Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

CABALLO CRIOLLO ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Criollo (Argentina, Uruguay) , Costeño , Morochuco (Peru) , Corralero (Chile) , Llanero (Venezuela)

Cavalo crioulo , raça crioula (Brasil) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Argentine Criollo Horse , Crioulo Horse ................................

Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758

Orden: Perissodactyla (Perisodáctilos) ... Familia: Equidae (Équidos)

Durante el pleistoceno existían caballos autóctonos en casi toda América.

El territorio que corresponde a la Argentina fue particularmente rico en estos "paleocaballos" ( principalmente hipiddiones y Equus), empero la llegada del ser humano hace más de 11.000 años parece haber sido un factor decisivo (junto tal vez a alguna epizootia) para la extinción de los equinos autóctonos de América.

A la llegada de los europeos (fines del siglo XV e inicios del siglo XVI) al parecer solo quedaban sus fósiles y las pinturas rupestres que los amerindios dibujaban en los aleros y cuevas de la patagonia, tal vez el último baluarte de las últimas tropillas del caballo americano, en algún recóndito valle...

Apoyan esta audaz teoría diversos científicos, historiadores, y antropólogos, los que creen que el criollo absorbió estas tropillas de Equus rectidens por hibridación, fusionándolas a su acervo genético.

Algunos de ellos son Aníbal Cardoso, Vicente Rossi, G. Ochoa, Sarústegui, Federico C. Remondeau, Daniel Vidart, Rodolfo Parodi Bustos, etc.

Un rasgo típico es clave: el desarrollo en prolongación de la cresta occipital, en una forma tan saliente que sobrepasa las del Hippydion y Onohippidion ya bastante notables.

Comparada la cabeza del Equus rectidens con la del caballo criollo primitivo, se nota la semejanza del perfil y el abovedado de la frente que existe entre ambas.

Este carácter, llamado "cabeza acarnerada" (por los conocidos "abultamientos" en la parte posterior de la nariz y frente que tan eficazmente eran exagerados en las obras del dibujante Molina Campos), es un lazo de unión entre las dos especies, demostrando el abolengo netamente americano del caballo criollo, pues las razas equinas ibéricas tienen el perfil recto, la frente plana y la cabeza poco voluminosa.

Llama la atención que esta característica morfológica es muy frecuente en los caballos pampeanos fotografíados en el siglo XIX, y principios del XX; pero hoy está ausente en el criollo moderno...

Pero la hipótesis más aceptada es la cual indica que el Caballo Criollo es descendiente del caballo ibérico traído por los conquistadores españoles a América.

Un compuesto genético de caballos de sangre caliente derivado del caballo berbérisco del norte de África, del caballo del Valle del Guadalquivir en Andalucía, y otros que se agrupaban en el grupo de caballos de trabajo llamados "jacas" o "rocines".

Ya en América, algunos de ellos escaparon de las haciendas y misiones religiosas, o fueron robados por los indios.

En el campo, formaron grandes tropas y expuestos a un entorno salvaje, la fuerte selección natural y la endogamia, les fijaron características genéticas propias.

Cabe indicar que estas líneas genéticas están total o virtualmente extintas en la actual península ibérica.

Los especímenes equinos traídos a América no eran caballos seleccionados para la reproducción, eran caballos rústicos y valientes usados en España para el trabajo.

No había licencia real para exportar caballos de selección que pudiesen constituir lotes de fundación, exceptuando los regalados por los reyes a otros gobernantes de la Europa del siglo XV y XV, como los caballos usados para la formación del Lepizzaner.

Hasta que no se reprodujeron en abundancia, los caballos traídos a América poseían un elevadísimo costo debido a su gran valor práctico y táctico y a su escasez inicial.

Los caballos entraron en la Argentina a través del Perú, del puerto de Buenos Aires y de Brasil.

Pero la corriente introducida por Buenos Aires es considerada la más importante.

Fueron traídos por Pedro de Mendoza al fundar la Ciudad de Buenos Aires en 1536.

Más tarde, Mendoza debió abandonar Buenos Aires obligado por la defensa de los pueblos originarios, y dejó los caballos, que una vez sueltos se reprodujeron prodigiosamente merced al bioma de praderas y pastizales y clima templado típico de la Pampa Húmeda.

Lo hicieron tanto, que al llegar Juan de Garay, en 1580 al Río de la Plata consideró a las caballadas tan abundantes como montañas, y cubrian todo el territorio hasta la cordillera...(esta curiosa multiplicación es otro pie para la teoría americana del criollo).

Azara dice: "Entre las muchas cimarronadas que me han pasado por delante, no he visto otro color sino el castaño que en algunos baja a zaino y en otros se acerca a alazán; y cuando se ve uno bayo, pío, tordillo ó de otro tinte, ya se sabe que fué uno doméstico que se escapó".

Sólo los más fuertes lograron sobrevivir y reproducirse, aprendiendo a defenderse de los peligros tales como pumas y yaguaretés, soportando además climas extremos.

Los pueblos aborígenes, increíblemente adaptables al "monstruo invasor", aprendieron primero a alimentarse de su carne, y después lograron una relación simbiótica con el caballo, a tal extremo que en el presente se sigue ampliando el estudio de la "doma india".

Volviendo a la reproducción y origen de los caballos en el territorio argentino: si ya desde inicios del siglo XVI quedaron caballos libres y se reprodujeron masivamente, estos caballos o baguales cimarrones pasaron a ser considerados "realengos", es decir posesión de la corona española, aunque en la práctica eran utilizables por cualquier persona habilitada, como los campesinos libres -luego gauchos-, que hicieron de sus "pingos" uno de sus principales medios de subsistencia y un símbolo de prestigio.

En cuanto a los indígenas, especialmente los del sur, si por un lado amansaban a los caballos de un modo casi nada violento, era común que consumieran como un manjar la carne de las yeguas.

Por otra parte ciertas características de algunos caballos criollos ha hecho suponer que pudieran poseer algún acervo genético asnal debido a un incidental cruce con una mula fértil (recordemos que el territorio argentino fue centro de crianza masiva de mulas para el transporte de minerales preciosos hacia las montañosas regiones de la actual Bolivia).

Aclaremos que el caballo Persa, el tártaro, o el árabe, tienen seis vértebras lumbares; en tanto que las mulas, el caballo berberisco, y el criollo, sólo tienen cinco vértebras lumbares, por hallarse soldada la última al sacro .

En la guerra de la independencia argentina se utilizaron casi exclusivamente caballos criollos, ya que hasta ese momento la llegada de otras razas desde Europa era muy reducida.

Después de 1816, tras la independencia y debido a la creciente europeización en todos los ámbitos de la vida argentina, el caballo criollo fue dejado de lado como raza y mestizado con sangres extranjeras en la creencia de que así se lo mejoraría.

Es así que durante todo el siglo XIX una gran proporción de los caballos se cruzaron con ejemplares de pura sangre importados de Europa.

Se lograron caballos de mayor altura y más veloces, pero todo ello en detrimento de la resistencia a la fatiga y a las condiciones extremas.

Parecía que el fin había llegado para esos nobles caballos.

A principios del Siglo XX, pese a todo, aún existían caballadas salvajes en la Patagonia, y también cerca de Buenos Aires, en relictos de las Sierras de Ventania o Ventana, y en las Sierras de Tandilia.

Hubo un grupo de estancieros leales a las aptitudes del caballo criollo, que mantuvo sus animales sin mestizar, con las características adquiridas a través de 400 años de selección natural.

La recuperación del caballo criollo, con una selección científica, la lideró Emilio Solanet.

Con un grupo de criadores fundó la Asociación de Criadores de Caballos Criollos, recuperando la raza, convirtiendo al caballo criollo en un caballo versátil, económico, rústico y dócil.

En 1918, los criadores de la Argentina decidieron crear un registro de los ejemplares criollos de raza pura .

Se produjeron desacuerdos entre los que apoyaban a Emilio Solanet, que promovia un criollo de fenotipo "asiático", versus los de Enrique Crotto, que bregaban por un fenotipo"Africano", más alto, con una cabeza convexa, grupa caída y delgadas crines y colas.

No fue sino hasta 1934, que el Dr. Solanet fue capaz de tomar firmemente el control de la Asociación de Criadores y fijó un nuevo objetivo para la raza como un caballo de corta acción más compacto que emulaba, de alguna manera, a la raza de caballos del centro de Chile, por los cuales él tenia admiración, los cuales contaban con registro genealógico ya desde alrededor de 1870!.

En 1938, el 70% de la Criollos registrados fueron castrados o sacrificados, debido a que no poseían el fenotipo aspirado por el Dr. Solanet y sus seguidores.

Empezó a seleccionar en la zona de Ayacucho y partidos vecinos, yeguas y potrillos que le parecían que respondían a las condiciones de la raza, comprando también algunos a los indios tehuelches, traidos desde la patagonia.

El nuevo estándar racial, que él había escrito en 1928, fue finalmente puesto a disposición del público recién cuando estuvo realmente seguro que los criadores estaban más persuadidos en brindar apoyo a su objetivo para la raza.

No sería hasta 1957 que el registro se cerró para la raza argentina, pero el registro se ha mantenido abierto para el caballo de raza chilena, el que ha tenido importante influencia en mejorar ciertas cualidades, para ayudar a dar forma al Criollo moderno.

Sin embargo, la raza mantiene su propia identidad, con una conformación del cuerpo más alta, y cuadrada, con un corvejón más angular que le permite un paso largo, el que se requiere para cubrir las grandes distancias en las planicies de la Argentina (conocidas como "pampas").

La cabeza del Criollo moderno se prefiere con un perfil de la cara recta y un hocico más corto y más largas orejas que en el caballo de raza chilena típico.

La Asociación Criadores de Caballos Criollos, fue fundada por un grupo de 40 criadores de la Raza el 16 de junio de 1923, bajo en nombre de “Asociación de Criadores de Caballos Criollos Argentino".

Funciona en Larrea 670, 2do. piso, de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.

Simultáneamente, diversos deportes criollos ya definitivamente arraigados, como las "Pruebas de Rodeos", las "Pruebas de Rienda", la "competencia de Aparte", las "Cabalgatas de Criadores", el "Aparte Campero", la muy rigurosa "Marcha Anual", congregan miles de entusiastas participantes que, en Jornadas Clasificatorias, van intentando obtener promedios que los acerquen a la fiesta máxima del Criollo: Las Finales de los Campeonatos Nacionales de las distintas disciplinas que culminan en la Exposición de Otoño de cada año, dentro del marco de la mega-exposición llamada “Nuestros Caballos”, en el predio ferial de la Sociedad Rural Argentina, en el barrio de Palermo.

Por otra parte, la tradicional exposición de la Sociedad Rural Argentina, en el mismo predio, constituye la muestra más importante de la genética del Criollo en el mundo.

Con 150 reproductores de primerísimo nivel que colman las instalaciones del mítico Pabellón 8, superando con su sola presencia a todas las demás Razas equinas sumadas.

Numerosos criadores extranjeros de Brasil, Chile, Uruguay, también se dan cita en esta muestra, aportando sus ejemplares.

Sus dos ejemplares más famosos, Mancha y Gato, recorrieron el Continente Americano desde Buenos Aires a Nueva York, guiados por Aimé F. Tschiffelly, batiendo récords de distancia y altura.

Actualmente, en el Brasil, es más común en el estado de Rio Grande do Sul, principalmente en la región sudoeste gracias a los ejemplares producidos en "La Invernada Hornero", de Uruguayana (Uruguaiana).

CARACTERÍSTICAS GENERALES:

Eumétrico y mesoformo (medidas y formas medianas).

Su tipo se corresponde con el de un caballo de silla, equilibrado y armónico.

Bien musculado y de furte constitución, con su centro de gravedad bajo.

De buen pie y andares sueltos, ágil y rápido en sus movimientos.

De carácter activo, enérgico y dócil, su característica racial está definida por su rusticidad, longevidad, fertilidad, resistencia, valentía, poder de recuperación y aptitud para trabajos ganaderos.

BIOMETRÍA:

a) ----- Talla: Ideal 1,44 m. Las fluctuaciones máximas para los machos serán entre 1,40 m. y 1,48 m

pudiendo aceptarse como excepción hasta de 1,50 m. y no menos de 1,38m.

Previa resolución de jurado de admisión o inspector actuante. Hembras 2 cm menos.

b) ----- Perímetro torácico: ideal 1,78 m. Hembras 2 cm. Más.

c) ----- Perímetro de la caña: ideal 0,19 m. Hembras 1 cm. Menos.

Las fluctuaciones de las medidas deberán guardar la debida armonía con las indicadas para la talla.

PELAJES:

Con excepción del “pintado” y el “tobiano” se aceptan todos los pelajes, procurándose la paulatina eliminación de animales con tendencia avanzada hacia la despigmentación y albinismo.

CABEZA:

De perfil preferentemente rectilíneo o subconvexilíneo.

En conjunto corta, liviana, de base ancha y vértice fino proporcionalmente mucho cráneo y poca cara.

Frente ancha y mas bien plana.

Carrillos destacados y separados entre si ojos vivaces y expresivos, orejas chicas, anchas en su base, separadas y paralelas.

Ollares medianos.

La cabeza debe denotar la pureza racial, el carácter y la natural diferenciación sexual entre machos y hembras.

CRINES, CERDAS DE COLA, Y CERNEJAS O RANILLAS:

Tuse y cola más bien anchos y bien poblados de cerdas abundantes y gruesas.

Cernejas de mediano desarrollo y solo sobre la parte posterior del nudo

CUELLO, PESCUEZO O COGOTE:

De suficiente largo flexibilidad. Musculado en su inserción superior con la cabeza. Ligeramente convexo en su línea superior y recto en la inferior. Su eje se unirá al tronco en un ángulo casi recto con las paletas.

CRUZ:

Medianamente perfilada y musculada. Larga e insensiblemente unida.

DORSO:

De largo mediano, fuerte, fuerte, firme y ancho y musculado hacia el posterior. Suavemente unido a la cruz y al riñón con los que conformará una correcta línea superior.

RIÑÓN:

Corto, ancho, musculoso, fuerte, bien unido al dorso y a la grupa con los cuales deberá guardar armonía en conjunto.

GRUPA:

De buen largo y musculada, de ancho de ancho mediano y suavemente inclinada.

Vista del posterior, redondeada, sin protuberancias óseas ni hendiduras perceptibles.

COLA:

De maslo corto, debe continuar suavemente la linea superior de la grupa con una inserción mas bien baja.

PECHO:

Medianamente ancho, musculado, y bien descendido. El esternón se ubicará aproximadamente al la mitad de la alzada del animal.

TRONCO:

Visto de costado, profundo desde la cruz a la cinchera y de frente, de forma oval.

De buen desarrollo en su perímetro y cerca del suelo.

Costillas moderadamente arqueadas y abiertas hacia abajo y hacia atrás.

Vientre amplio, continuando insensiblemente el perfil interior del tórax.

FLANCOS:

Cortos y llenos.

ESPALDAS O PALETAS:

Medianamente largas e inclinadas. Separadas entre sí y bien musculadas.

BRAZOS Y CODOS:

Paralelos al plano medio del cuerpo. Brazos de buen largo, inclinación y musculatura. Codos visiblemente separados del tórax.

ANTEBRAZO:

Bien aplomados, largos, de buen ancho y musculatura.

RODILLAS:

Cerca del suelo, anchas, medianamente largas, nítidas, sin desviaciones ni fuera del eje.

MUSLOS:

Anchos y bien musculados, de nalgas largas y descendidas.

PATAS TRASERAS:

Largas, anchas, musculosas, con los tendones del corvejón fuertes, separados y nítidos.

GARRONES O CORVEJONES:

Fuertes, anchos, nítidos, paralelos al plano mediano del cuerpo y cerca del suelo.

CAÑAS:

Cortas, con cuerdas fuertes, nítidas y bien destacadas.

NUDOS:

Fuertes y nítidos.

CUARTILLAS O PICHICOS:

Fuertes, de longitud e inclinación medianas.

CASCOS O VASOS:

Relativamente chicos, lisos, tensos, resistentes: de talones adecuadamente altos y separados

entre sí.

( 24 de Marzo de 2009 )

Mega-exposición: “Nuestros Caballos”,

en el predio ferial de la Sociedad Rural Argentina,

en el barrio de Palermo, ciudad de Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA.

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La Gran Vía es una de las principales calles de Madrid (España). Comienza en la calle de Alcalá y termina en la plaza de España. Es un importante hito en la ciudad desde su construcción a principios de siglo XX visto desde el punto de vista comercial, turístico y de ocio. En éste último aspecto es famosa por sus cines, si bien en los últimos años algunos de ellos han cerrado y otros se han reconvertido con gran éxito al teatro musical, por lo que el tramo comprendido entre la plaza de Callao y la de España se conoce como el Broadway madrileño. El tramo comprendido entre la red de San Luis y la plaza de Callao alberga en la actualidad numerosas tiendas de cadenas internacionales de moda.

Además de para servir como vía de comunicación este-oeste de la ciudad, la Gran Vía fue planificada como punto de encuentro de los ciudadanos y como área recreativa y comercial. En estos dos aspectos, supuso un cambio en las costumbres de los madrileños, ya que albergó los primeros grandes almacenes de la ciudad, escaparates de lujo, grandes salas de cine o cafés que se harían muy frecuentados durante sus primeras décadas de vida.

El primer tramo, entre Alcalá y la Red de San Luis, estuvo dedicado desde el comienzo al comercio de lujo, a imitación de otras calles surgidas en el siglo XIX por toda Europa, como la Rue de la Paix (París); Regent Street (Londres) o la Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (Milán). Cabe destacar tiendas de moda como Almacenes Rodríguez, Samaral o Sánchez-Rubio; joyerías como Aldao, Brooking, Grassy, Perera o Sanz; concesionarios de automóviles, como Chenard-Walker, Fiat, Ford o Hispano-Suiza; cafés como el Abra, Chicote, Pidoux o Sicilia Molinero; compañías de seguros como La Unión y el Fénix o Seguros La Estrella; y hoteles, como el Hotel de Roma. Aunque todavía perdura alguna firma de prestigio, a partir de los años sesenta del siglo XX este uso comenzó a decaer, dando paso a otros establecimientos menos especializados. También se instalaron en esta zona varios casinos, los centros de reunión de la alta burguesía de principios del siglo XX.

El segundo tramo, hasta Callao, es el más espacioso, como corresponde a su antiguo diseño de bulevar. Desde el comienzo, con la apertura de la estación de metro de Gran vía en 1919, fue un continuo ir y venir de gentes. Aquí, por ejemplo, se abrieron los primeros grandes almacenes de Madrid, los Almacenes Madrid-París, inaugurados en enero de 1924 y siendo uno de los primeros de la ciudad en contar con escaleras mecánicas, tras su quiebra el edificio sería comprado por Sepu (Sociedad Española de Precios Únicos) en 1934 para la apertura de su sucursal en Madrid. Otros dos grandes almacenes, El Corte Inglés y Galerías Preciados, surgieron junto a la plaza de Callao. También se establecieron numerosas compañías de seguros, la mayoría propietarias de los edificios en que se ubicaban. A partir de los años cincuenta, con el auge del turismo y la instalación de numerosos hoteles, se produjo su época dorada, con la apertura de cafés, bares y salas de fiestas, como el famoso Pasapoga. También son de destacar, característica que comparte con el siguiente tramo, los edificios que se construyeron para albergar, de modo polivalente, salas de cine y teatro, como el Palacio de la Música o el Cine Avenida. En los años 80, en Gran Vía 25, abrió sus puertas una tienda de la emblemática cadena de venta de discos Madrid Rock.

El tercer tramo, hasta la plaza de España, albergó espacios destinados al ocio, como cines, teatros, salas de fiestas y cafeterías “a la americana”, y comercios como librerías y tiendas de tejidos, entre otras. También edificios completamente de oficinas. Durante la Guerra Civil, por su proximidad al frente situado en la Ciudad Universitaria y en la Casa de Campo, esta zona de la Gran Vía fue la que más se resintió. Destacan de nuevo los edificios dedicados a salas de cine como el Palacio de la Prensa, el Callao, el Capitol, el Coliseum, el Rialto, el Imperial o el Lope de Vega.

En la actualidad, alrededor de 50.000 coches circulan diariamente por la Gran Vía y, en hora punta, lo hacen 185 autobuses. Hay cuarenta y un hoteles, quince sucursales bancarias, cuatro cines (llegaron a ser 12), tres teatros y dos museos. Dispone de ciento cuatro papeleras y ciento nueve farolas.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_V%C3%ADa#La_Gran_V.C3.ADa_en_l...

Gran Vía (literally "Great Way") is an ornate and upscale shopping street located in central Madrid.Now, the street is known as the Spanish Broadway, and is one of the streets with more nightlife in Europe. It is known as the street that never sleeps. It leads from Calle de Alcalá, close to Plaza de Cibeles, to Plaza de España.

The lively street is one of the city's most important shopping areas, with a large number of hotels and large movie theaters; it is also noted for the grand architecture prevalent among many of its buildings. Now, most of the theaters are being replaced by shopping malls.

It is considered a showcase of early 20th century architecture, with patterns ranging from Vienna Secession style, Plateresque, Neo-Mudéjar, Art Deco and others.

Conception

In the mid 19th century, Madrid's urban planners decided that a new thoroughfare had to be created, connecting the Calle de Alcalá with the Plaza de España. The project required many buildings in the center of the city to be demolished, earning it the name of 'an axe blow on the map'. Decades after the first plans were made, construction still hadn't started and the media ridiculed the project, cynically calling it the 'Gran Vía' or 'Great Road'. Finally in 1904 it was approved and construction started a couple of years later. The last part of the street was completed in 1929.

The new road created opportunities for architects, who had the ability to create large buildings in the latest architectural styles. The first eye catching building starting from the Calle de Alcalá is the most famous of all, the Edificio Metrópolis or Metropolis Building. The landmark was built between 1907 and 1911 after a design by the architects Jules and Raymond Février. The original statue was replaced in 1975 by a statue of a winged Goddess Victory.

A bit further along the Gran Vía, on the left hand side is another landmark, the Edificio Grassy, another corner building with a small tower, built in 1917. Visible from here is the tower of the Telefónica Building, the first European skyscraper built between 1926 and 1929 for the Spanish telecommunications company. The 88-meter (290 ft) building was the tallest in Madrid and was designed by an American, Louis S. Weeks.

Plaza del Callao

Farther towards the Plaza de España, the Gran Vía crosses a small square, the Plaza del Callao, named after the battle of El Callao. This square is the heart of cinematic Madrid, with about six movie theaters. One of them, the Capitol, is located in a beautiful Art Deco building.

However, recent changes in building rules have allowed the reform of the theaters into more lucrative shopping centers.

The last part of the Gran Vía, constructed between 1925 and 1929 leads to the Plaza de España, a large square dominated by two skyscrapers built in the 1950s, the symmetric Edificio España and the Torre de Madrid. Here the Gran Vía becomes the Calle Princesa, leading north to the Arco de la Victoria.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_V%C3%ADa_%28Madrid%29

Praia de Punaú-RN/Brasil

View of the new city of Cuenca from the old town

Vista de la nueva ciudad de Cuenca desde el casco antiguo

The origins of Cuenca back to the Upper Paleolithic. In the Moslem conquest there is constructed Qunka's strength, which gave origin to the current city. The Christian king Alfonso VIII conquered it in 1177 and it granted the Jurisdiction of Cuenca to him, one of the most prestigious in the Castile history. Its economy focused on the textile industry, of great prestige during the XVth and XVIth century, what produced a great constructive activity. In 1996 the old town was declared a Heritage of Humanity.

Los orígenes de Cuenca se remontan al Paleolítico Superior. En la Conquista musulmana se construye la fortaleza de Qūnka, que dio origen a la ciudad actual. El rey cristiano Alfonso VIII la conquistó en 1177 y le otorgó el Fuero de Cuenca, uno de los más prestigiosos de la historia de Castilla. Su economía se centró en la industria textil, de gran prestigio durante los siglos XV y XVI, lo que produjo una gran actividad constructiva. En 1996 su casco antiguo fuese declarado Patrimonio de la Humanidad.

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Chile se ha convertido en la ultimas décadas en uno de los mas importantes productores de vino en el mundo. Ninguna otra región del país es mejor conocida y nombrada como lo es el Valle de Colchagua. Elegida en 2005 por la revista Wine Enthusiast como la "Mejor Region Vitivinicola del Mundo" por su capacidad para producir vinos tintos de clase mundial. Además por su belleza paisajística fue seleccionada entre los 10 lugares del mundo que usted debe conocer en el 2012.

El Valle de Colchagua se ubica a 160 kms al sur de Santiago. Es un rico valle de clima seco mediterráneo pero bien regado por los Rios Tinguirica y Chimbarongo. Las primeras haciendas datan de los tiempos de la colonización española, dedicadas a la agruicultura fueron adquiridas por prominentes familias de origen hispano. Estas familias cuyas fortunas provenían de la explotación minera a fines del siglo IXX, remplazaron las rusticas variedades de vino español por las finas sepas de Francia.

Chile es el único lugar del mundo que permanece libre de la peste por Phylloxera, que devastó las viñas europeas en el siglo IXX. Asi el Valle de Colchagua tiene viñedos de mas de 100 años de antigüedad.

Con mas de 50 viñas dedicadas a la producción de vino, incluyendo 27 marcas de prestigio mundial que se han establecido en el valle obteniendo premiados vinos tintos de fama internacional, sus Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah y Malbec figuran frecuentemente encabezando los listados de los mejores vinos del mundo. Asi la Ruta del Vino es uno de los mayores y mejores atractivos turísticos de Chile, tanto por la variedad de atracciones y actividades como su organización, tales como vuelos sobre el valle, cabalgatas, caminatas en bellos senderos, visitas a museos, bodegas, restaurantes y mucho mas.

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Chile has become a big league player in the global wine market in recent decades. And no other region in the country stands out as much as the Colchagua Valley, chosen by the Wine Enthusiast magazine as 2005’s Best Wine Region of the World for its ability to produce world class red wines. Choose one of the top ten region of the world that you should to known in 2012

The Colchagua Valley is 180 km to the south of Santiago. It is a rich valley with a mediterranean dry weather but with an abundant water supply from the Tinguiririca and Chimbarongo River. The valley’s first haciendas were established during colonial times. These vast autonomous agriculture and livestock farms were acquired by wealthy families of Spanish origin. These families, most of whom had earned their fortunes in Chile’s mining industry in the late 19th century, replaced the rustic Spanish varieties with fine French varieties.

Chile is the only wine-producing country in the world that remains free of Phylloxera, the pest that devastated European wineries in the 19th century. As a result, the Colchagua Valley has vineyards that are more than 100 years old

With over 50 vineyards inlcuding 27 vines of international reputation have settled their production centers is this valley, obtaining awarded red wines of international fame. Its full-bodied Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah and Malbec, and its wines regularly appear high on the world´s list of leading wines. The Wine Route is one of the velley finest tourist attraction and one of the most in the country, a wide range of activities can be found such as Flights over the valley, and Horseback Riding or Hiking on beautiful trails, museums, restaurants and many more.

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Puente Romano de Cangas de Onís

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Cangas de Onís (Cangues d'Onís en asturiano) es un concejo, una parroquia, una localidad y un partido judicial de la Comunidad Autónoma del Principado de Asturias, España. Limita al norte con Parres y Ribadesella, al este con Onís y Llanes, al oeste con Amieva y Parres y al sur con la provincia de León. El lema que recoge su escudo es "Minima Urbium Máxima Sedium". Cuenta con una población de 6.731 habitantes (INE, 2008).

Fue capital del Reino de Asturias hasta el año 774. Aquí se estableció el rey Don Pelayo, y desde aquí emprendió con sus gentes acciones sobre los territorios del norte de España, como único foco de resistencia al poder musulmán, una vez desaparecido el Reino visigodo. En este término municipal tuvo lugar en el año 722 la Batalla de Covadonga, donde Don Pelayo venció a la fuerzas musulmanas y consolidó un poder y prestigio que le permitió permanecer independiente y fundar el primer reino cristiano posterior a la derrota de los visigodos en la Batalla de Guadalete.

informacion : Cangas de Onís

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Fiat Stilo Dynamic JTD Estate (2001-07 or 2010 Brazil) Engine 1910cc S4 JTD Diesel

Registration Number BT 53 KYN (Birmingham)

FIAT SET

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The Fiat Stilo (Type 192) was designed at Fiat Cento Stile, under design director Peter Fassbender, with exterior styling by Mauro Basso, available as a 3 or 5 door Hatch and 5 door Estate, launched in November 2001, at the Bologna Motor Show, to replace the Fiat Bravo/Brava, with the Stilo MultiWagon following in 2002. The car received mixed reviews with critics panning the styling as to bland and the cars excessive weight and its semi-independent rear torsion beam suspension / twist-beam rear suspension which was seen as a step backwards. The car's fuel economy was also seen as poor for its class, a result of the car's heavy weight and the transmission, which used very long gear ratios.

In the United Kingdom, different trim levels available are/were: Active, Active Aircon, Blue, Dynamic, Sporting, Abarth, GT, Prestigio, Xbox limited edition, Michael Schumacher and the Schumacher GP, with general modifications by British car specialists, Prodrive.

The model was updated in May 2006, with a new front grille, different seat fabric, a relocation of the electric mirror controls from the window control console to just behind the gear stick. The entry models also had the centre arm-rest removed (which when in the downward position prevented comfortable use of the handbrake as in the Audi A3) and the deletion of the rear air vent.

By Fiat standards sales were very disappointing In October 2013, The Economist magazine placed the Stilo into the report on Europe's Biggest Loss Making Cars.

n 2004, the 1242 cc engine was dropped in favour of the Punto's 1.4 L unit, increasing the car's power to 95 bhp (71 kW), again combined with the 6 speed gearbox. Also, the tail lights were altered, and the Abarth version gained a manual gearbox, instead of the Selespeed.

Diolch yn fawr am 72,271,463 o olygfeydd anhygoel, mwynhewch ac arhoswch yn ddiogel

Thank you 72,271,463 amazing views, enjoy and stay safe

Shot 05.05.2019 at Catton Park Classic Car Show Ref 141-046

Estrutura interior do elevador de um hotel clássico em Génova. O sistema de cabos e grelhas metálicas preserva o desenho original, característico dos elevadores históricos de edifícios europeus do final do século XIX e início do século XX. Estes elevadores, muitas vezes instalados em edifícios de prestígio, combinam funcionalidade com elementos decorativos em ferro forjado.

Eu mesma fiz, não ficou ainda 100% visualmente, mas ficou muito gostoso. Vai aí a receita. Retirada do site nestlé.

INGREDIENTES

Creme

* 3 claras

* meia xícara (chá) de açúcar

* 1 lata de Creme de Leite NESTLÉ®

* 2 xícaras (chá) de coco em flocos seco

Massa

* meia xícara (chá) de manteiga

* 1 xícara e meia (chá) de açúcar

* 6 ovos

* meia xícara (chá) de leite

* 1 xícara e meia (chá) de farinha de trigo

* 1 xícara (chá) de Chocolate em Pó DOIS FRADES®

* meia colher (sopa) de fermento químico em pó

* manteiga para untar

* farinha de trigo para polvilhar

Cobertura

* 1 lata de Creme de Leite NESTLÉ®

* 1 tablete de NESTLÉ CLASSIC® Meio Amargo picado

Montagem

* meia xícara (chá) de leite

* 2 colheres (sopa) de leite de coco

* coco ralado para decorar

* raspas de chocolate para decorar

MODO DE PREPARO

Creme:

Em uma panela, misture as claras com o açúcar e leve ao fogo baixo, mexendo sempre, para aquecer (cerca de 3 minutos), sem deixar ferver. Retire do fogo e transfira ainda quente para uma batedeira, batendo até que a tigela da batedeira esfrie e forme um merengue. Junte o Creme de Leite, o coco e misture delicadamente. Cubra com filme plástico e leve à geladeira até o momento de rechear o bolo.

Massa:

Em uma batedeira, coloque a manteiga e o açúcar e bata até formar uma mistura esbranquiçada. Junte as gemas, uma a uma, sem parar de bater até obter um creme homogêneo. Adicione a farinha de trigo e o Chocolate em Pó, aos poucos, intercalando com o leite e misture. Por último, junte o fermento e as claras batidas em neve, misturando delicadamente. Despeje em uma forma redonda (28 cm de diâmetro), untada e polvilhada e leve para assar em forno médio (180°C), pré-aquecido, por cerca de 30 minutos. Desenforme o bolo ainda quente e reserve.

Cobertura:

Em um recipiente, junte o Creme de Leite e o Chocolate Meio Amargo e leve ao fogo, em banho-maria, mexendo sempre até formar um creme liso e homogêneo. Retire do fogo e reserve.

Montagem:

Corte o bolo já frio em três partes, no sentido horizontal. Forre uma forma redonda (28 cm de diâmetro) com filme plástico, coloque uma das partes do bolo e umedeça com o leite misturado com o leite de coco

. Espalhe metade do creme de coco, cubra com outra parte de bolo e volte a umedecer. Coloque o restante do creme e termine com a última camada de bolo. Cubra com filme plástico e leve para gelar por cerca de 3 horas. Desenforme o bolo sobre um prato de servir, espalhe a cobertura, decore com fitas de coco fresco e sirva a seguir.

María Rosalía Rita de Castro (Santiago de Compostela, 23 de febrero de 1837-Padrón, 15 de julio de 1885).

Nació en la madrugada del 23 de febrero de 1837 en una casa localizada en el margen derecho del Camiño Novo (Santiago de Compostela), la antigua vía de entrada a la ciudad de Santiago de Compostela para todos aquellos viajeros procedentes de Pontevedra. Hija natural del sacerdote José Martínez Viojo (1798-1871) capellán de la iglesia de Iria y de María Teresa de la Cruz Castro y Abadía (1804-1862), de familia hidalga, soltera de escasos recursos económicos, fue bautizada a las pocas horas de su nacimiento en la Capilla del Hospital Real por el presbítero José Vicente Varela y Montero, con los nombres de María Rosalía Rita y figurando como hija de padres desconocidos. Con frecuencia los biógrafos de la escritora gallega han ocultado la condición eclesiástica de su padre, así como también trataron de obviar el hecho de que fue registrada como hija de padres desconocidos y que se libró de entrar en la Inclusa al hacerse cargo de ella su madrina María Francisca Martínez, fiel sirviente de la madre de la recién nacida.

“En veinte y cuatro de febrero de mil ochocientos treinta y seis, María Francisca Martínez, vecina de San Juan del Campo, fue madrina de una niña que bauticé solemnemente y puse los santos óleos, llamándole María Rosalía Rita, hija de padres incógnitos, cuya niña llevó la madrina, y va sin número por no haber pasado a la Inclusa; y para que así conste, lo firmo.

Acta del bautizo firmada por el presbítero José Vicente Varela y Montero.”

En la actualidad, la figura de Rosalía de Castro y sus creaciones literarias continúan siendo objeto de una abundante bibliografía y recibiendo una constante atención crítica, tanto en España como en el extranjero. Es tal la aceptación y el interés que las obras de esta escritora despiertan en el mundo, que en las últimas décadas sus poemas han sido traducidos a idiomas como el francés, el alemán, el ruso y el japonés. (Wikipedia)

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Saint Peter's Square (Italian: Piazza San Pietro) is located directly in front of St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, the papal enclave within Rome (the Piazza borders to the East the rione of Borgo).

The open space which lies before the basilica was redesigned by Gian Lorenzo Bernini from 1656 to 1667, under the direction of Pope Alexander VII, as an appropriate forecourt, designed "so that the greatest number of people could see the Pope give his blessing, either from the middle of the façade of the church or from a window in the Vatican Palace" (Norwich 1975 p 175). Bernini had been working on the interior of St. Peter's for decades; now he gave order to the space with his renowned colonnades, using the Tuscan form of Doric, the simplest order in the classical vocabulary, not to compete with the palace-like façade by Carlo Maderno, but he employed it on an unprecedented colossal scale to suit the space and evoke emotions of awe.

The site's possibilities were under many constraints from existing structures (illustration, right). The massed accretions of the Vatican Palace crowded the space to the right of the basilica's façade; the structures needed to be masked without obscuring the papal apartments. The obelisk marked a center, and a granite fountain by Carlo Maderno stood to one side: Bernini made the fountain appear to be one of the foci of the ellipse embraced by his colonnades and eventually matched it on the other side, in 1675, just five years before his death. The trapezoidal shape of the piazza, which creates a heightened perspective for a visitor leaving the basilica and has been praised as a masterstroke of Baroque theater (illustration, below right), is largely a product of site constraints.

The colossal Tuscan colonnades, four columns deep,frame the trapezoidal entrance to the basilica and the massive elliptical area which precedes it. The ellipse's long axis, parallel to the basilica's façade, creates a pause in the sequence of forward movements that is characteristic of a Baroque monumental approach. The colonnades define the piazza. The elliptical center of the piazza, which contrasts with the trapezoidal entrance, encloses the visitor with "the maternal arms of Mother Church" in Bernini's expression. On the south side, the colonnades define and formalize the space, with the Barberini Gardens still rising to a skyline of umbrella pines. On the north side, the colonnade masks an assortment of Vatican structures; the upper stories of the Vatican Palace rise above.

At the center of the ellipse stands an Egyptian obelisk of red granite, 25.5 meters tall, supported on bronze lions and surmounted by the Chigi arms in bronze, in all 41 meters to the cross on its top. The obelisk, of the 13th century BC, was moved to Rome in AD 37 by the Emperor Caligula to stand in the central spina of the Circus Gai et Neronis, which lay to the left of the present basilica. It was moved to its current site in 1586 by the engineer-architect Domenico Fontana under the direction of Pope Sixtus V; the engineering feat of re-erecting its vast weight was memorialized in a suite of engravings (illustrated right). The Vatican Obelisk is the only obelisk in Rome that has not toppled since ancient Roman times. During the Middle Ages, the gilt ball on top of the obelisk was believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. Fontana later removed the ancient metal ball, now in a Rome museum, that stood atop the obelisk and found only dust. Though Bernini had no influence in the erection of the obelisk, he did use it as the centerpiece of his magnificent piazza.

The paving is varied by radiating lines in travertine, to relieve what might otherwise be a sea of cobblestones. In 1817 circular stones were set to mark the tip of the obelisk's shadow at noon as the sun entered each of the signs of the zodiac, making the obelisk a gigantic sundial's gnomon. Below is a fabulous view of St. Peter's Square from the cupola (the top of the dome) which was taken in June, 2007.

St. Peter's Square today can be reached from the Ponte Sant'Angelo along the grand approach of the Via della Conciliazione (in honor of the Lateran Treaty of 1929). The spina which once occupied this grand avenue leading to the square was demolished ceremonially by Benito Mussolini himself on October 23, 1936 and was completely demolished by October 8, 1937. St. Peter's Basilica was now freely visible from the Castel Sant Angelo. The effect of its demolition, however, was to destroy the characteristic Baroque "surprise". The Via della Conciliazione was completed in time for the Great Jubilee of 1950.

Piazza San Pietro è la piazza antistante la Basilica di San Pietro. Inserita a margine del centro storico di Roma, la piazza si trova nella Città del Vaticano; confina ad est con il rione Borgo ed è raggiungibile dal territorio della Repubblica Italiana da via di Porta Angelica o da via della Conciliazione.

La celeberrima piazza, notevole esempio di architettura ed urbanista barocca, è dedicata all'omonimo santo ed è luogo di pellegrinaggio quotidiano per migliaia di fedeli cattolici provenienti da tutto il mondo.

Essa è la piazza più vicina, in un certo senso, al cuore del cattolicesimo; inoltre, il grande colonnato ovale è sempre stato considerato la figura di due grandi braccia che avvolgono maternamente i fedeli.

Data la sempre maggiore affluenza, la piazza è diventata (almeno nella bella stagione) la sede abituale di grandi cerimonie liturgiche presiedute dal papa, come le canonizzazioni, il corteo di insediamento dei pontefici neo-eletti, ma anche le esequie del papa, come avvenne nel 2005 per Giovanni Paolo II, di fronte ad una numerosa folla.

È diventato abituale l'appuntamento dell'Angelus Domini, la domenica alle 12.00, quando il papa si affaccia dalla finestra del suo studio, saluta la folla radunata, fa un breve discorso, recita la preghiera dell'Angelus ed impartisce la benedizione.

La piazza fa parte del territorio vaticano, ma è affidata alla pubblica sicurezza dello Stato Italiano. Essendo un palcoscenico d'immenso prestigio mondiale, per evitarne la perenne occupazione abusiva, in essa sono proibite tutte le manifestazioni pubbliche diverse da quelle religiose.Durante la seconda guerra mondiale, i soldati tedeschi occupanti Roma ne presidiavano il perimetro, senza potervi entrare. Il 13 maggio 1981, durante un'udienza pubblica, il papa Giovanni Paolo II fu colpito dalla pistola di un attentatore, che fu arrestato dalla polizia italiana.

All'inizio del '500 la piazza (platea Sancti Petri) era all'incirca rettangolare, con un dislivello di circa dieci metri tra il Borgo Nuovo e il piede della scalinata che conduceva alla basilica.

Papa Alessandro VI per il Giubileo del 1500 fece aprire la prima strada nuova rettilinea di Roma, fra il ponte Sant'Angelo e il portone del Palazzo vaticano, traversando la platea con una striscia lastricata, inclinata di circa 6 gradi rispetto all'asse dell'antica basilica. Borgo Nuovo crea davanti al grande portale di ingresso ai palazzi una prospettiva di circa 800 metri (il Borgo più l'attraversamento lastricato della platea): si tratta della conferma che Alessandro VI non assegnava alcun ruolo prioritario alla basilica di San Pietro nel quadro della creazione della cittadella pontificia; egli propone invece come riferimento per questa operazione il palazzo, la curia, la residenza del papa.

La Via Recta, o via Alessandrina o via Borgo Nuovo, è dunque il primo rettifilo centrato sul portone di un palazzo, come una lunga passatoia che dall'androne di questo entra nella città. Il prototipo alessandrino nasce nell'ambito di un programma che non è architettonico: non si prevedeva, in quegli anni, di ricostruire né San Pietro, né i Palazzi Vaticani secondo un disegno unitario.

Mentre tutto verrà demolito e ricostruito attorno a quel portale, quell'asse non verrà più cancellato: il portone diventa il Portone di bronzo, e la sua immagine rimane impressa già molto prima di arrivarvi; l'atrio retrostante diventa il lungo corridore del Bernini, allineato in fondo con la Scala regia che conduce alla Sala omonima, da cui si entra nella Sistina da una parte, nell'alloggio del pontefice dall'altra. Si conferma, dunque, come un asse cerimoniale.

È solo dal Seicento che i papi guardano dal Quirinale a San Pietro in una prospettiva – formale e ideologica – ben diversa da quella che avevano dal Vaticano; forse solo adesso San Pietro cessa di essere la dilatata cappella del palazzo papale e ritorna ad essere una delle basiliche di Roma.

È in questa situazione che si passa dalle questioni dentro la chiesa, alle questioni fuori dalla chiesa. Il problema è quello di trasformare uno spazio abbastanza indifferenziato, quale era la platea Sancti Petri, in uno spazio direttamente funzionale alla basilica. Mentre si distrugge l'antico quadriportico del Paradiso, si ripropone il problema di soddisfare alle sue funzioni di anticamera di san Pietro, ma più avanti, più all'esterno.

Font : Wikipedia

SI SENYOR- TOTI SOLER & CARLES RABASSA I ESTER FORMOSA

Al número 118 del carrer Guillem de Castro de València, hi ha un edifici de 18.200 m2, que acull l'Institut Valencià d'Art Modern [IVAM] sobre un disseny original dels arquitectes valencians Emilio Giménez i Carlos Salvadores. Va ser inaugurat el 1989. Referent al seu dia de l'art modern, era parada obligatòria de les exposicions en els circuits internacionals. L'equip humà en els seus començaments va ser d'un gran nivell professional, es van anar alternant en la seva direcció persones de gran prestigi en el món de l'art. Pel museu va passar Tomàs Llorens, José Francisco Ybars o Juan Manuel Bonet que juntament amb grans gestors culturals com la també directora Carmen Alborch, van aconseguir l'època d'or del museu, gràcies sens dubte a la saviesa artística de Vicent Todolí. Més polèmica va ser la gestió de Cosme de Barañano que va iniciar una època de ruptura amb el passat amb una política expositiva i adquisitiva que tenia com a major objectiu agradar i atendre els capritxos dels nous gestors polítics de la Generalitat Valenciana. Aquest procés va tenir el seu auge i període més nefast amb la incorporació a la direcció del Museu de Consuelo Ciscar. Aquesta directora, sense formació artística com els seus predecessors, i amb un perfil clarament de comissariat polític, amb una política erràtica, va aconseguir que els galeristes, els crítics d'art i els artistes visuals, sol·licitessin al Ministeri de Cultura que exigís al museu de València l'aplicació del Codi de Bones Pràctiques, qüestionant i demanant fins i tot a l'estat que revisés les subvencions concedides. Així ens va.

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El número 118 de la Calle Guillem de Castro de València ubica un edificio de 18.200 m2, que alberga al Instituto Valenciano de Arte Moderno [IVAM] sobre un diseño original de los arquitectos valencianos Emilio Giménez y Carlos Salvadores. Fué inaugurado en 1989. Referente en su día del arte moderno, era parada obligada de las exposiciones en los circuitos internaciones. El equipo humano en sus comienzos fue de un gran nivel profesional, se fueron turnando en su dirección personas de gran prestigio en el mundo del arte. Por el museo pasó Tomas Llorens, José Francisco Ybars o Juan Manuel Bonet que junto a grandes gestores culturales como la también directora Carmen Alborch, lograron la época de oro del museo, gracias sin duda a la sabiduría artística de Vicent Todolí. Más polémica fue la gestión de Cosme de Barañano que inició una época de ruptura con el pasado, con una política expositiva y adquisitiva que tenia como mayor objetivo agradar y atender los caprichos de los nuevos gestores políticos de la Generalitat Valenciana. Dicho proceso tuvo su auge y periodo más aciago con la incorporación a la dirección del Museo de Consuelo Ciscar. Esta directora, sin formación artística como sus predecesores, y con un perfil claramente de comisariado político, con su política errática, consiguió que los galeristas, los críticos de arte y los artistas visuales, solicitaran al Ministerio de Cultura que exigiera al museo de Valencia la aplicación del Código de Buenas Prácticas, cuestionando y pidiendo incluso al estado que revisara las subvenciones concedidas. Así nos va.

El monestir de Sant Joan de Poio (en gallec, mosteiro de San Xoán de Poio) és un antic monestir benedictí que actualment és ocupat per una comunitat mercedària. Els seus orígens són una mica confusos i fins i tot la seva fundació s'ha volgut vincular a Sant Fructuós de Braga, cosa que sembla poder descartar-se. Hom coneix que fou dotat econòmicament pel rei Bermudo II (982-999) i per la reina Urraca l'any 1116, tot i que per la primera referència documental cal retrocedir fins l'any 942. Després la casa va quedar vinculada a la seu de Santiago arran d'una donació efectuada per Fernando II, el 1169. A finals del segle XV l'establiment es trobava en decadència, una visita de l'any 1494 el troba en una situació caòtica. Més tard les circumstàncies van canviar i es va redreçar, l'any 1548 s'hi va fundar un prestigiós col·legi de teologia. Va mantenir la seva activitat com a comunitat benedictina fins el 1835, quan la desamortització va clausurar l'establiment. A partir del 1890 el lloc va passar a estar ocupat pels mercedaris, que encara es mantenen en aquest lloc.

Els hórreos són una mena de magatzem o rebost on antigament es guardaven els aliments de la casa familiar, sobretot blat de moro i patates, però també pernil o, fins i tot, peix. Originàriament, en aquesta regió les parets eren de canyes trenades, i la teulada era de palla, d'aquí que en aquesta zona se'ls denomini "palleiras". En èpoques posteriors es va optar per la seva construcció per materials més resistents, com la fusta o la pedra, i aproximadament d'aquesta època (segles XVIII i XIX) són els exemples que es conserven a la vora del mar. Es col·loquen sobre columnes per evitar que la humitat del sòl o els ratolins facin malbé la collita. De fet, les pedres circulars que hi ha sobre les columnes es diuen tornarratos, ja que la seva utilitat principal era impedir que els rosegadors arribessin a l'interior de l'hórreo.

El del monestir de Poio és el més gran de Galícia si parlem de superfície, que és de 123'13 metres quadrats.

Ruta excursionista a Wikiloc.

A Google Maps.

E. Castelldefels vs BM Elda Prestigio / DH Plata

01.04.2017, Photographer: Miguel Bestué

Copyright: Miguel Bestué / best.u.photo@gmail.com

| Buy this photo on Getty Images |

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Chile se ha convertido en la ultimas décadas en uno de los mas importantes productores de vino en el mundo. Ninguna otra región del país es mejor conocida y nombrada como lo es el Valle de Colchagua. Elegida en 2005 por la revista Wine Enthusiast como la "Mejor Region Vitivinicola del Mundo" por su capacidad para producir vinos tintos de clase mundial. Además por su belleza paisajística fue seleccionada entre los 10 lugares del mundo que usted debe conocer en el 2012.

El Valle de Colchagua se ubica a 160 kms al sur de Santiago. Es un rico valle de clima seco mediterráneo pero bien regado por los Rios Tinguirica y Chimbarongo. Las primeras haciendas datan de los tiempos de la colonización española, dedicadas a la agruicultura fueron adquiridas por prominentes familias de origen hispano. Estas familias cuyas fortunas provenían de la explotación minera a fines del siglo IXX, remplazaron las rusticas variedades de vino español por las finas sepas de Francia.

Chile es el único lugar del mundo que permanece libre de la peste por Phylloxera, que devastó las viñas europeas en el siglo IXX. Asi el Valle de Colchagua tiene viñedos de mas de 100 años de antigüedad.

Con mas de 50 viñas dedicadas a la producción de vino, incluyendo 27 marcas de prestigio mundial que se han establecido en el valle obteniendo premiados vinos tintos de fama internacional, sus Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah y Malbec figuran frecuentemente encabezando los listados de los mejores vinos del mundo. Asi la Ruta del Vino es uno de los mayores y mejores atractivos turísticos de Chile, tanto por la variedad de atracciones y actividades como su organización, tales como vuelos sobre el valle, cabalgatas, caminatas en bellos senderos, visitas a museos, bodegas, restaurantes y mucho mas.

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Chile has become a big league player in the global wine market in recent decades. And no other region in the country stands out as much as the Colchagua Valley, chosen by the Wine Enthusiast magazine as 2005’s Best Wine Region of the World for its ability to produce world class red wines. Choose one of the top ten region of the world that you should to known in 2012

The Colchagua Valley is 180 km to the south of Santiago. It is a rich valley with a mediterranean dry weather but with an abundant water supply from the Tinguiririca and Chimbarongo River. The valley’s first haciendas were established during colonial times. These vast autonomous agriculture and livestock farms were acquired by wealthy families of Spanish origin. These families, most of whom had earned their fortunes in Chile’s mining industry in the late 19th century, replaced the rustic Spanish varieties with fine French varieties.

Chile is the only wine-producing country in the world that remains free of Phylloxera, the pest that devastated European wineries in the 19th century. As a result, the Colchagua Valley has vineyards that are more than 100 years old

With over 50 vineyards inlcuding 27 vines of international reputation have settled their production centers is this valley, obtaining awarded red wines of international fame. Its full-bodied Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah and Malbec, and its wines regularly appear high on the world´s list of leading wines. The Wine Route is one of the velley finest tourist attraction and one of the most in the country, a wide range of activities can be found such as Flights over the valley, and Horseback Riding or Hiking on beautiful trails, museums, restaurants and many more.

Centro Cultural da Marinha (recomendo este site para mais informações)

Rio de Janeiro

Abril de 2009

O castelo da Ilha foi projetado pelo engenheiro Adopho José Del Vecchio, para o Ministério da Fazenda que pretendia ter ali um posto aduaneiro. Del Vecchio, que era diretor de obras do ministério, elaborou um projeto em estilo neo-gótico com inspiração nos castelos do século XIV, em Auverção da Escola Imperial de Belas, e foi elogiado pelo Imperador como um delicado estojo, digno de uma brilhante jóia, referindo-se a sua privilegiada localização e a beleza da Baía da Guanabara.

A república foi proclamada seis dias depois do baile, e o imperador embarcou no mesmo Cais Pharoux de onde partiam os ferry-boats para levar os convidados para o baile. (Fonte: Riotur)

* Os guias especializados que acompanham os grupos de visita, além de mostrarem os salões, o torreão e as exposições permanentes do espaço, explicam um pouco das contribuições da Marinha ao desenvolvimento do país. Na Ilha Fiscal, o turista ainda encontra um lugar para tomar café e uma lojinha de souvenirs. *

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Brazilian Navy Cultural Center

Rio de Janeiro

April, 2009

Glittering like an emerald in the sea, Fiscal Island in Rio de Janeiro seems to have simply been dropped into Guanabara Bay. Roughly a kilometer from shore, Fiscal Island, once known as Rat’s Island, was entrusted to the Finance Ministry of Rio in the 19th century. It was in 1881 that construction began on what was to be a customhouse on the tiny island. The building that actually evolved and remains standing today, covers virtually every square inch of the island, leaving only enough room for a row of majestic palms around it’s foundation.

Guided tours are available from Thursday thru Sunday beginning at 1 pm, 2:30 pm and 4 pm. To reach the Castle by phone, you can call (21) 2233-9165. You may also want to include a separate boat tour of the Navy’s other four small islands in your visit. It lasts approximately 90 minutes and includes visits to Ilha Fiscal, Ilha das Cobras, Ilha dos Enxadas, and Ilha Villagagnon aboard a World War I-era tugboat. (Source: www.rio-de-janeiro.info/index.html)

Nel territorio del comune di Veroli, a 9 km dal centro, sulla via Maria, - raggiungibile facilmente anche dall'autostrada Frosinone-Sora - sorge l'abbazia di Casamari. Essa fu edificata sulle rovine dell'antico municipio romano denominato Cereatae, perchè dedicato alla dea Cerere. Il nome Casamari è di origine latina e significa "Casa di Mario", patria del console romano Caio Mario, celebre condottiero, nemico di Silla. L'abbazia di Casamari è uno dei più importanti monasteri italiani di architettura gotica cistercense. Fu costruita nel 1203 e consacrata nel 1217. Essa fu edificata sulle rovine dell'antico municipio romano chiamato Cereatae, perché dedicato alla dea Cerere. Il nome Casamari deriva dalla lingua latina e significa "Casa di Mario", patria di Gaio Mario, celebre condottiero, sette volte console e avversario di Silla nella guerra civile dell'88 a.C.. Con la decadenza dell'Impero romano e le susseguenti invasioni barbariche Cereatae-Casa Marii subì le stesse sorti del decadimento di Roma, fino a quando i monaci benedettini nell'XI secolo s'insediarono nel luogo e vi fondarono l'abbazia. La Cronaca del Cartario o Chartarium Casamariense redatto dal monaco casamariense Gian Giacomo de Uvis per conto dell'abate affidatario riporta le notizie riguardanti la fondazione dell'abbazia stessa. Secondo il resoconto, nel 1005 alcuni monaci della vicina Veroli decisero di riunirsi in un monastero e scelsero Cereatae-Casa Marii edificando sui resti di un tempio di Marte. Secondo alcuni storici è datata al 1005 l'erezione di una chiesa dedicata a san Giovanni e san Paolo, mentre la costruzione del monastero si fa risalire al 1036. Tra il 1140 e il 1152 i monaci cistercensi sostituirono i monaci benedettini. Fra il XII e il XIX secolo il monastero ebbe alterne fortune: dapprima acquistò possedimenti nella zona ed avviò la fondazione di nuovi monasteri anche nel Meridione, seguì all'inizio del XV secolo un periodo di decadimento, comune a tutti i monasteri della regione. Nel 1623 i monaci si ridussero addirittura a soli otto. L'abbazia conobbe un piccolo periodo di prosperità dopo il 1717, quando papa Clemente XI l'affidò ai monaci cistercensi riformati, detti trappisti. Nel maggio del 1799 alcuni soldati francesi depredarono l'abbazia, uccidendo Simeone Cardon e altri cinque compagni. Dal 1811 al 1814 seguì il regime laico imposto da Napoleone. Nel 1874 l'abbazia fu dichiarata monumento nazionale e riacquistò così una posizione di prestigio e una maggiore stabilità economica. Nel 1929 la congregazione di Casamari fu eletta canonicamente congregazione monastica e fu aggregata alle altre dell'ordine dei Cistercensi.

In the territory of the municipality of Veroli, 9 km from the center, on Via Maria, - easily reachable also from the Frosinone-Sora motorway - stands the abbey of Casamari. It was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman municipality called Cereatae, because it was dedicated to the goddess Ceres. The name Casamari is of Latin origin and means "Mario's house", homeland of the Roman consul Caio Mario, a famous leader, enemy of Silla. Casamari Abbey is one of the most important Italian monasteries of Cistercian Gothic architecture. It was built in 1203 and consecrated in 1217. It was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman municipality called Cereatae, because it was dedicated to the goddess Ceres. The name Casamari derives from the Latin language and means "Mario's house", homeland of Gaius Mario, a famous leader, seven times consul and opponent of Silla in the civil war of 88 BC. With the decline of the Roman Empire and the subsequent barbarian invasions Cereatae-Casa Marii suffered the same fate as the decay of Rome, until the Benedictine monks settled in the place in the 11th century and founded the abbey there. The Cronaca del Cartario or Chartarium Casamariense drawn up by the Casamari monk Gian Giacomo de Uvis on behalf of the foster abbot reports the information regarding the foundation of the abbey itself. According to the report, in 1005 some monks from nearby Veroli decided to meet in a monastery and chose Cereatae-Casa Marii, building on the remains of a temple of Mars. According to some historians, the erection of a church dedicated to St. John and St. Paul is dated to 1005, while the construction of the monastery dates back to 1036. Between 1140 and 1152 the Cistercian monks replaced the Benedictine monks. Between the twelfth and nineteenth centuries the monastery had mixed fortunes: at first it acquired possessions in the area and started the foundation of new monasteries also in the South, followed at the beginning of the fifteenth century by a period of decay, common to all the monasteries of the region. In 1623 the monks were even reduced to just eight. The abbey experienced a small period of prosperity after 1717, when Pope Clement XI entrusted it to the reformed Cistercian monks, called Trappists. In May 1799 some French soldiers plundered the abbey, killing Simeone Cardon and five other companions. From 1811 to 1814 the secular regime imposed by Napoleon followed. In 1874 the abbey was declared a national monument and thus regained a position of prestige and greater economic stability. In 1929 the Casamari congregation was canonically elected a monastic congregation and was aggregated to the others of the Cistercian order.

Sur le territoire de la municipalité de Veroli, à 9 km du centre, sur la Via Maria, - facilement accessible également depuis l'autoroute Frosinone-Sora - se dresse l'abbaye de Casamari. Il a été construit sur les ruines de l'ancienne municipalité romaine appelée Cereatae, car il était dédié à la déesse Cérès. Le nom Casamari est d'origine latine et signifie "Maison de Mario", patrie du consul romain Caio Mario, un célèbre chef, ennemi de Silla. L'abbaye de Casamari est l'un des monastères italiens les plus importants de l'architecture gothique cistercienne. Il a été construit en 1203 et consacré en 1217. Il a été construit sur les ruines de l'ancienne municipalité romaine appelée Cereatae, car il était dédié à la déesse Cérès. Le nom Casamari dérive de la langue latine et signifie "maison de Mario", patrie de Gaius Mario, un célèbre chef, sept fois consul et adversaire de Silla lors de la guerre civile de 88 avant J. invasions Cereatae-Casa Marii subit le même sort que la décadence de Rome, jusqu'à ce que les moines bénédictins s'y installent au XIe siècle et y fondent l'abbaye. La Cronaca del Cartario ou Chartarium Casamariense rédigée par le moine Casamari Gian Giacomo de Uvis au nom de l'abbé nourricier rapporte les informations concernant la fondation de l'abbaye elle-même. Selon le rapport, en 1005, des moines de la ville voisine de Veroli ont décidé de se réunir dans un monastère et ont choisi Cereatae-Casa Marii, en s'appuyant sur les vestiges d'un temple de Mars. Selon certains historiens, l'érection d'une église dédiée à saint Jean et saint Paul est datée de 1005, tandis que la construction du monastère remonte à 1036. Entre 1140 et 1152, les moines cisterciens remplacent les moines bénédictins. Entre le XIIe et le XIXe siècle, le monastère connut des fortunes diverses : il acquit d'abord des possessions dans la région et commença la fondation de nouveaux monastères également dans le Sud, suivi au début du XVe siècle par une période de décadence, commune à tous les monastères de la région. En 1623, les moines furent même réduits à huit. L'abbaye connaît une petite période de prospérité après 1717, lorsque le pape Clément XI la confie aux moines cisterciens réformés, appelés trappistes. En mai 1799, des soldats français pillent l'abbaye, tuant Simeone Cardon et cinq autres compagnons. De 1811 à 1814 suivit le régime laïc imposé par Napoléon. En 1874, l'abbaye est déclarée monument national et retrouve ainsi une position de prestige et une plus grande stabilité économique. En 1929, la congrégation Casamari a été canoniquement élue congrégation monastique et a été agrégée aux autres de l'ordre cistercien.

Chile se ha convertido en la ultimas décadas en uno de los mas importantes productores de vino en el mundo. Ninguna otra región del país es mejor conocida y nombrada como lo es el Valle de Colchagua. Elegida en 2005 por la revista Wine Enthusiast como la "Mejor Region Vitivinicola del Mundo" por su capacidad para producir vinos tintos de clase mundial. Además por su belleza paisajística fue seleccionada entre los 10 lugares del mundo que usted debe conocer en el 2012.

El Valle de Colchagua se ubica a 160 kms al sur de Santiago. Es un rico valle de clima seco mediterráneo pero bien regado por los Rios Tinguirica y Chimbarongo. Las primeras haciendas datan de los tiempos de la colonización española, dedicadas a la agruicultura fueron adquiridas por prominentes familias de origen hispano. Estas familias cuyas fortunas provenían de la explotación minera a fines del siglo IXX, remplazaron las rusticas variedades de vino español por las finas sepas de Francia.

Chile es el único lugar del mundo que permanece libre de la peste por Phylloxera, que devastó las viñas europeas en el siglo IXX. Asi el Valle de Colchagua tiene viñedos de mas de 100 años de antigüedad.

Con mas de 50 viñas dedicadas a la producción de vino, incluyendo 27 marcas de prestigio mundial que se han establecido en el valle obteniendo premiados vinos tintos de fama internacional, sus Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah y Malbec figuran frecuentemente encabezando los listados de los mejores vinos del mundo. Asi la Ruta del Vino es uno de los mayores y mejores atractivos turísticos de Chile, tanto por la variedad de atracciones y actividades como su organización, tales como vuelos sobre el valle, cabalgatas, caminatas en bellos senderos, visitas a museos, bodegas, restaurantes y mucho mas.

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Chile has become a big league player in the global wine market in recent decades. And no other region in the country stands out as much as the Colchagua Valley, chosen by the Wine Enthusiast magazine as 2005’s Best Wine Region of the World for its ability to produce world class red wines. Choose one of the top ten region of the world that you should to known in 2012

The Colchagua Valley is 180 km to the south of Santiago. It is a rich valley with a mediterranean dry weather but with an abundant water supply from the Tinguiririca and Chimbarongo River. The valley’s first haciendas were established during colonial times. These vast autonomous agriculture and livestock farms were acquired by wealthy families of Spanish origin. These families, most of whom had earned their fortunes in Chile’s mining industry in the late 19th century, replaced the rustic Spanish varieties with fine French varieties.

Chile is the only wine-producing country in the world that remains free of Phylloxera, the pest that devastated European wineries in the 19th century. As a result, the Colchagua Valley has vineyards that are more than 100 years old

With over 50 vineyards inlcuding 27 vines of international reputation have settled their production centers is this valley, obtaining awarded red wines of international fame. Its full-bodied Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah and Malbec, and its wines regularly appear high on the world´s list of leading wines. The Wine Route is one of the velley finest tourist attraction and one of the most in the country, a wide range of activities can be found such as Flights over the valley, and Horseback Riding or Hiking on beautiful trails, museums, restaurants and many more.

Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Portrait of Lord John Belasye (c. 1636) - Van Dyck exhibition Court Painter - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery

Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.

Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.

In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.

Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.

He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.

Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.

A LA PLANA - MANEL CAMP & KITFLUS

TOTES LES MEUES FOTOS / TODAS MIS FOTOS

El gat domèstic (Felis silvestris catus) és una subespècie de mamífer carnívor de la família Felidae. Està en convivència propera a l'ésser humà des de fa uns 9.500 anys. Depredador per naturalesa pot assimilar alguns conceptes, i alguns exemplars poden ser entrenats per manipular mecanismes simples. Es comuniquen amb gemecs, grunyits i de diferents vocalitzacions, a més del llenguatge corporal. Per entrar o sortir d'un immoble sense que sigui necessària la presència humana, obrint i tancant portes, existeixen les gateres. Una gatera és una trapa amb frontisses fixada en una porta, paret o finestra per permetre que els gats entrin i surtin. Antigament, les gateres eren tan simples com un forat realitzat a la porta o la paret de cases o pallers per permetre l'entrada lliure als gats. El meu mestre Arcadi García i Sanz (la Vall d'Uixó, 1926-1998), prestigiós historiador del dret i una autoritat indiscutible en dret foral valencià i dret marítim, m'explicava fa molt temps, que la presència dels gats en els vaixells era determinant en els pleits i ja venia recollit en el Llibre del Consolat del Mar (compendi de lleis de dret marítim medieval). Si un vaixell arribava a port, i la seva càrrega estava deteriorada o consumida per rosegadors, s'investigava la presència de un gat a bordo. Si no n'hi havia, els costos del dany serien a càrrec de l'armador.

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El gato doméstico (Felis silvestris catus) es una subespecie de mamífero carnívoro de la familia Felidae. Está en convivencia cercana al ser humano desde hace unos 9.500 años. Depredador por naturaleza puede asimilar algunos conceptos, y ciertos ejemplares pueden ser entrenados para manipular mecanismos simples. Se comunican con gemidos, gruñidos y vocalizaciones, además del lenguaje corporal. Para entrar o salir de un inmueble sin que sea necesaria la presencia humana, abriendo y cerrando puertas, existen las gateras. Una gatera es una trampilla con bisagras fijada en una puerta, pared o ventana para permitir que los gatos entren y salgan. Antiguamente, las gateras eran tan simples como un agujero realizado en la puerta o la pared de casas o pajares para permitir la entrada libre a los gatos. Mi maestro Arcadi García i Sanz (La Vall d'Uixó, 1926-1998), prestigioso historiador del derecho y una autoridad indiscutible en derecho foral valenciano y derecho marítimo, me explicaba hace mucho tiempo, que la presencia o no de los gatos en los buques era determinante en los pleitos y ya venía recogido en el Llibre del Consolat del Mar (compendio de leyes de derecho marítimo medieval). Si un buque llegaba a puerto, y su carga estaba deteriorada o consumida por roedores, se investigaba la presencia de un gato a bordo. Si no la había, los costes del daño serian a cargo del armador.

Siurana, o Siurana de Prades, és un poble del terme municipal de Cornudella de Montsant, a la comarca del Priorat.

Està situat a 737 metres d'altitud, sobre una cinglera de roca calcària, a l'extrem de les Muntanyes de Prades i sobre el riu de Siurana. La població era de 41 habitants al cens del 2005. El castell de Siurana va ser l'últim reducte musulmà de Catalunya. El terme també comprèn l'església romànica de Santa Maria de Siurana.

L‘antic terme de Siurana de Prades constitueix una unitat de territori un xic diferenciada de la resta del terme municipal al qual pertany: es tracta d'una vall conformada per la Serra de Prades i una part d'aquesta mateixa serra, concretament el seu extrem sud-oest. És un terme molt accidentat, amb elevacions considerables i uns fons de vall molt profunds. La part més suau és la meridional, a l'entorn del riu Siurana. Aquest riu ve del terme veí de la Febró, del Baix Camp, on es forma per l'adjunció de tot un conjunt de barrancs. El límit sud d'aquesta vall és el Serrat dels Colls, de 719 metres d'altitud, i els contraforts del Gallicant, que és dins del terme veí d'Arbolí. En aquest lloc el terme ateny l'altitud de 811 metres.

Després de travessar el riu Siurana, el termenal s'enfila cap a la Serra de Prades, pujant cap a la Moleta, de 1028 metres d'altitud. i el Coll de l'Andreu, on trenca cap al nord-oest, fins arribar al cim de la Gritella, de 1089. En aquest lloc emprèn una altra carena que, respecte de l'anterior, va encloent la vall del Barranc de la Noguera: Serra de la Gritella, amb lo Puntal, ja esmentat, i les Solanetes, de 1053 m., el Tossal Pelat, de 974 m., la Marmolina, de 968, i Cantacorbs, de 922. Aquesta mateixa carena es va suavitzant alhora que emprèn la direcció sud-oest, fins arribar al poble de Siurana de Prades, que és a 744 metres d'altitud. Dins d'aquest sistema queden tancades les valls del Barranc de l'Estopinyà, que baixa cap a la punta nord del Pantà de Siurana, i el riu de la Gritella, format bàsicament pel barranc de la Noguera abans esmentat. Nombrosos masos poblaven aquestes valls, però actualment, com el mateix poble de Siurana de Prades, està tot pràcticament deshabitat. Hi ha, tanmateix, un refugi, dedicat a Ciríac Bonet, per a excursionistes.

El punt més elevat d'aquesta part del terme és la Gritella, i el més baix, el Pantà de Siurana, a 470 metres.

Orígens de Siurana:

Els orígens de Siurana es remunten a èpoques prehistòriques. Tot i que no es coneixen restes de construccions prehistòriques, a la zona de Siurana s'hi han trobat nombroses pedres de sílex polimentades, les primeres l'any 1909. Segons el prestigiós doctor Vilaseca, Siurana va ésser un taller de fulles, entenent-se amb aquest nom el que els prehistoriadors coneixen com a làmines llargues i estretes, de secció triangular o poligonal, amb una cara inferior més o menys plana. Pel que fa a la cronologia del jaciment, sembla que es pot fixar cap al segon mil·lenni aC, potser amb orígens una mica anteriors, però el ple desenvolupament d'aquesta indústria arriba fins a l'època del bronze.

El regne musulmà de Siurana:

Els musulmans penetraren a la península Ibèrica cap a l'any 711. El 714 ja estaven instal·lats al nostre país, seguint les antigues vies romanes com a itinerari de conquesta. L'ocupació efectiva del territori es devia fer més endavant, de manera progressiva, donat que és possible que la primera població musulmana fos nòmada, i no s'assentés definitivament fins a mitjan segle IX. El territori de Siurana sembla que no va començar a tenir importància fins al segle XI, quan es va convertir en una defensa de primera línia de l'Islam, principalment a partir de mitjans de segle, a causa dels primers intents del comte de Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer I, d'ocupar la ciutat de Tarragona, cosa que va provocar la retirada dels musulmans cap a fortificacions més segures a les muntanyes, retirada definitiva que no va tenir lloc fins que el comte Ramon Berenguer II va fer un primer intent seriós de restaurar la seu de Tarragona, a les darreries del segle XI. La situació estratègica de Siurana era molt important des del punt de vista militar, i va retardar durant molt de temps l'avanç cristià.

Les muntanyes de Prades i bona part del Priorat conformaven una marca fronterera organitzada entorn del castell de Siurana. En aquella època, a cada castell li pertanyia un vast territori que portava el mateix nom del castell i que quasi sempre es tractava d'un topònim premusulmà (la pervivència d'aquests topònims pot ser deguda a que l'ocupació i organització d'aquests nuclis és anterior a l'arabització lingüística del país, com és el cas de Siurana, que és un topònim premusulmà: del llatí Severiana va passar a Xibrana -àrab- i finalment, a Siurana). Segons un document de 1154, els musulmans de Siurana van afirmar als cristians conqueridors del lloc que, fins el dia que el castell va ser ocupat, ells l'havíen tingut per espai de dos-cents vuitanta-quatre anys. Si aquesta notícia fos certa, la Siurana sarraïna es va formar l'any 869, data molt hipotètica però que té un punt de versemblança.

El castell de Siurana era el centre de la vida de l'extensíssim territori que tenia sota el seu control: bona part de l'actual comarca del Priorat, així com també del Baix i Alt Camp, la Conca de Barberà i les Garrigues. El territori estava organitzat en alqueries, com la Morera (petites unitats rurals formades per algunes dotzenes de cases i probablement amb terres col·lectives); i rafals (entesos com a dominis privats, tots sota l'esguard del castell), com ho podrien haver estat, si fem cas a la toponímia, Cabacés, Albarca, Margalef i potser Falset.

Conquesta de Siurana:

El 17 de febrer de 1146 Berenguer Arnau va rebre el castell i la vila de Siurana. Aquesta donació permet suposar un primer intent de conquesta de les muntanyes, que devia fracassar, si és que es va arribar a intentar. Siurana restava en un indret pràcticament inexpugnable per a les armes i mitjans de l'època, i probablement el comte sobirà va preferir conquerir llocs amb més importància política i econòmica. Tarragona va ser restaurada l'any 1118, però fins el 1146 no es veu un veritable procés ocupacional del territori. Tortosa va ser conquerida el 1148, i Lleida el 1149. El 1151 els cristians estaven en els mateixos límits del valiat de Siurana, després de conquerir tota la zona de les Garrigues. L'Emirat de Xibràna restava, doncs, reclosa i rodejada pels quatre costats, i la seva caiguda només era qüestió de temps.

L'ocupació dels territoris de Siurana va començar l'any 1153. Per la banda de la Conca de Barberà, els Cervera van arribar fins a Albarca per Capafonts i la Febró; Albert de Castellvell (fill del baró Guillem II de Castellvell) va envair el Priorat des del Coll de la Teixeta; Ramon de Gaganot ho va fer pel Coll d'Alforja. L'assetjament el va dirigir Bertran de Castellet. La data exacta de la conquesta del castell no és segura: alguns la fixen el 29 d'abril, dia en què el comte de Barcelona va atorgar una carta de població a Bertran de Castellet; d'altres l'han situat el 23 de novembre del mateix any; i d'altres el 12 de juliol de 1154. En tot cas, és segur que en el mes de setembre de 1154 Siurana ja portava un cert temps en mans de Bertran de Castellet, per la qual cosa la data final cal situar-la entre 1153 i 1154. Aquest mateix senyor temps més tard donà permis a l'eremita Ramon de Vallbona perquè alguns dels seus deixebles s'instal·lessin en el terriori conquerit de Siurana. El setge del castell va donar lloc a llegendes inspirades en els grans esforços (ben reals) que els millors guerrers catalans van haver d'afrontar per conquerir Siurana, fortificada i situada en un indret del tot inexpugnable per als guerrers i mitjans de l'època. La llegenda de la Reina Mora justifica plenament el caire èpic de la conquesta de l'últim reducte musulmà de Catalunya.

La llegenda de la Reina Mora:

Explica una llegenda recopilada per l'escriptor Joan Amades que Siurana era el domini de la reina Abd-el-Azia, de gran bellesa. Els cristians, liderats pel senyor de Tarragona Amat de Claramunt, incapaços de conquistar la població, es van servir de les estratagemes d'un traïdor jueu, que els va oferir l'entrada al castell. Els cristians van penetrar i van matar gairebé tota la població, però Abd-el-Azia, segura de la seva fortificació, celebrava mentrestant una festa en una de les sales del palau amb la noblesa del lloc. De sobte, una fletxa va entrar per la finestra, i es va clavar a la taula. La reina, plena de pànic i veient-se derrotada, va pujar al seu cavall blanc i es va dirigir al precipici proper. Perseguida pels cristians i per evitar que el cavall per instint s'aturés davant l'abisme li va tapar els ulls, però l'animal, en adonar-se del perill, va voler parar i va clavar les potes a terra, de manera que va quedar l'empremta de la seva ferradura a la roca. Altres diuen que les marques de ferradura són l'impuls que va prendre abans del salt. Sigui com sigui, la tragèdia va ser inevitable i avui en dia es pot veure clavada a la roca l'empremta del cavall en el lloc que s'anomena el Salt de la Reina Mora.[1]

Una altra variant conta que la reina estava banyant-se quan va veure com la ciutat era atacada. Davant la desesperació, va sortir nua de l'aigua i va muntar en el cavall per dirigir-se al precipici.

Font: Viquipèdia

Fotografía: Isaki Photo

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Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Portrait of a man in armor (1625-27) - Van Dyck exhibition Court Painter - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery

Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.

Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.

In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.

Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.

He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.

Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.

Il castello Orsini-Odescalchi, noto anche come castello di Bracciano, è un castello nel comune italiano di Bracciano risalente al XV secolo. Costituito da tre cinta di mura esterne, presenta cinque torri, una per ogni vertice della fortificazione esterna. Fu costruito dopo il 1470 da Napoleone Orsini probabilmente con la collaborazione di maestranze Sistine. Il castello apparteneva a Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) dietro richiesta del papa (per motivi politici) fu donato al suo sottoposto capitano Orsini. Ne è prova lo stemma del comune un braccio che tiene una rosa (uno dei simboli degli Orsini). Il fratello di Napoleone (il Cardinale Latino Orsini) era il camerlengo di papa Sisto IV proprio negli anni in cui venivano costruiti quasi simultaneamente la Cappella Sistina e il Castello di Bracciano. Oggi è di proprietà degli Odescalchi, famiglia che proprio dagli Orsini rilevò il Ducato di Bracciano alla fine del XVII secolo. Il castello, aperto al pubblico nel 1952 da Livio IV Odescalchi, è visitabile e viene spesso usato per ricevimenti, celebrare matrimoni e per altri eventi privati e culturali. Il castello sorge nel 1470 intorno alla vecchia rocca medioevale dei Prefetti di Vico, risalente al tredicesimo secolo, su ordine di Napoleone Orsini che poi viene portata a termine dal figlio Gentil Virginio Orsini nel 1485. Nel 1485 fu ospite della famiglia Orsini il vescovo di Mantova Ludovico Gonzaga, figlio del marchese di Mantova Ludovico III Gonzaga, che fuggì da Roma a causa della peste[1]. Nella sua storia il castello subisce molti cambiamenti inclusi i progetti di Francesco di Giorgio Martini che fu ospite nella corte di Genti Virginio nel 1490 per restaurare varie fortezze. Papa Alessandro VI nel 1496 arriva a confiscare il castello, animato da un profondo risentimento verso gli Orsini. In questi anni risalgono le prime decorazioni, tra i più famosi il ciclo della donna medievale che illustra la vita di corte del tardo Medioevo e l'affresco di Antoniazzo Romano[2] che riproduce il trionfo di Gentil Virginio Orsini, pagina importante di questo pittore del Quattrocento. Terminato il diverbio con il papa gli Orsini riprendono il possesso del castello continuando così l'abbellimento e ampliamento del castello. Alla fine del Cinquecento Giacomo Del Duca, allievo di Michelangelo, realizza una serie di interventi in occasione del sontuoso matrimonio tra Isabella de' Medici e Paolo Giordano Orsini. In quella circostanza i fratelli Taddeo e Federico Zuccari furono chiamati a decorare alcune sale, tra le quali quella che nel 1481 ospitò papa Sisto IV della Rovere in fuga dalla peste che infuriava a Roma. Gli Zuccari, due tra i più importanti artisti della fine del Cinquecento, realizzarono gli affreschi con l'oroscopo dei due sposi e gli emblemi delle due insigni casate. Nel 1696 agli Orsini subentrarono gli Odescalchi antica famiglia di origine comasca, il cui prestigio si incrementò notevolmente quando uno dei suoi membri ascese al soglio pontificio con il nome di Innocenzo XI.

The Orsini-Odescalchi castle, also known as the Bracciano castle, is a castle in the Italian town of Bracciano dating back to the 15th century. Consisting of three outer walls, it has five towers, one for each vertex of the external fortification. It was built after 1470 by Napoleone Orsini, probably with the collaboration of Sistine workers. The castle belonged to Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) at the request of the pope (for political reasons) and was donated to his subordinate captain Orsini. Proof of this is the coat of arms of the municipality an arm holding a rose (one of the symbols of the Orsini). Napoleon's brother (Cardinal Latino Orsini) was the chamberlain of Pope Sixtus IV precisely in the years in which the Sistine Chapel and the Castle of Bracciano were built almost simultaneously. Today it is owned by the Odescalchi, a family who took over the Duchy of Bracciano from the Orsini at the end of the 17th century. The castle, opened to the public in 1952 by Livio IV Odescalchi, can be visited and is often used for receptions, weddings and other private and cultural events. The castle was built in 1470 around the old medieval fortress of the Prefects of Vico, dating back to the thirteenth century, by order of Napoleone Orsini which was then completed by his son Gentil Virginio Orsini in 1485. In 1485 the bishop of Mantua was a guest of the Orsini family Ludovico Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, who fled from Rome due to the plague [1]. In its history the castle undergoes many changes including the projects of Francesco di Giorgio Martini who was a guest in the court of Genti Virginio in 1490 to restore various fortresses. Pope Alexander VI in 1496 confiscated the castle, animated by a deep resentment towards the Orsini. The first decorations date back to these years, among the most famous the cycle of the medieval woman illustrating the court life of the late Middle Ages and the fresco by Antoniazzo Romano [2] which reproduces the triumph of Gentil Virginio Orsini, an important page of this painter of the fifteenth century. After the quarrel with the pope, the Orsini regain possession of the castle, thus continuing the embellishment and expansion of the castle. At the end of the sixteenth century Giacomo Del Duca, a pupil of Michelangelo, carried out a series of interventions on the occasion of the sumptuous marriage between Isabella de 'Medici and Paolo Giordano Orsini. On that occasion the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari were called to decorate some rooms, including the one that hosted Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in 1481 fleeing the plague that was raging in Rome. The Zuccari, two of the most important artists of the late sixteenth century, created the frescoes with the horoscope of the couple and the emblems of the two famous families. In 1696 the Odescalchi, an ancient family of Como origin, took over from the Orsini, whose prestige increased considerably when one of its members ascended to the papal throne with the name of Innocent XI.

Le château Orsini-Odescalchi, également connu sous le nom de château de Bracciano, est un château de la ville italienne de Bracciano datant du XVe siècle. Composé de trois murs extérieurs, il possède cinq tours, une pour chaque sommet de la fortification extérieure. Il a été construit après 1470 par Napoleone Orsini, probablement avec la collaboration des ouvriers de Sixtine. Le château a appartenu à Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) à la demande du pape (pour des raisons politiques) et a été donné à son capitaine subordonné Orsini. Preuve en est le blason de la commune un bras tenant une rose (l'un des symboles des Orsini). Le frère de Napoléon (Cardinal Latino Orsini) était le chambellan du Pape Sixte IV précisément dans les années où la Chapelle Sixtine et le Château de Bracciano ont été construits presque simultanément. Aujourd'hui, il appartient aux Odescalchi, une famille qui a repris le duché de Bracciano aux Orsini à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Le château, ouvert au public en 1952 par Livio IV Odescalchi, peut être visité et est souvent utilisé pour des réceptions, des mariages et d'autres événements privés et culturels. Le château a été construit en 1470 autour de l'ancienne forteresse médiévale des préfets de Vico, datant du XIIIe siècle, sur ordre de Napoleone Orsini qui a ensuite été achevée par son fils Gentil Virginio Orsini en 1485. En 1485, l'évêque de Mantoue était un invité de la famille Orsini Ludovico Gonzaga, fils du marquis de Mantoue Ludovico III Gonzaga, qui a fui Rome à cause de la peste [1]. Au cours de son histoire, le château subit de nombreux changements, notamment les projets de Francesco di Giorgio Martini qui fut invité à la cour de Genti Virginio en 1490 pour restaurer diverses forteresses. Le pape Alexandre VI en 1496 confisqua le château, animé d'un profond ressentiment envers les Orsini. Les premières décorations datent de ces années, parmi les plus célèbres le cycle de la femme médiévale illustrant la vie de cour de la fin du Moyen Âge et la fresque d'Antoniazzo Romano[2] qui reproduit le triomphe de Gentil Virginio Orsini, page importante de ce peintre du quinzième siècle. Après la querelle avec le pape, les Orsini reprennent possession du château, poursuivant ainsi l'embellissement et l'agrandissement du château. À la fin du XVIe siècle, Giacomo Del Duca, élève de Michel-Ange, réalisa une série d'interventions à l'occasion du somptueux mariage entre Isabelle de Médicis et Paolo Giordano Orsini. A cette occasion, les frères Taddeo et Federico Zuccari ont été appelés à décorer certaines chambres, dont celle qui a accueilli le pape Sixte IV della Rovere en 1481 fuyant la peste qui sévissait à Rome. Les Zuccari, deux des artistes les plus importants de la fin du XVIe siècle, ont créé les fresques avec l'horoscope du couple et les emblèmes des deux familles célèbres. En 1696, les Odescalchi, ancienne famille originaire de Côme, succèdent aux Orsini, dont le prestige s'accroît considérablement lorsqu'un de ses membres monte sur le trône pontifical sous le nom d'Innocent XI.

NUOVA PAVIMENTAZIONE IN VIA CAVOUR

Nuova pavimentazione in porfido, da qui ai prossimi tre anni, in alcune vie del centro storico di Udine.

“Prosegue la felice stagione dei cantieri a Udine – commenta soddisfatto l'assessore ai lavori pubblici, Michelini –. Dopo via Mercatovecchio, via Aquileia, via Gemona, via Vittorio Veneto e via Grazzano, abbiamo iscritto questi nuovi interventi nel piano triennale dei lavori pubblici. Rispetto al passato, c’è continuità nella scelta di puntare sul porfido, considerato materiale di pregio e di prestigio ma, contestualmente, c’è discontinuità nelle modalità operative, visto che abbiamo scelto una pavimentazione che risulta essere più resistente e più sicura.

Note tratte dal sito:

www.friulioggi.it/udine/nuova-pavimentazione-porfido-vie-...

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NEW PAVING IN VIA CAVOUR

New porphyry paving, from now to the next three years, in some streets of the historic center of Udine.

“The happy season of construction sites in Udine continues – comments the satisfied councilor for public works, Michelini –. After via Mercatovecchio, via Aquileia, via Gemona, via Vittorio Veneto and via Grazzano, we have included these new interventions in the three-year plan of public works. Compared to the past, there is continuity in the choice to focus on porphyry, considered a valuable and prestigious material but, at the same time, there is discontinuity in the operating methods, given that we have chosen a paving that is more resistant and safer.

Immagine realizzata con lo smartphone HUAWEI MATE 20 PRO

www.musac.es/

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

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El Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León, también conocido por sus siglas MUSAC, está situado en la ciudad de León (España). Creado con el propósito de ser un "Museo del Presente" o "Museo del siglo XXI", su colección y sus exposiciones y actividades están fundamentalmente dirigidas a abarcar el arte actual en sus diferentes manifestaciones.

Abierto al público en el año 2005, tiene su sede en un edificio de nueva planta, obra del estudio madrileño Mansilla y Tuñón Arquitectos, que ha merecido un gran reconocimiento internacional con la concesión, en el año 2007, del Premio Mies van der Rohe de Arquitectura Contemporánea de la Unión Europea, además de la participación en certámenes y exposiciones desarrolladas por centros de reconocido prestigio mundial.

Función y objetivos

Ubicado en la ciudad de León (España) a la entrada del barrio de Eras de Renueva, el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León fue inaugurado por los Príncipes de Asturias el 1 de abril de 2005 con un firme propósito: ser un Museo de Presente y convertirse en pieza fundamental en el desarrollo del Arte contemporáneo, a nivel internacional. Este museo nació con un amplio sentido experimental a la hora de concebir y desarrollar proyectos y exposiciones a todos los niveles.

El MUSAC forma parte de la Red de Museos Regionales de Castilla y León junto con el Museo de la Siderurgia y la Minería de Castilla y León (situado también en la provincia de León, en la localidad de Sabero), con el Museo Etnográfico de Castilla y León (Zamora) y con el Museo de la Evolución Humana (Burgos).

El edificio que alberga el MUSAC es una gran construcción de nueva planta, obra del estudio madrileño Mansilla y Tuñón Arquitectos, Premio Mies van der Rohe de arquitectura 2007, el máximo galardón europeo en este campo. También es diseño de este estudio arquitectónico el Auditorio Ciudad de León, situado a pocos metros del MUSAC.

Directores

El MUSAC ha tenido los siguientes directores:

Rafael Doctor Roncero

Agustín Pérez Rubio

Eva González Sancho

Manuel Olveira - (junio 2013- )

Dimisiones de los directores del MUSAC

El 3 de junio de 2013 dimitió, a los 3 meses de su nombramiento, la directora del MUSAC Eva González-Sancho, alegando intromisiones intolerables y antidemocráticas por parte de la Fundación Siglo y la Junta de Castilla y León. Su dimisión llevó, por solidaridad, a la dimisión en bloque del comité artístico, compuesto por José Guirao, Octavio Zaya y Víctor del Río. Los anteriores directores, Rafael Doctor y Agustín Pérez Rubio, comunicaron a la consejera de Cultura de la Junta de Castilla y león, Alicia García, que la razón por la cual ambos dimitieron en su día fue la injerencia» de los responsables de la Fundación Siglo para el Turismo y las Artes de Castilla y León, organismo dependiente de la Junta de Castilla y León.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Arte_Contempor%C3%A1neo_de...

The Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León, better known as the MUSAC, is a contemporary art museum in the city of León, Spain.

Inaugurated in April 2005 by Felipe, Prince of Asturias, this cultural institution aims to be a "Museum of the Present", in the words of its curator Agustín Pérez Rubio, and thus only collects artworks from the latest generation of artists, between 1992 and 2012. The museum has won international prestige for its 21st-century collection and innovative programming, being labelled, for example, as "one of the most astonishingly bold museums to hit the Spanish cultural landscape in years" by The New York Times.

The MUSAC building is celebrated for its avant-garde architecture, and it has been awarded a number of prizes, such as the 2007 European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture (Mies van der Rohe award). Designed by the architectural studio of Luis M. Mansilla and Emilio Tuñón (Mansilla+Tuñón Arquitectos), the multicolored panels that adorn the exterior of the museum resemble the stained-glass windows of a cathedral. Indeed, the architects drew their inspiration for this work from the main rose window (called The Falconer) at the local 13th century Gothic cathedral, Santa María de León.

MUSAC has become a landmark for the city of León, and an emblem of the new 21st century Spanish architecture, as showcased in a 2006 exhibition at the MoMA of New York City (On-Site: New Architecture in Spain), which selected the MUSAC as one of the arquitectural projects that make Spain today "an international center for design innovation and excellence

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Arte_Contempor%C3%A1neo_de...

L’abbazia di S. Antimo si trova in Toscana, a sud di Siena, non lontano dal borgo di Montalcino.

Venne fondata, secondo la tradizione, da Carlo Magno nel 781, anche se in realtà i primi documenti su di essa risalgono all’813.

Nel corso del IX sec. l’abbazia, grazie ai privilegi imperiali e all’acquisizione delle reliquie di S. Antimo, consolidò il proprio prestigio e nell’XI sec, grazie alla vicinanza alla Via Francigena, si trovò inserita nel sistema dei grandi itinerari di pellegrinaggi europei.

La Chiesa Abbaziale che vediamo oggi venne costruita a partire dal 1118 sui resti di un edificio più antico, seguendo lo stile romanico con influenze francesi e lombarde.

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S.Antimo abbey is located in Tuscany, on south of Siena, not far from the village of Montalcino.

According to the tradition, it was founded by Charlemagne in 781, even if in reality the first documents about it date back to the 781.

During the XI cent. the abbey, due to the imperial privileges and to the acquisition of S. Antimo relics, strengthened its power and in the XI cent., due to its position near Francigen road, is was inserted into the system of the big European pilgrimages routes.

The Abbey Church that we see today was built starting from 1118 on the remnants of an antique building, following the romanic style with French and Lombard influences.

CABALLO CRIOLLO ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Criollo (Argentina, Uruguay) , Costeño , Morochuco (Peru) , Corralero (Chile) , Llanero (Venezuela)

Cavalo crioulo , raça crioula (Brasil) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Argentine Criollo Horse , Crioulo Horse ................................

Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758

Orden: Perissodactyla (Perisodáctilos) ... Familia: Equidae (Équidos)

Durante el pleistoceno existían caballos autóctonos en casi toda América.

El territorio que corresponde a la Argentina fue particularmente rico en estos "paleocaballos" ( principalmente hipiddiones y Equus), empero la llegada del ser humano hace más de 11.000 años parece haber sido un factor decisivo (junto tal vez a alguna epizootia) para la extinción de los equinos autóctonos de América.

A la llegada de los europeos (fines del siglo XV e inicios del siglo XVI) al parecer solo quedaban sus fósiles y las pinturas rupestres que los amerindios dibujaban en los aleros y cuevas de la patagonia, tal vez el último baluarte de las últimas tropillas del caballo americano, en algún recóndito valle...

Apoyan esta audaz teoría diversos científicos, historiadores, y antropólogos, los que creen que el criollo absorbió estas tropillas de Equus rectidens por hibridación, fusionándolas a su acervo genético.

Algunos de ellos son Aníbal Cardoso, Vicente Rossi, G. Ochoa, Sarústegui, Federico C. Remondeau, Daniel Vidart, Rodolfo Parodi Bustos, etc.

Un rasgo típico es clave: el desarrollo en prolongación de la cresta occipital, en una forma tan saliente que sobrepasa las del Hippydion y Onohippidion ya bastante notables.

Comparada la cabeza del Equus rectidens con la del caballo criollo primitivo, se nota la semejanza del perfil y el abovedado de la frente que existe entre ambas.

Este carácter, llamado "cabeza acarnerada" (por los conocidos "abultamientos" en la parte posterior de la nariz y frente que tan eficazmente eran exagerados en las obras del dibujante Molina Campos), es un lazo de unión entre las dos especies, demostrando el abolengo netamente americano del caballo criollo, pues las razas equinas ibéricas tienen el perfil recto, la frente plana y la cabeza poco voluminosa.

Llama la atención que esta característica morfológica es muy frecuente en los caballos pampeanos fotografíados en el siglo XIX, y principios del XX; pero hoy está ausente en el criollo moderno...

Pero la hipótesis más aceptada es la cual indica que el Caballo Criollo es descendiente del caballo ibérico traído por los conquistadores españoles a América.

Un compuesto genético de caballos de sangre caliente derivado del caballo berbérisco del norte de África, del caballo del Valle del Guadalquivir en Andalucía, y otros que se agrupaban en el grupo de caballos de trabajo llamados "jacas" o "rocines".

Ya en América, algunos de ellos escaparon de las haciendas y misiones religiosas, o fueron robados por los indios.

En el campo, formaron grandes tropas y expuestos a un entorno salvaje, la fuerte selección natural y la endogamia, les fijaron características genéticas propias.

Cabe indicar que estas líneas genéticas están total o virtualmente extintas en la actual península ibérica.

Los especímenes equinos traídos a América no eran caballos seleccionados para la reproducción, eran caballos rústicos y valientes usados en España para el trabajo.

No había licencia real para exportar caballos de selección que pudiesen constituir lotes de fundación, exceptuando los regalados por los reyes a otros gobernantes de la Europa del siglo XV y XV, como los caballos usados para la formación del Lepizzaner.

Hasta que no se reprodujeron en abundancia, los caballos traídos a América poseían un elevadísimo costo debido a su gran valor práctico y táctico y a su escasez inicial.

Los caballos entraron en la Argentina a través del Perú, del puerto de Buenos Aires y de Brasil.

Pero la corriente introducida por Buenos Aires es considerada la más importante.

Fueron traídos por Pedro de Mendoza al fundar la Ciudad de Buenos Aires en 1536.

Más tarde, Mendoza debió abandonar Buenos Aires obligado por la defensa de los pueblos originarios, y dejó los caballos, que una vez sueltos se reprodujeron prodigiosamente merced al bioma de praderas y pastizales y clima templado típico de la Pampa Húmeda.

Lo hicieron tanto, que al llegar Juan de Garay, en 1580 al Río de la Plata consideró a las caballadas tan abundantes como montañas, y cubrian todo el territorio hasta la cordillera...(esta curiosa multiplicación es otro pie para la teoría americana del criollo).

Azara dice: "Entre las muchas cimarronadas que me han pasado por delante, no he visto otro color sino el castaño que en algunos baja a zaino y en otros se acerca a alazán; y cuando se ve uno bayo, pío, tordillo ó de otro tinte, ya se sabe que fué uno doméstico que se escapó".

Sólo los más fuertes lograron sobrevivir y reproducirse, aprendiendo a defenderse de los peligros tales como pumas y yaguaretés, soportando además climas extremos.

Los pueblos aborígenes, increíblemente adaptables al "monstruo invasor", aprendieron primero a alimentarse de su carne, y después lograron una relación simbiótica con el caballo, a tal extremo que en el presente se sigue ampliando el estudio de la "doma india".

Volviendo a la reproducción y origen de los caballos en el territorio argentino: si ya desde inicios del siglo XVI quedaron caballos libres y se reprodujeron masivamente, estos caballos o baguales cimarrones pasaron a ser considerados "realengos", es decir posesión de la corona española, aunque en la práctica eran utilizables por cualquier persona habilitada, como los campesinos libres -luego gauchos-, que hicieron de sus "pingos" uno de sus principales medios de subsistencia y un símbolo de prestigio.

En cuanto a los indígenas, especialmente los del sur, si por un lado amansaban a los caballos de un modo casi nada violento, era común que consumieran como un manjar la carne de las yeguas.

Por otra parte ciertas características de algunos caballos criollos ha hecho suponer que pudieran poseer algún acervo genético asnal debido a un incidental cruce con una mula fértil (recordemos que el territorio argentino fue centro de crianza masiva de mulas para el transporte de minerales preciosos hacia las montañosas regiones de la actual Bolivia).

Aclaremos que el caballo Persa, el tártaro, o el árabe, tienen seis vértebras lumbares; en tanto que las mulas, el caballo berberisco, y el criollo, sólo tienen cinco vértebras lumbares, por hallarse soldada la última al sacro .

En la guerra de la independencia argentina se utilizaron casi exclusivamente caballos criollos, ya que hasta ese momento la llegada de otras razas desde Europa era muy reducida.

Después de 1816, tras la independencia y debido a la creciente europeización en todos los ámbitos de la vida argentina, el caballo criollo fue dejado de lado como raza y mestizado con sangres extranjeras en la creencia de que así se lo mejoraría.

Es así que durante todo el siglo XIX una gran proporción de los caballos se cruzaron con ejemplares de pura sangre importados de Europa.

Se lograron caballos de mayor altura y más veloces, pero todo ello en detrimento de la resistencia a la fatiga y a las condiciones extremas.

Parecía que el fin había llegado para esos nobles caballos.

A principios del Siglo XX, pese a todo, aún existían caballadas salvajes en la Patagonia, y también cerca de Buenos Aires, en relictos de las Sierras de Ventania o Ventana, y en las Sierras de Tandilia.

Hubo un grupo de estancieros leales a las aptitudes del caballo criollo, que mantuvo sus animales sin mestizar, con las características adquiridas a través de 400 años de selección natural.

La recuperación del caballo criollo, con una selección científica, la lideró Emilio Solanet.

Con un grupo de criadores fundó la Asociación de Criadores de Caballos Criollos, recuperando la raza, convirtiendo al caballo criollo en un caballo versátil, económico, rústico y dócil.

En 1918, los criadores de la Argentina decidieron crear un registro de los ejemplares criollos de raza pura .

Se produjeron desacuerdos entre los que apoyaban a Emilio Solanet, que promovia un criollo de fenotipo "asiático", versus los de Enrique Crotto, que bregaban por un fenotipo"Africano", más alto, con una cabeza convexa, grupa caída y delgadas crines y colas.

No fue sino hasta 1934, que el Dr. Solanet fue capaz de tomar firmemente el control de la Asociación de Criadores y fijó un nuevo objetivo para la raza como un caballo de corta acción más compacto que emulaba, de alguna manera, a la raza de caballos del centro de Chile, por los cuales él tenia admiración, los cuales contaban con registro genealógico ya desde alrededor de 1870!.

En 1938, el 70% de la Criollos registrados fueron castrados o sacrificados, debido a que no poseían el fenotipo aspirado por el Dr. Solanet y sus seguidores.

Empezó a seleccionar en la zona de Ayacucho y partidos vecinos, yeguas y potrillos que le parecían que respondían a las condiciones de la raza, comprando también algunos a los indios tehuelches, traidos desde la patagonia.

El nuevo estándar racial, que él había escrito en 1928, fue finalmente puesto a disposición del público recién cuando estuvo realmente seguro que los criadores estaban más persuadidos en brindar apoyo a su objetivo para la raza.

No sería hasta 1957 que el registro se cerró para la raza argentina, pero el registro se ha mantenido abierto para el caballo de raza chilena, el que ha tenido importante influencia en mejorar ciertas cualidades, para ayudar a dar forma al Criollo moderno.

Sin embargo, la raza mantiene su propia identidad, con una conformación del cuerpo más alta, y cuadrada, con un corvejón más angular que le permite un paso largo, el que se requiere para cubrir las grandes distancias en las planicies de la Argentina (conocidas como "pampas").

La cabeza del Criollo moderno se prefiere con un perfil de la cara recta y un hocico más corto y más largas orejas que en el caballo de raza chilena típico.

La Asociación Criadores de Caballos Criollos, fue fundada por un grupo de 40 criadores de la Raza el 16 de junio de 1923, bajo en nombre de “Asociación de Criadores de Caballos Criollos Argentino".

Funciona en Larrea 670, 2do. piso, de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires.

Simultáneamente, diversos deportes criollos ya definitivamente arraigados, como las "Pruebas de Rodeos", las "Pruebas de Rienda", la "competencia de Aparte", las "Cabalgatas de Criadores", el "Aparte Campero", la muy rigurosa "Marcha Anual", congregan miles de entusiastas participantes que, en Jornadas Clasificatorias, van intentando obtener promedios que los acerquen a la fiesta máxima del Criollo: Las Finales de los Campeonatos Nacionales de las distintas disciplinas que culminan en la Exposición de Otoño de cada año, dentro del marco de la mega-exposición llamada “Nuestros Caballos”, en el predio ferial de la Sociedad Rural Argentina, en el barrio de Palermo.

Por otra parte, la tradicional exposición de la Sociedad Rural Argentina, en el mismo predio, constituye la muestra más importante de la genética del Criollo en el mundo.

Con 150 reproductores de primerísimo nivel que colman las instalaciones del mítico Pabellón 8, superando con su sola presencia a todas las demás Razas equinas sumadas.

Numerosos criadores extranjeros de Brasil, Chile, Uruguay, también se dan cita en esta muestra, aportando sus ejemplares.

Sus dos ejemplares más famosos, Mancha y Gato, recorrieron el Continente Americano desde Buenos Aires a Nueva York, guiados por Aimé F. Tschiffelly, batiendo récords de distancia y altura.

Actualmente, en el Brasil, es más común en el estado de Rio Grande do Sul, principalmente en la región sudoeste gracias a los ejemplares producidos en "La Invernada Hornero", de Uruguayana (Uruguaiana).

CARACTERÍSTICAS GENERALES:

Eumétrico y mesoformo (medidas y formas medianas).

Su tipo se corresponde con el de un caballo de silla, equilibrado y armónico.

Bien musculado y de furte constitución, con su centro de gravedad bajo.

De buen pie y andares sueltos, ágil y rápido en sus movimientos.

De carácter activo, enérgico y dócil, su característica racial está definida por su rusticidad, longevidad, fertilidad, resistencia, valentía, poder de recuperación y aptitud para trabajos ganaderos.

BIOMETRÍA:

a) ----- Talla: Ideal 1,44 m. Las fluctuaciones máximas para los machos serán entre 1,40 m. y 1,48 m

pudiendo aceptarse como excepción hasta de 1,50 m. y no menos de 1,38m.

Previa resolución de jurado de admisión o inspector actuante. Hembras 2 cm menos.

b) ----- Perímetro torácico: ideal 1,78 m. Hembras 2 cm. Más.

c) ----- Perímetro de la caña: ideal 0,19 m. Hembras 1 cm. Menos.

Las fluctuaciones de las medidas deberán guardar la debida armonía con las indicadas para la talla.

PELAJES:

Con excepción del “pintado” y el “tobiano” se aceptan todos los pelajes, procurándose la paulatina eliminación de animales con tendencia avanzada hacia la despigmentación y albinismo.

CABEZA:

De perfil preferentemente rectilíneo o subconvexilíneo.

En conjunto corta, liviana, de base ancha y vértice fino proporcionalmente mucho cráneo y poca cara.

Frente ancha y mas bien plana.

Carrillos destacados y separados entre si ojos vivaces y expresivos, orejas chicas, anchas en su base, separadas y paralelas.

Ollares medianos.

La cabeza debe denotar la pureza racial, el carácter y la natural diferenciación sexual entre machos y hembras.

CRINES, CERDAS DE COLA, Y CERNEJAS O RANILLAS:

Tuse y cola más bien anchos y bien poblados de cerdas abundantes y gruesas.

Cernejas de mediano desarrollo y solo sobre la parte posterior del nudo

CUELLO, PESCUEZO O COGOTE:

De suficiente largo flexibilidad. Musculado en su inserción superior con la cabeza. Ligeramente convexo en su línea superior y recto en la inferior. Su eje se unirá al tronco en un ángulo casi recto con las paletas.

CRUZ:

Medianamente perfilada y musculada. Larga e insensiblemente unida.

DORSO:

De largo mediano, fuerte, fuerte, firme y ancho y musculado hacia el posterior. Suavemente unido a la cruz y al riñón con los que conformará una correcta línea superior.

RIÑÓN:

Corto, ancho, musculoso, fuerte, bien unido al dorso y a la grupa con los cuales deberá guardar armonía en conjunto.

GRUPA:

De buen largo y musculada, de ancho de ancho mediano y suavemente inclinada.

Vista del posterior, redondeada, sin protuberancias óseas ni hendiduras perceptibles.

COLA:

De maslo corto, debe continuar suavemente la linea superior de la grupa con una inserción mas bien baja.

PECHO:

Medianamente ancho, musculado, y bien descendido. El esternón se ubicará aproximadamente al la mitad de la alzada del animal.

TRONCO:

Visto de costado, profundo desde la cruz a la cinchera y de frente, de forma oval.

De buen desarrollo en su perímetro y cerca del suelo.

Costillas moderadamente arqueadas y abiertas hacia abajo y hacia atrás.

Vientre amplio, continuando insensiblemente el perfil interior del tórax.

FLANCOS:

Cortos y llenos.

ESPALDAS O PALETAS:

Medianamente largas e inclinadas. Separadas entre sí y bien musculadas.

BRAZOS Y CODOS:

Paralelos al plano medio del cuerpo. Brazos de buen largo, inclinación y musculatura. Codos visiblemente separados del tórax.

ANTEBRAZO:

Bien aplomados, largos, de buen ancho y musculatura.

RODILLAS:

Cerca del suelo, anchas, medianamente largas, nítidas, sin desviaciones ni fuera del eje.

MUSLOS:

Anchos y bien musculados, de nalgas largas y descendidas.

PATAS TRASERAS:

Largas, anchas, musculosas, con los tendones del corvejón fuertes, separados y nítidos.

GARRONES O CORVEJONES:

Fuertes, anchos, nítidos, paralelos al plano mediano del cuerpo y cerca del suelo.

CAÑAS:

Cortas, con cuerdas fuertes, nítidas y bien destacadas.

NUDOS:

Fuertes y nítidos.

CUARTILLAS O PICHICOS:

Fuertes, de longitud e inclinación medianas.

CASCOS O VASOS:

Relativamente chicos, lisos, tensos, resistentes: de talones adecuadamente altos y separados

entre sí.

( 24 de Marzo de 2009 )

Mega-exposición: “Nuestros Caballos”,

en el predio ferial de la Sociedad Rural Argentina,

en el barrio de Palermo, ciudad de Buenos Aires, ARGENTINA.

◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘◘

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Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

El fantastic Estrella Costa Brava fa una breu parada a Granollers Centre per continuar cap a Barcelona i Madrid, amb aquesta foto faig un homenatge aquest prestigiós tren.

...........................

El fantástico Estrella Costa Brava hace una breve parada en Granollers Centre para continuar hacia Barcelona y Madrid, con esta foto hago un homenaje este prestigioso tren.

Un invento de Contax, de hace ¡60 años!, que te permitía ver la imagen que entraba por el objetivo gracias a un espejito, una lente Fresnel y un pentaprisma que te enderezaba la imagen en el visor. Algo obsoleto, hoy día, ya que un visor electrónico es más preciso. Tú ves lo que recoge el sensor, la foto tal cual va a salir. Especialmente en macro y teles, con una profundidad de campo conflictiva y crítica. En la réflex tú ves lo que refleja el espejo, y con dioptrías, peor.

Pero, claro, tiene mucho "caché", por aquello del prestigio, sobre todo entre los que se inician en fotografía. ¡Y la eterna ostentación! "Caballo grande, ande o no ande"

No hay más diferencia, hoy día, con el resto de otras cámaras, en que tiene un espejito que se levanta al disparar. Pero vende mucho por ser más grande y cara. Y aparenta.

No tiene más ventajas que el prestigio de años ha. Como un Rolls Royce.

Tengo una réflex y una llamada "brigde", y me quedo con la brigde sin dudarlo y sin romperme la espalda acarreando 10 objetivos y perdiendo el tiempo en cambiarlos.

También las hay con lentes intercambiables, pero...¿Para qué, si los zooms de ahora dan la misma calidad que un objetivo monofocal? No como hace años.

Ahora eso sí, se liga más con una réflex y una gran mochila. Eso es indudable. Una verdad como un templo. El pavo real debe aparentar. Si no, no hay pavas.

Y el tele (blanco) cuanto más grande mejor, aunque se diga que el tamaño no importa.

¡Anda ya! Importa y mucho. Si lo tienes grande... te ven como a un gran fotógrafo.

Aquí, en Flickr, no veo gran diferencia entre la tomadas con una Leica de 30.000 € y una Samsung de 99 €. Depende de quien la maneje. Ése es el truco esencial.

No entiendo por qué la palabra "reflex" es mágica, ni por qué lo mejor tiene que terminar en "ON".

Es marketing para neófitos en la materia.

(Ejemplo. Me gasto 600 € en una Nikon con dos objetivos, que abarcan 28- 300 mm.

Me gasto 300 € en una Lumix, con objetivo Leica, 27- 900 mm. y con el doble de prestaciones y mayor calidad cromática. ¿Qué pensar? ¿Qué decir? ¡Oh, dioses!)

FIAT 128 SL Coupè year 1973

La passione per il FIAT 128 Coupè per WALTER STOCCHETTI impiegato postale a Trento è ETERNA. Lui oltre a questa simpatica e splendida sportiva Fiat 128 nel garage ha un 'Alfa Romeo Giulia in ottime condizioni con targa Trento , se sali nella sua Alfa Giulia sembra di essere in un salotto . Più avanti documenteremo anche l'Alfa Romeo Giulia di Walter ...poi ha una BMW moderna non di certo da quattro soldi ...il mio discorso era questo , sebbene Walter avrebbe potuto permettersi anche altre auto di prestigio Lui ha sempre avuto un vero autentico e fedele amore per questa Fiat 128 Coupè.

Walter si ricorda ancora bene ... anzi sembra ieri per lui quando aveva acquistato nel 1977 una Fiat 128 Sport di colore bianco , in quattro anni aveva fatto 200.000 Km l'aveva portata al colasso totale , era di c.c.1100 . Un particolare che non sta scritto sulla rivista che Walter si innamorò alle luci della sera vedendo a Trento in una concessionaria la Fiat 128 Coupè in esposizione ... amore a prima vista , platonico che si è conservato nel tempo. Walter cambia altre automobili ma non dimentica mai la 128 Coupè.

Nel 2001 raggiunta una certa tranquillità economica Walter si mette alla ricerca spietata del Fiat 128 Coupè aiutato anche dal figlio Christian . Dopo qualche mese di ricerche Walter trova nella sua città un "1100" (quello in foto) in livrea rosso/arancio (codice 171) di Bettini Renato referente per il Trentino/Alto Adige del registro Nazionale Fiat 128 Coupè Sport e avendone due uguali ha deciso di cederne una . Il costo dell'operazione per Walter fu tre milioni di lire che andranno nelle tasche di Renato ... da questo scambio poi è nata pure un'amicizia vera . L'auto si presentava in buone condizioni ma Walter immediatamente l'ha portata in carrozzeria dove viene smontata e riverniciata . Il costo finale del lavoro sarà 5 milioni di lire . Walter durante i lavori si mette di grande impegno per cercare accessori anni 70 per la sua auto e si fa montare una radio mangianastri Grunding con la console centrale ed un singolo altoparlante e antenna cromata sul tetto .

Walter non si accontenta di abbellire l'auto ma inizia una manicale ricerca di pezzi di ricambio ... in poco tempo riesce ad accantonare pezzi di ricambio tale che si potrebbe ricostruire altre due Fiat 128 Coupè , mi sembra che gli manchi solo una portiera per fare due 128 . Totale spesa per vari ricambi stiamo parlnado di quasi 21 milioni di lire . Tutti questi ricambi fanno pensare ad un utlizzo maggiore della vettura ed invece dal 2001 la Fiat 128 Coupè ha fatto solo 1000 km . Walter non ama i raduni o esposizioni varie forse proprio perchè è geloso maniacale della sua auto , insomma non sopporterebbe nemmeno un graffio ... a lui piace godersela in questo modo ammirandola nel suo garage o uscite brevi tipo la revisione ....Ecco che l'auto è finita su RUOTE CLASSICHE e sarà esposta al raduno di San Felice Bz " Oldtimer Festival " il 28 luglio di sabato .

WALTER non contento ancora ha iniziato una passione folle maniacale pazzesca di modellini , ha una vetrina a casa di oltre 50 modellini del tempo non stampi cinesi del Fiat 128 Coupè Sport e del Fiat 128 Rally in tutte le colorazioni originali con scatole autentiche . Walter non vuole fermarsi , tiene sotto occhio una Fiat 128 Coupè Sport bianco con targa Trento in un garage della città ... lo vuole a tutti i costi per avere nel suo colore originale bianco la prima 128 Sport Coupè che ha avuto ...Walter prima del Fiat 128 ha fatto la gavetta con la Fiat 1100 R .

Sono davvero felice di avere testimoniato questa storia !

TRENTO 07.07.2012

FIAT 128 SL Coupè year 1973

WALTER STOCCHETTI, employee in a postal office in Trento is really obsessed by FIAT 128 Coupè. Apart from this wonderful Fiat 128, in the garage has a Alfa Romeo Giulia, well-conserved, immatriculated Trento. If you step into this Alfa Giulia it seems an elegant dining-room. Furthermore we will tell about Walter’s Alfa Romeo Giulia … because apart from these two cars, he has got a modern and luxurious BMW … I would like to say that walter can afford luxurious cars, but he prefers the Fiat 128 Coupè, which he loves so much.

Walter remembers very well when he bought, in 1977, a white model of Fiat 128 Sport. In four years he drove for 200 000 khilometers and risk to have the car collapsed. There is a particular which is not written in the magazine: during a past night, Walter fell in love with a Fiat 128 Coupè, which was exhibited in a car shop in Trento … Walter was really impressed by the car and remains so during the years. Walter had many cars, but he has never forgotten the Fiat 128 Coupè.

In 2001 Walter reached a good economical status and began to look for other Fiat 128 Coupè models; his son Christian helped him. After some months Walter found an orange/red Fiat 1100 (showed in the picture) (cod 171) which was owned by Renato Bettini, representative of the national register of model Fiat 128 Coupè Sport in the region Trentino/Alto Adige. Renato had two Fiat 128 models, then he decided to sell one of them. Walter bought one model for 3 millions of the old Italian Lira. From this sold a new friendship was born. The car was perfectly conserved but Walter had the car dismantled and coloured its bodywork. It costed almost 5 millions Lira.

During the process Walter was really concentrated to look for components of the years 70s for his cars: he had settled a Grunding radio with central controls, a single box and a satellite chromatic dish on the roof. Walter continued to look forFiat 128’s components … in few time he managed to have sufficient components to build two other Fiat 128 Coupè models: it fails only a door, if I’m not mistaeken. Walter spent about 21 millions Lira for components. All these components make people think Walter used a lot his car, but it’s not so. From 2001 the Fiat 128 Coupè model counts only 1000 khilometers. Walter loves car meeting, also because he is really obsessed! He is so jelous of his car and he is really obsessed to not damage it … he like to spend time admiring his car or to drive it for a really short time.

An article of the magazine RUOTE CLASSICHE was dedicated to Walter’s car, which will be exhibited in San Felice meeting (Bolzano province) on Saturday 28th July 2012.

Walter, who was not already satisfied, began a mania for little models. He has in his house a collection of more than 50 little car models, which are not made in China but historical ones, of Fiat 128 Coupè Sport and Fiat 128 Rally in all original colours with their original boxes.

Walter doesn’t want to stop his obsession. He wants to gain a white Fiat 128 Coupè model, immatriculated in Trento, which lies in garage in this same town … he wants it absolutely! Walter, before Fiat 128 drove the Fiat 1100 R.

I am really happy to have reported this story!

TRENTO 07.07.2012

Il castello Orsini-Odescalchi, noto anche come castello di Bracciano, è un castello nel comune italiano di Bracciano risalente al XV secolo. Costituito da tre cinta di mura esterne, presenta cinque torri, una per ogni vertice della fortificazione esterna. Fu costruito dopo il 1470 da Napoleone Orsini probabilmente con la collaborazione di maestranze Sistine. Il castello apparteneva a Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) dietro richiesta del papa (per motivi politici) fu donato al suo sottoposto capitano Orsini. Ne è prova lo stemma del comune un braccio che tiene una rosa (uno dei simboli degli Orsini). Il fratello di Napoleone (il Cardinale Latino Orsini) era il camerlengo di papa Sisto IV proprio negli anni in cui venivano costruiti quasi simultaneamente la Cappella Sistina e il Castello di Bracciano. Oggi è di proprietà degli Odescalchi, famiglia che proprio dagli Orsini rilevò il Ducato di Bracciano alla fine del XVII secolo. Il castello, aperto al pubblico nel 1952 da Livio IV Odescalchi, è visitabile e viene spesso usato per ricevimenti, celebrare matrimoni e per altri eventi privati e culturali. Il castello sorge nel 1470 intorno alla vecchia rocca medioevale dei Prefetti di Vico, risalente al tredicesimo secolo, su ordine di Napoleone Orsini che poi viene portata a termine dal figlio Gentil Virginio Orsini nel 1485. Nel 1485 fu ospite della famiglia Orsini il vescovo di Mantova Ludovico Gonzaga, figlio del marchese di Mantova Ludovico III Gonzaga, che fuggì da Roma a causa della peste. Nella sua storia il castello subisce molti cambiamenti inclusi i progetti di Francesco di Giorgio Martini che fu ospite nella corte di Genti Virginio nel 1490 per restaurare varie fortezze. Papa Alessandro VI nel 1496 arriva a confiscare il castello, animato da un profondo risentimento verso gli Orsini. In questi anni risalgono le prime decorazioni, tra i più famosi il ciclo della donna medievale che illustra la vita di corte del tardo Medioevo e l'affresco di Antoniazzo Romano che riproduce il trionfo di Gentil Virginio Orsini, pagina importante di questo pittore del Quattrocento. Terminato il diverbio con il papa gli Orsini riprendono il possesso del castello continuando così l'abbellimento e ampliamento del castello. Alla fine del Cinquecento Giacomo Del Duca, allievo di Michelangelo, realizza una serie di interventi in occasione del sontuoso matrimonio tra Isabella de' Medici e Paolo Giordano Orsini. In quella circostanza i fratelli Taddeo e Federico Zuccari furono chiamati a decorare alcune sale, tra le quali quella che nel 1481 ospitò papa Sisto IV della Rovere in fuga dalla peste che infuriava a Roma. Gli Zuccari, due tra i più importanti artisti della fine del Cinquecento, realizzarono gli affreschi con l'oroscopo dei due sposi e gli emblemi delle due insigni casate. Nel 1696 agli Orsini subentrarono gli Odescalchi antica famiglia di origine comasca, il cui prestigio si incrementò notevolmente quando uno dei suoi membri ascese al soglio pontificio con il nome di Innocenzo XI.

The Orsini-Odescalchi castle, also known as the Bracciano castle, is a castle in the Italian town of Bracciano dating back to the 15th century. Consisting of three outer walls, it has five towers, one for each vertex of the external fortification. It was built after 1470 by Napoleone Orsini, probably with the collaboration of Sistine workers. The castle belonged to Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) at the request of the pope (for political reasons) and was donated to his subordinate captain Orsini. Proof of this is the coat of arms of the municipality an arm holding a rose (one of the symbols of the Orsini). Napoleon's brother (Cardinal Latino Orsini) was the chamberlain of Pope Sixtus IV precisely in the years in which the Sistine Chapel and the Castle of Bracciano were built almost simultaneously. Today it is owned by the Odescalchi, a family who took over the Duchy of Bracciano from the Orsini at the end of the 17th century. The castle, opened to the public in 1952 by Livio IV Odescalchi, can be visited and is often used for receptions, weddings and other private and cultural events. The castle was built in 1470 around the old medieval fortress of the Prefects of Vico, dating back to the thirteenth century, by order of Napoleone Orsini which was then completed by his son Gentil Virginio Orsini in 1485. In 1485 the bishop of Mantua was a guest of the Orsini family Ludovico Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, who fled from Rome due to the plague. In its history the castle undergoes many changes including the projects of Francesco di Giorgio Martini who was a guest in the court of Genti Virginio in 1490 to restore various fortresses. Pope Alexander VI in 1496 confiscated the castle, animated by a deep resentment towards the Orsini. The first decorations date back to these years, among the most famous the cycle of the medieval woman illustrating the court life of the late Middle Ages and the fresco by Antoniazzo Romano which reproduces the triumph of Gentil Virginio Orsini, an important page of this fifteenth-century painter. After the quarrel with the pope, the Orsini regain possession of the castle, thus continuing the embellishment and expansion of the castle. At the end of the sixteenth century Giacomo Del Duca, a pupil of Michelangelo, carried out a series of interventions on the occasion of the sumptuous marriage between Isabella de 'Medici and Paolo Giordano Orsini. On that occasion the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari were called to decorate some rooms, including the one that hosted Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in 1481 fleeing the plague that was raging in Rome. The Zuccari, two of the most important artists of the late sixteenth century, created the frescoes with the horoscope of the couple and the emblems of the two famous families. In 1696 the Odescalchi, an ancient family of Como origin, took over from the Orsini, whose prestige increased considerably when one of its members ascended to the papal throne with the name of Innocent XI.

Le château Orsini-Odescalchi, également connu sous le nom de château de Bracciano, est un château de la ville italienne de Bracciano datant du XVe siècle. Composé de trois murs extérieurs, il possède cinq tours, une pour chaque sommet de la fortification extérieure. Il a été construit après 1470 par Napoleone Orsini, probablement avec la collaboration des ouvriers de Sixtine. Le château a appartenu à Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) à la demande du pape (pour des raisons politiques) et a été donné à son capitaine subordonné Orsini. Preuve en est le blason de la commune un bras tenant une rose (l'un des symboles des Orsini). Le frère de Napoléon (Cardinal Latino Orsini) était le chambellan du Pape Sixte IV précisément dans les années où la Chapelle Sixtine et le Château de Bracciano ont été construits presque simultanément. Aujourd'hui, il appartient aux Odescalchi, une famille qui a repris le duché de Bracciano aux Orsini à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Le château, ouvert au public en 1952 par Livio IV Odescalchi, peut être visité et est souvent utilisé pour des réceptions, des mariages et d'autres événements privés et culturels. Le château a été construit en 1470 autour de l'ancienne forteresse médiévale des préfets de Vico, datant du XIIIe siècle, sur ordre de Napoleone Orsini qui a ensuite été achevée par son fils Gentil Virginio Orsini en 1485. En 1485, l'évêque de Mantoue était un invité de la famille Orsini Ludovico Gonzaga, fils du marquis de Mantoue Ludovico III Gonzaga, qui a fui Rome à cause de la peste. Au cours de son histoire, le château subit de nombreux changements, notamment les projets de Francesco di Giorgio Martini qui fut invité à la cour de Genti Virginio en 1490 pour restaurer diverses forteresses. Le pape Alexandre VI en 1496 confisqua le château, animé d'un profond ressentiment envers les Orsini. Les premières décorations datent de ces années, parmi les plus célèbres le cycle de la femme médiévale illustrant la vie de cour de la fin du Moyen Âge et la fresque d'Antoniazzo Romano qui reproduit le triomphe de Gentil Virginio Orsini, page importante de ce XVe- peintre du siècle. Après la querelle avec le pape, les Orsini reprennent possession du château, poursuivant ainsi l'embellissement et l'agrandissement du château. À la fin du XVIe siècle, Giacomo Del Duca, élève de Michel-Ange, réalisa une série d'interventions à l'occasion du somptueux mariage entre Isabelle de Médicis et Paolo Giordano Orsini. A cette occasion, les frères Taddeo et Federico Zuccari ont été appelés à décorer certaines chambres, dont celle qui a accueilli le pape Sixte IV della Rovere en 1481 fuyant la peste qui sévissait à Rome. Les Zuccari, deux des artistes les plus importants de la fin du XVIe siècle, ont créé les fresques avec l'horoscope du couple et les emblèmes des deux familles célèbres. En 1696, les Odescalchi, ancienne famille originaire de Côme, succèdent aux Orsini, dont le prestige s'accroît considérablement lorsqu'un de ses membres monte sur le trône pontifical sous le nom d'Innocent XI.

The Piazza del Duomo ("Cathedral Square") is a wide, walled area at the heart of the city of Pisa, Tuscany, Italy, recognized as one of the main centers for medieval art in the world. Partly paved and partly grassed, it is dominated by four great religious edifices: the Duomo, the Leaning Tower (the cathedral's campanile), the Baptistry and the Camposanto.In 1987 the whole square was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The heart of the Piazza del Duomo is, obviously, the Duomo, the medieval cathedral, entitled to Santa Maria Assunta (St. Mary of the Assumption). This is a five-naved cathedral with a three-naved transept. The church is known also as the Primatial, the archbishop of Pisa being a Primate since 1092.Construction was begun in 1064 by the architect Busketo, and set the model for the distinctive Pisan Romanesque style of architecture. The mosaics of the interior, as well as the pointed arches, show a strong Byzantine influence.The façade, of grey marble and white stone set with discs of coloured marble, was built by a master named Rainaldo, as indicated by an inscription above the middle door: Rainaldus prudens operator.The massive bronze main doors were made in the workshops of Giambologna, replacing the original doors destroyed in a fire in 1595. The central door was in bronze and made around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, while the other two were probably in wood. However worshippers never used the façade doors to enter, instead entering by way of the Porta di San Ranieri (St. Ranieri's Door), in front of the Leaning Tower, made in around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano.Above the doors there are four rows of open galleries with, on top, statues of Madonna with Child and, on the corners, the Four evangelists.Also in the façade we can find the tomb of Busketo (on the left side) and an inscription about the foundation of the Cathedral and the victorious battle against Saracens.The interior is faced with black and white marble and has a gilded ceiling and a frescoed dome. It was largely redecorated after a fire in 1595, which destroyed most of the medieval art works.Fortunately, the impressive mosaic, in the apse, of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Blessed Virgin and St. John the Evangelist, survived the fire. It evokes the mosaics in the church of Monreale, Sicily. Although it is said that the mosaic was done by Cimabue, only the head of St. John was done by the artist in 1302 and was his last work, since he died in Pisa in the same year. The cupola, at the intersection of the nave and the transept, was decorated by Riminaldi showing the ascension of the Blessed Virgin.The impressive granite Corinthian columns between the nave and the aisle came originally from the mosque of Palermo, captured by the Pisans in 1063.The coffer ceiling of the nave was replaced after the fire of 1595. The present gold-decorated ceiling carries the coat of arms of the Medici.The elaborately carved pulpit (1302-1310), which also survived the fire, was made by Giovanni Pisano and is one the masterworks of medieval sculpture. It was packed away during the redecoration and was not rediscovered and re-erected until 1926. The pulpit is supported by plain columns (two of which mounted on lions sculptures) on one side and by caryatids and a telamon on the other: the latter represent St. Michael, the Evangelists, the four cardinal virtues flanking the Church, and a bold, naturalistic depiction of a naked Hercules. A central plinth with the liberal arts supports the four theological virtues. The present day reconstruction of the pulpit is not the correct one. Now it lies not in the same original position, that was nearer the main altar, and the disposition of the columns and the panels are not the original ones. Also the original stairs (maybe in marble) were lost.The upper part has nine panels dramatic showing scenes from the New Testament, carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect and separated by figures of prophets: Annunciation, Massacre of the Innocents, Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Flight into Egypt, Crucifixion, and two panels of the Last Judgement.The church also contains the bones of St Ranieri, Pisa's patron saint, and the tomb of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, carved by Tino da Camaino in 1315. That tomb, originally in the apse just behind the main altar, was disassembled and changed position many times during the years for political reasons. At last the sarcophagus is still in the Cathedral, but some of the statues were put in the Camposanto or in the top of the façade of the church. The original statues now are in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo.The Cathedral has a prominent role in determining the beginning of the Pisan New Year. Between the tenth century and 1749, when the Tuscan calendar was reformed, Pisa used its own calendar, in which the first day of the year on March 25, which is the day of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary. The Pisan New Year begins 9 months before the ordinary one. The exact moment is determined by a ray of sun that, through a window on the left side, hit a shelf egg-shaped on the right side, just above the pulpit by Giovanni Pisano. This occurs at noon.

In the Cathedral also can be found some relics brought during the Crusades: the remains of three Saints (Abibo, Gamaliel and Nicodemus) and a vase that it is said to be one of the jars of Cana.The building, as have several in Pisa, has tilted slightly since its construction.

Il Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa.Capolavoro assoluto del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo massimo splendoreL'aspetto attuale del complesso edificio è il risultato di ripetute campagne di restauro succedutesi in diverse epoche. I primi radicali interventi seguirono il disastroso incendio del 1595, a seguito del quale fu rifatto il tetto e furono eseguite le tre porte bronzee della facciata,a partire dal Settecento iniziò il progressivo rivestimento delle pareti interne con grandi dipinti su tela.Gli interventi successivi si ebbero nel corso dell'Ottocento ed interessarono sia le decorazioni interne sia quelle esterne.La ricchissima decorazione comprende marmi multicolori, mosaici e numerosi oggetti di bronzo L'interno è rivestito di marmi bianchi e neri, con colonne monolitiche di marmo grigio e capitelli di ordine corinzio. Ha un soffitto a cassettoni dorati seicenteschi, in legno dorato.Le impressionanti colonne granitiche in stile corinzio fra la navata e l'abside provengono dalla moschea di Palermo, bottino della battaglia nella Cala dai Pisani nel 1063.La chiesa conserva inoltre le reliquie di San Ranieri, patrono di Pisa, e la frammentaria tomba di Arrigo VII di Lussemburgo, imperatore del Sacro Romano Impero, morto a Buonconvento mentre assediava invano Firenze.L'edificio, come la torre campanaria, è sprofondato percettibilmente nel suolo, e alcuni dissesti nella costruzione sono ben visibili, come le differenze di livello tra la navata di Buscheto e il prolungamento ad opera di Rainaldo (le campate verso ovest e la facciata).

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IMPRESIONISMO: ¿UNA RUPTURA?

“Algunos considerarán a los impresionistas los primeros modernos porque desafiaron ciertas normas de la pintura tal como eran enseñadas en las academias; pero conviene recordar que los impresionistas no se distinguieron en sus fines de las tradiciones del arte que se habían desarrollado desde el descubrimiento de la naturaleza en el Renacimiento. También ellos querían pintar la naturaleza tal como la veían, y su oposición a los maestros conservadores no radicó tanto en el fin como en los medios de conseguirlo. Su exploración de los reflejos del color, así como sus experiencias con la pincelada suelta, se encaminaban a crear una ilusión aún más perfecta de la impresión visual. Sólo con el impresionismo, en efecto, se completó la conquista de la naturaleza, convirtiéndose en tema del cuadro todo lo que pudiera presentarse ante los ojos del pintor, mereciendo constituir el objeto del estudio del artista el mundo real en todos sus aspectos”. (Gombrich, Historia del Arte)

Por un lado, con el Impresionismo culmina un largo recorrido iniciado por la pintura en los albores del siglo XV: la captación de la realidad y, por otro lado, se abren las puertas del arte del siglo XX. Conceptos como los de luz y color, se encontraban ya, por ejemplo, en la pintura veneciana de mediados del siglo XVI, mediante la valoración de la luz natural con toques ligeros de color. Estos efectos también están presentes en la pintura holandesa del siglo XVII y en las obras de Velázquez y Goya. Recordemos por ejemplo a Francesco Guardi y su manera de sugerir las figuras de los remeros venecianos con unas cuantas motas de color, o al genio de Leonardo con sus sfumato.

Sin embargo el antecedente más inmediato del Impresionismo lo encontramos en la pintura francesa de la primera mitad del siglo XIX. El pintor romántico Delacroix (antecedente indiscutible del Impresionismo) afirmaba en su Diario que “en la naturaleza todo es reflejo”. Delacroix renovó la pintura del momento al iniciar la tendencia de otorgarle más importancia a la forma que a la línea, alejándose así de los parámetros puramente clasicistas.

En su arte, resulta peligroso dramatizar sus logros simplemente viéndolos tan solo como personajes revolucionarios e idealistas que reaccionaron contra un establishment artístico que había instituido sus Salones, su prestigio y todo su aparato en Francia desde los tiempos de Colbert.

En general, fueron modelos de rectitud. Asimismo, sería totalmente erróneo visualizarlos, hasta en su contexto puramente profesional, como dependiendo, indolentes, de los caprichos de la creatividad o de las fluctuaciones de la inspiración.

El verdadero logro de los impresionistas es que dieron coherencia y forma a tendencias que durante un período considerable de tiempo habían estado latentes en el arte europeo. Turner y Constable, por ejemplo, se habían dedicado a muchos de los mismos problemas sobre la luz y el color, o toda la escuela de Barbizon donde se había practicado el trabajo “au plein air” desde 1840.

Así también lo hicieron los impresionistas poniendo de manifiesto la importancia de la pintura al aire libre, en contacto emocional con el tema que les demandaba su atención, perfeccionando de esta forma esa tradición paisajística.

En realidad es un arte que no deja de ser burgués, al contrario, la burguesía, como imperante fenómeno social, trae sus propios usos y costumbres; unos afectan al campo, que deja de ser lugar de trabajo para convertirse en lugar de ocio: las vacaciones y las excursiones campestres. Es el mundo retratado por Monet y Renoir.

La ciudad, por el contrario, se convierte en nuevo espacio para la nueva clase social: aparecen los flanneurs, paseantes ociosos que se lucen y asisten a conciertos en los boulevards y los jardines de París. También cobra relevancia la noche y sus habitantes, los locales nocturnos, el paseo, las cantantes de cabaret, el ballet, los cafés y sus tertulias.

Es un mundo fascinante, del cual los impresionistas extraen sus temas: en especial Degas o Toulouse-Lautrec. Porque para ellos se han terminado los temas grandiosos e intemporales del pasado. El positivismo acarrea una concepción de objetividad de la percepción, de un criterio científico que resta valor a todo lo que no sea clasificable según las leyes del color y de la óptica. Según esto, cualquier objeto natural, visible, afectado por la luz y el color, es susceptible de ser representado artísticamente. Así pues, el cuadro impresionista se vuelca pues en los paisajes, las regatas, las reuniones domingueras, etc.

Los impresionistas se agruparon en torno a la figura de Manet, el rechazado de los Salones oficiales y promotor del Salon des Refusés. Ante el nuevo léxico que proponen, de pincelada descompuesta en colores primarios que han de recomponerse en la retina del espectador, el público reacciona en contra, incapaz de "leer" correctamente el nuevo lenguaje. Pero el Impresionismo no acaba en el oscurantismo pues cuenta con el apoyo de dos fuerzas sociales emergentes: la crítica de arte, que se encargará de encauzar el gusto del público; y los marchands (marchantes), los vendedores de arte, que colocan sus cuadros en las mejores colecciones del país. Las tertulias, los Salones extra-oficiales y el propio escándalo se convirtieron en vehículos propagandísticos del nuevo estilo.

La lucha de los impresionistas se convirtió en una especie de leyenda áurea de todos los innovadores en arte, quienes en lo sucesivo podrían acogerse siempre a aquella manifiesta incapacidad del público para admitir nuevos métodos.

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IMPRESSIONISM: A BREAK-UP?

"Some will consider the Impressionists to be the first moderns because they challenged certain standards of painting as taught in the academies; but it should be remembered that the Impressionists did not distinguish themselves in their aims from the traditions of art that had developed since the discovery of nature in the Renaissance. They too wanted to paint nature as they saw it, and their opposition to the conservative masters was not so much in the end as in the means of achieving it. Their exploration of color reflections, as well as their experiences with loose brushstrokes, were aimed at creating an even more perfect illusion of visual impression. It was only with impressionism that the conquest of nature was completed, and everything that could be presented to the painter's eyes became the subject of the painting, and the real world in all its aspects deserved to be the object of the artist's study". (Gombrich, History of Art).

On the one hand, Impressionism culminates a long journey initiated by painting at the beginning of the 15th century: the capture of reality and, on the other hand, opens the doors of 20th century art. Concepts such as those of light and colour were already found, for example, in Venetian painting in the mid-sixteenth century, through the appreciation of natural light with light touches of colour. These effects are also present in 17th century Dutch painting and in the works of Velázquez and Goya.

However, the most immediate antecedent of Impressionism is found in French painting of the first half of the 19th century. The Romantic painter Delacroix (the undisputed forerunner of Impressionism) stated in his Diary that "in nature everything is a reflection". Delacroix renewed the painting of the time by starting the trend of giving more importance to form than to line, thus moving away from purely classicist parameters.

In his art, it is dangerous to dramatize his achievements simply by seeing them as revolutionary and idealistic characters who reacted against an artistic establishment that had instituted its Salons, its prestige and all its apparatus in France since the time of Colbert.

In general, they were models of righteousness. Likewise, it would be totally wrong to visualize them, even in their purely professional context, as depending, indolently, on the whims of creativity or the fluctuations of inspiration.

The real achievement of the Impressionists is that they gave coherence and form to trends that had been dormant in European art for a considerable period of time. Turner and Constable, for example, had devoted themselves to many of the same problems about light and colour, or the whole Barbizon school where work had been practised "au plein air" since 1840.

So did the Impressionists, demonstrating the importance of painting in the open air, in emotional contact with the subject that demanded their attention, thus perfecting that landscape tradition.

In reality it is an art that does not cease to be bourgeois, on the contrary, the bourgeoisie, as a prevailing social phenomenon, brings its own uses and customs; some affect the countryside, which ceases to be a place of work to become a place of leisure: holidays and country excursions. This is the world portrayed by Monet and Renoir.

The city, on the other hand, becomes a new space for the new social class: the flanneurs appear, idle strollers who show off and attend concerts in the boulevards and gardens of Paris. The night and its inhabitants, the nightclubs, the promenade, the cabaret singers, the ballet, the cafés and their gatherings are also important.

It is a fascinating world, from which the impressionists draw their themes: especially Degas or Toulouse-Lautrec. Because for them the great and timeless songs of the past are over. Positivism brings with it a conception of objectivity of perception, of a scientific criterion that detracts from anything that cannot be classified according to the laws of colour and optics. According to this, any natural object, visible, affected by light and colour, is susceptible of being represented artistically. Thus, the impressionist painting turns to landscapes, regattas, Sunday meetings, etc.

The Impressionists were grouped around the figure of Manet, the reject of the official Salons and promoter of the Salon des Refusés. Faced with the new lexicon they proposed, with a brushstroke broken down into primary colours that had to be recomposed in the spectator's retina, the public reacted against it, unable to "read" the new language correctly. But Impressionism does not end in obscurantism, for it has the support of two emerging social forces: the art critics, who will be responsible for channelling the public's taste; and the art dealers, who place their paintings in the country's best collections. Gatherings, unofficial salons and the scandal itself became propaganda vehicles for the new style.

As of December 2022, this vehicle has been scrapped

(COD: 20/10/2022)

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.

More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album

[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.

Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid

104025

台南孔子廟 - 明倫堂 / 堂中孝與義門外雨紛飛 - 今日明大道忠節振新威

Tainan City Confucian temple - Ming Lun hall / The outside is rainy in this hall had filial piety and justice - Today understand the Road of the world Tadatoki to show the new power and prestige

Templo del confuciano de la ciudad de Tainan - Pasillo de Ming Lun / El exterior es de lluvias en esta sala tuvo piedad filial y la justicia - Hoy en día comprender el camino de la Tadatoki mundo para mostrar el nuevo poder y el prestigio

台南の孔子廟 - 明倫堂 / 堂中孝と義の扉の外で雨は降りしきます - 今日明るい大通りの忠節と振新の威

Tainan-Stadt-Konfuzianertempel - Ming Lun Halle / Die Außenseite ist regnerisch in diesem Saal hatte Pietät und Gerechtigkeit - Heute verstehen die Straßen der Welt Tadatoki, um die neue Macht und Prestige zeigen

Tainan City temple de Confucius - Ming Lun Hall / L'extérieur est pluvieux dans cette salle avait la piété filiale et de la justice - Aujourd'hui à comprendre la Route du Tadatoki monde pour montrer le nouveau pouvoir et de prestige

Tainan Taiwan / Tainan Taiwán / 台灣台南

管樂小集 2012/06/16 安平港 德陽艦 演出剪輯

{ The Anping port Deyang ship performance clips / 安平港 徳陽艦 編集に公演します }

{View large size on fluidr / 觀看大圖}

{My Blog / 管樂小集精彩演出-觸動你的心}

{My Blog / Great Music The splendid performance touches your heart}

{My Blog / 管楽小集すばらしい公演-はあなたの心を心を打ちます}

{Mi blog / La gran música el funcionamiento espléndido toca su corazón}

{Mein Blog / Große Musik die herrliche Leistung berührt Ihr Herz}

{Mon blog / La grande musique l'exécution splendide touche votre coeur}

書中風起雲動 劍下虎嘯龍吟

The book stroke has the clouds to move under the sword the tiger's roar and dragon to recite

誰知成敗早已天定

Who knows the success or failure already to decide for GOD

回首江山依舊 入眼夕陽正紅

Who looks back on the landscape as before pleasant setting sun is red now

但願人長久情長在

Hopes the persons long-time sentiment exist

熱蘭劍士無悔無憾

The Zeelandia's swordsman regretless not regrets

安平運河路-找劍獅 / 路衝劍獅的家-炮仗花開了 / Yunhe Road Anping-Looking for the sword lions / The family of the sword lion Face to road - The Orange Trumpet Vine to blossom / Camino Anping de Yunhe-Buscar los leones de la espada / La familia de la cara del león de la espada al camino - La vid de trompeta anaranjada a florecer / 運河の道安平-剣のライオンを捜すこと / 路沖の剣の獅子の家 - 爆竹は花が咲きました

名稱: 炮仗花

英名: Orange Trumpet Vine

別稱: 黃金珊瑚

科別: 屬於紫威科，炮仗花屬

產地: 原產巴西

Name: The firecracker is colored

Illustrious name: Orange Trumpet Vine

alternate name: The gold coral

branch leaves: Belongs to the purple prestige branch, the firecracker flower is

The habitat: Produces Brazil originally

Nombre: Se colorea el petardo

Nombre ilustre: Vid de trompeta anaranjada

nombre alterno: El coral del oro

hojas de la rama: Pertenece a la rama púrpura del prestigio, la flor del petardo es

El habitat: Produce el Brasil originalmente

名称: 爆竹は使います。

英名: Orange Trumpet Vine 。

別称: 黄金のサンゴ。

科: 紫の威科に属して、爆竹は使って属します 。

産地: 原産のブラジル。

原圖JPG直出無後製

Original picture JPG is straight has no children the system

El JPG original del cuadro es recto no tiene ninguÌn niño el sistema原図JPGはずっと跡継ぎがいなくてつくることを出します

本圖無合成無折射

This chart does not have the refraction without the synthesis

Esta carta no tiene la refracción sin la síntesis

当合成がないことを求めて屈折がありません

可用放大鏡開1:1原圖

The available magnifying glass opens 1:1 original picture

La lupa disponible abre el cuadro de la original del 1:1

利用できる拡大鏡は1:1の原物映像を開ける

FIAT 128 SL Coupè year 1973

La passione per il FIAT 128 Coupè per WALTER STOCCHETTI impiegato postale a Trento è ETERNA. Lui oltre a questa simpatica e splendida sportiva Fiat 128 nel garage ha un 'Alfa Romeo Giulia in ottime condizioni con targa Trento , se sali nella sua Alfa Giulia sembra di essere in un salotto . Più avanti documenteremo anche l'Alfa Romeo Giulia di Walter ...poi ha una BMW moderna non di certo da quattro soldi ...il mio discorso era questo , sebbene Walter avrebbe potuto permettersi anche altre auto di prestigio Lui ha sempre avuto un vero autentico e fedele amore per questa Fiat 128 Coupè.

Walter si ricorda ancora bene ... anzi sembra ieri per lui quando aveva acquistato nel 1977 una Fiat 128 Sport di colore bianco , in quattro anni aveva fatto 200.000 Km l'aveva portata al colasso totale , era di c.c.1100 . Un particolare che non sta scritto sulla rivista che Walter si innamorò alle luci della sera vedendo a Trento in una concessionaria la Fiat 128 Coupè in esposizione ... amore a prima vista , platonico che si è conservato nel tempo. Walter cambia altre automobili ma non dimentica mai la 128 Coupè.

Nel 2001 raggiunta una certa tranquillità economica Walter si mette alla ricerca spietata del Fiat 128 Coupè aiutato anche dal figlio Christian . Dopo qualche mese di ricerche Walter trova nella sua città un "1100" (quello in foto) in livrea rosso/arancio (codice 171) di Bettini Renato referente per il Trentino/Alto Adige del registro Nazionale Fiat 128 Coupè Sport e avendone due uguali ha deciso di cederne una . Il costo dell'operazione per Walter fu tre milioni di lire che andranno nelle tasche di Renato ... da questo scambio poi è nata pure un'amicizia vera . L'auto si presentava in buone condizioni ma Walter immediatamente l'ha portata in carrozzeria dove viene smontata e riverniciata . Il costo finale del lavoro sarà 5 milioni di lire . Walter durante i lavori si mette di grande impegno per cercare accessori anni 70 per la sua auto e si fa montare una radio mangianastri Grunding con la console centrale ed un singolo altoparlante e antenna cromata sul tetto .

Walter non si accontenta di abbellire l'auto ma inizia una manicale ricerca di pezzi di ricambio ... in poco tempo riesce ad accantonare pezzi di ricambio tale che si potrebbe ricostruire altre due Fiat 128 Coupè , mi sembra che gli manchi solo una portiera per fare due 128 . Totale spesa per vari ricambi stiamo parlnado di quasi 21 milioni di lire . Tutti questi ricambi fanno pensare ad un utlizzo maggiore della vettura ed invece dal 2001 la Fiat 128 Coupè ha fatto solo 1000 km . Walter non ama i raduni o esposizioni varie forse proprio perchè è geloso maniacale della sua auto , insomma non sopporterebbe nemmeno un graffio ... a lui piace godersela in questo modo ammirandola nel suo garage o uscite brevi tipo la revisione ....Ecco che l'auto è finita su RUOTE CLASSICHE e sarà esposta al raduno di San Felice Bz " Oldtimer Festival " il 28 luglio di sabato .

WALTER non contento ancora ha iniziato una passione folle maniacale pazzesca di modellini , ha una vetrina a casa di oltre 50 modellini del tempo non stampi cinesi del Fiat 128 Coupè Sport e del Fiat 128 Rally in tutte le colorazioni originali con scatole autentiche . Walter non vuole fermarsi , tiene sotto occhio una Fiat 128 Coupè Sport bianco con targa Trento in un grarage della città ... lo vuole a tutti i costi per avere nel suo colore originale bianco la prima 128 Sport Coupè che ha avuto ...Walter prima del Fiat 128 ha fatto la gavetta con la Fiat 1100 R .

Sono davvero felice di avere testimoniato questa storia !

TRENTO 07.07.2012

FIAT 128 SL Coupè year 1973

WALTER STOCCHETTI, employee in a postal office in Trento is really obsessed by FIAT 128 Coupè. Apart from this wonderful Fiat 128, in the garage has a Alfa Romeo Giulia, well-conserved, immatriculated Trento. If you step into this Alfa Giulia it seems an elegant dining-room. Furthermore we will tell about Walter’s Alfa Romeo Giulia … because apart from these two cars, he has got a modern and luxurious BMW … I would like to say that walter can afford luxurious cars, but he prefers the Fiat 128 Coupè, which he loves so much.

Walter remembers very well when he bought, in 1977, a white model of Fiat 128 Sport. In four years he drove for 200 000 khilometers and risk to have the car collapsed. There is a particular which is not written in the magazine: during a past night, Walter fell in love with a Fiat 128 Coupè, which was exhibited in a car shop in Trento … Walter was really impressed by the car and remains so during the years. Walter had many cars, but he has never forgotten the Fiat 128 Coupè.

In 2001 Walter reached a good economical status and began to look for other Fiat 128 Coupè models; his son Christian helped him. After some months Walter found an orange/red Fiat 1100 (showed in the picture) (cod 171) which was owned by Renato Bettini, representative of the national register of model Fiat 128 Coupè Sport in the region Trentino/Alto Adige. Renato had two Fiat 128 models, then he decided to sell one of them. Walter bought one model for 3 millions of the old Italian Lira. From this sold a new friendship was born. The car was perfectly conserved but Walter had the car dismantled and coloured its bodywork. It costed almost 5 millions Lira.

During the process Walter was really concentrated to look for components of the years 70s for his cars: he had settled a Grunding radio with central controls, a single box and a satellite chromatic dish on the roof. Walter continued to look forFiat 128’s components … in few time he managed to have sufficient components to build two other Fiat 128 Coupè models: it fails only a door, if I’m not mistaeken. Walter spent about 21 millions Lira for components. All these components make people think Walter used a lot his car, but it’s not so. From 2001 the Fiat 128 Coupè model counts only 1000 khilometers. Walter loves car meeting, also because he is really obsessed! He is so jelous of his car and he is really obsessed to not damage it … he like to spend time admiring his car or to drive it for a really short time.

An article of the magazine RUOTE CLASSICHE was dedicated to Walter’s car, which will be exhibited in San Felice meeting (Bolzano province) on Saturday 28th July 2012.

Walter, who was not already satisfied, began a mania for little models. He has in his house a collection of more than 50 little car models, which are not made in China but historical ones, of Fiat 128 Coupè Sport and Fiat 128 Rally in all original colours with their original boxes.

Walter doesn’t want to stop his obsession. He wants to gain a white Fiat 128 Coupè model, immatriculated in Trento, which lies in garage in this same town … he wants it absolutely! Walter, before Fiat 128 drove the Fiat 1100 R.

I am really happy to have reported this story!

TRENTO 07.07.2012

Il castello Orsini-Odescalchi, noto anche come castello di Bracciano, è un castello nel comune italiano di Bracciano risalente al XV secolo. Costituito da tre cinta di mura esterne, presenta cinque torri, una per ogni vertice della fortificazione esterna. Fu costruito dopo il 1470 da Napoleone Orsini probabilmente con la collaborazione di maestranze Sistine. Il castello apparteneva a Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) dietro richiesta del papa (per motivi politici) fu donato al suo sottoposto capitano Orsini. Ne è prova lo stemma del comune un braccio che tiene una rosa (uno dei simboli degli Orsini). Il fratello di Napoleone (il Cardinale Latino Orsini) era il camerlengo di papa Sisto IV proprio negli anni in cui venivano costruiti quasi simultaneamente la Cappella Sistina e il Castello di Bracciano. Oggi è di proprietà degli Odescalchi, famiglia che proprio dagli Orsini rilevò il Ducato di Bracciano alla fine del XVII secolo. Il castello, aperto al pubblico nel 1952 da Livio IV Odescalchi, è visitabile e viene spesso usato per ricevimenti, celebrare matrimoni e per altri eventi privati e culturali. Il castello sorge nel 1470 intorno alla vecchia rocca medioevale dei Prefetti di Vico, risalente al tredicesimo secolo, su ordine di Napoleone Orsini che poi viene portata a termine dal figlio Gentil Virginio Orsini nel 1485. Nel 1485 fu ospite della famiglia Orsini il vescovo di Mantova Ludovico Gonzaga, figlio del marchese di Mantova Ludovico III Gonzaga, che fuggì da Roma a causa della peste. Nella sua storia il castello subisce molti cambiamenti inclusi i progetti di Francesco di Giorgio Martini che fu ospite nella corte di Genti Virginio nel 1490 per restaurare varie fortezze. Papa Alessandro VI nel 1496 arriva a confiscare il castello, animato da un profondo risentimento verso gli Orsini. In questi anni risalgono le prime decorazioni, tra i più famosi il ciclo della donna medievale che illustra la vita di corte del tardo Medioevo e l'affresco di Antoniazzo Romano che riproduce il trionfo di Gentil Virginio Orsini, pagina importante di questo pittore del Quattrocento. Terminato il diverbio con il papa gli Orsini riprendono il possesso del castello continuando così l'abbellimento e ampliamento del castello. Alla fine del Cinquecento Giacomo Del Duca, allievo di Michelangelo, realizza una serie di interventi in occasione del sontuoso matrimonio tra Isabella de' Medici e Paolo Giordano Orsini. In quella circostanza i fratelli Taddeo e Federico Zuccari furono chiamati a decorare alcune sale, tra le quali quella che nel 1481 ospitò papa Sisto IV della Rovere in fuga dalla peste che infuriava a Roma. Gli Zuccari, due tra i più importanti artisti della fine del Cinquecento, realizzarono gli affreschi con l'oroscopo dei due sposi e gli emblemi delle due insigni casate. Nel 1696 agli Orsini subentrarono gli Odescalchi antica famiglia di origine comasca, il cui prestigio si incrementò notevolmente quando uno dei suoi membri ascese al soglio pontificio con il nome di Innocenzo XI.

The Orsini-Odescalchi castle, also known as the Bracciano castle, is a castle in the Italian town of Bracciano dating back to the 15th century. Consisting of three outer walls, it has five towers, one for each vertex of the external fortification. It was built after 1470 by Napoleone Orsini, probably with the collaboration of Sistine workers. The castle belonged to Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) at the request of the pope (for political reasons) and was donated to his subordinate captain Orsini. Proof of this is the coat of arms of the municipality an arm holding a rose (one of the symbols of the Orsini). Napoleon's brother (Cardinal Latino Orsini) was the chamberlain of Pope Sixtus IV precisely in the years in which the Sistine Chapel and the Castle of Bracciano were built almost simultaneously. Today it is owned by the Odescalchi, a family who took over the Duchy of Bracciano from the Orsini at the end of the 17th century. The castle, opened to the public in 1952 by Livio IV Odescalchi, can be visited and is often used for receptions, weddings and other private and cultural events. The castle was built in 1470 around the old medieval fortress of the Prefects of Vico, dating back to the thirteenth century, by order of Napoleone Orsini which was then completed by his son Gentil Virginio Orsini in 1485. In 1485 the bishop of Mantua was a guest of the Orsini family Ludovico Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, who fled from Rome due to the plague. In its history the castle undergoes many changes including the projects of Francesco di Giorgio Martini who was a guest in the court of Genti Virginio in 1490 to restore various fortresses. Pope Alexander VI in 1496 confiscated the castle, animated by a deep resentment towards the Orsini. The first decorations date back to these years, among the most famous the cycle of the medieval woman illustrating the court life of the late Middle Ages and the fresco by Antoniazzo Romano which reproduces the triumph of Gentil Virginio Orsini, an important page of this fifteenth-century painter. After the quarrel with the pope, the Orsini regain possession of the castle, thus continuing the embellishment and expansion of the castle. At the end of the sixteenth century Giacomo Del Duca, a pupil of Michelangelo, carried out a series of interventions on the occasion of the sumptuous marriage between Isabella de 'Medici and Paolo Giordano Orsini. On that occasion the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari were called to decorate some rooms, including the one that hosted Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in 1481 fleeing the plague that was raging in Rome. The Zuccari, two of the most important artists of the late sixteenth century, created the frescoes with the horoscope of the couple and the emblems of the two famous families. In 1696 the Odescalchi, an ancient family of Como origin, took over from the Orsini, whose prestige increased considerably when one of its members ascended to the papal throne with the name of Innocent XI.

Le château Orsini-Odescalchi, également connu sous le nom de château de Bracciano, est un château de la ville italienne de Bracciano datant du XVe siècle. Composé de trois murs extérieurs, il possède cinq tours, une pour chaque sommet de la fortification extérieure. Il a été construit après 1470 par Napoleone Orsini, probablement avec la collaboration des ouvriers de Sixtine. Le château a appartenu à Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) à la demande du pape (pour des raisons politiques) et a été donné à son capitaine subordonné Orsini. Preuve en est le blason de la commune un bras tenant une rose (l'un des symboles des Orsini). Le frère de Napoléon (Cardinal Latino Orsini) était le chambellan du Pape Sixte IV précisément dans les années où la Chapelle Sixtine et le Château de Bracciano ont été construits presque simultanément. Aujourd'hui, il appartient aux Odescalchi, une famille qui a repris le duché de Bracciano aux Orsini à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Le château, ouvert au public en 1952 par Livio IV Odescalchi, peut être visité et est souvent utilisé pour des réceptions, des mariages et d'autres événements privés et culturels. Le château a été construit en 1470 autour de l'ancienne forteresse médiévale des préfets de Vico, datant du XIIIe siècle, sur ordre de Napoleone Orsini qui a ensuite été achevée par son fils Gentil Virginio Orsini en 1485. En 1485, l'évêque de Mantoue était un invité de la famille Orsini Ludovico Gonzaga, fils du marquis de Mantoue Ludovico III Gonzaga, qui a fui Rome à cause de la peste. Au cours de son histoire, le château subit de nombreux changements, notamment les projets de Francesco di Giorgio Martini qui fut invité à la cour de Genti Virginio en 1490 pour restaurer diverses forteresses. Le pape Alexandre VI en 1496 confisqua le château, animé d'un profond ressentiment envers les Orsini. Les premières décorations datent de ces années, parmi les plus célèbres le cycle de la femme médiévale illustrant la vie de cour de la fin du Moyen Âge et la fresque d'Antoniazzo Romano qui reproduit le triomphe de Gentil Virginio Orsini, page importante de ce XVe- peintre du siècle. Après la querelle avec le pape, les Orsini reprennent possession du château, poursuivant ainsi l'embellissement et l'agrandissement du château. À la fin du XVIe siècle, Giacomo Del Duca, élève de Michel-Ange, réalisa une série d'interventions à l'occasion du somptueux mariage entre Isabelle de Médicis et Paolo Giordano Orsini. A cette occasion, les frères Taddeo et Federico Zuccari ont été appelés à décorer certaines chambres, dont celle qui a accueilli le pape Sixte IV della Rovere en 1481 fuyant la peste qui sévissait à Rome. Les Zuccari, deux des artistes les plus importants de la fin du XVIe siècle, ont créé les fresques avec l'horoscope du couple et les emblèmes des deux familles célèbres. En 1696, les Odescalchi, ancienne famille originaire de Côme, succèdent aux Orsini, dont le prestige s'accroît considérablement lorsqu'un de ses membres monte sur le trône pontifical sous le nom d'Innocent XI.

Úbeda, Jaén (Spain).

ENGLISH

No treatment, playing only with the camera to get short DoF.

***

This Plaza, following a Renaissance design and a Christian old world royal concept, is one of the finest examples os Renaissance urban planning in Europe. Its religious and civil buildings, along with other focal points of the city such as the Market Place and the Plaza of Toledo, and the Plaza Vazquez de Molina, represents an arena of polotical, aristocratic and economic status. In this sense it reduces the importance of the old noble quarters of the Alcazar which suffers a decline in its population and prestige.

Source: www.ubedainteresa.com

--------------------------

CASTELLANO

Sin tratamiento, sólo jugando con la cámara para conseguir una PdC corta.

***

Esta plaza, desde su origen, bajo una concepción renacentista y una dialéctica entre el cristianismo, el mundo antiguo y la autoafirmación del linaje, se presenta en su globalidad como uno de los mejores ejemplos de urbanismo renacentista en España, con un conjunto de edificaciones religiosas y civiles de carácter unitario que marcan el ritmo de unas relaciones de prestigio y de poder a través del espacio.

Fuente: www.ubedainteresa.com