía becomes the Calle Princesa, leading north to the Arco de la Victoria.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_V%C3%ADa_%28Madrid%29

VILLAGE LIFE / VITA DI VILLAGGIO

CAMBODIA: DOUBLE GLIMPSES #5

Cambogia, gennaio 2011.

Ferve, la vita nei villaggi di palafitte che popolano improvvisi le rive del Tonlé Sap. I meccanismi a regolare la vita quotidiana sono basici: luce-buio; lavoro-riposo. I bisogni elementari - e la loro soddisfazione - sono il fulcro di questo intero pianeta fluviale. Per i più anziani, la sicurezza di vivere all'interno di una rete sociale e familiare estremamente salda e presente; ciò che si perde in riservatezza, si guadagna in sicurezza di non dover mai affrontare nulla in solitudine, a nessuna età.

La vita scorre; quando si è meno produttivi, la si può quanto meno osservare mentre scorre, godendo del rispetto di tutti per il maggior prestigio sociale derivante dall'età e dall'esperienza.

Cambodia, January 2011.

In these lake dwellings built on piles in the Tonlé Sap area, life flows regulated by basic mechanisms: light-dark; work-rest. Elementary needs - as well as their satisfaction - are at the core of this fluvial planet. For older people, the community and family to which they belong grant close relations and respect deriving from experience and age. They will hardly know what loneliness is, under every way.

Informazioni su questa affascinante area del sud-est asiatico, riserva della biosfera UNESCO dal 1997: it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonle_Sap

Information in English about the area: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonlé_Sap

Sontuose danze cambogiane al ritmo di un brano classico, che amo molto: Cambodian Royal Classical Ballet

El área en la que se encuentra la galería era ya muy urbanizada en el siglo XVI y se caracterizó por una maraña de calles cortas unidas por carriles paralelos, que el Toledo floreció frente a Castel Nuovo. Estos callejones disfrutado de una mala reputación como había tabernas, casas de mala reputación y había consumido crímenes de todo tipo. El prestigio ganado durante siglos la zona permaneció durante la mayor parte del 'siglo XIX.

En la década de los ochenta del siglo XIX, la degradación tocó extremos: en las calles de rosa edificios de seis pisos, el nivel de higiene era pobre y no es de extrañar que entre 1835 y 1884 en este ámbito se habían producido nueve brotes de cólera. Bajo la presión de la opinión pública, después de la epidemia de 1884 empezó a considerar la intervención del gobierno.

En 1885 se aprobó la ley para la reorganización de la ciudad de Nápoles (que era precisamente el tiempo que la consolidación), que permite a la zona de Santa Brígida recibió una nueva definición territorial. Hubo una serie de propuestas, el proyecto consistió en diseñar un ganador Rocco Emmanuele, que se extendió más tarde por Ernesto di Mauro. Este proyecto consistió en una galería con cuatro brazos que se cruzan en un octógono de crucero cubierto por una cúpula. La demolición de los edificios existentes se inició el 01 de mayo 1887 y 05 de noviembre de ese año se colocó la primera piedra del edificio. Dentro de tres años, precisamente en 19 de noviembre 1890, la nueva galería se abrió.

La entrada principal, que se abre en la Via San Carlo, consta de una fachada de pórtico, en los que dintel tiene un pórtico sostenido por columnas de mármol travertino y dos arcos ciegos, una puerta de entrada a la galería, el "más abierta sobre"ambulatoria. Siguen un orden de ventanas serliana, separadas por pares de pilastras de la capital compuesto, y un segundo piso con ventanas de doble y pilastras similares a las anteriores. El ático tiene pares de ventanas cuadradas y pilastra capitales de la Toscana, este último se ranurado entre las ventanas.

El arco de la derecha muestra las columnas de izquierda a derecha, el 'invierno, la primavera, el 'Verano el 'Otoño, los temas tradicionales que representan el curso de los tiempos en los que están vinculados a las actividades humanas, el trabajo y el genio la ciencia. En el frontón son las de Comercio el 'Industria medio de descanso a los lados de la riqueza, los mitos de la sociedad burguesa.

El arco de la izquierda muestra las columnas, los cuatro continentes 'sde Europa, el "Asia, el «África el 'América. Los nichos están representados por el contrario, la izquierda, la Física y, a la derecha, la química. En el frontón, acostado, el Telegraph, a la derecha, y de vapor, en el flanco izquierdo de la figura de 'Abundancia. Por lo tanto, presenta una imagen positiva de la ciencia y el progreso son capaces de unificar las diferentes partes del mundo. En el techo del porche se puede ver una serie de rondas con los dioses clásicos. Los dioses son representados Diana, Crono, Venus, Júpiter, Mercurio y Juno.

Los niños fachadas tienen una estructura similar, pero sólo han estuco. La fachada de la Via Toledo elemento a ambos lados de dos pares de querubines con escudos que están representados en los emblemas de los dos colegios electorales en Nápoles: el caballo lento a derecha Capuana, y dejó un puerto para Portanova. La fachada sobre la calle Santa Brígida muestra, sus escudos rige por querubines, los emblemas de los escaños en Porto, el hombre abandonó el medio marino, y de la montaña con la montaña a la derecha. Los lados de los paneles hay dos alusiones a la guerra y la paz. La fachada de la calle Verdi, en el escudo, los emblemas de la sede del Nido, un caballo salvaje de la izquierda, y el Pueblo, con P de la derecha. Los lados de los dos paneles se alude a la abundancia y la riqueza de la tierra se caracteriza por el cultivo y la explotación de la navegación.

Interna

El interior del túnel consta de dos caminos que se cruzan en ángulo recto, cubierto por una estructura de hierro y vidrio. Delimitar el número de edificios, de los cuales cuatro han dall'ottagono acceso central. Sus fachadas reflejan la principal, de hecho, la orden inferior está dividido por grandes pilastras lisas, pintadas de mármol de imitación que enmarcan la entrada de las tiendas y altillo encima de ella. Aquí están los serliane primer plano, de conformidad con las ventanas geminadas, las ventanas cuadradas en el ático.

La bóveda, de cristal y hierro, diseñado por Paul Boubée, se las arregla para combinar a la perfección con la estructura de bloques, lo que contribuye a la estrecha relación entre las estructuras de mampostería y hierro forjado del. En las ocho enjutas de la cúpula de ocho figuras femeninas de apoyo candelabros de cobre, ya no existen. Los grandes ventiladores colocados en la cabeza de escenas complejas portar armas en el yeso, todo lo relacionado a la música. El tambor de la cúpula, decorada con ventanas de medio punto, se puede ver la estrella de David, repite en las cuatro ventanas. La razón de su presencia es aparentemente desconocido.

En el piso bajo la cúpula son mosaicos con vientos y los signos del zodíaco Padoan firmado por la empresa en Venecia, que se creó en 1952 para reemplazar el original dañada por el pisoteo y la guerra. El bombardeo provocó la destrucción de todas las cubiertas de vidrio. En los bustos de las entradas y lugares conmemorativos desaparecido y los que participaron en la ejecución del proyecto.

En el brazo de la Via Verdi es una inscripción que recuerda la posada Moriconi que en 1787 fue sede de Goethe. En lugar de entrar en el lado del Teatro San Carlo se encuentra la placa con Pablo Boubée. En el área debajo de la galería hay otro crucero, más pequeño, con una sala central de la Belle Epoque, el Salone Margherita.

La zona su cui sorge la Galleria era già intensamente urbanizzata nel XVI secolo ed era caratterizzata da un groviglio di strade parallele raccordate da brevi vicoli, che da via Toledo sboccavano di fronte a Castel Nuovo. Questi vicoli godevano di cattiva fama in quanto vi si trovavano taverne, case di malaffare e vi si consumavano delitti di ogni genere. La fama conquistata nei secoli dalla zona si mantenne per quasi tutto l'Ottocento.

Negli anni ottanta del XIX secolo il degrado toccò punte estreme: nei vicoli si levavano edifici a sei piani, la situazione igienica era pessima e non fa meraviglia che tra il 1835 ed il 1884 in questa area si fossero verificate ben nove epidemie di colera. Sotto la spinta dell'opinione pubblica, dopo l'epidemia del 1884 si cominciò a considerare un intervento governativo.

Nel 1885 fu approvata la Legge per il risanamento della città di Napoli (quel periodo fu appunto detto del risanamento), grazie alla quale la zona di Santa Brigida ricevette una nuova definizione territoriale. Furono presentate varie proposte, il progetto che risultò vincente fu quello dell'ingegner Emmanuele Rocco, che fu poi ampliato da Ernesto di Mauro. Tale progetto prevedeva una galleria a quattro braccia che si intersecavano in una crociera ottagonale coperta da una cupola. Le demolizioni degli edifici preesistenti iniziarono il 1 maggio 1887 ed il 5 novembre dello stesso anno fu posta la prima pietra dell'edificio. Nel giro di tre anni, precisamente il 19 novembre 1890, la nuova galleria veniva inaugurata.

L'ingresso principale, che si apre su via San Carlo, è costituito da una facciata ad esedra, che in basso, presenta un porticato architravato, retto da colonne di travertino e due archi ciechi, l'uno d'accesso alla galleria, l'altro aperto sull'ambulacro. Seguono un ordine di finestre a serliana, separate da coppie di lesene dal capitello composito, ed un secondo piano con finestre a bifora e lesene simili alle precedenti. L'attico presenta coppie di finestre quadrate e lesene dal capitello tuscanico, quest'ultime tra le finestre sono scanalate.

L'arco di destra mostra, sulle colonne, da sinistra verso destra, l'Inverno, la Primavera, l'Estate e l'Autunno, soggetti tradizionali che rappresentano lo svolgersi del tempo a cui sono legate le attività umane, il Lavoro e il Genio della scienza. Sul fastigio troviamo il Commercio e l'Industria semisdraiati ai lati della Ricchezza, miti della società borghese.

L'arco di sinistra mostra, sulle colonne, i quattro continenti l'Europa, l'Asia, l'Africa e l'America. Nelle nicchie invece sono rappresentati, a sinistra, la Fisica e, a destra, la Chimica. Sul fastigio, sdraiati, il Telegrafo, a destra, e il Vapore, a sinistra che affiancano la figura dell'Abbondanza. Si presenta dunque un'immagine positiva della scienza e del progresso capaci di unificare le diverse parti del mondo. Nel soffitto del porticato si notano una serie di tondi con divinità classiche. Gli dei raffigurati sono Diana, Crono, Venere, Giove, Mercurio e Giunone.

Le facciate minori hanno una struttura simile ma presentano unicamente decorazioni in stucco. La facciata su via Toledo reca, ai lati dell'ingresso, due coppie di putti con scudi nei quali sono rappresentati gli emblemi dei due seggi di Napoli: il cavallo frenato per Capuana a destra, ed una porta per Portanova a sinistra. La facciata su via Santa Brigida presenta, negli scudi retti dai putti, gli emblemi dei seggi di Porto, con l'uomo marino a sinistra, e di Montagna con i monti a destra. Ai lati dell'arco ci sono due pannelli allusivi alla guerra e alla pace. La facciata di via Verdi ha, negli scudi, gli emblemi del seggio di Nido, con un cavallo sfrenato a sinistra, e del Popolo, con la P a destra. Ai lati dell'arco sono presenti due pannelli allusivi all'abbondanza e alla ricchezza caratterizzati dalla coltivazione della terra e dall'esercizio della navigazione.

Interno

L'interno della galleria è costituito da due strade che si incrociano ortogonalmente, coperte da una struttura in ferro e vetro. Le delimitano alcuni palazzi, quattro dei quali con accesso dall'ottagono centrale. Le loro facciate rispecchiano quella principale, infatti l'ordine inferiore è diviso da grandi lesene lisce, dipinte a finto marmo che inquadrano gli ingressi dei negozi e dei soprastanti mezzanini. Seguono al primo piano le serliane, al secondo le bifore, nell'attico le finestre quadrate.

La volta, in vetro e ferro, progettata da Paolo Boubée, riesce ad armonizzarsi perfettamente con la struttura in muratura, a ciò contribuisce lo stretto rapporto fra le strutture portanti in muratura e quelle in ferro. Negli otto pennacchi della cupola otto figure femminili in rame sostenevano lampadari, ormai non più esistenti. Gli ampi ventagli posti nelle testate dei bracci recano complesse scene in stucco, tutte in relazione con la musica. Sul tamburo della cupola, decorato con finestre a semicerchio, è visibile la Stella di Davide, riproposta in tutte e quattro le finestre. La ragione della sua presenza è apparentemente sconosciuta.

Nel pavimento sotto la cupola si trovano mosaici con venti e segni dello zodiaco firmati dalla ditta Padoan di Venezia, che li realizzò nel 1952 a sostituzione degli originali danneggiati dal calpestio e dalla guerra. I bombardamenti provocarono la distruzione di tutte le coperture in vetro. Presso gli ingressi busti e lapidi commemorano luoghi scomparsi e coloro che parteciparono alla realizzazione dell'opera.

Nel braccio verso via Verdi si trova una scritta che ricorda la locanda Moriconi che nel 1787 aveva ospitato Goethe. Entrando invece del lato del Teatro San Carlo ci si imbatte nella lapide dedicata a Paolo Boubée. Nella parte sottostante la Galleria esiste un'altra crociera, di dimensioni minori, con al centro il teatro della Belle Epoque, il Salone Margherita.

El monestir de Sant Joan de Poio (en gallec, mosteiro de San Xoán de Poio) és un antic monestir benedictí que actualment és ocupat per una comunitat mercedària. Els seus orígens són una mica confusos i fins i tot la seva fundació s'ha volgut vincular a Sant Fructuós de Braga, cosa que sembla poder descartar-se. Hom coneix que fou dotat econòmicament pel rei Bermudo II (982-999) i per la reina Urraca l’any 1116, tot i que per la primera referència documental cal retrocedir fins l'any 942. Després la casa va quedar vinculada a la seu de Santiago arran d’una donació efectuada per Fernando II, el 1169. A finals del segle XV l’establiment es trobava en decadència, una visita de l’any 1494 el troba en una situació caòtica. Més tard les circumstàncies van canviar i es va redreçar, l’any 1548 s’hi va fundar un prestigiós col·legi de teologia. Va mantenir la seva activitat com a comunitat benedictina fins el 1835, quan la desamortització va clausurar l’establiment. A partir del 1890 el lloc va passar a estar ocupat pels mercedaris, que encara es mantenen en aquest lloc.

El claustre de la porteria o dels tarongers és rectangular i està dividit en tres nivells tots d'ordre toscà. Va ser construït entre 1747 i 1749, al mateix temps que l'escala d'honor. Està envoltat pel mosaic del camí de Sant Jaume, una obra d'2,60 metres d'altura per 80 de llarg i que representa a les diverses classes socials de pelegrins que caminen des de París fins a Santiago de Compostel·la. Aquest mosaic va ser dissenyat per l'Antonin Machourek (Nítkovice, República Txeca, 1913 - París, França, 1991) i realitzat pels alumnes de l'Escola de Mosaics a càrrec del director P. Laureano García Sanmillán, construint entre els anys 1989 i 1992.

Ruta excursionista a Wikiloc.

Aquesta imatge ha jugat a En un lugar de Flickr.

A Google Maps.

Ingredientes

Massa:

3 ovos

2 xícaras de açúcar

2 xícaras de farinha de trigo

4 colheres (sopa) de chocolate em pó

1 xícara de leite

1/2 xícara de óleo

1 colher (sopa) de fermento em pó

Bata bem os ovos com o açúcar. Acrescente alternadamente o açúcar, a farinha, o chocolate, o leite e o óleo e bata bastante. Por último misture o fermento delicadamente. Coloque em assadeira untada e enfarinhada e leve ao forno médio pré-aquecido.

Recheio:

1 lata de leite condensado

100 gramas de coco ralado

200 ml de leite de coco

Leve todos os ingredientes ao fogo até levantar fervura e engrossar um pouco.

Cobertura:

1 caixinha de creme de leite

3 colheres (sopa) de chocolate em pó

4 colheres (sopa) de açúcar

chocolate granulado

cerejas para decorar

Misture o creme de leite, cholate e o açúcar e leve ao fogo baixo até ferver.

Dica:

Umideça a massa com Fanta laranja.

Guilherme II e Maria Stuart

Anthony van Dyck

Frederik Hendrik, com a intenção de garantir o poder a seus decendentes, usou todos os meios à sua disposição para aumentar o prestígio dos Orange, incluindo a busca de uma aliança entre seu filho Gilherme II e a filha de uma casa real simpática. A aliança foi alcançada em 1641 com o casamento de Guilherme, 14 anos de idade, com a princesa inglesa Maria Stuart, na época com apenas nove anos de idade, em Londres. Um retrato dos jovens noivos foi encomendado a Anthony van Dyck, um pintor flamengo popular em Londres. No vestido da noiva, Van Dyck mostra o presente de casamento de Guilherme: um valioso broche de diamantes.

Óleo sobre tela, 1641

A 182 x L 142 CM

SK-A-102

William II, Prince of Orange, and his Bride, Mary Stuart, Anthony van Dyck, 1641

olieverf op doek, h 182.5cm × w 142cm. More details

The boy is fourteen and the girl only nine. William’s father, Frederick Henry, commissioned the celebrated Flemish painter Van Dyck to portray the young Dutch prince and English princess on the occasion of their marriage in London. The union with the daughter of the English king enhanced the status of the House of Orange. On her gown, Mary wears a gift from William, a large diamond brooch.

Rijks Museum - National Museum of Netherlands

Vision:

The Rijksmuseum links individuals with art and history.

Mission:

At the Rijksmuseum, art and history take on new meaning for a broad-based, contemporary national and international audience.

As a national institute, the Rijksmuseum offers a representative overview of Dutch art and history from the Middle Ages onwards, and of major aspects of European and Asian art.

The Rijksmuseum keeps, manages, conserves, restores, researches, prepares, collects, publishes, and presents artistic and historical objects, both on its own premises and elsewhere.

From 1800 to 2013

The Rijksmuseum first opened its doors in 1800 under the name ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’. At the time, it was housed in Huis ten Bosch in The Hague. The collection mainly comprised paintings and historical objects. In 1808, the museum moved to the new capital city of Amsterdam, where it was based in the Royal Palace on Dam Square.

After King Willem I’s accession to the throne, the paintings and national print collection were moved to the Trippenhuis on Kloveniersburgwal, while the other objects were returned to The Hague. The current building was put into use in 1885. The Netherlands Museum for History and Art based in The Hague moved into the same premises, forming what would later become the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art.

The beginning

On 19 November 1798, more than three years after the birth of the Batavian Republic, the government decided to honour a suggestion put forward by Isaac Gogel by following the French example of setting up a national museum. The museum initially housed the remains of the viceregal collections and a variety of objects originating from state institutions. When the Nationale Kunstgalerij first opened its doors on 31 May 1800, it had more than 200 paintings and historical objects on display. In the years that followed, Gogel and the first director, C.S. Roos, made countless acquisitions. Their first purchase, The Swan by Jan Asselijn, cost 100 Dutch guilders and is still one of the Rijksmuseum’s top pieces.

Move to Amsterdam

In 1808, the new King Louis Napoleon ordered the collections to be moved to Amsterdam, which was to be made the capital of the Kingdom of Holland. The works of art and objects were taken to the Royal Palace on Dam Square, the former city hall of Amsterdam, where they were united with the city’s foremost paintings, including the Night Watch by Rembrandt. In 1809, the Koninklijk Museum opened its doors on the top floor of the palace.

A few years after Willem I returned to the Netherlands as the new king in 1813, the ‘Rijks Museum’ and the national print collection from The Hague relocated to the Trippenhuis, a 17th-century town-palace on Kloveniersburgwal, home to what would later become the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Much to the regret of the director, Cornelis Apostool, in 1820 many objects including pieces of great historical interest were assigned to the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden [Royal Gallery of Rare Objects], which had been founded in The Hague. In 1838, a separate museum for modern 19th-century art was established in Paviljoen Welgelegen in Haarlem. Contrary to the days of Louis Napoleon, very few large acquisitions were made during this period.

Cuypers Cathedral

The Trippenhuis proved unsuitable as a museum. Furthermore, many people thought it time to establish a dedicated national museum building in the Netherlands. Work on a new building did not commence until 1876, after many years of debate. The architect, Pierre Cuypers, had drawn up a historic design for the Rijksmuseum, which combined the Gothic and the Renaissance styles. The design was not generally well-received; people considered it too mediaeval and not Dutch enough. The official opening took place in 1885.

Nearly all the older paintings belonging to the City of Amsterdam were hung in the Rijksmuseum alongside paintings and prints from the Trippenhuis, including paintings such as Rembrandt’s Jewish Bride, which had been bequeathed to the city by the banker A. van der Hoop. The collection of 19th-century art from Haarlem was also added to the museum’s collection. Finally, a significant part of the Kabinet van Zeldzaamheden, which had by then been incorporated into the new Netherlands Museum for History and Art, was returned to Amsterdam.

Renovations

Over the years, collections continued to grow and museum insight continued to expand, and so the Rijksmuseum building underwent many changes. Rooms were added to the south-west side of the building between 1904 and 1916 (now the Philips wing) to house the collection of 19th-century paintings donated to the museum by Mr and Mrs Drucker-Fraser. In the 1950s and 1960s, the two original courtyards were covered and renovated to create more rooms.

In 1927, while Schmidt-Degener was Managing Director, the Netherlands Museum was split to form the departments of Dutch History and Sculpture & Applied Art. These departments were moved to separate parts of the building after 1945. The arrival of a collection donated by the Association of Friends of Asian Art in the 1950s resulted in the creation of the Asian Art department.

The 1970s saw record numbers of visitors of almost one-and-a-half million per year, and the building gradually started to fall short of modern requirements.

‘Verder met Cuypers'

The current renovation reinstates the original Cuypers structure. The building work in the courtyards are removed. Paintings, applied art and history are no longer displayed in separate parts of the building, but form a single chronological circuit that tells the story of Dutch art and history.

The building is thoroughly modernized, while at the same time restoring more of Cuypers original interior designs: the Rijksmuseum has dubbed the venture ‘Verder met Cuypers‘ [Continuing with Cuypers]. The Rijksmuseum will be a dazzling new museum able to satisfy the needs of its 21st-century visitors!

Every year, the Rijksmuseum compiles an annual report for the previous year. Annual reports dating back to 1998 can be found here (in Dutch only). Reports relating to the years before 1998 are available in the reading room of the library.

O Museu Rijks é um dos maiores e mais importantes museus da Europa.

É o maior dos Países Baixos, com acervo voltado quase todo aos artistas holandeses. As obras vão desde exemplares da arte sacra até a era dourada holandesa, além de uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

Esse é o Rijksmuseum, o Museu Nacional dos Países Baixos. E aproveite, caro leitor, porque o Rijks esteve parcialmente fechado para reforma durante 10 anos – voltou a funcionar só em 2013. Ou seja, quem esteve em Amsterdam na última década não conheceu o Rijks, pelo menos não completamente.

Mas o quê tem lá? Muita coisa. Destaque para as coleções de arte e História holandesas. Os trabalhos dos pintores Frans Hals e Johannes Vermeer são alguns dos mais concorridos, mas imbatível mesmo é Rembrandt van Rijn, considerado um dos maiores pintores de todos os tempos. Se você não é um fã de museus de arte, mas faz questão de conhecer o trabalho desses grandes artistas, uma dica: assim que chegar ao Rijks, vá direto para a ala onde estão as obras-primas. Assim você vê o mais importante no início da visita, quando ainda está descansado e poderá dedicar o tempo necessário para essas obras.

A mais famosa delas é a “A Ronda Noturna”, de Rembrandt, uma obra que inspirou músicas, pinturas, filmes e até um flash mob. Quando o Rijks foi reaberto, artistas recriam a cena mostrada no quadro dentro de um shopping de Amsterdam. A ação está no vídeo abaixo e eu te garanto que vale a pena dar play.

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Read more: www.360meridianos.com/2014/01/museus-de-amsterdam.html#ix...

Rijksmuseum, Museu Nacional

42 Stadhouderskade

Amsterdam

O museu Rijksmuseum de Amsterdã é o Museu Nacional da Holanda, onde você encontrará uma impressionante coleção permanente, formada por 5.000 pinturas e 30.000 obras de arte, além de 17.000 objetos históricos.

Esse museu nacional foi fundado em 1885 e está instalado em um edifício de estilo neogótico. A sua principal atração é a extensa coleção de quadros pintados por artistas holandeses, abrangendo um período que vai do séc. XV aos dias de hoje. A obra de arte mais famosa em exibição é o quadro A Ronda Noturna, de Rembrandt.

O museu Rijksmuseum está dividido em cinco departamentos: pintura, escultura, arte aplicada, arte oriental, história dos Países Baixos e gravuras. O núcleo da coleção é a pintura e suas obras mais representativas são as que pertencem ao Século de Ouro holandês, com quadros de artistas como Rembrandt, Vermeer ou Frans Hals.

Ver fonte: dreamguides.edreams.pt/holanda/amsterda/rijksmuseum

Museu Rijks, Amesterdão

O Museu Rijks (Museu Nacional) é um edifício histórico, sendo o maior museu nos Países Baixos. O Museu é o maior no numero relativamente às suas colecções, na área do edifício em si, no financiamento e no numero de funcionários empregados.

Cada ano, mais de um milhão de pessoas visitam o Museu Rijks. O Museu emprega cerca de 400 pessoas, incluindo 45 conservadores de museu que são especializados em todas as áreas.

O Museu Rijks é internacionalmente reconhecido pelas suas exibições e publicações, mas não só apenas por estes produtos de grande qualidade, mas também pelas áreas no museu em si que são fonte de inspiração e encorajam a criação de novas ideias.

O museu também tem recursos consideráveis para a educação, para a decoração e apresentação de exibições. Importantes designers são regularmente chamados a trabalharem em projectos no Museu Rijks.

O edifício principal do Museu Rijks está a ser renovado. A boa noticia é que a melhor parte da exposição está apresentada na redesenhada ala Philips. O nome desta exposição denomina-se "The Masterpieces'.

O museu abre diariamente das 10 da manhã até ás 5 da tarde.

A entrada é pela Stadhouderskade 42.

www.rijksmuseum.nl

Rijksmuseum

Origem: Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.

O Rijksmuseum é um museu nacional dos Países Baixos, localizada em Amsterdão na Praça do museu. O Rijksmuseum é dedicado à artes e história. Ele tem uma larga coleção de pinturas da idade de ouro neerlandesa e uma substancial coleção de arte asiática.

O museu foi fundado em 1800 na cidade da Haia para exibir a coleção do primeiro-ministro. Foi inspirado no exemplo francês. Pelos neerlandeses ficou conhecida como Galeria de Arte. Em 1808 o museu mudou-se para Amsterdã pelas ordens do rei Louis Napoleón, irmão de Napoleão Bonaparte. As pinturas daquela cidade, como A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt, tornaram-se parte da coleção.

Em 1885 o museu mudou-se para sua localização atual, construído pelo arquiteto neerlandês Pierre Cuypers. Ele combinou elementos góticos e renascentistas. O museu tem um posição proeminente na Praça do Museu, próximo ao Museu van Gogh e ao Museu Stedelijk. A construção é ricamente decorada com referências da história da arte neerlandesa. A Ronda Nocturna de Rembrandt tem seu próprio corredor no museu desde 1906. Desde 2003 o museu sofreu restaurações, mas as obras-primas são constatemente presentes para o público.

A coleção de pinturas inclui trabalhos de artistas como Jacob van Ruysdael, Frans Hals, Johannes Vermeer e Rembrandt e de alunos de Rembrandt.

Em 2005, 95% do museu está fechado para renovação, mas as pinturas da coleção permanente ainda estão em mostra em uma exibição especial chamada As Obras-primas.

Algumas das pinturas do museu:

Rembrandt van Rijn

A Ronda Nocturna

Os síndicos da guilda dos fabricantes de tecidos

A noiva judia

A lição de Anatomia do Dr. Deyman

Pedro negando Cristo

Saskia com um véu

Retrato de Titus em hábito de monge

Auto-retrato como Apóstolo Paulo

Tobias, Ana e o Bode

Johannes Vermeer:

A Leiteira

A Carta de Amor

Mulher de Azul a ler uma carta

A Rua pequena

Frans Hals:

Retrato de um jovem casal

A Companhia Reynier Real

O bebedor alegre

Retrato de Lucas De Clercq

Retrato de Nicolaes Hasselaer

Retrato de um homem

Página oficial do Rijksmuseum

Virtual Collection of Masterpieces (VCM)

O melhor museu de Amsterdam: Rijksmuseum

O Commons possui uma categoria contendo imagens e outros ficheiros sobre Rijksmuseum

Rijksmuseum Amsterdam

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Se você visitar Amsterdam, precisará conhecer o Museu Nacional da Holanda: Rijksmuseum Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional fica na Praça do Museu, situada no centro de Amsterdam. O Museu Nacional, ou Rijksmuseum, possui uma maravilhosa coleção de arte e história holandesas. Após uma visita ao Rijksmuseum, você saberá mais sobre história e arte e terá visto alguns dos maiores marcos culturais da Holanda.

Obras-primas do Museu Nacional

Ao todo, a coleção do Rijksmuseum apresenta a história da Holanda em um contexto internacional, desde 1.100 até o presente. Há alguns ícones da história e cultura da Holanda que você não pode perder:

Ronda Noturna (de Nachtwacht) de Rembrandt é uma das mais famosas obras desse mestre holandês e é de tirar o fôlego.

O Rijksmuseum tem uma das melhores coleções de pinturas dos grandes mestres do século XVII, como Frans Hals, Jan Steen, Vermeer e Rembrandt.

Assim como o Museu Histórico de Haia, o Rijksmuseum apresenta lindas casas de bonecas, mobiliadas em detalhes, datando de 1676.

Se você não puder ir ao Delft Real, pode ainda apreciar algumas das melhores cerâmicas de Delft, de conjuntos de chá a vasos, no Museu Nacional.

Museu que é visita obrigatória em Amsterdam

Quer sua estadia em Amsterdam seja breve ou longa, você deve visitar o Rijksmuseum. Chegue cedo para evitar enfrentar filas. Combine a visita ao Rijksmuseum com várias outras atrações próximas, como o Museu Van Gogh, o Museu Stedelijk Amsterdam e a Coster Diamonds

Para obter mais informações sobre Amsterdam, retorne à página sobre Amsterdam ou à página sobre os museus de Amsterdam.

Módena (Mòdna en dialecto modenés; Modena en italiano) es una ciudad italiana, capital de la provincia de Módena, en la región Emilia-Romaña. Cuenta con una población de 184 973 habitantes. La catedral, la Torre Cívica («Ghirlandina») y la Piazza Grande de la ciudad están declaradas Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco.

Módena queda en la llanura padana, y está rodeada por dos ríos, el Secchia y el Panaro, ambos afluentes del Po. Su presencia está simbolizada por la fuente de los dos ríos, en el centro de la ciudad, obra de Giuseppe Graziosi. La ciudad está conectada con el Panaro a través del canal Naviglio.

La cordillera de los Apeninos comienzan a unos 10 kilómetros al sur de la ciudad.

Módena es un importante centro industrial. La ciudad se ubica en el corazón de la «Motor Valley» que forma un conjunto de grupos industriales prestigios así como numerosos circuitos y museos. Las empresas Lamborghini, Pagani, Ferrari y Maserati tienen su sede dentro de un radio de 20 km alrededor de Módena.

Ubicado en la llanura Padana, el territorio modenés dispone de importantes riquezas gustativas. Su producto líder es el vinagre balsámico producido en los dominios agrícolas en el entorno de Módena. La base de su elaboración son las uvas cosechadas en los viñedos de la provincia. El lambrusco, vino rosado burbujeante, tiene como origen las viñas cercanas de Módena y Reggio Emilia. Además, Módena es la tierra del queso parmigiano reggiano y del jamón de Módena. Junto con Bolonia, Módena comparte el lugar de origen de la pasta tortellini.

El Duomo de Módena, la Torre Ghirlandina y la Piazza Grande están incluidos desde 1997 dentro del Patrimonio mundial de la UNESCO. El arquitecto Lanfranco y el escultor Wiligelmo erigieron el Duomo en el siglo XII por San Geminiano, obispo de Módena y Santo Patrón de la ciudad. Entre 1179 y 1319 se construyó la torre Ghirlandina asociada con el Duomo. Su nombre de Ghirlandina -guirnalda- resulta de su forma y recuerda la torre Giralda de Sevilla.

Durante más de dos siglos, la familia Este tenía como sede el Palazzo Ducale (palacio ducal). Hoy en día, este palacio recibe la Academia militar.

El Palazzo Comunale –ayuntamiento– cuya la fachada está en la Piazza Grande abarca un conjunto de edificios más antiguos. Dentro del edificio se encuentra la Secchia rapita –el cubo raptado- uno de los símbolos de la ciudad. La estatua de la Bonissima, símbolo de bondad, está posada en la esquina exterior del Palazzo Comunale.

Iglesias. Módena es una ciudad rica en iglesias, se cuentan más de quince en el casco histórico. También es importante nombrar a la iglesia de Santa María Pomposa, la iglesia del Voto o la iglesia de San Vicenzo. Existe también una sinagoga ubicada cerca del Palazzo Comunale.

En el mercado Albinelli se reúnen cada día productores locales de vinagre balsámico, jamón curdo o queso, entre otros.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3dena

Modena is a city and comune (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena, in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy.

A town, and seat of an archbishop, it is known for its car industry since the factories of the famous Italian upper-class sports car makers Ferrari, De Tomaso, Lamborghini, Pagani and Maserati are, or were, located there and all, except Lamborghini, have headquarters in the city or nearby. One of Ferrari's cars, the 360 Modena, was named after the town itself. Ferrari's production plant and Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari are based in Maranello south of the city.

The University of Modena, founded in 1175 and expanded by Francesco II d'Este in 1686, focuses on economics, medicine and law, and is the second oldest athenaeum in Italy. Italian military officers are trained at the Military Academy of Modena, and partly housed in the Baroque Ducal Palace. The Biblioteca Estense houses historical volumes and 3,000 manuscripts. The Cathedral of Modena, the Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande are a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.

Modena is also known in culinary circles for its production of balsamic vinegar.

Famous Modenesi include Mary of Modena, the Queen consort of England and Scotland; operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti and soprano Mirella Freni, born in Modena itself; Enzo Ferrari, eponymous founder of the Ferrari motor company; Catholic priest Gabriele Amorth; chef Massimo Bottura; comics artist Franco Bonvicini; the band Modena City Ramblers and singer-songwriter Francesco Guccini, who lived here for several decades.

The Duomo of Modena, the Ghirlandina Tower and Piazza Grande have been included since 1997 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The architect Lanfranco and the sculptor Wiligelmo erected the Duomo in the 12th century for Saint Geminiano, bishop of Modena and Patron Saint of the city. Between 1179 and 1319 the Ghirlandina tower associated with the Duomo was built. Its name of Ghirlandina -garland- results from its shape and is reminiscent of the Giralda tower in Seville.

For more than two centuries, the Este family had the Palazzo Ducale (ducal palace) as its headquarters. Today, this palace houses the Military Academy.

The Palazzo Comunale –town hall– whose façade is on the Piazza Grande encompasses a group of older buildings. Inside the building is the Secchia rapita – the kidnapped cube – one of the symbols of the city. The statue of Bonissima, a symbol of goodness, is perched in the outer corner of the Palazzo Comunale.

Churches. Modena is a city rich in churches, there are more than fifteen in the historic center. It is also important to name the church of Santa María Pomposa, the church of the Vow or the church of San Vicenzo. There is also a synagogue located near the Palazzo Comunale.

Local producers of balsamic vinegar, curd ham or cheese, among others, meet every day at the Albinelli market.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modena

www.youtube.com/user/rossendgri

VALÈNCIA

Si un edificio pudiera simbolizar la pujanza y la riqueza del floreciente siglo XV valenciano, éste sería sin lugar a dudas La Lonja. Muestra del alcance de la revolución comercial en el Medievo, del desarrollo social y del prestigio alcanzado por la burguesía valenciana. Es la pieza más singularmente bella de la arquitectura civil valenciana en la Baja Edad Media.

If a building could symbolize the strength and richness of the XV century Valencian flourishing, it would undoubtedly La Lonja. Displays the scope of the commercial revolution in the Middle Ages, social development and prestige achieved by the Valencian bourgeoisie. It is the most uniquely beautiful piece of civil architecture in Valencia Middle Ages.

LLOTJA DE LA SEDA on Flickriver

Fundada por los romanos en el siglo I A.C, bajo el nombre de Civitas Igaedinorum, que más tarde sería llamado Egitania por los visigodos y después por los árabes Idania, Idanha-a-Velha cuenta con un rico patrimonio resultado de la presencia de numerosas culturas que se establecieron allí lo largo de los siglos.

Idanha-a-Velha, founded by the Romans in the first century BC, under the name of Civitas Igaedinorum, which later would be called Egitania by the Visigoths and then by the Arabs: Idania, Idanha-a-Velha has a rich heritage resulting from the presence of numerous people along the centuries settled there.

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for single-color pieces, visit the Main Store in SL.

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IN ENGLISH BELOW THE LINE

La petita i extraordinaria càmera Nagel Pupille és una concentrada joia de la fotografía dels anys 30. En molt poc espai es capaç de donar tot el rendiment possible a una pel·licula de format 127, ara quasi (però no del tot) extingida. Ah, i amés en aquest cas amb el famós Leitz Elmar f3.5 / 50mm que equipava les Leica.

Nagel fou un petit però rellevant fabricant de càmeres aleman a finals dels anys 20. August Nagel ja era un dels fundadors de Contessa a inicis de segle, i després s'agrupà amb altres per formar, el 1926, el gegant Zeiss-Ikon. Però força aviat Nagel en sortí, creat el 1928 la seva companyia homonima. Entre les diverses càmeres de gran qualitat que creà, en destaca le petita Pupille. Els seus models tingueren tant exit que Kodak trià Nagel per a fer-se amb una part del prestigiós mercat alemany i produir models de qualitat despres d'arrossegar fama de només fabricar càmeres barates. Així sorgiren les famoses Kodak Retina de 35mm, en certa manera filles de les Pupille (com el mateix nom indica). De fet la mateixa Pupille encara es produí entre el 1932 i el 1935 com a Kodak Pupille.

La Nagel Pupille és una càmera de format 127, sense telemetre però amb obturador Compur colapsable. Tot plegat la fa molt petita però de molta qualitat; és de les poques càmeres que empraren objectius Leitz, també. Amés, podien montar telemetres externs de la mateixa marca, ampliant les seves capacitats. Aquest exemplar fou fabricat el 1931, per els nº de serie del obturador i l'objectiu. Per desgràcia les velocitats estan força lentes i l'objectiu una mica ratllat.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Nagel

camera-wiki.org/wiki/Pupille

www.earlyphotography.co.uk/site/entry_C792.html

=======================

The small yet extraordinary Nagel Pupille camera is a miniature marvel of the 30's photography. In very little space it is able to give the best performance to a 127-format roll-film. Oh, and also in this case with the famous Leitz Elmar f3.5 / 50mm lens, the same that equipped the Leicas.

Nagel was a small but relevant German cameramaker at the end of the 20s-early 30's. August Nagel was already one of the founders of Contessa at the beginning of the century, and then joined with others to create, in 1926, the giant Zeiss-Ikon. But quite soon Nagel came out, developing 1928 his own company. Among the various high-quality cameras that he designed, the little Pupille stands out. Their models were so successful that Kodak chose Nagel to take on a part of the prestigious German photographic market and produce quality models after dragging fame to only making cheap cameras. That's how the famous Kodak Retina was born, in some ways, as the heir of the Pupille (as the name implies). Even this camera was produced from 1932 to 1935 as the Kodak Pupille.

The Nagel Pupille is a 127-format camera, without rangefinder but with Computor collapsible shutter. All in a very small but high quality package; It is one of the few cameras that use Leitz's lenses, too. In addition, they could mount external rangefinders of the same brand, expanding their capabilities. This one was manufactured in 1931, as the serial number of the shutter and the tells us. In fact, the Elmar is one of the first produced, with a very low serial. Unfortunately the speeds are quite slow and the lens is slightly scratchy.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Nagel

camera-wiki.org/wiki/Pupille

www.earlyphotography.co.uk/site/entry_C792.html

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

ES - Vuelta atrás, cuando el "Joan Miró" se hacía con material Talgo III Camas RD y se llamaba "Barcelona Talgo". Por aquel entonces, una forma de identificar un tren de alto estánding era su identificador : cuando la mayoría de los trenes convencionales llevaban chapas de identificación metálicas, a menudo pintadas de mala manera, los trenes de prestigio llevaban carteles elaborados, en general retroiluminados. En este caso, para el viajero que se presenta, el aspecto del identificador no deja la sombra de una duda sobre la categoría del tren : el Rápido 477 "Barcelona Talgo" forma inequívocamente parte de los grandes (a pesar de estar el material que lo compone limitado a 150 en Francia) y promete un viaje muy agradable. París-Austerlitz, Julio de 1986.

FR - Retour en arrière, lorsque le "Joan Miró" était équipé de matériel Talgo III lits RD et s'appelait "Barcelona Talgo". A cette époque, l'aspect des identificateurs des trains était un moyen très sûr de déterminer leur standing : alors que la plupart des trains classiques portaient des plaques métalliques plus ou moins bien peintes, les trains de prestige, eux présentaient des systèmes beaucoup plus élaborés, généralement rétro-éclairés et bénéficiant d'une certaine recherche esthétique, à l'instar des cinémas des voitures TEE de la SNCF. Dans le cas présent, l'aspect de l'identificateur ne laisse planer aucun doute pour le voyageur : le Rapide 477 "Barcelona Talgo" est un train du haut du pavé (malgré sa vitesse limitée à 150 km/h en France) et lui promet un voyage agréable dans une ambiance sélect. Paris-Austerlitz, juillet 1986.

EN - Let's make a short flash back. This was the time when the "Joan Miró", the recently eliminated overnighter running between Paris and Barcelona, was operated with Talgo III RD sleeping cars and was named "Barcelona Talgo". At that time, the aspect of the identification devices of a train was a good way to know its category. As most lesser trains carried painted plates, the great trains were usually equpped with far more elaborated identification devices, with some aesthetic research, such as the "cinemas" of SNCF's Trans Europ Express cars. In this case, the aspect of identication device clearly indicates to the passenger he is to board a high level train (despite its 150 km/h limitation in France) which promises a pleasant trip in a select atmosphere. Paris-Austerlitz, July 1986.

La Posada del Peine es un establecimiento hotelero de Madrid, considerado una de las posadas más antiguas de España, con un edificio original del año 1610. Se encuentra en la irregular manzana que forman la calle de Postas con las de Zaragoza y la del Marqués Viudo de Pontejos.

La posada permaneció cerrada entre 1960 y 2006, año en que volvió a abrirse totalmente rehabilitada en su interior, pero conservando gran parte de su aspecto exterior. Es uno de los ejemplos más modestos de la historia de la azulejería urbana en Madrid.

El hotel –rebautizado como Petit Palace Posada del Peine– se compone de tres edificios unidos, con tres estilos arquitectónicos diferentes y de distintas épocas. Solo se han conservado las fachadas de los tres edificios originales, en las que todavía se puede ver escrito su nombre. Ha quedado noticia de que entre sus paredes se alojaron, entre otros, la viuda de Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, Casta Esteban, o el pintor José Gutiérrez Solana. El edificio fue además objeto del discurso de ingreso en la Academia de la Lengua de Camilo José Cela. Benito Pérez Galdós, en su novela Fortunata y Jacinta, puso en boca de una de sus más esperpénticas protagonistas, la usurera despótica Doña Lupe Rubín, este definidor comentario:

“No sé lo que se figura este heliogábalo... cree que mi casa es la posada del Peine. Después que él me come un codo, trae a su compinche para que me coma el otro. Y por las trazas, debe tener buen diente y un estómago como las galerías del Depósito de aguas... ¡Ay, Dios mío!, ¡qué egoístas son estos curas...! Lo que yo debía hacer era ponerle la cuentecita, y entonces... ¡ah!, entonces sí que no se volvía a descolgar con invitados, porque es Alejandro en puño y no le gusta ser rumboso sino con dinero ajeno.”

Benito Pérez Galdós en Fortunata y Jacinta. Parte segunda, capítulo V.2)

Fundada en Madrid en 1610, en la antigua calle del Vicario Viejo, que luego pasaría a llamarse del Marqués Viudo de Pontejos. Su primer propietario fue Juan Posada, hasta que en 1796, los nuevos propietarios, los hermanos Espino, encargaron a Francisco Álvarez Acevedo la ampliación de la posada, mediante una licencia que permitía edificar una nueva planta en las dos fachadas del edificio. Este trabajo se llevó a cabo bajo el control del arquitecto municipal, Juan de Villanueva. Alrededor de 1800, se ampliaron sus instalaciones con la construcción de una casa contigua, y otra modificación en 1863 según proyecto de Juan Antonio Sánchez, que aumentó de nuevo la altura del edificio a tres pisos.

En 1868, año en el que Isabel II fue destronada, Madrid contaba con diversos establecimiento hoteleros pero la demanda crecía sin poder ser cubierta. A pesar de la construcción de los primeros hoteles en los inicios del siglo XX, la Posada del Peine se mantuvo y afianzó como el establecimiento de mayor prestigio de Madrid. Por aquel entonces la Posada contaba con 150 habitaciones. Más adelante, en 1892, para mejorar su aspecto estético y como conmemoración del IV Centenario del Descubrimiento de América, el edificio más antiguo fue coronado con un templete con objeto de colocar un reloj. Ya en el siglo XX, y tras pasar por diversas manos, la Posada fue vendida a la casa de relojería Girod que se limitó a instalar su taller en el primer piso.

Renombrado como Petit Palace Posada del Peine, dentro de una conocida cadena hotelera, se encuentra situada a pocos metros de uno de los arcos de acceso a la Plaza Mayor, muy cerca de la Puerta del Sol y del Palacio de Santa Cruz.(Wikipedia)

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Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

Nel territorio del comune di Veroli, a 9 km dal centro, sulla via Maria, - raggiungibile facilmente anche dall'autostrada Frosinone-Sora - sorge l'abbazia di Casamari. Essa fu edificata sulle rovine dell'antico municipio romano denominato Cereatae, perchè dedicato alla dea Cerere. Il nome Casamari è di origine latina e significa "Casa di Mario", patria del console romano Caio Mario, celebre condottiero, nemico di Silla. L'abbazia di Casamari è uno dei più importanti monasteri italiani di architettura gotica cistercense. Fu costruita nel 1203 e consacrata nel 1217. Essa fu edificata sulle rovine dell'antico municipio romano chiamato Cereatae, perché dedicato alla dea Cerere. Il nome Casamari deriva dalla lingua latina e significa "Casa di Mario", patria di Gaio Mario, celebre condottiero, sette volte console e avversario di Silla nella guerra civile dell'88 a.C.. Con la decadenza dell'Impero romano e le susseguenti invasioni barbariche Cereatae-Casa Marii subì le stesse sorti del decadimento di Roma, fino a quando i monaci benedettini nell'XI secolo s'insediarono nel luogo e vi fondarono l'abbazia. La Cronaca del Cartario o Chartarium Casamariense redatto dal monaco casamariense Gian Giacomo de Uvis per conto dell'abate affidatario riporta le notizie riguardanti la fondazione dell'abbazia stessa. Secondo il resoconto, nel 1005 alcuni monaci della vicina Veroli decisero di riunirsi in un monastero e scelsero Cereatae-Casa Marii edificando sui resti di un tempio di Marte. Secondo alcuni storici è datata al 1005 l'erezione di una chiesa dedicata a san Giovanni e san Paolo, mentre la costruzione del monastero si fa risalire al 1036. Tra il 1140 e il 1152 i monaci cistercensi sostituirono i monaci benedettini. Fra il XII e il XIX secolo il monastero ebbe alterne fortune: dapprima acquistò possedimenti nella zona ed avviò la fondazione di nuovi monasteri anche nel Meridione, seguì all'inizio del XV secolo un periodo di decadimento, comune a tutti i monasteri della regione. Nel 1623 i monaci si ridussero addirittura a soli otto. L'abbazia conobbe un piccolo periodo di prosperità dopo il 1717, quando papa Clemente XI l'affidò ai monaci cistercensi riformati, detti trappisti. Nel maggio del 1799 alcuni soldati francesi depredarono l'abbazia, uccidendo Simeone Cardon e altri cinque compagni. Dal 1811 al 1814 seguì il regime laico imposto da Napoleone. Nel 1874 l'abbazia fu dichiarata monumento nazionale e riacquistò così una posizione di prestigio e una maggiore stabilità economica. Nel 1929 la congregazione di Casamari fu eletta canonicamente congregazione monastica e fu aggregata alle altre dell'ordine dei Cistercensi.

In the territory of the municipality of Veroli, 9 km from the center, on Via Maria, - easily reachable also from the Frosinone-Sora motorway - stands the abbey of Casamari. It was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman municipality called Cereatae, because it was dedicated to the goddess Ceres. The name Casamari is of Latin origin and means "Mario's house", homeland of the Roman consul Caio Mario, a famous leader, enemy of Silla. Casamari Abbey is one of the most important Italian monasteries of Cistercian Gothic architecture. It was built in 1203 and consecrated in 1217. It was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman municipality called Cereatae, because it was dedicated to the goddess Ceres. The name Casamari derives from the Latin language and means "Mario's house", homeland of Gaius Mario, a famous leader, seven times consul and opponent of Silla in the civil war of 88 BC. With the decline of the Roman Empire and the subsequent barbarian invasions Cereatae-Casa Marii suffered the same fate as the decay of Rome, until the Benedictine monks settled in the place in the 11th century and founded the abbey there. The Cronaca del Cartario or Chartarium Casamariense drawn up by the Casamari monk Gian Giacomo de Uvis on behalf of the foster abbot reports the information regarding the foundation of the abbey itself. According to the report, in 1005 some monks from nearby Veroli decided to meet in a monastery and chose Cereatae-Casa Marii, building on the remains of a temple of Mars. According to some historians, the erection of a church dedicated to St. John and St. Paul is dated to 1005, while the construction of the monastery dates back to 1036. Between 1140 and 1152 the Cistercian monks replaced the Benedictine monks. Between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries the monastery had mixed fortunes: at first it acquired possessions in the area and started the foundation of new monasteries also in the South, followed at the beginning of the fifteenth century by a period of decay, common to all the monasteries of the region. In 1623 the monks were even reduced to just eight. The abbey experienced a small period of prosperity after 1717, when Pope Clement XI entrusted it to the reformed Cistercian monks, called Trappists. In May 1799 some French soldiers plundered the abbey, killing Simeone Cardon and five other companions. From 1811 to 1814 the secular regime imposed by Napoleon followed. In 1874 the abbey was declared a national monument and thus regained a position of prestige and greater economic stability. In 1929 the Casamari congregation was canonically elected a monastic congregation and was aggregated to the others of the Cistercian order.

Sur le territoire de la municipalité de Veroli, à 9 km du centre, sur la Via Maria, - facilement accessible également depuis l'autoroute Frosinone-Sora - se dresse l'abbaye de Casamari. Il a été construit sur les ruines de l'ancienne municipalité romaine appelée Cereatae, car il était dédié à la déesse Cérès. Le nom Casamari est d'origine latine et signifie "Maison de Mario", patrie du consul romain Caio Mario, un célèbre chef, ennemi de Silla. L'abbaye de Casamari est l'un des monastères italiens les plus importants de l'architecture gothique cistercienne. Il a été construit en 1203 et consacré en 1217. Il a été construit sur les ruines de l'ancienne municipalité romaine appelée Cereatae, car il était dédié à la déesse Cérès. Le nom Casamari dérive de la langue latine et signifie "maison de Mario", patrie de Gaius Mario, un célèbre chef, sept fois consul et adversaire de Silla lors de la guerre civile de 88 avant J. invasions Cereatae-Casa Marii subit le même sort que la décadence de Rome, jusqu'à ce que les moines bénédictins s'y installent au XIe siècle et y fondent l'abbaye. La Cronaca del Cartario ou Chartarium Casamariense rédigée par le moine Casamari Gian Giacomo de Uvis au nom de l'abbé nourricier rapporte les informations concernant la fondation de l'abbaye elle-même. Selon le rapport, en 1005, des moines de la ville voisine de Veroli ont décidé de se réunir dans un monastère et ont choisi Cereatae-Casa Marii, en s'appuyant sur les vestiges d'un temple de Mars. Selon certains historiens, l'érection d'une église dédiée à saint Jean et saint Paul est datée de 1005, tandis que la construction du monastère remonte à 1036. Entre 1140 et 1152, les moines cisterciens remplacent les moines bénédictins. Entre le XIIe et le XIXe siècle, le monastère connut des fortunes diverses : il acquit d'abord des possessions dans la région et commença la fondation de nouveaux monastères également dans le Sud, suivi au début du XVe siècle par une période de décadence, commune à tous les monastères de la région. En 1623, les moines furent même réduits à huit. L'abbaye connaît une petite période de prospérité après 1717, lorsque le pape Clément XI la confie aux moines cisterciens réformés, appelés trappistes. En mai 1799, des soldats français pillent l'abbaye, tuant Simeone Cardon et cinq autres compagnons. De 1811 à 1814 suivit le régime laïc imposé par Napoléon. En 1874, l'abbaye est déclarée monument national et retrouve ainsi une position de prestige et une plus grande stabilité économique. En 1929, la congrégation Casamari a été canoniquement élue congrégation monastique et a été agrégée aux autres de l'ordre cistercien.

Il duomo di Santa Maria Assunta, al centro della Piazza dei Miracoli, è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa nonché chiesa primaziale. Capolavoro del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo apogeo.

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The facade of grey and white marble, decorated with colored marble inserts, was built by Master Rainaldo. Above the three doorways are four levels of loggia divided by cornices with marble intarsia, behind which open single, double, and triple windows.

The heavy bronze doors of the facade were made by different Florentine artists in the 17th century. Contrary to what might be thought, from the beginning the faithful entered the cathedral through the door of Saint Rainerius, found in the transept of the same name, which faces the bell tower. This was because the nobles of the city, who approached the cathedral by via Santa Maria, would find themselves precisely at this entrance. This door was cast about 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, and it is the only door not destroyed by the fire of 1595 that heavily damaged the cathedral.

The door of Saint Rainerius is decorated with 24 bronze relief sculptures showing stories of the New Testament. This door is one of the first produced in Italy during the Middle Ages, after the importation of numerous examples from Constantinople (to Amalfi, Salerno, Rome, Montecassino, Venice, etc.), and a completely western sensibility, detached from the Byzantine tradition, can be admired. Above the doors are four open galleries, with, at the top, the Madonna and Child and, in the angles, the four evangelists. The tomb of Buscheto is found to the left of the north door of the facade.

(Wikipedia)

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Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

The building looks like an Olympus achieved by a 'single gateway, which abandoned the winding paths of the old medieval road, goes straight to the graceful staircase leading to the large square in front of the main entrance.

It was built in pentagonal, on a basis that was to house a fortress more than a villa, surrounded by a deep moat which today we recognize the large corner bastions as specifically allowed to demonstrate the greatest military power of the Farnese family.

The first project of the Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola, built by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese was given to one of the most important architects Antonio Sangallo.

With the construction of this impressive work, completed in just 27 years, he began a series of work to adapt to the needs of the urban architecture of the building, tearing down some buildings to build bridges and an unusual straight path that would pass through the town, from the foot of the village to the square of the palace.

In 1530 work began as early as 1534 but were suspended following the papal investiture of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese Pope Paul III.

A few years later, the nephew of Pope Paul III, Cardinal Alessandro (the younger), he retired to Caprarola to forget his father's murder Pier Luigi (Duke of Castro), in the palace of Piacenza, and the misadventures that the family had to suffer caused in part by the rivalry of those nobles who had seen stolen the papacy and so much power.

He represented the apex of the dynasty, perhaps the grandfather Paul III, but this probably was predicted by the latter, recognizing nephew enviable qualities of culture and intelligence, capable of profound humanity and great diplomacy in dealing politicians and aristocrats , always accompanied by architects and advisers.

Alessandro Farnese fell in love immediately Caprarola being a strategic location geographically, but also in the air so healthy that you breathe. He thought then resume the dream of his grandfather Paul III.

So it was that in 1559 a design by Jacopo Barozzi, known as Vignola, work began on the work of the most famous Farnese, largest and most magnificent of the famous Palazzo Farnese in Rome.

I worked the most important painters, architects most famous, the best of the best at that time you could have in the study of a large urban planning that saw, in fact, not only the construction of the palace but also the reconstruction of the urban center that strictly had to be adapted to the size and the quality of the building.

So today we can appreciate the complex architecture, the wonderful frescoes lost in the false images of doors, windows, curtains, marble and statues in a series of visual games to the point of confusing the visitor, but also the wonders that can be discovered from .

(Source: Caprarola.com)

Il Palazzo appare come in cima all'Olimpo raggiunto da un' unica via d'accesso (nel punto più alto del paese di Caprarola) che, abbandonati i percorsi sinuosi della vecchia strada medievale, si dirige dritta alle leggiadre scalinate che portano alla grande piazza che precede l'ingresso principale.

Fu costruito in pianta pentagonale, su una base che doveva ospitare più una fortezza che una villa, circondato da un profondo fossato in cui oggi si riconoscono i grandi bastioni angolari appositamente lasciati come a dimostrare la grande potenza militare dei Farnese.

Il primo progetto del Palazzo Farnese di Caprarola fu affidato dal cardinale Alessandro Farnese ad uno dei più importanti architetti dell'epoca, Antonio Sangallo.

Con la costruzione di questa grandiosa opera, realizzata in soli 27 anni, si avviò una serie di lavori per adattare l'assetto urbano del paese alle esigenze architettoniche del palazzo, abbattendo alcuni edifici per costruire ponti ed una inconsueta via diritta che avrebbe attraversato il centro abitato, dai piedi del paese fino al piazzale antistante il palazzo.

I lavori iniziarono nel 1530, ma già nel 1534 vennero sospesi a seguito dell'investitura del cardinale Alessandro Farnese che assunse il nome di papa Paolo III.

Qualche anno più tardi, il nipote di Paolo III, cardinale Alessandro Farnese (il giovane), si ritirò a Caprarola per distrarsi dall'uccisione del padre Pier Luigi (duca di Castro), avvenuta nel palazzo Farnese di Piacenza, e dalle disavventure della famiglia, causate in parte dalla rivalità delle casate nobiliari che si erano visti strappare il papato, ed il prestigio e la potenza che la carica papale attribuiva.

Egli rappresentava l'apice della dinastia, forse più del nonno Paolo III, ma ciò, probabilmente, era stato previsto dall'acutezza di quest'ultimo, che aveva riconosciuto nel giovane nipote doti invidiabili di cultura ed intelligenza, e le capacità di profonda umanità e grande diplomazia nei rapporti politici ed aristocratici, nonché l'abilità nella scelta di architetti e consiglieri da affiancare.

Ad Alessandro Farnese piacque subito Caprarola essendo un luogo strategico geograficamente, ma anche per l'aria così salubre che vi si respirava.

Pensò quindi di completare il Palazzo, riprendendo il sogno di suo nonno papa Paolo III .

Infatti nel 1559 su disegno di Jacopo Barozzi detto il Vignola, ripresero i lavori dell'opera più insigne lasciataci dai Farnese, persino più grande e più fastosa del noto Palazzo Farnese di Roma.

Vi lavorarono i pittori più importanti, gli architetti più illustri, il meglio degli artisti e delle maestranze che a quei tempi si potesse avere nello studio e realizzazione di una grande pianificazione urbanistica che vide, appunto, non solo la realizzazione del Palazzo, ma anche la ricostruzione del nucleo urbano originario che rigorosamente dovette essere adattato per valorizzare la mole ed il pregio del Palazzo.

Così oggi possiamo apprezzare la complessa struttura architettonica (il palazzo è edificato in forma pentagonale intorno al cortile centrale), i mirabili affreschi persi tra le false immagini di porte, finestre, tende, marmi e statue in un susseguirsi di giochi visivi talmente ricchie stupefacenti da confondere il visitatore, ma anche le meravigliose vedute che si scoprono dall'alto del palazzo verso l'abitato di Caprarola, il lago di Vico ed i Monti Cimini.

(fonte: Caprarola.com)

The origins of Cuenca back to the Upper Paleolithic. In the Moslem conquest there is constructed Qunka's strength, which gave origin to the current city. The Christian king Alfonso VIII conquered it in 1177 and it granted the Jurisdiction of Cuenca to him, one of the most prestigious in the Castile history. Its economy focused on the textile industry, of great prestige during the XVth and XVIth century, what produced a great constructive activity. In 1996 the old town was declared a Heritage of Humanity.

Los orígenes de Cuenca se remontan al Paleolítico Superior. En la Conquista musulmana se construye la fortaleza de Qūnka, que dio origen a la ciudad actual. El rey cristiano Alfonso VIII la conquistó en 1177 y le otorgó el Fuero de Cuenca, uno de los más prestigiosos de la historia de Castilla. Su economía se centró en la industria textil, de gran prestigio durante los siglos XV y XVI, lo que produjo una gran actividad constructiva. En 1996 su casco antiguo fuese declarado Patrimonio de la Humanidad.

090107

Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

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[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.

More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album

[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.

Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid

098535

Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

E. Castelldefels vs BM Elda Prestigio / DH Plata

01.04.2017, Photographer: Miguel Bestué

Copyright: Miguel Bestué / best.u.photo@gmail.com

ORIENTALISMO

En el llamado orientalismo pictórico, si bien podemos señalar algunos cánones de uniformidad, no hubo un desarrollo inmovilista. Podemos, a grandes rasgos, contemplar su evolución desde un exotismo inicial, evolucionar a una búsqueda de cierto realismo (estimulada por los apuntes al natural) y desembocar en un canon etnográfico con tintes científicos.

Durante el siglo XIX los más famosos pintores pudieron en un momento de su carrera acercarse a esa temática orientalista, cada uno de ellos con sus particularidades estéticas e ideológicas. Citemos en Francia, por ejemplo, a Ingres, Delacroix, Gerome, Étienne Dinet, Gustave Guillaumet,…; y en España, a Fortuny, Tapiró, Fabrés y Lameyer, entre otros muchos. A partir de 1880 el empuje de una cultura moderna contra ese exotismo más o menos imaginario, fue diluyendo el interés, o en todo caso reinterpretándolo (Matisse), y apagaron el prestigio de los orientalistas. El Orientalismo como mundo legendario finalmente declinó cuando la facilidad de los transportes acercó estos mundos.

1. Desde la campaña napoleónica de Egipto en 1798, el mundo islámico se convirtió en un lugar común del imaginario romántico. En el ámbito de las artes plásticas, este conocimiento comportó el desarrollo del género pictórico denominado orientalista, que durante la primera mitad del siglo XIX produjo una serie de imágenes pintorescas, especialmente adscritas al romanticismo francés, que no podían sustraerse de su carácter fantástico y literario (Chateaubriand, Victor Hugo, Flaubert).

Dicha pintura, con una gran carga inventiva, pretendía evadir al público a un mundo de misterio, de sensualidad y de pasiones irrefrenables, lleno de placeres sensoriales y exóticas escenas.

2. Esta plasmación del Oriente no fue estática, a mediados de siglo XIX el ideal estético evolucionó hacia planteamientos más realistas que en la pintura orientalista se tradujeron en la voluntad de transcribir el mundo musulmán con más fidelidad. Al mismo tiempo, la expansión colonial acercó Europa a esa realidad y facilitó su conocimiento directo. Algunos pintores la conocieron participando en campañas bélicas o formando parte de misiones diplomáticas, donde ejercían la labor de cronistas gráficos.

3. Al cabo del tiempo, la presencia de artistas europeos en tierras asiáticas y norteafricanas colaboró en establecer y difundir unos itinerarios que, con los años, se convertirían en significativos destinos turísticos. Estos lugares, situados junto al mar Mediterráneo, fueron básicamente, Grecia, Turquía, Tierra Santa, Egipto, Argelia, Marruecos y el sur de España.

Dentro de la geografía orientalista, Marruecos supone un punto y aparte. Las consecuencias de no haber sufrido nunca la dominación otomana y su arraigado sustrato bereber le habían otorgado un carácter distinto al del resto de países norteafricanos. En este sentido, los artistas que lo representaban se distinguieron por su sobriedad. Uno de sus intérpretes pictóricos más significativos fue Mariano Fortuny (Reus 1838 - Roma 1874), que sería el responsable principal de la expansión del orientalismo pictórico en España. Sus composiciones, inspiradas en las tres visitas que realizó a la orilla meridional del Estrecho, constituyen lo mejor de este género temático y, evidentemente, tuvieron una gran influencia en el imaginario de la sociedad de su tiempo. Sin duda, sus imágenes contribuyeron a la creación de los clichés que sus colegas repitieron hasta la saciedad durante el último tercio del ochocientos.

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ORIENTALISM

In the so-called pictorial Orientalism, although we can point out some canons of uniformity, there was no immobilist development. We can, in general terms, contemplate its evolution from an initial exoticism, evolve to a search for a certain realism (stimulated by the natural notes) and end up with an ethnographic canon with scientific overtones.

1. Since the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt in 1798, the Islamic world has become a commonplace in the romantic imagination. In the field of the plastic arts, this knowledge led to the development of the pictorial genre known as Orientalism, which during the first half of the 19th century produced a series of picturesque images, especially those associated with French and English Romanticism, which could not be separated from their fantastic and literary character.

This painting, with a great deal of inventiveness, sought to evade the public into a world of mystery, sensuality and unrestrained passion, full of sensory pleasures and exotic scenes.

Between 1840 and 1880 the most famous painters were able to approach this orientalist theme at one point in their careers, each with their own aesthetic and ideological peculiarities. In France, for example, Ingres, Delacroix, Gerome, Étienne Dinet, Gustave Guillaumet,...; and in Spain, Fortuny, Tapiró, Fabrés and Lameyer, among many others. From 1880 onwards, the push of a modern culture against this imaginary exoticism diluted the interest, or at least reinterpreted it (Matisse), and extinguished the prestige of the Orientalists. Orientalism as a legendary world finally declined when the ease of transport brought these worlds closer together.

2. This expression of the Orient was not static; in the middle of the 19th century the aesthetic ideal evolved towards realistic approaches that in Orientalist painting translated into the desire to transcribe the Muslim world more faithfully. At the same time, colonial expansion brought Europe closer to this reality and facilitated its direct knowledge. Some painters met her by participating in war campaigns or taking part in diplomatic missions, where they worked as graphic chroniclers.

3. As time went by, the presence of European artists in Asian and North African lands helped to establish and disseminate some itineraries that, over the years, would become significant tourist destinations. These places, located by the Mediterranean Sea, were basically Greece, Turkey, the Holy Land, Egypt, Algeria, Morocco and southern Spain.

Within the orientalist geography, Morocco is a point and apart. The consequences of never having suffered the Ottoman domination and its deep-rooted Berber substrate had given it a different character from the rest of the North African countries. In this sense, the artists who represented it were distinguished by their sobriety. One of its most significant pictorial interpreters was Mariano Fortuny (Reus 1838 - Rome 1874), who would be mainly responsible for the expansion of pictorial Orientalism in Spain. His compositions, inspired by the three visits he made to the southern shore of the Strait, constitute the best of this thematic genre and evidently had a great influence on the imaginary of the society of his time. His images undoubtedly contributed to the creation of the clichés that his colleagues repeated ad nauseam during the last third of the eighteenth century.

ENGLISH

The promoter Campo Volantín S.L. was the Company that extracted to contest the construction of a bridge that was saving the river Nervión not far from the emplacement where there is located today the prestigious Museum Guggenheim, in Bilbao, work of another recognized architect of international prestige, Frank O. Gehry.

The principal characteristic of the above mentioned project was consisting also of the fact that the bridge would have to be the sufficiently high thing as to stop to go on to the ships under his underpass. Santiago Calatrava, which gained the project, designed an impressive gangplank thanks to the great parabolic arch of steel that inclined and unfolded it crosses the gangplank across.

The arch of steel, with a circular section of 50 cm. Of thickness, it reaches a final height of 15 meters. The gangplank, with a total length of 75 meters, rises up to 8.5 meters of height with regard to his tide to open way to the ships under his underpass.

Two ramps of access in two sections of 2 meters of width each one and with a slope of 7 %, save the high difference that offers the gangplank her to cross of a side to other one. A few cables tightened of 30 mm. Of diameter they anchor to the arch of a white immaculate color for the sustenance of the surprising gangplank.

The architect endowed to this pedestrian gangplank of modern and innovative design by means of the employment a material of precious colorations, the translucent glass, and that together with the artificial lighting by means of a few areas lodged under the board, produce every night the visual only and authentic spectacular spectacle.

SPANISH

La promotora Campo Volantín S.L. fue la Empresa que sacó a concurso la construcción de un puente que salvase el río Nervión no lejos del emplazamiento donde se encuentra ubicado hoy día el prestigioso Museo Guggenheim, en Bilbao, obra de otro reconocido arquitecto de prestigio internacional, Frank O. Gehry.

La característica principal de dicho proyecto consistía también en que el puente tendría que ser lo suficientemente alto como para dejar pasar a los barcos bajo su paso inferior. Santiago Calatrava, que ganó el proyecto, diseñó una pasarela sobrecogedora gracias al gran arco parabólico de acero que inclinado y desdoblado cruza la pasarela de un lado a otro.

El arco de acero, con una sección circular de 50 cm. de espesor, alcanza una altura final de 15 metros. La pasarela, con una longitud total de 75 metros, se eleva a 8.5 metros de altura con respecto a su pleamar para dejar paso a los barcos bajo su paso inferior.

Dos rampas de acceso en dos tramos de 2 metros de ancho cada una y con una pendiente del 7%, salvan el alto desnivel que ofrece la pasarela para cruzarla de un lado al otro. Unos cables tensados de 30 mm. de diámetro se anclan al arco de un color blanco inmaculado para el sustento de la sorprendente pasarela.

El arquitecto dotó a esta pasarela peatonal de diseño moderno e innovador mediante el empleo un material de preciosas coloraciones, el vidrio translúcido, y que junto con la iluminación artificial mediante unos focos alojados bajo el tablero, producen cada noche un espectáculo visual único y auténticamente espectacular.

Copyright © José Miguel Hernández Hernández

IMPRESIONISMO: ¿UNA RUPTURA?

“Algunos considerarán a los impresionistas los primeros modernos porque desafiaron ciertas normas de la pintura tal como eran enseñadas en las academias; pero conviene recordar que los impresionistas no se distinguieron en sus fines de las tradiciones del arte que se habían desarrollado desde el descubrimiento de la naturaleza en el Renacimiento. También ellos querían pintar la naturaleza tal como la veían, y su oposición a los maestros conservadores no radicó tanto en el fin como en los medios de conseguirlo. Su exploración de los reflejos del color, así como sus experiencias con la pincelada suelta, se encaminaban a crear una ilusión aún más perfecta de la impresión visual. Sólo con el impresionismo, en efecto, se completó la conquista de la naturaleza, convirtiéndose en tema del cuadro todo lo que pudiera presentarse ante los ojos del pintor, mereciendo constituir el objeto del estudio del artista el mundo real en todos sus aspectos”. (Gombrich, Historia del Arte)

Por un lado, con el Impresionismo culmina un largo recorrido iniciado por la pintura en los albores del siglo XV: la captación de la realidad y, por otro lado, se abren las puertas del arte del siglo XX. Conceptos como los de luz y color, se encontraban ya, por ejemplo, en la pintura veneciana de mediados del siglo XVI, mediante la valoración de la luz natural con toques ligeros de color. Estos efectos también están presentes en la pintura holandesa del siglo XVII y en las obras de Velázquez y Goya. Recordemos por ejemplo a Francesco Guardi y su manera de sugerir las figuras de los remeros venecianos con unas cuantas motas de color, o al genio de Leonardo con sus sfumato.

Sin embargo el antecedente más inmediato del Impresionismo lo encontramos en la pintura francesa de la primera mitad del siglo XIX. El pintor romántico Delacroix (antecedente indiscutible del Impresionismo) afirmaba en su Diario que “en la naturaleza todo es reflejo”. Delacroix renovó la pintura del momento al iniciar la tendencia de otorgarle más importancia a la forma que a la línea, alejándose así de los parámetros puramente clasicistas.

En su arte, resulta peligroso dramatizar sus logros simplemente viéndolos tan solo como personajes revolucionarios e idealistas que reaccionaron contra un establishment artístico que había instituido sus Salones, su prestigio y todo su aparato en Francia desde los tiempos de Colbert.

En general, fueron modelos de rectitud. Asimismo, sería totalmente erróneo visualizarlos, hasta en su contexto puramente profesional, como dependiendo, indolentes, de los caprichos de la creatividad o de las fluctuaciones de la inspiración.

El verdadero logro de los impresionistas es que dieron coherencia y forma a tendencias que durante un período considerable de tiempo habían estado latentes en el arte europeo. Turner y Constable, por ejemplo, se habían dedicado a muchos de los mismos problemas sobre la luz y el color, o toda la escuela de Barbizon donde se había practicado el trabajo “au plein air” desde 1840.

Así también lo hicieron los impresionistas poniendo de manifiesto la importancia de la pintura al aire libre, en contacto emocional con el tema que les demandaba su atención, perfeccionando de esta forma esa tradición paisajística.

En realidad es un arte que no deja de ser burgués, al contrario, la burguesía, como imperante fenómeno social, trae sus propios usos y costumbres; unos afectan al campo, que deja de ser lugar de trabajo para convertirse en lugar de ocio: las vacaciones y las excursiones campestres. Es el mundo retratado por Monet y Renoir.

La ciudad, por el contrario, se convierte en nuevo espacio para la nueva clase social: aparecen los flanneurs, paseantes ociosos que se lucen y asisten a conciertos en los boulevards y los jardines de París. También cobra relevancia la noche y sus habitantes, los locales nocturnos, el paseo, las cantantes de cabaret, el ballet, los cafés y sus tertulias.

Es un mundo fascinante, del cual los impresionistas extraen sus temas: en especial Degas o Toulouse-Lautrec. Porque para ellos se han terminado los temas grandiosos e intemporales del pasado. El positivismo acarrea una concepción de objetividad de la percepción, de un criterio científico que resta valor a todo lo que no sea clasificable según las leyes del color y de la óptica. Según esto, cualquier objeto natural, visible, afectado por la luz y el color, es susceptible de ser representado artísticamente. Así pues, el cuadro impresionista se vuelca pues en los paisajes, las regatas, las reuniones domingueras, etc.

Los impresionistas se agruparon en torno a la figura de Manet, el rechazado de los Salones oficiales y promotor del Salon des Refusés. Ante el nuevo léxico que proponen, de pincelada descompuesta en colores primarios que han de recomponerse en la retina del espectador, el público reacciona en contra, incapaz de "leer" correctamente el nuevo lenguaje. Pero el Impresionismo no acaba en el oscurantismo pues cuenta con el apoyo de dos fuerzas sociales emergentes: la crítica de arte, que se encargará de encauzar el gusto del público; y los marchands (marchantes), los vendedores de arte, que colocan sus cuadros en las mejores colecciones del país. Las tertulias, los Salones extra-oficiales y el propio escándalo se convirtieron en vehículos propagandísticos del nuevo estilo.

La lucha de los impresionistas se convirtió en una especie de leyenda áurea de todos los innovadores en arte, quienes en lo sucesivo podrían acogerse siempre a aquella manifiesta incapacidad del público para admitir nuevos métodos.

__________________

IMPRESSIONISM: A BREAK-UP?

"Some will consider the Impressionists to be the first moderns because they challenged certain standards of painting as taught in the academies; but it should be remembered that the Impressionists did not distinguish themselves in their aims from the traditions of art that had developed since the discovery of nature in the Renaissance. They too wanted to paint nature as they saw it, and their opposition to the conservative masters was not so much in the end as in the means of achieving it. Their exploration of color reflections, as well as their experiences with loose brushstrokes, were aimed at creating an even more perfect illusion of visual impression. It was only with impressionism that the conquest of nature was completed, and everything that could be presented to the painter's eyes became the subject of the painting, and the real world in all its aspects deserved to be the object of the artist's study". (Gombrich, History of Art).

On the one hand, Impressionism culminates a long journey initiated by painting at the beginning of the 15th century: the capture of reality and, on the other hand, opens the doors of 20th century art. Concepts such as those of light and colour were already found, for example, in Venetian painting in the mid-sixteenth century, through the appreciation of natural light with light touches of colour. These effects are also present in 17th century Dutch painting and in the works of Velázquez and Goya.

However, the most immediate antecedent of Impressionism is found in French painting of the first half of the 19th century. The Romantic painter Delacroix (the undisputed forerunner of Impressionism) stated in his Diary that "in nature everything is a reflection". Delacroix renewed the painting of the time by starting the trend of giving more importance to form than to line, thus moving away from purely classicist parameters.

In his art, it is dangerous to dramatize his achievements simply by seeing them as revolutionary and idealistic characters who reacted against an artistic establishment that had instituted its Salons, its prestige and all its apparatus in France since the time of Colbert.

In general, they were models of righteousness. Likewise, it would be totally wrong to visualize them, even in their purely professional context, as depending, indolently, on the whims of creativity or the fluctuations of inspiration.

The real achievement of the Impressionists is that they gave coherence and form to trends that had been dormant in European art for a considerable period of time. Turner and Constable, for example, had devoted themselves to many of the same problems about light and colour, or the whole Barbizon school where work had been practised "au plein air" since 1840.

So did the Impressionists, demonstrating the importance of painting in the open air, in emotional contact with the subject that demanded their attention, thus perfecting that landscape tradition.

In reality it is an art that does not cease to be bourgeois, on the contrary, the bourgeoisie, as a prevailing social phenomenon, brings its own uses and customs; some affect the countryside, which ceases to be a place of work to become a place of leisure: holidays and country excursions. This is the world portrayed by Monet and Renoir.

The city, on the other hand, becomes a new space for the new social class: the flanneurs appear, idle strollers who show off and attend concerts in the boulevards and gardens of Paris. The night and its inhabitants, the nightclubs, the promenade, the cabaret singers, the ballet, the cafés and their gatherings are also important.

It is a fascinating world, from which the impressionists draw their themes: especially Degas or Toulouse-Lautrec. Because for them the great and timeless songs of the past are over. Positivism brings with it a conception of objectivity of perception, of a scientific criterion that detracts from anything that cannot be classified according to the laws of colour and optics. According to this, any natural object, visible, affected by light and colour, is susceptible of being represented artistically. Thus, the impressionist painting turns to landscapes, regattas, Sunday meetings, etc.

The Impressionists were grouped around the figure of Manet, the reject of the official Salons and promoter of the Salon des Refusés. Faced with the new lexicon they proposed, with a brushstroke broken down into primary colours that had to be recomposed in the spectator's retina, the public reacted against it, unable to "read" the new language correctly. But Impressionism does not end in obscurantism, for it has the support of two emerging social forces: the art critics, who will be responsible for channelling the public's taste; and the art dealers, who place their paintings in the country's best collections. Gatherings, unofficial salons and the scandal itself became propaganda vehicles for the new style.

A veces es necesario pedir ... por eso me propuse hacer una lista de lo que mas deseo:

1.- Felicidad inmensa en mi alma y cuerpo

2.- Paz en México

3.- Tener un excelente promedio este año escolar

4.- Entrar a una universidad de prestigio y alto reconocimiento a nivel mundial

5.- Estudiar diseño gráfico

6.- Posteriormente estudiar literatura

7.- Ir a suiza, Italia, Francia, España y Brasil

8.- vivir en la playa en una cabaña hippie

9.- recorrer distintas partes de latinoameria en bicicleta

10.- Escribir un libro y que una editorial quiera sacarlo

11.- Hacer un mural

12.- Tener un trabajo digno como diseñadora

13.- Tener un jardín que contenga flores de muchas especies y platas de todo tipo

14.- Practicar Reiki

15.- Tocar el saxofón

16.- Hablar portugués

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sometimes is necessary make wishes, that is the reason i did a list of my "dreams"

1. - Immense happiness in my soul and body

2. - Peace in Mexico

3. - Have an excellent school year average

4. - Enter a prestigious university and high global recognition

5. - Study graphic design

6. - Then study literature

7. - Go to Switzerland, Italy, France and Brazil

8. - Live on the beach in a hut hippie

9. - Latinoameria touring various parts of bike

10. - Write a book and a publisher wants out

11. - Painting a lot

12. - Having a decent job as a designer

13. - Having a garden that containing flowers of many species and silver of all kinds

14. - Practicing Reiki

15. - Playing the saxophone

16. - Speaking in Portuguese

Thanks alot for read !

Muito obrigada pela leitura!!

Muchas gracias por leer :)

a'honni

please go to my facebook page www.facebook.com/ahonniPhotography?ref=hl (:

Vintage Store, Marina di massa

Cremona

Sede vescovile della Diocesi di Cremona, il Duomo o cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, è un vasto tempio romanico continuamente riadattato con elementi gotici, rinascimentali e barocchi. All'interno conserva notevoli capolavori di scultura e di pittura, tra cui l'avello dei SS. Mario e Marta e dei loro figli Audiface e Abaco, martiri in Persia, detta "Arca dei martiri persiani".

La cattedrale di Cremona fu eretta nel XII secolo, periodo di grande prestigio della città, collegato a una serie di successi in campo militare e a condizioni di benessere economico. Il luogo scelto per la costruzione era il punto più alto della città medioevale, non lontano dal centro dell'originario castrum romano, al riparo dalle alluvioni del Po che all'epoca scorreva molto più vicino al centro storico rispetto ad oggi. In questo luogo, in precedenza, sorgevano due chiese, dedicate a Santo Stefano e a Santa Maria, che furono demolite per dare inizio ai lavori di costruzione del tempio principale. La data di posa della prima pietra è nota: 26 agosto 1107

it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duomo_di_Cremona

Seu episcopal de la diòcesi de Cremona, el Duomo o la Catedral de Santa Maria Assunta, és un vast temple romànic reajustat constantment amb el gòtic, renaixentista i barroc. A l'interior hi ha notables obres mestres de l'escultura i la pintura, incloent la tomba dels Sants. Mario i Marta i els seus fills Audiface i Abaco, màrtirs a Pèrsia, anomenada el "Arca dels màrtirs de Pèrsia".

La catedral va ser construïda a Cremona al segle XII, un període de gran prestigi de la ciutat, vinculat a una sèrie d'èxits en les condicions de benestar militars i econòmics. El lloc triat per a la construcció va ser el punt més alt de la ciutat medieval, prop del centre de l'original fortalesa romana, protegit per les inundacions del riu Po​​, que en aquella época desembocava molt més a prop del centre que en l'actualitat. En aquest lloc, anteriorment, hi havia dues esglésies dedicades a Sant Esteve i Santa Maria, que van ser demolides per tal d'iniciar la construcció del temple principal. La data de col · locació de la primera pedra se sap que és: 26 agost 1107

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Sede episcopal de la diócesis de Cremona, el Duomo o la Catedral de Santa María Assunta, es un vasto templo románico reajustado constantemente con el gótico, renacentista y barroco. En el interior hay notables obras maestras de la escultura y la pintura, incluyendo la tumba de los Santos. Mario y Marta y sus hijos Audiface y Abaco, mártires en Persia, llamada el "Arca de los mártires de Persia".

La catedral fue construida en Cremona en el siglo XII, un período de gran prestigio de la ciudad, vinculado a una serie de éxitos en las condiciones de bienestar militares y económicos. El lugar elegido para la construcción fue el punto más alto de la ciudad medieval, cerca del centro del original fortaleza romana, protegido por las inundaciones del río Po, que en aquella época desembocaba mucho más cerca del centro que en la actualidad. En este lugar, anteriormente, había dos iglesias dedicadas a San Esteban y Santa María, que fueron demolidas para iniciar la construcción del templo principal. La fecha de colocación de la primera piedra se sabe que es: 26 de agosto 1107.

Ingredientes:

5 ovos (claras e gemas separadas)

1 e 1/2 xícara (chá) de açúcar

1 xícara (chá) de chocolate em pó

1 xícara (chá) de água

2 xícaras (chá) de farinha de trigo

1 colher (sopa) de fermento em pó

Margarina e farinha de trigo para untar

Recheio:

2 vidros de leite de coco (400ml)

2 xícaras (chá) de leite

200g de coco ralado

1 e 1/2 colher (sopa) de maisena

Cobertura:

100g de manteiga sem sal

3 colheres (sopa) de chocolate em pó

1/2 lata de leite condensado

Chocolate granulado para decorar

Modo de preparo:

Bata as gemas, o açúcar, o chocolate e a água. Acrescente a farinha e o fermento peineirados. Junte as claras em neve, despeje em uma forma untada e enfarinhada e leve ao forno por uns 30 minutos. Retire e reserve. Misture os ingredientes do recheio e leve ao fogo até ficar com a consistência de um mingau, se preferir coloque de 2 a 3 colheres (sopa) de açúcar nessa mistura, mexa sempre para não empelotar. Bata os ingredientes da cobertura na batedeira até obter um creme homogêneo. Corte o bolo ao meio, coloque o recheio, cubra com a outra metade do bolo e espalhe a cobertura de chocolate. Decore com o chocolate granulado.

The Piazza del Duomo ("Cathedral Square") is a wide, walled area at the heart of the city of Pisa, Tuscany, Italy, recognized as one of the main centers for medieval art in the world. Partly paved and partly grassed, it is dominated by four great religious edifices: the Duomo, the Leaning Tower (the cathedral's campanile), the Baptistry and the Camposanto.In 1987 the whole square was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The heart of the Piazza del Duomo is, obviously, the Duomo, the medieval cathedral, entitled to Santa Maria Assunta (St. Mary of the Assumption). This is a five-naved cathedral with a three-naved transept. The church is known also as the Primatial, the archbishop of Pisa being a Primate since 1092.Construction was begun in 1064 by the architect Busketo, and set the model for the distinctive Pisan Romanesque style of architecture. The mosaics of the interior, as well as the pointed arches, show a strong Byzantine influence.The façade, of grey marble and white stone set with discs of coloured marble, was built by a master named Rainaldo, as indicated by an inscription above the middle door: Rainaldus prudens operator.The massive bronze main doors were made in the workshops of Giambologna, replacing the original doors destroyed in a fire in 1595. The central door was in bronze and made around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, while the other two were probably in wood. However worshippers never used the façade doors to enter, instead entering by way of the Porta di San Ranieri (St. Ranieri's Door), in front of the Leaning Tower, made in around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano.Above the doors there are four rows of open galleries with, on top, statues of Madonna with Child and, on the corners, the Four evangelists.Also in the façade we can find the tomb of Busketo (on the left side) and an inscription about the foundation of the Cathedral and the victorious battle against Saracens.The interior is faced with black and white marble and has a gilded ceiling and a frescoed dome. It was largely redecorated after a fire in 1595, which destroyed most of the medieval art works.Fortunately, the impressive mosaic, in the apse, of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Blessed Virgin and St. John the Evangelist, survived the fire. It evokes the mosaics in the church of Monreale, Sicily. Although it is said that the mosaic was done by Cimabue, only the head of St. John was done by the artist in 1302 and was his last work, since he died in Pisa in the same year. The cupola, at the intersection of the nave and the transept, was decorated by Riminaldi showing the ascension of the Blessed Virgin.The impressive granite Corinthian columns between the nave and the aisle came originally from the mosque of Palermo, captured by the Pisans in 1063.The coffer ceiling of the nave was replaced after the fire of 1595. The present gold-decorated ceiling carries the coat of arms of the Medici.The elaborately carved pulpit (1302-1310), which also survived the fire, was made by Giovanni Pisano and is one the masterworks of medieval sculpture. It was packed away during the redecoration and was not rediscovered and re-erected until 1926. The pulpit is supported by plain columns (two of which mounted on lions sculptures) on one side and by caryatids and a telamon on the other: the latter represent St. Michael, the Evangelists, the four cardinal virtues flanking the Church, and a bold, naturalistic depiction of a naked Hercules. A central plinth with the liberal arts supports the four theological virtues. The present day reconstruction of the pulpit is not the correct one. Now it lies not in the same original position, that was nearer the main altar, and the disposition of the columns and the panels are not the original ones. Also the original stairs (maybe in marble) were lost.The upper part has nine panels dramatic showing scenes from the New Testament, carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect and separated by figures of prophets: Annunciation, Massacre of the Innocents, Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Flight into Egypt, Crucifixion, and two panels of the Last Judgement.The church also contains the bones of St Ranieri, Pisa's patron saint, and the tomb of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, carved by Tino da Camaino in 1315. That tomb, originally in the apse just behind the main altar, was disassembled and changed position many times during the years for political reasons. At last the sarcophagus is still in the Cathedral, but some of the statues were put in the Camposanto or in the top of the façade of the church. The original statues now are in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo.The Cathedral has a prominent role in determining the beginning of the Pisan New Year. Between the tenth century and 1749, when the Tuscan calendar was reformed, Pisa used its own calendar, in which the first day of the year on March 25, which is the day of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary. The Pisan New Year begins 9 months before the ordinary one. The exact moment is determined by a ray of sun that, through a window on the left side, hit a shelf egg-shaped on the right side, just above the pulpit by Giovanni Pisano. This occurs at noon.

In the Cathedral also can be found some relics brought during the Crusades: the remains of three Saints (Abibo, Gamaliel and Nicodemus) and a vase that it is said to be one of the jars of Cana.The building, as have several in Pisa, has tilted slightly since its construction.

Il Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa.Capolavoro assoluto del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo massimo splendoreL'aspetto attuale del complesso edificio è il risultato di ripetute campagne di restauro succedutesi in diverse epoche. I primi radicali interventi seguirono il disastroso incendio del 1595, a seguito del quale fu rifatto il tetto e furono eseguite le tre porte bronzee della facciata,a partire dal Settecento iniziò il progressivo rivestimento delle pareti interne con grandi dipinti su tela.Gli interventi successivi si ebbero nel corso dell'Ottocento ed interessarono sia le decorazioni interne sia quelle esterne.La ricchissima decorazione comprende marmi multicolori, mosaici e numerosi oggetti di bronzo L'interno è rivestito di marmi bianchi e neri, con colonne monolitiche di marmo grigio e capitelli di ordine corinzio. Ha un soffitto a cassettoni dorati seicenteschi, in legno dorato.Le impressionanti colonne granitiche in stile corinzio fra la navata e l'abside provengono dalla moschea di Palermo, bottino della battaglia nella Cala dai Pisani nel 1063.La chiesa conserva inoltre le reliquie di San Ranieri, patrono di Pisa, e la frammentaria tomba di Arrigo VII di Lussemburgo, imperatore del Sacro Romano Impero, morto a Buonconvento mentre assediava invano Firenze.L'edificio, come la torre campanaria, è sprofondato percettibilmente nel suolo, e alcuni dissesti nella costruzione sono ben visibili, come le differenze di livello tra la navata di Buscheto e il prolungamento ad opera di Rainaldo (le campate verso ovest e la facciata).

Font : Wikipedia

Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

Daereungwon Tomb Complex.

1/6 - Entrata/uscita

2 - Tomb of King Michu

3 - Cheonmachong

4 - Hwangnamdaechong

La dinastia Silla in Corea è stata una delle più longeve nella storia di questa fetta di mondo e anche una di quelle dei tempi antichi della quale abbiamo più reperti: allora le persone di rango elevato veneravano i propri morti attraverso l’erezione di tumuli, più grandiosa era la costruzione e maggiore era il prestigio della famiglia.

Passeggiando per la città è possibile osservarne moltissimi in zone differenti ma presso quello che è chiamato il Daereungwon Tumuli Park è possibile ammirare la maggior parte di essi (sicuramente quelli più interessanti).

Si tratta di tombe sepolte che hanno l’aspetto di piccole o grandi colline ricoperte di erba verde, risalgono appunto al regno Silla e in particolare quelli del “Tumuli Park” sono 23, la più alta supera i 23 metri ma ce ne sono molte più piccole.

Ogni tumulo ha la propria particolare storia e alcuni possono essere visitati internamente, il tumulo di Cheonmachong ad esempio contiene molti artefatti in esposizione ed è davvero ricco di spiegazioni relativi al materiale esposto e alla storia locale.

Qui negli anni ’70 è stato scoperto un dipinto di un cavallo al galoppo che ad oggi è l’unico rinvenuto dell’era Silla, inoltre all’interno della tomba sono stati trovati 11.526 resti e molte corone reali. Hwangnamdaechong invece è la più grande tra le tombe antiche, ospita i corpi sia di un re che della sua regina e racchiude oltre 30mila reliquie e accessori d’oro, soprattutto la parte della regina è davvero ricca di oggetti regali e lussuosi.

Daereungwon Tomb Complex.

1/6 - Entry/exit

2 - Tomb of King Michu

3 - Cheonmachong

4 - Hwangnamdaechong

The Silla dynasty in Korea was one of the longest in the history of this part of the world and also one of those from ancient times of which we have the most finds: then people of high rank venerated their dead through the erection of mounds, more the building was grandiose and the family's prestige was greater.

Walking around the city it is possible to observe many of them in different areas but in what is called the Daereungwon Tumuli Park it is possible to admire most of them (certainly the most interesting ones).

These are buried tombs that have the appearance of small or large hills covered with green grass, they date back to the Silla kingdom and in particular those of the "Tumuli Park" are 23, the highest is over 23 meters but there are many more small.

Each mound has its own particular history and some can be visited internally, the Cheonmachong mound for example contains many artefacts on display and is really full of explanations relating to the material on display and local history.

Here in the 1970s a painting of a galloping horse was discovered which to date is the only one found from the Silla era, furthermore 11,526 remains and many royal crowns were found inside the tomb. Hwangnamdaechong, on the other hand, is the largest of the ancient tombs, it houses the bodies of both a king and his queen and contains over 30 thousand relics and gold accessories, especially the queen's part is truly rich in regal and luxurious objects.

gyeongju tombs

Il duomo di Santa Maria Assunta, al centro della Piazza dei Miracoli, è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa nonché chiesa primaziale. Capolavoro del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo apogeo.

Qui l'absie con il grandioso mosaico absidale con il Cristo benedicente tra la Vergine e San Giovanni Battista, opera attribuita a Cimabue

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Pisa Cathedral (Italian: Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta; Duomo di Pisa) is a medieval Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in the Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa, Italy. It is a notable example of Romanesque architecture, in particular the style known as Pisan Romanesque. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Pisa.

The original building plan was a Greek cross with a grand cupola at the crossing, but today the plan is a Latin cross with a central nave flanked by two side aisles on each side, with the apse and transepts having three naves. The inside offers a spatial effect similar to that of the great mosques thanks to the use of raised lancet arches, the alternating layers of black and white marble, and the elliptical dome, inspired by the Moors. The presence of two raised matronea in the nave, with their solid, monolithic columns of granite, is a clear sign of Byzantine influence. Buscheto welcomed Islamic and Armenian influence.

(Wikipedia)

In this image: the apse and the great mosaic depicting Christ between the Virgin and St. John the Baptist, opera attributed to Cimabue

---------------------------------

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Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.

El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.

Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.

Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.

La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.

Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.

Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.

Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.

The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.

Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.

To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.

The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.

The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.

These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.

The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.

Cícero Romão Batista (Crato, 24 de março de 1844 — Juazeiro do Norte, 20 de julho de 1934) foi um sacerdote católico brasileiro. Na devoção popular é conhecido como Padre Cícero ou Padim Ciço. Proprietário de terras, gado e dono de diversos imóveis, o Padre Cícero fazia parte da sociedade e política conservadora do sertão do Cariri. Tinha no médico Floro Bartolomeu seu braço direito e integrava o sistema político cearense que ficou sob o controle da família Accioli durante mais de duas décadas. Carismático, obteve grande prestígio e influência sobre a vida social, política e religiosa do Ceará e da Região Nordeste do Brasil. Em março de 2001, foi escolhido "O Cearense do Século" em votação promovida pela TV Verdes Mares. (By Wikipedia)

Minhas fotos à venda na Getty Images: visite www.gettyimages.com e busque por "adrianoaquino"

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"Padre Cícero" (Crato, March 24, 1844 - Juazeiro do Norte, July 20, 1934) was born Cícero Romão Batista in Ceará, Brazil. He was the son of Joaquim Romão Batista and Joaquina Vicência Romana. When he was 6 years old, he started to study with professor Rufino de Alcântara Montezuma. One important thing about his infancy is his pledge of chastity, made when he was twelve. This was influenced by him reading about the life of São Francisco de Sales. (...) Today, a large statue of Padre Cícero stands in Juazeiro do Norte. A pilgrimage to this statue takes place in his honour every November, attracting hundreds of thousands of followers.

Padre Cícero was posthumously canonized by the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church, a dissident religious organization. (By Wikipedia)

My photos for sale at Getty Images: go to www.gettyimages.com and search for "adrianoaquino"

Il duomo di Santa Maria Assunta, al centro della Piazza dei Miracoli, è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa nonché chiesa primaziale. Capolavoro del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo apogeo.

Qui il transetto con urna di San Ranieri

---------------------------------------------

Pisa Cathedral (Italian: Cattedrale Metropolitana Primaziale di Santa Maria Assunta; Duomo di Pisa) is a medieval Roman Catholic cathedral dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, in the Piazza dei Miracoli in Pisa, Italy. It is a notable example of Romanesque architecture, in particular the style known as Pisan Romanesque. It is the seat of the Archbishop of Pisa.

The original building plan was a Greek cross with a grand cupola at the crossing, but today the plan is a Latin cross with a central nave flanked by two side aisles on each side, with the apse and transepts having three naves. The inside offers a spatial effect similar to that of the great mosques thanks to the use of raised lancet arches, the alternating layers of black and white marble, and the elliptical dome, inspired by the Moors. The presence of two raised matronea in the nave, with their solid, monolithic columns of granite, is a clear sign of Byzantine influence. Buscheto welcomed Islamic and Armenian influence.

(Wikipedia)

In this image: the transept with the San Ranieri's urn

---------------------------------

Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved

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E. Castelldefels vs BM Elda Prestigio / DH Plata

01.04.2017, Photographer: Miguel Bestué

Copyright: Miguel Bestué / best.u.photo@gmail.com