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La Llotja de la Seda de València o Llotja dels Mercaders és una obra mestra del gòtic civil valencià situada al centre històric de la ciutat de València. Declarada Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la Unesco, es troba situada a la Plaça del Mercat, nombre 31, enfront de l'Església dels Sants Joans i del Mercat Central de València.
Va ser construïda entre 1482 i 1548, i el seu primer constructor va ser Pere Compte entre els anys 1483 i 1498 sobre el model de la Llotja de Palma de Mallorca, constituint-se en un edifici emblemàtic de la riquesa del segle d'or valencià (segle XV) i mostra de la revolució comercial durant la Baixa Edat Mitjana, del desenvolupament social i del prestigi aconseguit per la burgesia valenciana.
La Lonja de la Seda de Valencia o Lonja de los Mercaderes es una obra maestra del gótico civil valenciano situada en el centro histórico de la ciudad de Valencia. Declarada Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco, se encuentra situada en la Plaza del Mercado, número 31, frente a la Iglesia de los Santos Juanes y del Mercat Central de Valencia.
Fue construida entre 1482 y 1548, y su primer constructor fue Pere Compte entre los años 1483 y 1498 sobre el modelo de la Lonja de Palma de Mallorca, constituyéndose en un edificio emblemático de la riqueza del siglo de oro valenciano (siglo XV) y muestra de la revolución comercial durante la Baja Edad Media, del desarrollo social y del prestigio conseguido por la burguesía valenciana.
València (Spain).
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Holy Family with young St. John the baptist and St Ann (1624) - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.
El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.
En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:
Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).
Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme
La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.
El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.
En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15
En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.
El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.
In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.
There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]
The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.
Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.
Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.
A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.
Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.
Montmartre in films
The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.
An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.
Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.
French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.
The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.
Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.
Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.
La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.
Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.
Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.
Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.
Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).
L'affresco raffigura la stirpe dei Doria e ne esalta il prestigio e il valore, associando i grandi uomini del casato a famosi eroi di Roma
Perin del Vaga (Piero di Giovanni Bonaccorsi 1501-1547) - Loggia of the Heroes (1531-1533) - Villa del Principe - Genoa
The fresco depicts the Doria family and enhances the prestige and value, associating the great men of the house to famous heroes of Rome
Villa del Principe, la più vasta e sontuosa dimora nobiliare della città di Genova, la Villa dell’unico Principe che Genova abbia mai avuto. Era il 1529 quando Andrea Doria, valente ammiraglio e uomo d’armi leggendario, diede il via ai lavori che avrebbero portato alla costruzione di questo meraviglioso palazzo affacciato sul Golfo di Genova.
Villa del Principe, the largest and most sumptuous noble residence of the city of Genoa, the Villa of the sole prince that Genoa has ever had. It was 1529 when Andrea Doria, skilful admiral and legendary man of arms, gave way to the work that would lead to the construction of this wonderful palace overlooking the Gulf of Genoa
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Holy Family with young St. John the baptist and St Ann (1624) - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
Hotel de Ville, Paris, France.
El Hôtel de Ville de Paris alberga las instituciones del gobierno municipal de París. El mismo se ubica frente a la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, anteriormente llamada Place de Grève, en el IV Distrito de la ciudad. Ha albergado el ayuntamiento de París desde 1357. Actualmente se utiliza para múltiples propósitos: aloja la administración de la ciudad, allí tiene su despacho el alcalde de París (desde 1977), y también se utiliza para brindar grandes recepciones. En los últimos años, la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville se ha engalanado en gran parte de primavera y verano con un "jardín efímero", en el que el Ayuntamiento instala miles de especies vegetales además de un hermoso estanque con sus respectivas especies de plantas, sin embargo, en 2009 no hubo estanque.
La plaza de Greve, rebautizada como la Place de l'Hotel de Ville de 19 de marzo 1803, se ha convertido en un espacio peatonal desde 1982. París ha sido objeto de varias insurrecciones, el ayuntamiento era a menudo el punto focal de los motines, los rebeldes y los revolucionarios. Desde Etienne Marcel, la Fronda, la Revolución de julio 1830 y febrero 1848, la Comuna de 1871 hasta la liberación de París, el ayuntamiento es un lugar cargado de historia.
El lugar donde se asienta el ayuntamiento de París es de gran prestigio, es donde los huéspedes son recibidos por el alcalde. El Ayuntamiento también se ha convertido en un espacio para exposiciones, es el edificio municipal más grande de Europa.
The Hôtel de Ville de Paris houses the institutions of the municipal government of Paris. It is located opposite the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, formerly called Place de Grève, in the 4th District of the city. It has housed the city hall of Paris since 1357. It is currently used for multiple purposes: it houses the administration of the city, there has its office the mayor of Paris (since 1977), and is also used to provide large receptions. In recent years, the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville has been adorned in much of spring and summer with an "ephemeral garden", in which the City Council installs thousands of plant species in addition to a beautiful pond with their respective plant species, however, in 2009 there was no pond.
The Place de Greve, renamed the Place de l'Hotel de Ville on March 19, 1803, has been converted into a pedestrian space since 1982. Paris has been the subject of several insurrections, the town hall was often the focal point of the riots , the rebels and the revolutionaries. From Etienne Marcel, the Fronde, the Revolution of July 1830 and February 1848, the Commune of 1871 until the liberation of Paris, the town hall is a place steeped in history.
The place where the city hall of Paris is located is of great prestige, it is where the guests are received by the mayor. The City Hall has also become a space for exhibitions, it is the largest municipal building in Europe.
Locomotora 220-2023 | Andaluces 6 | Año 1890 | Regne Unit | 40,64 t. | 80 Km/h. | Bobadilla
La Compañía Inglesa del Ferrocarril Bobadilla-Algeciras, luego integrada en la compañía de Ferrocarriles Andaluces, adquirió estas locomotoras para el remolque de sus trenes rápidos, probablemente debido al prestigio y extensión de estas locomotoras en el Reino Unido y por ser una compañía británica la concesionaria de la línea. Al pasar a RENFE cambiaron las duras sierras andaluzas por las líneas de Alicante a Albatera y Torrevieja, donde dejaron de prestar servicio al comienzo de los años sesenta. Las locomotoras con este tipo de rodaje fueron destinadas al remolque de trenes de viajeros. En toda la península abundan los perfiles difíciles, lo que explica su escasez.
The Compañía Inglesa del Ferrocarril Bobadilla-Algeciras -later part of the Ferrocarriles Andaluces company- bought these locomotives to tow its fast trains, probably due to their prestige and widely use in the United Kingdom and also because the line dealer was a British company. When they were transferred to RENFE they changed the hard mountain ranges of Andalusia for the Alicante-Talavera and Torrevieja lines, where they stopped working at the beginning of the sixties. As it has been said, they were used to tow passenger trains. Their shortage is explained because of the difficult profiles throughout the peninsula.
Santa Margherita Ligure, na Riviera Italiana da Ligúria, é uma comuna costeira que se destaca pela sua arquitetura característica com edifícios coloridos dispostos em anfiteatro ao longo do Golfo do Tigullio. A localidade, com uma história que remonta à era romana e fortificada no século XVI, desenvolveu-se no século XIX como um destino turístico de prestígio, atraindo visitantes com a sua orla marítima, praias e comércio ativo. O porto, central para a vida da comuna, recebe iates, barcos de pesca e cruzeiros, enquanto embarcações tradicionais, como o "gozzo", outrora usadas na pesca, agora servem o turismo náutico. Ponto de partida para explorar Portofino e o Parque Natural Regional de Portofino, Santa Margherita Ligure mantém um forte património arquitetónico, como a Basílica de Santa Margherita e a Villa Durazzo, combinando a beleza da Belle Époque com a proximidade do Mar Tirreno.
Santa Margherita Ligure, on the Italian Riviera of Liguria, is a coastal commune that stands out for its characteristic architecture with colorful buildings arranged in an amphitheater along the Gulf of Tigullio. The town, with a history dating back to Roman times and fortified in the 16th century, developed in the 19th century as a prestigious tourist destination, attracting visitors with its waterfront, beaches and bustling commerce. The port, central to the life of the commune, receives yachts, fishing boats, and cruise ships, while traditional boats, such as the 'gozzo', once used for fishing, now serve nautical tourism. A starting point for exploring Portofino and the Portofino Regional Natural Park, Santa Margherita Ligure boasts a rich architectural heritage, including the Basilica of Santa Margherita and Villa Durazzo, combining the beauty of the Belle Époque with the proximity of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
ENGLISH
The promoter Campo Volantín S.L. was the Company that extracted to contest the construction of a bridge that was saving the river Nervión not far from the emplacement where there is located today the prestigious Museum Guggenheim, in Bilbao, work of another recognized architect of international prestige, Frank O. Gehry.
The principal characteristic of the above mentioned project was consisting also of the fact that the bridge would have to be the sufficiently high thing as to stop to go on to the ships under his underpass. Santiago Calatrava, which gained the project, designed an impressive gangplank thanks to the great parabolic arch of steel that inclined and unfolded it crosses the gangplank across.
The arch of steel, with a circular section of 50 cm. Of thickness, it reaches a final height of 15 meters. The gangplank, with a total length of 75 meters, rises up to 8.5 meters of height with regard to his tide to open way to the ships under his underpass.
Two ramps of access in two sections of 2 meters of width each one and with a slope of 7 %, save the high difference that offers the gangplank her to cross of a side to other one. A few cables tightened of 30 mm. Of diameter they anchor to the arch of a white immaculate color for the sustenance of the surprising gangplank.
The architect endowed to this pedestrian gangplank of modern and innovative design by means of the employment a material of precious colorations, the translucent glass, and that together with the artificial lighting by means of a few areas lodged under the board, produce every night the visual only and authentic spectacular spectacle.
SPANISH
La promotora Campo Volantín S.L. fue la Empresa que sacó a concurso la construcción de un puente que salvase el río Nervión no lejos del emplazamiento donde se encuentra ubicado hoy día el prestigioso Museo Guggenheim, en Bilbao, obra de otro reconocido arquitecto de prestigio internacional, Frank O. Gehry.
La característica principal de dicho proyecto consistía también en que el puente tendría que ser lo suficientemente alto como para dejar pasar a los barcos bajo su paso inferior. Santiago Calatrava, que ganó el proyecto, diseñó una pasarela sobrecogedora gracias al gran arco parabólico de acero que inclinado y desdoblado cruza la pasarela de un lado a otro.
El arco de acero, con una sección circular de 50 cm. de espesor, alcanza una altura final de 15 metros. La pasarela, con una longitud total de 75 metros, se eleva a 8.5 metros de altura con respecto a su pleamar para dejar paso a los barcos bajo su paso inferior.
Dos rampas de acceso en dos tramos de 2 metros de ancho cada una y con una pendiente del 7%, salvan el alto desnivel que ofrece la pasarela para cruzarla de un lado al otro. Unos cables tensados de 30 mm. de diámetro se anclan al arco de un color blanco inmaculado para el sustento de la sorprendente pasarela.
El arquitecto dotó a esta pasarela peatonal de diseño moderno e innovador mediante el empleo un material de preciosas coloraciones, el vidrio translúcido, y que junto con la iluminación artificial mediante unos focos alojados bajo el tablero, producen cada noche un espectáculo visual único y auténticamente espectacular.
Copyright © José Miguel Hernández Hernández
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡山東慶寺), also known as Kakekomi-dera (駆け込み寺) or Enkiri-dera (縁切り寺), is a Buddhist temple and a former nunnery, the only survivor of a network of five nunneries called Amagozan (尼五山), in the city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the Rinzai school of Zen's Engaku-ji branch, and was opened by Hōjō Sadatoki in 1285. It is best known as a historic refuge for women who were abused by their husbands. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as the "Divorce Temple".
The temple was founded in the 8th year of Koan (1285) by nun Kakusan-ni, wife of Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284), after her husband's death. Because it was then customary for a wife to become a nun after her husband's death, she decided to open the temple and dedicate it to the memory of her husband. She also made it a refuge for battered wives.
In an age when men could easily divorce their wives but wives had great difficulty divorcing their husbands, Tōkei-ji allowed women to become officially divorced after staying there for two years. Temple records show that, during the Tokugawa period alone, an estimated 2,000 women sought shelter there. The temple lost its right to concede divorce in 1873, when a new law was approved and the Court of Justice started to handle the cases.
The temple remained a nunnery for over 600 years and men could not enter until 1902, when a man took the post of abbot and Tōkei-ji came under the supervision of Engaku-ji. Before then, the chief nun was always an important figure, and once it even was a daughter of Emperor Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, the daughter and only survivor of Toyotomi Hideyori's family, son of Hideyoshi, entered Tōkei-ji following the Siege of Osaka. Such was the nunnery's prestige that its couriers did not need to prostrate themselves when they met a daimyōs procession.
The two main buildings of the complex are the Main Hall and the Suigetsu-dō, but the latter is not open to visitors. The temple's old Butsuden, an Important Cultural Property, was bought during the Meiji period by businessman Tomitaro Hara and is now in the garden he built, Yokohama's Sankei-en.
Behind the temple there is a graveyard where many celebrities are buried, among them in adjacent graves are three men also famous among European Zen and haiku interested, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki and Reginald Horace Blyth.
Tōkei-ji - Wikipedia
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡 山東 慶 寺), también conocido como Kakekomi-dera (駆 け 込 み 寺) o Enkiri-dera (縁 切 り 寺), es un templo budista y un antiguo convento, el único superviviente de una red. de cinco conventos llamados Amagozan (尼 五 山), en la ciudad de Kamakura en la prefectura de Kanagawa, Japón. Es parte de la escuela Rinzai de la rama Engaku-ji de Zen, y fue inaugurada por Hōjō Sadatoki en 1285. Es más conocida como un refugio histórico para mujeres que fueron abusadas por sus maridos. Por esta razón, a veces se lo denomina "Templo del divorcio".
El templo fue fundado en el octavo año de Koan (1285) por la monja Kakusan-ni, esposa de Hōjō Tokimune (1251-1284), después de la muerte de su esposo. Debido a que entonces era costumbre que una esposa se convirtiera en monja después de la muerte de su esposo, decidió abrir el templo y dedicarlo a la memoria de su esposo. También lo convirtió en un refugio para esposas maltratadas.
En una época en la que los hombres podían divorciarse fácilmente de sus esposas, pero las esposas tenían grandes dificultades para divorciarse de sus maridos, Tōkei-ji permitió que las mujeres se divorciaran oficialmente después de permanecer allí durante dos años. Los registros del templo muestran que, solo durante el período Tokugawa, unas 2.000 mujeres buscaron refugio allí. El templo perdió su derecho a otorgar el divorcio en 1873, cuando se aprobó una nueva ley y el Tribunal de Justicia comenzó a manejar los casos.
El templo siguió siendo un convento durante más de 600 años y los hombres no pudieron entrar hasta 1902, cuando un hombre asumió el cargo de abad y Tōkei-ji quedó bajo la supervisión de Engaku-ji. Antes de eso, la monja principal siempre fue una figura importante, e incluso una vez fue hija del emperador Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, la hija y única superviviente de la familia de Toyotomi Hideyori, hijo de Hideyoshi, entró en Tōkei-ji tras el Asedio de Osaka. Tal era el prestigio del convento de monjas que sus mensajeros no necesitaban postrarse cuando se encontraban con una procesión de daimyō.
Los dos edificios principales del complejo son el Salón Principal y el Suigetsu-dō, pero este último no está abierto a los visitantes. El antiguo Butsuden del templo, una propiedad cultural importante, fue comprado durante el período Meiji por el empresario Tomitaro Hara y ahora se encuentra en el jardín que construyó, Sankei-en de Yokohama.
Detrás del templo hay un cementerio donde están enterradas muchas celebridades, entre ellas en tumbas adyacentes hay tres hombres también famosos entre el Zen europeo y los interesados en el haiku, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki y Reginald Horace Blyth.
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
L'affresco raffigura la stirpe dei Doria e ne esalta il prestigio e il valore, associando i grandi uomini del casato a famosi eroi di Roma
Perin del Vaga (Piero di Giovanni Bonaccorsi 1501-1547) - Loggia of the Heroes (1531-1533) - Villa del Principe - Genoa
The fresco depicts the Doria family and enhances the prestige and value, associating the great men of the house to famous heroes of Rome
Villa del Principe, la più vasta e sontuosa dimora nobiliare della città di Genova, la Villa dell’unico Principe che Genova abbia mai avuto. Era il 1529 quando Andrea Doria, valente ammiraglio e uomo d’armi leggendario, diede il via ai lavori che avrebbero portato alla costruzione di questo meraviglioso palazzo affacciato sul Golfo di Genova.
Villa del Principe, the largest and most sumptuous noble residence of the city of Genoa, the Villa of the sole prince that Genoa has ever had. It was 1529 when Andrea Doria, skilful admiral and legendary man of arms, gave way to the work that would lead to the construction of this wonderful palace overlooking the Gulf of Genoa
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡山東慶寺), also known as Kakekomi-dera (駆け込み寺) or Enkiri-dera (縁切り寺), is a Buddhist temple and a former nunnery, the only survivor of a network of five nunneries called Amagozan (尼五山), in the city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the Rinzai school of Zen's Engaku-ji branch, and was opened by Hōjō Sadatoki in 1285. It is best known as a historic refuge for women who were abused by their husbands. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as the "Divorce Temple".
The temple was founded in the 8th year of Koan (1285) by nun Kakusan-ni, wife of Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284), after her husband's death. Because it was then customary for a wife to become a nun after her husband's death, she decided to open the temple and dedicate it to the memory of her husband. She also made it a refuge for battered wives.
In an age when men could easily divorce their wives but wives had great difficulty divorcing their husbands, Tōkei-ji allowed women to become officially divorced after staying there for two years. Temple records show that, during the Tokugawa period alone, an estimated 2,000 women sought shelter there. The temple lost its right to concede divorce in 1873, when a new law was approved and the Court of Justice started to handle the cases.
The temple remained a nunnery for over 600 years and men could not enter until 1902, when a man took the post of abbot and Tōkei-ji came under the supervision of Engaku-ji. Before then, the chief nun was always an important figure, and once it even was a daughter of Emperor Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, the daughter and only survivor of Toyotomi Hideyori's family, son of Hideyoshi, entered Tōkei-ji following the Siege of Osaka. Such was the nunnery's prestige that its couriers did not need to prostrate themselves when they met a daimyōs procession.
The two main buildings of the complex are the Main Hall and the Suigetsu-dō, but the latter is not open to visitors. The temple's old Butsuden, an Important Cultural Property, was bought during the Meiji period by businessman Tomitaro Hara and is now in the garden he built, Yokohama's Sankei-en.
Behind the temple there is a graveyard where many celebrities are buried, among them in adjacent graves are three men also famous among European Zen and haiku interested, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki and Reginald Horace Blyth.
Tōkei-ji - Wikipedia
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡 山東 慶 寺), también conocido como Kakekomi-dera (駆 け 込 み 寺) o Enkiri-dera (縁 切 り 寺), es un templo budista y un antiguo convento, el único superviviente de una red. de cinco conventos llamados Amagozan (尼 五 山), en la ciudad de Kamakura en la prefectura de Kanagawa, Japón. Es parte de la escuela Rinzai de la rama Engaku-ji de Zen, y fue inaugurada por Hōjō Sadatoki en 1285. Es más conocida como un refugio histórico para mujeres que fueron abusadas por sus maridos. Por esta razón, a veces se lo denomina "Templo del divorcio".
El templo fue fundado en el octavo año de Koan (1285) por la monja Kakusan-ni, esposa de Hōjō Tokimune (1251-1284), después de la muerte de su esposo. Debido a que entonces era costumbre que una esposa se convirtiera en monja después de la muerte de su esposo, decidió abrir el templo y dedicarlo a la memoria de su esposo. También lo convirtió en un refugio para esposas maltratadas.
En una época en la que los hombres podían divorciarse fácilmente de sus esposas, pero las esposas tenían grandes dificultades para divorciarse de sus maridos, Tōkei-ji permitió que las mujeres se divorciaran oficialmente después de permanecer allí durante dos años. Los registros del templo muestran que, solo durante el período Tokugawa, unas 2.000 mujeres buscaron refugio allí. El templo perdió su derecho a otorgar el divorcio en 1873, cuando se aprobó una nueva ley y el Tribunal de Justicia comenzó a manejar los casos.
El templo siguió siendo un convento durante más de 600 años y los hombres no pudieron entrar hasta 1902, cuando un hombre asumió el cargo de abad y Tōkei-ji quedó bajo la supervisión de Engaku-ji. Antes de eso, la monja principal siempre fue una figura importante, e incluso una vez fue hija del emperador Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, la hija y única superviviente de la familia de Toyotomi Hideyori, hijo de Hideyoshi, entró en Tōkei-ji tras el Asedio de Osaka. Tal era el prestigio del convento de monjas que sus mensajeros no necesitaban postrarse cuando se encontraban con una procesión de daimyō.
Los dos edificios principales del complejo son el Salón Principal y el Suigetsu-dō, pero este último no está abierto a los visitantes. El antiguo Butsuden del templo, una propiedad cultural importante, fue comprado durante el período Meiji por el empresario Tomitaro Hara y ahora se encuentra en el jardín que construyó, Sankei-en de Yokohama.
Detrás del templo hay un cementerio donde están enterradas muchas celebridades, entre ellas en tumbas adyacentes hay tres hombres también famosos entre el Zen europeo y los interesados en el haiku, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki y Reginald Horace Blyth.
Calle Arbat, Moscú - Arbat Street, Moscow - У́лица Арба́т, Москва
La calle Arbat (en ruso: У́лица Арба́т)? es una calle peatonal de un kilómetro de largo, aproximadamente, en el centro histórico de Moscú, Rusia. Popularmente conocida como «el Arbat», ha existido por lo menos desde el siglo XV, por lo que se trata de una de las calles más antiguas que sobreviven en la capital rusa. Constituye el corazón del distrito moscovita de Arbat. Originalmente la calle formaba parte de una ruta comercial importante y fue el hogar de un gran número de artesanos.
En el siglo XVIII, la nobleza rusa llegó a considerar la calle Arbat como el salón de mayor prestigio en Moscú, resultando destruida casi completamente por un gran incendio durante la ocupación de Napoleón de Moscú en 1812 y hubieron de reconstruirla.1 En los siglos XIX y XX se la conocía como el lugar donde vivía la pequeña nobleza, artistas y académicos. En la época soviética vivían allí muchos funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango.
Hoy en día la calle y sus alrededores están experimentando una gentrificación y se considera un lugar deseable para vivir. Debido a los muchos edificios históricos y los numerosos artistas que han vivido y trabajado en la calle, la calle Arbat es también una importante atracción turística.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calle_Arbat
Arbat Street (Russian: Арба́т), mainly referred to in English as the Arbat, is a pedestrian street about one kilometer long in the historical centre of Moscow, Russia. The Arbat has existed since at least the 15th century, which makes it one of the oldest surviving streets of the Russian capital. It forms the heart of the Arbat District of Moscow. Originally the street formed part of an important trade-route and was home to a large number of craftsmen.
In the 18th century, the Russian nobility came to regard the Arbat as the most prestigious living area in Moscow. Almost completely destroyed by the great fire of 1812 associated with Napoleon's occupation of Moscow, the street required rebuilding. In the 19th and early 20th centuries it became known as the a place where petty nobility, artists, and academics lived. In the Soviet period, it housed many high-ranking government officials.
As of 2016, the street and its surroundings are undergoing gentrification, and it is considered a desirable place to live. Because of the many historic buildings, and due to the numerous artists who have lived and worked in the street, the Arbat has also become an important tourist attraction.
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Casa-Torre Tossal Montañés, situada en los alrededores de Valdeltormo (Teruel). historiasdelbajoaragon.wordpress.com/2012/06/13/arquitect...
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.
El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.
En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:
Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).
Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme
La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.
El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.
En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15
En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.
El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.
In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.
There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]
The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.
Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.
Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.
A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.
Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.
Montmartre in films
The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.
An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.
Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.
French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.
The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.
Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.
Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.
La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.
Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.
Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.
Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.
Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東叡山寛永寺円頓院) (also spelled Kan'eiji or Kaneiji) is a Tendai Buddhist temple in Tokyo, Japan, founded in 1625 during the Kan'ei era by Tenkai, in an attempt to emulate the powerful religious center Enryaku-ji, in Kyoto. The main object of worship is Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬師瑠璃光如来).
It was named in a reference both to the Enryaku-ji's location atop Mount Hiei (Tōeizan means "Mount Hiei of the East"), and also after the era during which it was erected, like Enryaku-ji (named after the Enryaku year period). Because it was one of the two Tokugawa bodaiji (funeral temple; the other was Zōjō-ji) and because it was destroyed in the closing days of the war that put an end to the Tokugawa shogunate, it is inextricably linked to the Tokugawa shōguns.
Once a great complex, it used to occupy the entire heights north and east of Shinobazu Pond and the plains where Ueno Station now stands. It had immense wealth, power and prestige, and it once consisted of over 30 buildings. Of the 15 Tokugawa shōguns, six are buried here.
Many temple structures were destroyed in the great Meireki fire of 1657. A new hall was constructed inside the enclosure of Kan'ei-ji in 1698. The temple and its numerous annexes were almost completely destroyed during the Boshin War's Battle of Ueno and never restored. Much of the site where it once stood was confiscated and is now occupied by Ueno Park.
What is today the temple's main hall was taken from Kita-in in Kawagoe (Saitama Prefecture) and transferred to the site of a former Kan'ei-ji subtemple. Kan'ei-ji's five-story pagoda and the Ueno Tōshō-gū shrine were amongst the gems of the old temple enclosure. Both stand undisturbed by the passage of years since the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The Shinobazu Pond itself and the Bentendō Temple which stands on its island used to be an integral part of Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, liking Lake Biwa, had Benten Island built in imitation of Chikubushima, and then the Bentendō on it. At the time the island was accessible only by boat, but later a stone bridge was added on the east, making it possible to walk to it. The Bentendō Temple was destroyed during World War II, and the present one is a reconstruction.
Kan'ei-ji - Wikipedia
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東 叡 山 寛 永 寺 円 頓 院) (también escrito Kan'eiji o Kaneiji) es un templo budista Tendai en Tokio, Japón, fundado en 1625 durante la era Kan'ei por Tenkai, en un intento de emular al poderoso centro religioso Enryaku-ji, en Kioto. El principal objeto de adoración es Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬 師 瑠 璃 光 如 来).
Se nombró en referencia tanto a la ubicación de Enryaku-ji en la cima del monte Hiei (Tōeizan significa "Monte Hiei del este"), y también después de la era durante la cual se erigió, como Enryaku-ji (llamado así por el período del año Enryaku ). Debido a que fue uno de los dos Tokugawa bodaiji (templo funerario; el otro fue Zōjō-ji) y debido a que fue destruido en los últimos días de la guerra que puso fin al shogunato Tokugawa, está indisolublemente ligado a los shōguns Tokugawa.
Una vez fue un gran complejo, solía ocupar todas las alturas al norte y al este del estanque Shinobazu y las llanuras donde ahora se encuentra la estación Ueno. Tenía una inmensa riqueza, poder y prestigio, y estuvo formado por más de 30 edificios. De los 15 shōguns Tokugawa, seis están enterrados aquí.
Muchas estructuras de templos fueron destruidas en el gran incendio de Meireki de 1657. Se construyó una nueva sala dentro del recinto de Kan'ei-ji en 1698. El templo y sus numerosos anexos fueron destruidos casi por completo durante la batalla de Ueno durante la Guerra Boshin y nunca fueron restaurados. . Gran parte del sitio donde una vez estuvo fue confiscado y ahora está ocupado por el Parque Ueno.
Lo que es hoy el salón principal del templo fue tomado de Kita-in en Kawagoe (Prefectura de Saitama) y trasladado al sitio de un antiguo subtemplo de Kan'ei-ji. La pagoda de cinco pisos de Kan'ei-ji y el santuario Ueno Tōshō-gū se encontraban entre las gemas del antiguo recinto del templo. Ambos permanecen impasibles por el paso de los años desde el fin del shogunato Tokugawa.
El estanque Shinobazu y el templo Bentendō que se encuentra en su isla solían ser una parte integral de Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, al igual que el lago Biwa, hizo construir la isla Benten a imitación de Chikubushima, y luego el Bentendō en ella. En ese momento, solo se podía acceder a la isla en barco, pero más tarde se agregó un puente de piedra en el este, lo que permitió caminar hasta ella. El templo de Bentendō fue destruido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el actual es una reconstrucción.
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡山東慶寺), also known as Kakekomi-dera (駆け込み寺) or Enkiri-dera (縁切り寺), is a Buddhist temple and a former nunnery, the only survivor of a network of five nunneries called Amagozan (尼五山), in the city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the Rinzai school of Zen's Engaku-ji branch, and was opened by Hōjō Sadatoki in 1285. It is best known as a historic refuge for women who were abused by their husbands. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as the "Divorce Temple".
The temple was founded in the 8th year of Koan (1285) by nun Kakusan-ni, wife of Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284), after her husband's death. Because it was then customary for a wife to become a nun after her husband's death, she decided to open the temple and dedicate it to the memory of her husband. She also made it a refuge for battered wives.
In an age when men could easily divorce their wives but wives had great difficulty divorcing their husbands, Tōkei-ji allowed women to become officially divorced after staying there for two years. Temple records show that, during the Tokugawa period alone, an estimated 2,000 women sought shelter there. The temple lost its right to concede divorce in 1873, when a new law was approved and the Court of Justice started to handle the cases.
The temple remained a nunnery for over 600 years and men could not enter until 1902, when a man took the post of abbot and Tōkei-ji came under the supervision of Engaku-ji. Before then, the chief nun was always an important figure, and once it even was a daughter of Emperor Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, the daughter and only survivor of Toyotomi Hideyori's family, son of Hideyoshi, entered Tōkei-ji following the Siege of Osaka. Such was the nunnery's prestige that its couriers did not need to prostrate themselves when they met a daimyōs procession.
The two main buildings of the complex are the Main Hall and the Suigetsu-dō, but the latter is not open to visitors. The temple's old Butsuden, an Important Cultural Property, was bought during the Meiji period by businessman Tomitaro Hara and is now in the garden he built, Yokohama's Sankei-en.
Behind the temple there is a graveyard where many celebrities are buried, among them in adjacent graves are three men also famous among European Zen and haiku interested, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki and Reginald Horace Blyth.
Tōkei-ji - Wikipedia
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡 山東 慶 寺), también conocido como Kakekomi-dera (駆 け 込 み 寺) o Enkiri-dera (縁 切 り 寺), es un templo budista y un antiguo convento, el único superviviente de una red. de cinco conventos llamados Amagozan (尼 五 山), en la ciudad de Kamakura en la prefectura de Kanagawa, Japón. Es parte de la escuela Rinzai de la rama Engaku-ji de Zen, y fue inaugurada por Hōjō Sadatoki en 1285. Es más conocida como un refugio histórico para mujeres que fueron abusadas por sus maridos. Por esta razón, a veces se lo denomina "Templo del divorcio".
El templo fue fundado en el octavo año de Koan (1285) por la monja Kakusan-ni, esposa de Hōjō Tokimune (1251-1284), después de la muerte de su esposo. Debido a que entonces era costumbre que una esposa se convirtiera en monja después de la muerte de su esposo, decidió abrir el templo y dedicarlo a la memoria de su esposo. También lo convirtió en un refugio para esposas maltratadas.
En una época en la que los hombres podían divorciarse fácilmente de sus esposas, pero las esposas tenían grandes dificultades para divorciarse de sus maridos, Tōkei-ji permitió que las mujeres se divorciaran oficialmente después de permanecer allí durante dos años. Los registros del templo muestran que, solo durante el período Tokugawa, unas 2.000 mujeres buscaron refugio allí. El templo perdió su derecho a otorgar el divorcio en 1873, cuando se aprobó una nueva ley y el Tribunal de Justicia comenzó a manejar los casos.
El templo siguió siendo un convento durante más de 600 años y los hombres no pudieron entrar hasta 1902, cuando un hombre asumió el cargo de abad y Tōkei-ji quedó bajo la supervisión de Engaku-ji. Antes de eso, la monja principal siempre fue una figura importante, e incluso una vez fue hija del emperador Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, la hija y única superviviente de la familia de Toyotomi Hideyori, hijo de Hideyoshi, entró en Tōkei-ji tras el Asedio de Osaka. Tal era el prestigio del convento de monjas que sus mensajeros no necesitaban postrarse cuando se encontraban con una procesión de daimyō.
Los dos edificios principales del complejo son el Salón Principal y el Suigetsu-dō, pero este último no está abierto a los visitantes. El antiguo Butsuden del templo, una propiedad cultural importante, fue comprado durante el período Meiji por el empresario Tomitaro Hara y ahora se encuentra en el jardín que construyó, Sankei-en de Yokohama.
Detrás del templo hay un cementerio donde están enterradas muchas celebridades, entre ellas en tumbas adyacentes hay tres hombres también famosos entre el Zen europeo y los interesados en el haiku, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki y Reginald Horace Blyth.
Il castello Orsini-Odescalchi, noto anche come castello di Bracciano, è un castello nel comune italiano di Bracciano risalente al XV secolo. Costituito da tre cinta di mura esterne, presenta cinque torri, una per ogni vertice della fortificazione esterna. Fu costruito dopo il 1470 da Napoleone Orsini probabilmente con la collaborazione di maestranze Sistine. Il castello apparteneva a Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) dietro richiesta del papa (per motivi politici) fu donato al suo sottoposto capitano Orsini. Ne è prova lo stemma del comune un braccio che tiene una rosa (uno dei simboli degli Orsini). Il fratello di Napoleone (il Cardinale Latino Orsini) era il camerlengo di papa Sisto IV proprio negli anni in cui venivano costruiti quasi simultaneamente la Cappella Sistina e il Castello di Bracciano. Oggi è di proprietà degli Odescalchi, famiglia che proprio dagli Orsini rilevò il Ducato di Bracciano alla fine del XVII secolo. Il castello, aperto al pubblico nel 1952 da Livio IV Odescalchi, è visitabile e viene spesso usato per ricevimenti, celebrare matrimoni e per altri eventi privati e culturali. Il castello sorge nel 1470 intorno alla vecchia rocca medioevale dei Prefetti di Vico, risalente al tredicesimo secolo, su ordine di Napoleone Orsini che poi viene portata a termine dal figlio Gentil Virginio Orsini nel 1485. Nel 1485 fu ospite della famiglia Orsini il vescovo di Mantova Ludovico Gonzaga, figlio del marchese di Mantova Ludovico III Gonzaga, che fuggì da Roma a causa della peste. Nella sua storia il castello subisce molti cambiamenti inclusi i progetti di Francesco di Giorgio Martini che fu ospite nella corte di Genti Virginio nel 1490 per restaurare varie fortezze. Papa Alessandro VI nel 1496 arriva a confiscare il castello, animato da un profondo risentimento verso gli Orsini. In questi anni risalgono le prime decorazioni, tra i più famosi il ciclo della donna medievale che illustra la vita di corte del tardo Medioevo e l'affresco di Antoniazzo Romano che riproduce il trionfo di Gentil Virginio Orsini, pagina importante di questo pittore del Quattrocento. Terminato il diverbio con il papa gli Orsini riprendono il possesso del castello continuando così l'abbellimento e ampliamento del castello. Alla fine del Cinquecento Giacomo Del Duca, allievo di Michelangelo, realizza una serie di interventi in occasione del sontuoso matrimonio tra Isabella de' Medici e Paolo Giordano Orsini. In quella circostanza i fratelli Taddeo e Federico Zuccari furono chiamati a decorare alcune sale, tra le quali quella che nel 1481 ospitò papa Sisto IV della Rovere in fuga dalla peste che infuriava a Roma. Gli Zuccari, due tra i più importanti artisti della fine del Cinquecento, realizzarono gli affreschi con l'oroscopo dei due sposi e gli emblemi delle due insigni casate. Nel 1696 agli Orsini subentrarono gli Odescalchi antica famiglia di origine comasca, il cui prestigio si incrementò notevolmente quando uno dei suoi membri ascese al soglio pontificio con il nome di Innocenzo XI.
The Orsini-Odescalchi castle, also known as the Bracciano castle, is a castle in the Italian town of Bracciano dating back to the 15th century. Consisting of three outer walls, it has five towers, one for each vertex of the external fortification. It was built after 1470 by Napoleone Orsini, probably with the collaboration of Sistine workers. The castle belonged to Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) at the request of the pope (for political reasons) and was donated to his subordinate captain Orsini. Proof of this is the coat of arms of the municipality an arm holding a rose (one of the symbols of the Orsini). Napoleon's brother (Cardinal Latino Orsini) was the chamberlain of Pope Sixtus IV precisely in the years in which the Sistine Chapel and the Castle of Bracciano were built almost simultaneously. Today it is owned by the Odescalchi, a family who took over the Duchy of Bracciano from the Orsini at the end of the 17th century. The castle, opened to the public in 1952 by Livio IV Odescalchi, can be visited and is often used for receptions, weddings and other private and cultural events. The castle was built in 1470 around the old medieval fortress of the Prefects of Vico, dating back to the thirteenth century, by order of Napoleone Orsini which was then completed by his son Gentil Virginio Orsini in 1485. In 1485 the bishop of Mantua was a guest of the Orsini family Ludovico Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, who fled from Rome due to the plague. In its history the castle undergoes many changes including the projects of Francesco di Giorgio Martini who was a guest in the court of Genti Virginio in 1490 to restore various fortresses. Pope Alexander VI in 1496 confiscated the castle, animated by a deep resentment towards the Orsini. The first decorations date back to these years, among the most famous the cycle of the medieval woman illustrating the court life of the late Middle Ages and the fresco by Antoniazzo Romano which reproduces the triumph of Gentil Virginio Orsini, an important page of this fifteenth-century painter. After the quarrel with the pope, the Orsini regain possession of the castle, thus continuing the embellishment and expansion of the castle. At the end of the sixteenth century Giacomo Del Duca, a pupil of Michelangelo, carried out a series of interventions on the occasion of the sumptuous marriage between Isabella de 'Medici and Paolo Giordano Orsini. On that occasion the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari were called to decorate some rooms, including the one that hosted Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in 1481 fleeing the plague that was raging in Rome. The Zuccari, two of the most important artists of the late sixteenth century, created the frescoes with the horoscope of the couple and the emblems of the two famous families. In 1696 the Odescalchi, an ancient family of Como origin, took over from the Orsini, whose prestige increased considerably when one of its members ascended to the papal throne with the name of Innocent XI.
Le château Orsini-Odescalchi, également connu sous le nom de château de Bracciano, est un château de la ville italienne de Bracciano datant du XVe siècle. Composé de trois murs extérieurs, il possède cinq tours, une pour chaque sommet de la fortification extérieure. Il a été construit après 1470 par Napoleone Orsini, probablement avec la collaboration des ouvriers de Sixtine. Le château a appartenu à Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) à la demande du pape (pour des raisons politiques) et a été donné à son capitaine subordonné Orsini. Preuve en est le blason de la commune un bras tenant une rose (l'un des symboles des Orsini). Le frère de Napoléon (Cardinal Latino Orsini) était le chambellan du Pape Sixte IV précisément dans les années où la Chapelle Sixtine et le Château de Bracciano ont été construits presque simultanément. Aujourd'hui, il appartient aux Odescalchi, une famille qui a repris le duché de Bracciano aux Orsini à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Le château, ouvert au public en 1952 par Livio IV Odescalchi, peut être visité et est souvent utilisé pour des réceptions, des mariages et d'autres événements privés et culturels. Le château a été construit en 1470 autour de l'ancienne forteresse médiévale des préfets de Vico, datant du XIIIe siècle, sur ordre de Napoleone Orsini qui a ensuite été achevée par son fils Gentil Virginio Orsini en 1485. En 1485, l'évêque de Mantoue était un invité de la famille Orsini Ludovico Gonzaga, fils du marquis de Mantoue Ludovico III Gonzaga, qui a fui Rome à cause de la peste. Au cours de son histoire, le château subit de nombreux changements, notamment les projets de Francesco di Giorgio Martini qui fut invité à la cour de Genti Virginio en 1490 pour restaurer diverses forteresses. Le pape Alexandre VI en 1496 confisqua le château, animé d'un profond ressentiment envers les Orsini. Les premières décorations datent de ces années, parmi les plus célèbres le cycle de la femme médiévale illustrant la vie de cour de la fin du Moyen Âge et la fresque d'Antoniazzo Romano qui reproduit le triomphe de Gentil Virginio Orsini, page importante de ce XVe- peintre du siècle. Après la querelle avec le pape, les Orsini reprennent possession du château, poursuivant ainsi l'embellissement et l'agrandissement du château. À la fin du XVIe siècle, Giacomo Del Duca, élève de Michel-Ange, réalisa une série d'interventions à l'occasion du somptueux mariage entre Isabelle de Médicis et Paolo Giordano Orsini. A cette occasion, les frères Taddeo et Federico Zuccari ont été appelés à décorer certaines chambres, dont celle qui a accueilli le pape Sixte IV della Rovere en 1481 fuyant la peste qui sévissait à Rome. Les Zuccari, deux des artistes les plus importants de la fin du XVIe siècle, ont créé les fresques avec l'horoscope du couple et les emblèmes des deux familles célèbres. En 1696, les Odescalchi, ancienne famille originaire de Côme, succèdent aux Orsini, dont le prestige s'accroît considérablement lorsqu'un de ses membres monte sur le trône pontifical sous le nom d'Innocent XI.
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Chile se ha convertido en la ultimas décadas en uno de los mas importantes productores de vino en el mundo. Ninguna otra región del país es mejor conocida y nombrada como lo es el Valle de Colchagua. Elegida en 2005 por la revista Wine Enthusiast como la "Mejor Region Vitivinicola del Mundo" por su capacidad para producir vinos tintos de clase mundial. Además por su belleza paisajística fue seleccionada entre los 10 lugares del mundo que usted debe conocer en el 2012.
El Valle de Colchagua se ubica a 160 kms al sur de Santiago. Es un rico valle de clima seco mediterráneo pero bien regado por los Rios Tinguirica y Chimbarongo. Las primeras haciendas datan de los tiempos de la colonización española, dedicadas a la agruicultura fueron adquiridas por prominentes familias de origen hispano. Estas familias cuyas fortunas provenían de la explotación minera a fines del siglo IXX, remplazaron las rusticas variedades de vino español por las finas sepas de Francia.
Chile es el único lugar del mundo que permanece libre de la peste por Phylloxera, que devastó las viñas europeas en el siglo IXX. Asi el Valle de Colchagua tiene viñedos de mas de 100 años de antigüedad.
Con mas de 50 viñas dedicadas a la producción de vino, incluyendo 27 marcas de prestigio mundial que se han establecido en el valle obteniendo premiados vinos tintos de fama internacional, sus Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah y Malbec figuran frecuentemente encabezando los listados de los mejores vinos del mundo. Asi la Ruta del Vino es uno de los mayores y mejores atractivos turísticos de Chile, tanto por la variedad de atracciones y actividades como su organización, tales como vuelos sobre el valle, cabalgatas, caminatas en bellos senderos, visitas a museos, bodegas, restaurantes y mucho mas.
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Chile has become a big league player in the global wine market in recent decades. And no other region in the country stands out as much as the Colchagua Valley, chosen by the Wine Enthusiast magazine as 2005’s Best Wine Region of the World for its ability to produce world class red wines. Choose one of the top ten region of the world that you should to known in 2012
The Colchagua Valley is 180 km to the south of Santiago. It is a rich valley with a mediterranean dry weather but with an abundant water supply from the Tinguiririca and Chimbarongo River. The valley’s first haciendas were established during colonial times. These vast autonomous agriculture and livestock farms were acquired by wealthy families of Spanish origin. These families, most of whom had earned their fortunes in Chile’s mining industry in the late 19th century, replaced the rustic Spanish varieties with fine French varieties.
Chile is the only wine-producing country in the world that remains free of Phylloxera, the pest that devastated European wineries in the 19th century. As a result, the Colchagua Valley has vineyards that are more than 100 years old
With over 50 vineyards inlcuding 27 vines of international reputation have settled their production centers is this valley, obtaining awarded red wines of international fame. Its full-bodied Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah and Malbec, and its wines regularly appear high on the world´s list of leading wines. The Wine Route is one of the velley finest tourist attraction and one of the most in the country, a wide range of activities can be found such as Flights over the valley, and Horseback Riding or Hiking on beautiful trails, museums, restaurants and many more.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Portrait of Charles Seton, second Earl of Dunfermline (c. 1640) - Van Dyck exhibition Court Painter - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
IN ENGLISH BELOW THE LINE
La petita i extraordinaria càmera Nagel Pupille és una concentrada joia de la fotografía dels anys 30. En molt poc espai es capaç de donar tot el rendiment possible a una pel·licula de format 127, ara quasi (però no del tot) extingida. Ah, i amés en aquest cas amb el famós Leitz Elmar f3.5 / 50mm que equipava les Leica.
Nagel fou un petit però rellevant fabricant de càmeres aleman a finals dels anys 20. August Nagel ja era un dels fundadors de Contessa a inicis de segle, i després s'agrupà amb altres per formar, el 1926, el gegant Zeiss-Ikon. Però força aviat Nagel en sortí, creat el 1928 la seva companyia homonima. Entre les diverses càmeres de gran qualitat que creà, en destaca le petita Pupille. Els seus models tingueren tant exit que Kodak trià Nagel per a fer-se amb una part del prestigiós mercat alemany i produir models de qualitat despres d'arrossegar fama de només fabricar càmeres barates. Així sorgiren les famoses Kodak Retina de 35mm, en certa manera filles de les Pupille (com el mateix nom indica). De fet la mateixa Pupille encara es produí entre el 1932 i el 1935 com a Kodak Pupille.
La Nagel Pupille és una càmera de format 127, sense telemetre però amb obturador Compur colapsable. Tot plegat la fa molt petita però de molta qualitat; és de les poques càmeres que empraren objectius Leitz, també. Amés, podien montar telemetres externs de la mateixa marca, ampliant les seves capacitats. Aquest exemplar fou fabricat el 1931, per els nº de serie del obturador i l'objectiu. Per desgràcia les velocitats estan força lentes i l'objectiu una mica ratllat.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Nagel
www.earlyphotography.co.uk/site/entry_C792.html
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The small yet extraordinary Nagel Pupille camera is a miniature marvel of the 30's photography. In very little space it is able to give the best performance to a 127-format roll-film. Oh, and also in this case with the famous Leitz Elmar f3.5 / 50mm lens, the same that equipped the Leicas.
Nagel was a small but relevant German cameramaker at the end of the 20s-early 30's. August Nagel was already one of the founders of Contessa at the beginning of the century, and then joined with others to create, in 1926, the giant Zeiss-Ikon. But quite soon Nagel came out, developing 1928 his own company. Among the various high-quality cameras that he designed, the little Pupille stands out. Their models were so successful that Kodak chose Nagel to take on a part of the prestigious German photographic market and produce quality models after dragging fame to only making cheap cameras. That's how the famous Kodak Retina was born, in some ways, as the heir of the Pupille (as the name implies). Even this camera was produced from 1932 to 1935 as the Kodak Pupille.
The Nagel Pupille is a 127-format camera, without rangefinder but with Computor collapsible shutter. All in a very small but high quality package; It is one of the few cameras that use Leitz's lenses, too. In addition, they could mount external rangefinders of the same brand, expanding their capabilities. This one was manufactured in 1931, as the serial number of the shutter and the tells us. In fact, the Elmar is one of the first produced, with a very low serial. Unfortunately the speeds are quite slow and the lens is slightly scratchy.
Il duomo di Santa Maria Assunta, al centro della Piazza dei Miracoli, è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa nonché chiesa primaziale. Capolavoro del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo apogeo.
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The facade of grey and white marble, decorated with colored marble inserts, was built by Master Rainaldo. Above the three doorways are four levels of loggia divided by cornices with marble intarsia, behind which open single, double, and triple windows.
The heavy bronze doors of the facade were made by different Florentine artists in the 17th century. Contrary to what might be thought, from the beginning the faithful entered the cathedral through the door of Saint Rainerius, found in the transept of the same name, which faces the bell tower. This was because the nobles of the city, who approached the cathedral by via Santa Maria, would find themselves precisely at this entrance. This door was cast about 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, and it is the only door not destroyed by the fire of 1595 that heavily damaged the cathedral.
The door of Saint Rainerius is decorated with 24 bronze relief sculptures showing stories of the New Testament. This door is one of the first produced in Italy during the Middle Ages, after the importation of numerous examples from Constantinople (to Amalfi, Salerno, Rome, Montecassino, Venice, etc.), and a completely western sensibility, detached from the Byzantine tradition, can be admired. Above the doors are four open galleries, with, at the top, the Madonna and Child and, in the angles, the four evangelists. The tomb of Buscheto is found to the left of the north door of the facade.
(Wikipedia)
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La rocca Sanvitale, nota anche come castello di Fontanellato, è una fortezza situata nell'omonimo paese in provincia di Parma. Domina il centro abitato di Fontanellato e si caratterizza per il profondo fossato d'acqua, che la circonda completamente.
La storia dell'edificazione della rocca Sanvitale può essere fatta risalire all'anno 1124, quando venne eretta una prima torre di difesa.
Nel 1386 le terre di Fontanellato, con la relativa rocca, vennero cedute ai Sanvitale.
Nel 1404, al feudo fu conferito il rango di contea: fu in tale periodo che il castello divenne una residenza signorile di notevole prestigio. La rocca appartenne alla famiglia Sanvitale fino al 1948, anno in cui Giovanni Sanvitale la vendette all'amministrazione comunale.
The Rocca Sanvitale, or Sanvitale Castle, is a fortress residence located in the centre of the town of Fontanellato, near Parma, northern Italy. Construction of the moated block, accessible through a drawbridge, was begun in the 13th century, mostly completed by 15th century, with embellishments continuing through to the 18th century. It is prototypical of the urban castle-houses of the turbulent medieval communes of Northern Italy. Until the 1930s it was the home of the descendants of the Count of Sanvitale.
The crenelated walls and asymmetric towers are surrounded by an arcaded town. Adjacent to the castle are gardens and a courtyard. The optical chamber (camera ottica) has an optical system in place that projects to an inside wall a view of the town through mirrors and a prism. Rocca Sanvitale is now partly a museum and partly offices and conference hall for the town administration.
Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
Sistine Chapel (Italian: Cappella Sistina) is the best-known chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope in Vatican City. Its fame rests on its architecture, evocative of Solomon's Temple of the Old Testament and on its decoration which has been frescoed throughout by the greatest Renaissance artists including Michelangelo, Raphael, Bernini, and Sandro Botticelli. Under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted12,000 square feet (1,100 m2) of the chapel ceiling between 1508 and 1512. He resented the commission, and believed his work only served the Pope's need for grandeur. However, today the ceiling, and especially The Last Judgement, are widely believed to be Michelangelo's crowning achievements in painting.
The Sistine Chapel takes its name from a pope, Pope Sixtus IV, who restored the old Cappella Magna between 1477 and 1480. During this period a team of painters that included Pietro Perugino, Sandro Botticelli and Domenico Ghirlandaio created a series of frescoed panels depicting the life of Moses and the life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe l’oeil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on August 15, 1483, Sixtus IV consecrated the first mass in honor of Our Lady of the Assumption.
Since the time of Sixtus IV, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the ceremony by which a new Pope is selected.
The Sistine Chapel is best known for being the location of Papal conclaves. More commonly, it is the physical chapel of the Papal Chapel. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, this corporate body comprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet. Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, generally St. Peters, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the Cappella Maggiore was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.
The Cappella Maggiore derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The Cappella Maggiore is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel the Cappella Maggiore was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.
The present chapel, on the site of the Cappella Maggiore, was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481. The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Michelangelo.
The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on August 9, 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day, and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Allegri's Miserere.
One of the primary functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke appears, created by burning the ballots of the election and some chemical additives, a new Pope has been elected. If a candidate receives less than a two-thirds majority, the cardinals send up black smoke—created by burning the ballots along with wet straw or chemical additives—it means that no successful election has yet occurred.
The conclave also provides for the cardinals a space in which they can hear mass, and in which they can eat, sleep, and pass time abetted by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.
Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VI abolished the canopies altogether, since under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row.
The Chapel is a high rectangular brick building, its exterior unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as common in many Medieval and Renaissance churches in Italy. It has no exterior facade or exterior processional doorways as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Papal Palace, and the exterior can only be seen from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. The internal spaces are divided into three stories of which the lowest is huge with a robustly vaulted basement with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court.
Above is the main space, the Chapel, the internal measurements of which are 40.9 meters (134 ft) long by 13.4 meters (44 ft) wide—the dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament. The vaulted ceiling rises to 20.7 meters (68 ft). The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end. Several of these have been blocked, but the chapel is still accessible. Above the vault rises a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking in to the vault of the Chapel.
Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the Chapel.
As with most buildings measured internally, absolute measurement is hard to ascertain. However, the general proportions of the chapel are clear to within a few centimetres. The length is the measurement and has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. The screen which divides the chapel was originally placed half way from the altar wall, but this has changed. Clearly defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architecture and reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.
The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de' Manfredi da Amelia. The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way form the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.
The screen or transenna in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts. Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The transenna is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the transenna also provided the cantoria or projecting choir gallery.
During occasional ceremonies of particular importance, the side walls are covered with a series of tapestries originally designed for the chapel from Raphael, but looted a few years later in the 1527 Sack of Rome and either burnt for their precious metal content or scattered around Europe. The tapestries depict events from the Life of St. Peter and the Life of St. Paul as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. In the late 20th century a set was reassembled (several further sets had been made) and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The full-size preparatory cartoons for seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.
Michelangelo Buonarroti was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the ceiling, originally representing golden stars on a blue sky; the work was completed between 1508 and 1 November 1512. He painted the Last Judgment over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul III Farnese.
Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II's approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.
The sources of Michelangelo's inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius influence. Nor is known the extent to which his own hand physically contributed to the actual physical painting of any of particular images attributed to him.
n 1508, Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the vault, or ceiling of the chapel. It took him until 1512 to complete. To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius' favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.
The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. He stood on this scaffolding while he painted.
Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. When the work was finished there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the Great Flood.
The Sistine Chapel's ceiling restoration began on November 7th, 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on April 8th, 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly-coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe.
The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in "buon fresco"; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, Michelangelo did not work "a secco"; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.
The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, took a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and "lamp black", all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another:- smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau's critical reading of the restoration data that has been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted "buon fresco" would remain.
Teto da Capela Sistina
Um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia livre:
Teto da Capela Sistina
O Teto da Capela Sistina é um monumental afresco de Michelangelo realizado entre os anos de 1508 e 1512 na Capela Sistina, no Vaticano, como o nome indica.
Na realização desta grandiloqüente obra concorreram amor e ódio... Michelangelo teria feito contrariado este trabalho convencido que era mais um escultor, que um pintor. Encarregado pelo Papa Júlio II, sobrinho do Papa Sisto IV, de pintar o teto da capela, julgou ser um conluio de seus rivais para desviá-lo da obra para a qual havia sido chamado à Roma: o mausoléu do Papa. Mas, dedicou-se a tarefa e fez com tanta mestria que praticamente ofuscou as obras primas de seus antecessores na empresa. Os afrescos no teto da Capela Sistina são, de fato, um dos maiores tesouros artísticos da humanidade.
É difícil acreditar que tenha sido obra de um só homem, e que o mesmo ainda encontraria forças para retornar ao local, duas décadas depois, e pintar na parede do altar, sacrificando, inclusive, alguns afrescos de Perugino, o “extraordinário espetáculo” do Juízo Final, entre 1535 e 1541, já sob o pontificado de Paulo III.
A superfície da abóbada foi dividida em áreas concebendo-se arquitetonicamente o trabalho de maneira que resultasse numa articulação do espaço dividido por pilares. Nas áreas triangulares alocou as figuras de profetas e sibilas; nas retangulares, os episódios do Gênese. Para entender estas últimas deve-se atentar para as que tocam a parede do fundo:
* Deus separando a Luz das Trevas;
* Deus criando o Sol e a Lua;
* Deus separa a terra das águas;
* A Criação de Adão;
* A Criação de Eva;
* o Pecado Original e a expulsão do Paraíso;
* o Sacrifício de Noé;
* o Dilúvio Universal;
* e o Noé Embriagado.
A Capela Sistina é uma capela situada no Palácio Apostólico, residência oficial do Papa na Cidade do Vaticano, erigida entre os anos 1475 e 1483, durante o pontificado do Papa Sisto IV. A Celebração Eucarística de inauguração ocorreu em 15 de Agosto de 1483.
Era um projeto relativamente simples e despretensioso, no início, destinado ao culto particular dos papas e da alta hierarquia eclesiástica, contudo, fruto de uma época de expansão política e territorial da Santa Sé, viria a tornar-se num dos símbolos desta, tamanha magnificência adquiriu.
A celebridade da capela deve-se, também, ao fato de nela se realizarem os conclaves para a eleição do Sumo Pontífice da Igreja Católica Romana.
A virada do Quattrocento para o Cinquecento foi um dos momentos mais marcantes para a História da arte ocidental, quiçá mundial. A Itália, com epicentro em Florença, deu ao mundo uma tal gama de geniais artistas que parece milagrosa. "Não há como explicar a existência do gênio. É preferível apreciá-lo", diz Gombrich, tentando entender por que tantos grandes mestres nasceram no mesmo período.
A Capela Sistina é um dos locais mais propícios para aquilatar a dimensão desta explosão criativa. Para a sua feitura concorreram os maiores nomes de que dispunha a Itália no momento.
Sisto IV, como parte da política que empreendia para o restabelecimento do prestígio e fortalecimento do papado, convocou a Roma os maiores artistas da Itália. Florença era o centro de excelência até então. De lá e da Úmbria vieram os maiores nomes, fato que deslocaria para Roma a capitalidade cultural, que atingiria o zênite algumas décadas depois, com a eleição de Júlio II para ocupar a Cátedra de São Pedro. Para a história da cultura o significado do projeto e construção da Sistina é imenso, juntamente com as demais obras encomendadas por Sisto IV. Não somente porque marca o deslocamento da capitalidade cultural para Roma, mas por se tratar do ciclo pictórico de maior relevo da Itália no final do século XV, "constituindo além disso um documento inapreciável para observar as virtudes e os limites da pintura do Quattrocento'".
Com exceção de Ghirlandaio, os pintores que nela assinalaram seus talentos avançam com a sua obra o século seguinte e os gênios que mudaram os rumos da pintura no período estão todos estreitamente relacionados com eles: Ghirlandaio fora mestre de Michelangelo; Rafael aprendiz de Perugino; e no atelier de Verrocchio passaram: Leonardo, Perugino e Botticelli.
Mais que um liame entre o Quattrocento e o Cinquecento, esta geração de artistas "representa um ponto final, a constatação de uma crise. Algo que ficará manifesto pelo fato de que tanto Leonardo como Michelangelo construírem em boa medida suas respectivas linguagens sobre a negação da deles".
foi o autor do projeto arquitetônico para a construção da capela. Este florentino era um dos responsáveis pela reformulação e revitalização urbanística que Sisto IV efetuava em Roma, tendo realizado dezenas de obras públicas.
No projeto, construído com a supervisão de Giovannino de Dolci entre 1473 e 1484, emprestaram seus dons: Perugino, Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Rosselli, Signorelli, Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo, Bartolomeo della Gatta, Rafael e outros. Coroando este festival, alguns anos depois, um dos maiores gênios artísticos de todos os tempos: Michelangelo Buonarroti.
As dimensões do projeto de Baccio Pontelli tiveram como inspiração as descrições contidas no Antigo Testamento relativas ao Templo de Salomão. A sua forma é retangular medindo 40,93 m de longitude, 13,41 m e largura e 20,70 m de altura. Os numerosos artistas vestiram o seu interior, esculpindo e pintando as suas paredes, transformando-a em um estupendo e célebre lugar conhecido em todo o mundo pelas maravilhosas obras de arte que encerra.
Uma finíssima transenna de mármore, em que trabalharam Mino de Fiesole, Giovanni Dálmata e Andréa Bregno, divide a capela em duas partes desiguais. Os mesmos artistas levaram a cabo a construção do coro.
Internamente, as paredes, divididas por cornijas horizontais, apresentam 3 níveis:
* o primeiro nível, junto ao chão em mármore - que, em alguns setores, apresenta o característico marchetado cosmatesco - simula refinadas tapeçarias. No lado direito, próximo à transenna está o coro;
* o intermediário é onde figuram os afrescos narrando os episódios da vida de Cristo e de Moisés. A cronologia inicia-se a partir da parede do altar, onde se encontravam, antes da feitura do Juízo Final de Michelangelo, as primeiras cenas e um retábulo de Perugino representando a Virgem da Assunção, a quem foi dedicada a capela.
* o nível mais alto, onde estão as pilastras que sustentam os pendentes do teto. Acima da cornija estão situadas as lunettes, entre as quais foram alocadas as imagens dos primeiros papas.
No último quartel do século XX, obras empreendidas no teto da Capela Sistina no intuito de recuperar o brilho original do tempo de Michelangelo foram motivo de inúmeras controvérsias.
Restaurações vinham sendo feitas ao longo dos anos, e desde a década de 1960 já se trabalhava nos afrescos mais antigos. O projeto mais audacioso, a cargo do restaurador Gianluigi Colalucci, iniciou-se em 1979 com a limpeza da parede do altar: o Juízo Final, de Michelangelo.
Durante este período a capela esteve fechada ao público que visita o Museu do Vaticano - cerca de 3.000.000 pessoas por ano - só voltando a ser reaberta em 8 de Abril de 1994.
[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.
More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album
[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.
Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid
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Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) portrait of Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio (1622-23) - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
Palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz, Viso del Marqués, Ciudad Real, Castilla-La Mancha, España.
El palacio del Marqués de Santa Cruz es un edificio situado en el municipio de Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), en la Comunidad autónoma de Castilla-La Mancha, en España. Fue construido a finales del siglo XVI por Álvaro de Bazán, primer marqués de Santa Cruz. Actualmente es la sede del Archivo General de la Marina.
Fue construido entre 1564 y 1586 con modificaciones posteriores, y se trata de un edificio de planta cuadrada y estilo renacentista articulado en torno a un atrio renacentista con una tumba yacente. Los muros y techos se hallan cubiertos de frescos de doble temática: por un lado, escenas mitológicas y, por otro, batallas navales y ciudades italianas relacionadas con la trayectoria militar del marqués y de sus familiares. Los frescos se deben a unos pintores manieristas italianos, los Péroli. Al verlos, Felipe II les encargaría trabajos para El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo.
Para levantarlo, el marqués contrató a un equipo de arquitectos, pintores y decoradores que trabajaron en la obra desde 1564 hasta 1586. Para algunos, el diseño del edificio se debió al italiano Giovanni Battista Castello, conocido como el Bergamasco, que más tarde trabajó en El Escorial; para otros lo trazó, al menos en su plan original, Enrique Egas el Mozo.
La arquitectura se percibe como típica española, sin las arquerías italianas, con paramentos lisos y torres cuadradas en las esquinas, influidos por la austeridad de El Escorial y el Alcázar de Toledo, dentro de las relaciones armónicas características del Renacimiento. El espacio central está ocupado por un patio porticado que junto con la escalera forma un conjunto típicamente manierista entendido como estilo elegante y cortesano que desborda el marco meramente arquitectónico. Contaba con cuatro torres que, al parecer, se derrumbaron a consecuencia del Terremoto de Lisboa de 1755.
Las paredes están decoradas con 8.000 metros cuadrados de frescos manieristas elaborados por Giovanni Battista Peroli con Esteban Peroli y César de Bellis. Todos trabajaron para crear un espacio erigido a la mayor gloria de su dueño: por un lado, había que exaltar sus virtudes militares, y por el otro, enaltecer su linaje. Para lo primero, se pintaron en las paredes, las bóvedas y los techos del palacio vistas de ciudades y de puertos, así como los baluartes y las batallas en los que había conquistado su inmenso prestigio. A ambos lados de la escalera se ubicaron dos estatuas en las que aparecía representado como Neptuno (dios de los mares, con su tridente) y como Marte (dios de la guerra), y sobre las puertas del piso superior se colocaron los fanales de popa de las naves capitanas vencidas en las batallas, que eran los trofeos de los marinos. Para elogiar su linaje, y siguiendo la misma tradición renacentista de representar a hombres como dioses o semidioses de la antigüedad, se pintó a los antepasados del marqués y a sus esposas (tuvo dos) e hijos.
Estos dos grupos de representaciones se aderezaron con trampantojos, pinturas que simulaban puertas, columnas y otros elementos decorativos y arquitectónicos; y también con motivos grutescos que incluían animales mitológicos, sabandijas y follajes. Conforme una temática muy variada que se puede interpretar como defensa del catolicismo defendido en Trento.
Las estatuas sepulcrales de Alonso de Bazán (hermano de don Álvaro) y su esposa María de Figueroa, son el único ejemplo de escultura funeraria perteneciente al primer tercio del siglo XVII. Fueron ejecutados para el Monasterio de la Concepción que ocupaba la Comunidad de Religiosas Franciscas de El Viso del Marqués, ubicándose a día de hoy en el muro del Palacio más cercano a los jardines. Su creador fue Antonio de Riera, escultor relacionado con la corte de origen catalán. En ellas, aparecen los marqueses en actitud de orante, arrodillados en un reclinatorio, todo ello en mármol blanco que resalta sobre el mármol negro de los nichos. Se advierte en ellos cierta similitud con la elegancia y el clasicismo de los Leoni, a pesar de cierta rigidez formal, siendo de especial relevancia la forma en la que están ejecutadas las telas y el detalle de los vestidos.
The Palace of the Marquis of Santa Cruz is a building located in the municipality of Viso del Marqués (Ciudad Real), in the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha, Spain. It was built in the late 16th century by Álvaro de Bazán, the first Marquis of Santa Cruz. It currently houses the General Archive of the Navy.
Built between 1564 and 1586, with subsequent modifications, it is a square, Renaissance-style building centered around a Renaissance atrium with a recumbent tomb. The walls and ceilings are covered with frescoes depicting two themes: mythological scenes, and naval battles and Italian cities related to the military career of the Marquis and his family. The frescoes are by Italian Mannerist painters, the Pérolis. Upon seeing them, Philip II commissioned works from them for El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo.
To build it, the Marquis hired a team of architects, painters, and decorators who worked on the project from 1564 to 1586. Some believe the building was designed by the Italian Giovanni Battista Castello, known as El Bergamasco, who later worked at El Escorial; others believe it was designed, at least in its original plan, by Enrique Egas the Younger.
The architecture is perceived as typically Spanish, lacking the Italian arches, with smooth walls and square towers at the corners, influenced by the austerity of El Escorial and the Alcázar of Toledo, within the harmonious relationships characteristic of the Renaissance. The central space is occupied by a porticoed courtyard that, together with the staircase, forms a typically Mannerist ensemble, understood as an elegant and courtly style that transcends the purely architectural framework. It had four towers that apparently collapsed as a result of the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755.
The walls are decorated with 8,000 square meters of Mannerist frescoes created by Giovanni Battista Peroli with Esteban Peroli and César de Bellis. They all worked to create a space built to the greatest glory of its owner: on the one hand, to exalt his military virtues, and on the other, to honor his lineage. To this end, views of cities and ports, as well as the bastions and battles in which he had earned his immense prestige, were painted on the walls, vaults, and ceilings of the palace. On either side of the staircase were two statues depicting him as Neptune (god of the seas, with his trident) and Mars (god of war). Above the doors on the upper floor were the stern lanterns of defeated flagships, trophies of the sailors. To praise his lineage, and following the same Renaissance tradition of depicting men as gods or demigods of antiquity, the marquis's ancestors, his wives (he had two) and children were painted.
These two groups of representations were embellished with trompe l'oeil paintings simulating doors, columns, and other decorative and architectural elements; as well as grotesque motifs that included mythological animals, vermin, and foliage. This varied theme can be interpreted as a defense of the Catholicism championed in Trent.
The sepulchral statues of Alonso de Bazán (Don Álvaro's brother) and his wife María de Figueroa are the only examples of funerary sculpture dating from the first third of the 17th century. They were executed for the Monastery of the Concepción, which was occupied by the Community of Franciscan Nuns of El Viso del Marqués, and are now located on the wall of the Palace closest to the gardens. Their creator was Antonio de Riera, a sculptor of Catalan origin associated with the court. They depict the marquises in a prayerful attitude, kneeling on a prie-dieu. All in white marble, which stands out against the black marble of the niches. There is a certain similarity to the elegance and classicism of the Leoni family, despite their formal rigidity, with the execution of the fabrics and the detail of the dresses being particularly noteworthy.
La Puerta del Sol es una plaza de Madrid (España). Aquí se encuentra desde 1950 el denominado Kilómetro Cero de las carreteras radiales españolas. El edificio más antiguo de la Puerta del Sol es la Casa de Correos y en ella destaca el reloj de torre que fue construido y donado en el siglo XIX por José Rodríguez de Losada, y cuyas campanadas de las 12 de la noche del 31 de diciembre marcan la tradicional toma de las doce uvas a la gran mayoría de los españoles. Dichas campanadas se empezaron a televisar el 31 de diciembre de 1962 en La 1 de TVE, a partir de ese año no se ha dejado de retransmitir por diversos canales de televisión de España. La Puerta del Sol es un lugar de cita, un lugar de paso entre diversas partes de Madrid. Es visita turística obligada de aquellos que se acercan a Madrid.
Historia
La Puerta del Sol fue en sus orígenes uno de los accesos de la cerca que rodeaba Madrid en el siglo XV. Esta cerca recogía en su perímetro los arrabales medievales que habían ido creciendo extramuros, en torno a la muralla cristiana del siglo XII. El nombre de la puerta proviene de un sol que adornaba la entrada, colocado ahí por estar orientada la puerta hacia levante. Entre los edificios que le daban prestigio en los comienzos se encontraba Iglesia del Buen Suceso y San Felipe el Real.
Aunque desde los siglos XVII al XIX la puerta tenía importancia como lugar de encuentro (aquí se encontraba uno de los mentideros más famosos de la villa desde el Siglo de Oro, las famosas gradas de San Felipe), no era una plaza definida, como la Plaza Mayor, y ocupaba la mitad del espacio actual. La Casa de Correos fue construida por el arquitecto francés Jaime Marquet entre 1766 y 1768; la misma fue posteriormente Ministerio de la Gobernación (Interior) y Dirección General de Seguridad del Estado durante la dictadura franquista y, actualmente, es sede de la Presidencia de la Comunidad de Madrid. Será esta Casa de Correos la que empiece a sentar las bases urbanísticas de lo que hoy es la Puerta del Sol y su creciente importancia como punto céntrico de Madrid. Tras la conversión de la Casa de Correos en sede del Ministerio de Gobernación (1847), se decide derribar algunas casas de la zona para realzar el edificio y darle seguridad. El resultado sería la creación de una gran plaza.
Para ello, en aplicación de las leyes de desamortización de Mendizábal, se derriban, entre otros, los conventos de San Felipe y Nuestra Señora de las Victorias allí ubicados. Entre 1857 y 1862, Lucio del Valle, Juan Rivera y José Morer llevan a cabo la reforma de la plaza, dándole su fisonomía actual. Para ello mantienen la alineación de la Casa de Correos en uno de los lados y construyen edificios de viviendas con fachadas uniformes definiendo un espacio de forma semicircular.
En 1959 es reformada por Manuel Herrero Palacios incorporando en su centro una zona ajardinada y las fuentes. En 1986 los arquitectos Antonio Riviere, Javier Ortega y Antón Capitel introducen una nueva reforma, adquiriendo más importancia la zona peatonal. Las farolas instaladas con motivo de esta remodelación, fueron apodadas popularmente como los supositorios y provocaron una gran polémica debido a su diseño moderno. Finalmente fueron sustituidas por las actuales farolas de estilo "fernandino", si bien en los dos postes centrales de la plaza los supositorios pervivieron algunos años más, para ser unificadas unos años más tarde con las del resto de la plaza.
Entre 2004 y 2009 se realizaron las obras de construcción de un intercambiador de transportes, inaugurado el 27 de junio de 2009, que acerca la red ferroviaria de Cercanías a la estación subterránea de Sol. La estación se ha convertido por sus dimensiones en la más grande del mundo1 con 28 m de profundidad, 207 m de longitud y 20 m de ancho. Su vestíbulo tiene 7500 m². La entrada al intercomunicador, parecida a un iglú ha vuelto a cambiar la fisonomía de la Puerta del Sol.
El 15 de mayo de 2011, tras una manifestación convocada por la plataforma Democracia Real Ya, decenas de manifestantes acamparon en la plaza esa misma noche, sumándose cada día más personas y siendo millares durante la semana siguiente, reclamando un cambio político, social y económico en España. Se convierte así la plaza en el símbolo del Movimiento 15M. El día 2 de agosto, la Policía Nacional desalojó a los últimos acampados.
Edificios representativos y elementos ornamentales
Hitos importantes en esta plaza, aparte de la placa correspondiente al mencionado Kilómetro Cero frente a la Casa de Correos, son la Estatua del Oso y el Madroño, popular punto de encuentro de los madrileños, erigida en 1967 enfrente del edificio de Tío Pepe, posteriormente trasladada a la boca de la calle del Carmen y reubicada en su lugar original el 25 de septiembre de 2009;2 sendas placas en la fachada de la Casa de Correos, dedicadas, una a los héroes del levantamiento popular del 2 de mayo y la otra a las víctimas de los atentados del 11 de marzo de 2004 y a las personas que colaboraron el día de la catástrofe; la Estatua de la Mariblanca, reproducción de una antigua y popular escultura que adornaba la fuente que allí existía; y el cartel publicitario de neón de los vinos Tío Pepe creado por el burgales Luis Pérez Solero, último superviviente de los numerosos anuncios que en otros tiempos había en esta plaza. La Puerta del sol se ve rodeada de catorce edificios. De la misma época data la medida de 635,50 metros sobre el nivel medio del mar de Alicante.
El último elemento añadido, en 1994, es la estatua ecuestre de Carlos III. Para elegir su emplazamiento fue convocado un referéndum popular, que tuvo lugar en la propia Puerta del Sol, colocando la estatua, provisionalmente durante el período del referéndum, en el lugar que más o menos hoy ocupa. Es una reproducción en bronce de Miguel Ángel Rodríguez y Eduardo Zancada de la obra de Juan Pascual de Mena que se conserva en la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. La inscripción en espiral que rodea el pedestal describe brevemente la historia del reinado de Carlos III. El monumento mide nueve metros de altura. Como curiosidad, cabe señalarse que, en él se instaló un dispositivo electrónico para alejar a las palomas que sobre él se posaban continuamente. Uno de los más representativos es Casa Cordero (Calle mayor 1).
Comunicaciones y transportes
La Puerta del Sol ha sido y es uno de los principales nudos del transporte público de la ciudad. En ella convergían numerosas líneas de tranvías (tranvías de Madrid). La primera línea de metro (las obras se iniciaron en abril de 1917) se inauguró entre Sol y Cuatro Caminos el 17 de octubre de 1919, para la que se construyó, por el arquitecto Antonio Palacios, una bella marquesina de acceso en el centro de la plaza, desaparecida para dar paso a la circulación rodada.
En la actualidad bajo la Puerta del Sol se ubica una estación multimodal del Consorcio de Transportes de Madrid que integra servicios de ferrocarril suburbano y de la red de ferrocarriles de cercanías de RENFE.
Líneas de Metro
En la estación de Sol de la plaza tienen su cabecera numerosas líneas de la EMT (desviadas por las obras del Ministerio de Fomento), convergen tres líneas de metro:
Línea 1
Línea 2
Línea 3
Red de cercanías
Desde 2009 están operativas dos líneas de Cercanías ferroviarias:
C-3
C-4
que ponen a Sol en comunicación directa con las estaciones de Atocha-Cercanías y Chamartín.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerta_del_Sol_%28Madrid%29
The Puerta del Sol (Spanish for "Gate of the Sun") is one of the best known and busiest places in Madrid. This is the centre (Km 0) of the radial network of Spanish roads. The square also contains the famous clock whose bells mark the traditional eating of the Twelve Grapes and the beginning of a new year. The New Year's celebration has been broadcast live on La 1 since December 31, 1962.
History
The Puerta del Sol originated as one of the gates in the city wall that surrounded Madrid in the 15th century. Outside the wall, medieval suburbs began to grow around the Christian Wall of the 12th century. The name of the gate came from the rising sun which decorated the entry, since the gate was oriented to the east.
Between the 17th and 19th centuries, the area was an important meeting place: as the goal for the couriers coming from abroad and other parts of Spain to the Post Office, it was visited by those eager for the latest news. The stairs to the Saint Philip church at the square were known as the Gradas de San Felipe, and were among the most prolific mentideros de la Corte (this Spanish idiom sounds as "lie-spreaders of the Court", but it is related with the verb mentar, "to say about someone", not mentir, "to lie", so it is more appropriately translated as "places of the City where people buzz about other people").
The House of the Post Office was built by French Architect Jacques Marquet between 1766 and 1768. The building was the headquarters of the Ministry of Interior and State Security during the Francisco Franco dictatorship. It is currently the seat of the Presidency of the Madrid Community.
Famous buildings and landmarks
The Puerta del Sol contains a number of well known sights associated both domestically and internationally with Spain. On the south side, the old Post Office serves as the office of the President of Madrid, the head of the regional government of the Autonomous Community of Madrid (not to be confused with the Madrid City Council, which is housed elsewhere). Also on its south side, the square holds a mounted statue of Charles III of Spain, nicknamed "el rey alcalde" ("the mayor-king") due to the extensive public works programme he set in motion. The famous Tío Pepe lighted sign is above the square's eastern building between the Calle de Alcalá and the Carrera de San Jerónimo. On the east side lies a statue of a bear and a madrone tree (madroño), the heraldic symbol of Madrid. Until 2009, the statue stood on the north side at the entrance to Calle del Carmen. The Mariblanca (actually Venus) marks the place of a former fountain.
The kilómetro cero is a plaque on the ground directly north of the Post Office serving as the symbolic centre of Spain. In addition to signalling the basis of numbering in the Spanish road system, the symbolic nature of the plaza ensures that it is the site of many rallies and protests, particularly against violence and war. Sol has seen protests against the terrorism perpetrated the March 11th attacks on commuter trains, and Spain's involvement in the Iraq War
In 2011, the square has become established as a focal point and a symbol for the ongoing Spanish democracy demonstrations. The demonstrations included camping in the middle of the plaza (@acampadasol) initiated on May 15 amidst the election campaign for city halls and Autonomous Communities governments and fuelled up by Social media, particularly Twitter and Facebook. The demonstrations have then spread to many (more than 60) other cities in Spain. From 12 June remains in the square a free-standing domed structure pallets that fulfills the functions of information point 15-M Movement. This continued all the summer of 2011 until the dawn of August 2, when the national police decided to evict it. Currently dozens of committees have their assemblies in the iconic square.
Location in Madrid
The Puerta is located in the very heart of Madrid. Immediately to the southwest lies the Plaza Mayor; the Palacio Real, the official home of the Royal Family, is further west. Parliament and the museum district are to the east and the train station Atocha is to the southeast.
Under the square lies a public transport hub served by lines 1, 2 and 3 of the Madrid Metro. A commuter service was inaugurated on June 27, 2009, four years behind schedule. The lateness of the construction was in part due to the discovery of the remains of the Church of Our Lady of Good Success during the excavation of the main chamber. The new station connects the Puerta to Madrid's commuter rail system and, by extension, to Spain's railroads via direct connections to Atocha and Chamartín railway stations [2].
The square connects several commercial and recreational areas together, and thus both it and the surrounding streets consist mainly of shopping establishments catering to locals and tourists alike, like the several El Corte Inglés department store buildings in Preciados Street, La Mallorquina cafe, and numerous, ever-changing restaurants. The area remains active late into the night and early morning since nearby bars and dance clubs often only start entertainment at 1 am. Street music is also common in the area.
Side streets close to the square also contain residential flats, some small offices, and tourist hostels.
Namesakes
Puerta del Sol, Spanish for door of the sun, it was seen as the entrance to the city, Madrid, which was in a native language the word for Sun.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerta_del_Sol
La Puerta del Sol (littéralement « porte du Soleil » en espagnol, ainsi nommée parce qu'au fronton de l'un de ses édifices figurait jadis un cadran solaire), est une place de Madrid.
Elle est située au centre de la ville et elle en symbolise le cœur. Elle est aussi le point kilométrique zéro des distances à Madrid, elle est au centre géométrique du pays.
Depuis 2009, la place est réservée aux piétons.
C'est ici que tout le monde se réunit habituellement le 31 décembre pour fêter le nouvel an au son de l'horloge de la Casa de Correos, édifice le plus ancien de la Puerta del Sol. La coutume veut que l'on avale un raisin à chaque son de cloche (las doce uvas).
À l'entrée de la calle Alcalá allant de la Puerta del Sol à Canillejas, on peut voir la statue symbolisant Madrid : l'ours et l'arbousier (el oso y el madroño).
Mouvement 15M
En 2011, suite à une manifestation le 15 mai à l'appel du mouvement ¡Democracia Real Ya! (Une vraie démocratie, maintenant), de nombreux manifestants ont occupé la place Puerta del Sol pendant plus d'une semaine, nuit et jour. Des dizaines de milliers de personnes s'y réunirent chaque jour, débattant et s'appropriant l'espace public. À la manière de la place Tahrir au Caire lors de la révolution égyptienne de 2011, la Puerta del Sol est devenue un symbole de la lutte en faveur d'une vraie démocratie lors des manifestations de mai 2011 en Espagne.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Portrait of Prince William of Nassau-Orange and Princess Maria Stuart (1641 - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
Colonia (en alemán: Köln [kœln]; en kölsch: Kölle [ˈkœɫə]) es la cuarta ciudad más grande de Alemania, precedida por Berlín, Hamburgo y Múnich, y la más poblada dentro del Estado federado de Renania del Norte-Westfalia, aunque Düsseldorf es la capital del Estado. Fundada en el año 38 a. C. como Oppidum Ubiorum («Ciudad de los Ubios»), fue posteriormente declarada colonia romana con el nombre de Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium en alusión a la emperatriz Agripina, esposa del emperador Claudio y madre de Nerón.
Es un importante centro económico y cultural de importancia internacional y representa uno de los enclaves más importantes del mundo artístico. Es famoso por ser la sede del carnaval más espectacular del país. Además es la sede de muchas asociaciones, empresas mediáticas y numerosas cadenas de televisión, discográficas y editoriales. Su importancia reside en parte en su monumento más emblemático: la catedral, su historia de más de 2000 años, sus numerosos eventos internacionales, como su cultura y su gastronomía que lo hacen uno de los destinos más visitados de Europa. La Universidad de Colonia (alrededor de 50 000 estudiantes), la Escuela Técnica Superior de Colonia (alrededor de 25 000 estudiantes) y demás escuelas superiores representa la gran importancia educativa y de investigación dentro de la región del Rin-Ruhr.
La excelente ubicación en el río Rin, en mitad de las principales rutas comerciales entre este y oeste, como sede secular como Ciudad Libre Imperial tanto como su poder eclesiástico a través del arzobispado en el Sacro Imperio Romano le consiguió granjearse un gran prestigio e importancia en el país. Como ciudad hanseática ganó mucha importancia comercial a través del libre comercio con el resto de la Hansa. Su importancia como centro neurálgico de las comunicaciones siguen hoy día con la gran cantidad de viajeros en tren que salen cada día de la Estación Central (Hauptbahnhof), y la estación Köln Eifeltor, que es uno de los mayores patios de carga ferroviarios para el transporte de mercancías. El transporte aéreo también tiene su importancia en la ciudad debido al aeropuerto de Colonia/Bonn.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonia_(Alemania)
Cologne (German: Köln or sometimes Kölle) is a city on the Rhine River in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany. About 1,060,000 people live there.
The city was founded by the Romans in the year 50. Before that, it was a Roman castle ("castellum") and a town inhabited by a local German tribe named Ubier at least for 100 years. Archaeologists have found out that the surrounding area was populated already during the stone age.
The most interesting thing to see there is Cologne Cathedral. This church was built from about 1248 to about 1550, but completed only in 1880. The United Nations list it as 'World Cultural Heritage'. Cologne's archbishop Rainald von Dassel brought the relics of the biblical Three Wise Men there in 1164. They are kept in a very beautiful golden shrine in the cathedral. Three golden crowns in the coat of arms of the city symbolize them. They made Cologne a major place of pilgrimage.
simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne
El río Rin (en alemán: Rhein; en francés: Rhin; en neerlandés: Rijn; en romanche: Rain) es un importante río de Europa, la vía fluvial más utilizada de la Unión Europea (UE). Con una longitud de 1233 km (14° más largo de Europa), es navegable en un tramo de 883 km entre Basilea (Suiza) y su delta en el mar del Norte.
El nombre Rin es de origen celta y significa 'fluir' (como en griego antiguo rheīn 'fluir'). Junto con el Danubio, el Rin constituía la mayor parte de la frontera septentrional (el limes) del Imperio romano. Los romanos lo denominaban Rhēnus.
The Rhine (Latin: Rhenus, Romansh: Rein, German: Rhein, French: le Rhin[1], Italian: Reno, Dutch: Rijn) is a European river that begins in the Swiss canton of Graubünden in the southeastern Swiss Alps, forms part of the Swiss-Liechtenstein, Swiss-Austrian, Swiss-German and then the Franco-German border, then flows through the German Rhineland and the Netherlands and eventually empties into the North Sea.
The largest city on the Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe (after the Danube), at about 1,230 km (760 mi), with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s (100,000 cu ft/s).
The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the northern inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days, the Rhine has been a vital and navigable waterway carrying trade and goods deep inland. Its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire is supported by the many castles and fortifications built along it. In the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism.
Man mano che ci si avvicina a Riohacha dalle abitazioni s' incontrano popolazioni della cultura Wayuu già sviluppata in epoca precolombiana. Particolare importanza ha l'iniziazione alla vita adulta delle ragazze, che naturalmente devono essere vergini. All'apparire della prima mestruazione, la giovane viene rapata a zero. Le viene data una bevanda vegetale che le provoca il vomito per liberarla di ogni impuritá che le ristagnava nello stomaco. La giovane viene poi lavata, ed il suo corpo viene cosparso di erbe profumate, per renderla atrattiva al sesso opposto. La giovane viene inoltre istruita sotto l'aspetto economico, e le viene insegnata l'arte di tessere, molto importante nella cultura Wayúu. Infine le vengono insegnate le doti di una “buona moglie”.. Quando si valuta che la ragazza sia pronta, le si pittura il viso e da quel momento acquisisce lo status di donna adulta. Per quanto riguarda il matrimonio, si deve ricordare che esso si realizza mediante l'acquisto della moglie che viene pagata in capre o in denaro. Questa pratica, ancora in uso oggi, deriva dal fatto che la donna ha una notevole
importanza economica nella società Wayùu e la sua uscita dalla famiglia deve essere compensata finanziariamente. I Wayúu adottano la poligamia, che è segno di ricchezza e di prestigio.
As you approach the home Riohacha s' meet people Wayuu culture developing in pre-Columbian times. Of particular importance is the initiation into adulthood for girls, which of course must be virgins. First appearance of menstruation, the girl is shaved to zero. The plant is given a drink that causes vomiting to rid of any impurities that hung in the stomach. The girl is then washed, and his body is covered with fragrant herbs, atrattiva to make it to the opposite sex. The young man is also educated in economic terms, and are taught the art of weaving, very important in the Wayuu culture. Finally, are taught the skills of a "good wife" .. When considering that the girl is ready, the painting is the face and from that moment acquires the status of adult women. As for marriage, you must remember that it is realized through the purchase of the wife who is paid in cash or goats. This practice, still in use today, derives from the fact that the woman has a considerable economic importance in society and its exit from the Wayuu family should be compensated financially. The Wayuu adopt polygamy, which is a sign of wealth and prestige.
(cit.Wikipendia)
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東叡山寛永寺円頓院) (also spelled Kan'eiji or Kaneiji) is a Tendai Buddhist temple in Tokyo, Japan, founded in 1625 during the Kan'ei era by Tenkai, in an attempt to emulate the powerful religious center Enryaku-ji, in Kyoto. The main object of worship is Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬師瑠璃光如来).
It was named in a reference both to the Enryaku-ji's location atop Mount Hiei (Tōeizan means "Mount Hiei of the East"), and also after the era during which it was erected, like Enryaku-ji (named after the Enryaku year period). Because it was one of the two Tokugawa bodaiji (funeral temple; the other was Zōjō-ji) and because it was destroyed in the closing days of the war that put an end to the Tokugawa shogunate, it is inextricably linked to the Tokugawa shōguns.
Once a great complex, it used to occupy the entire heights north and east of Shinobazu Pond and the plains where Ueno Station now stands. It had immense wealth, power and prestige, and it once consisted of over 30 buildings. Of the 15 Tokugawa shōguns, six are buried here.
Many temple structures were destroyed in the great Meireki fire of 1657. A new hall was constructed inside the enclosure of Kan'ei-ji in 1698. The temple and its numerous annexes were almost completely destroyed during the Boshin War's Battle of Ueno and never restored. Much of the site where it once stood was confiscated and is now occupied by Ueno Park.
What is today the temple's main hall was taken from Kita-in in Kawagoe (Saitama Prefecture) and transferred to the site of a former Kan'ei-ji subtemple. Kan'ei-ji's five-story pagoda and the Ueno Tōshō-gū shrine were amongst the gems of the old temple enclosure. Both stand undisturbed by the passage of years since the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The Shinobazu Pond itself and the Bentendō Temple which stands on its island used to be an integral part of Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, liking Lake Biwa, had Benten Island built in imitation of Chikubushima, and then the Bentendō on it. At the time the island was accessible only by boat, but later a stone bridge was added on the east, making it possible to walk to it. The Bentendō Temple was destroyed during World War II, and the present one is a reconstruction.
Kan'ei-ji - Wikipedia
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東 叡 山 寛 永 寺 円 頓 院) (también escrito Kan'eiji o Kaneiji) es un templo budista Tendai en Tokio, Japón, fundado en 1625 durante la era Kan'ei por Tenkai, en un intento de emular al poderoso centro religioso Enryaku-ji, en Kioto. El principal objeto de adoración es Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬 師 瑠 璃 光 如 来).
Se nombró en referencia tanto a la ubicación de Enryaku-ji en la cima del monte Hiei (Tōeizan significa "Monte Hiei del este"), y también después de la era durante la cual se erigió, como Enryaku-ji (llamado así por el período del año Enryaku ). Debido a que fue uno de los dos Tokugawa bodaiji (templo funerario; el otro fue Zōjō-ji) y debido a que fue destruido en los últimos días de la guerra que puso fin al shogunato Tokugawa, está indisolublemente ligado a los shōguns Tokugawa.
Una vez fue un gran complejo, solía ocupar todas las alturas al norte y al este del estanque Shinobazu y las llanuras donde ahora se encuentra la estación Ueno. Tenía una inmensa riqueza, poder y prestigio, y estuvo formado por más de 30 edificios. De los 15 shōguns Tokugawa, seis están enterrados aquí.
Muchas estructuras de templos fueron destruidas en el gran incendio de Meireki de 1657. Se construyó una nueva sala dentro del recinto de Kan'ei-ji en 1698. El templo y sus numerosos anexos fueron destruidos casi por completo durante la batalla de Ueno durante la Guerra Boshin y nunca fueron restaurados. . Gran parte del sitio donde una vez estuvo fue confiscado y ahora está ocupado por el Parque Ueno.
Lo que es hoy el salón principal del templo fue tomado de Kita-in en Kawagoe (Prefectura de Saitama) y trasladado al sitio de un antiguo subtemplo de Kan'ei-ji. La pagoda de cinco pisos de Kan'ei-ji y el santuario Ueno Tōshō-gū se encontraban entre las gemas del antiguo recinto del templo. Ambos permanecen impasibles por el paso de los años desde el fin del shogunato Tokugawa.
El estanque Shinobazu y el templo Bentendō que se encuentra en su isla solían ser una parte integral de Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, al igual que el lago Biwa, hizo construir la isla Benten a imitación de Chikubushima, y luego el Bentendō en ella. En ese momento, solo se podía acceder a la isla en barco, pero más tarde se agregó un puente de piedra en el este, lo que permitió caminar hasta ella. El templo de Bentendō fue destruido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el actual es una reconstrucción.
Richard Georg Strauss (Múnich; 11 de junio de 1864 - Garmisch-Partenkirchen; 8 de septiembre de 1949) fue un destacado compositor y director de orquesta alemán cuya larga trayectoria abarca desde el romanticismo tardío hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX. Es conocido particularmente por sus óperas, poemas sinfónicos y Lieder. Strauss, junto con Gustav Mahler, representa el extraordinario florecimiento tardío del romanticismo germánico después de Richard Wagner, en el cual un desarrollo elaborado y complejo de la orquestación se une a un estilo armónico avanzado. La música de Strauss influyó profundamente en el desarrollo de la música del siglo XX.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Strauss
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categoría:Óperas_de_Richard_Strauss
Richard Georg Strauss (11 June 1864 – 8 September 1949) was a German composer, conductor, pianist, and violinist. Considered a leading composer of the late Romantic and early modern eras, he has been described as a successor of Richard Wagner and Franz Liszt. Along with Gustav Mahler, he represents the late flowering of German Romanticism after Wagner, in which pioneering subtleties of orchestration are combined with an advanced harmonic style.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Strauss
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_operas_by_Richard_Strauss
La Ópera Estatal de Viena (en alemán: Wiener Staatsoper), ubicada en Viena, Austria, es una de las más importantes compañías de ópera mundiales. Hasta 1920 se llamó Teatro de la Ópera de la Corte Imperial y Real de Viena (k.k. Hof-Operntheater). Es el centro neurálgico de la vida musical vienesa y uno de los polos de atracción del mundo musical.
El teatro original de la Ópera Estatal (conocido entonces como K. (Kaiserliches) k. (königliches) Hof-Operntheater, Teatro de la Ópera de la Corte Imperial y Real), un edificio neorrenacentista muy criticado por los vieneses cuando se construyó entre 1861 y 1869, según un proyecto de los arquitectos vieneses Eduard van der Nüll y August Sicard von Sicardsburg. Ambos arquitectos fallecieron antes de ver terminado el edificio (van der Nüll se suicidó y su compañero Sicardsburg murió poco después de un ataque al corazón). En la decoración interior participaron otros renombrados artistas, particularmente el pintor Moritz von Schwind, que pintó los famosos frescos del foyer y la terraza. El teatro fue inaugurado el 25 de mayo de 1869 con la ópera de Mozart Don Giovanni.
Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el edificio fue bombardeado por la aviación el 12 de marzo de 1945 y posteriormente un incendio destruyó totalmente el escenario y la sala de espectadores. Casi todo el decorado para más de 120 óperas con cerca de 150 000 trajes resultaron destruidos. Sólo se salvaron la fachada principal, la gran escalinata y el vestíbulo con los frescos de Schwind. La Ópera Estatal se albergó temporalmente en el Theater an der Wien y en la Volksoper.
Justo después del final de la guerra, en mayo de 1945, se anunció que los trabajos de reconstrucción se iniciarían inmediatamente. El proyecto contemplaba la reconstrucción de la sala con un diseño similar al original, pero con decoración más acorde con las tendencias de diseño de la época, si bien se mantuvieron los colores tradicionales, rojo, oro y marfil. Toda la sala se recubrió en madera, con el fin de recuperar la brillante acústica original. Se redujo el número de asientos del patio de butacas y se reestructuró el cuarto piso para eliminar las columnas, que reducían la visibilidad. La fachada, el vestíbulo y el foyer de Schwind se restauraron en su estilo original.
El teatro reconstruido, con 2284 plazas (en lugar de las 2881 originales), se reabrió el 5 de noviembre de 1955, poco después de la firma del tratado que restableció a Austria como Estado independiente, con la representación de la ópera de Beethoven Fidelio dirigida por Karl Böhm.
Actualmente, la Staatsoper de Viena es uno de los teatros de ópera más importantes y de mayor prestigio y tradición del mundo. La programación sigue el sistema de "repertorio", en el que la compañía residente, apoyada por los más importantes cantantes de ópera del mundo, representa un cierto número de obras del repertorio de la compañía, que se van rotando o alternando durante toda una temporada, en la que se pueden alcanzar las 300 representaciones, entre ópera, ballet y ópera infantil, desde principios de septiembre hasta finales de junio.1 En una misma temporada se pueden alternar alrededor de 53 títulos de ópera y 9 de ballet, de los cuales alrededor de ocho serán estrenos de nuevas producciones.
Desde 2010, la Ópera Estatal de Viena ha sido pionera en la transmisión en directo de sus espectáculos a través de internet. Mediante un sistema de vídeo bajo demanda y por subscripción, el teatro ofrece hasta 45 espectáculos (ópera y ballet) por temporada, a través de navegadores de internet, o diferentes aplicaciones para dispositivos de reproducción.
En mayo de 2019, la Staatsoper celebró el 150 aniversario del edificio de la Ringstrasse, con una serie de actos y exposiciones conmemorativas en el edificio, que culminaron con el estreno de una nueva producción de Die Frau ohne Schatten el 25 de mayo, y con un gran concierto al aire libre, en el exterior del teatro, el día 26.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ópera_Estatal_de_Viena
The Vienna State Opera (German: Wiener Staatsoper) is an opera house and opera company based in Vienna, Austria. The 1,709-seat Renaissance Revival venue was the first major building on the Vienna Ring Road. It was built from 1861 to 1869 following plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Nüll, and designs by Josef Hlávka. The opera house was inaugurated as the "Vienna Court Opera" (Wiener Hofoper) in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph I and Empress Elisabeth of Austria. It became known by its current name after the establishment of the First Austrian Republic in 1921.
The members of the Vienna Philharmonic are recruited from the Vienna State Opera's orchestra. The building is also the home of the Vienna State Ballet, and it hosts the annual Vienna Opera Ball during the carnival season.
The Vienna State Opera is closely linked to the Vienna Philharmonic, which is an incorporated society of its own, but whose members are recruited from the orchestra of the Vienna State Opera.
The Wiener Staatsoper is one of the busiest opera houses in the world producing 50 to 60 operas in a repertory system per year and ten ballet productions in more than 350 performances. It is quite common to find a different opera being produced each day of a week. The Staatsoper employs over 1000 people. As of 2008, the annual operating budget of the Staatsoper was 100 million euros with slightly more than 50% as a state subsidy.
Ⓒ Saúl Tuñón Loureda
La Gran Vía es una de las principales calles de Madrid (España). Comienza en la calle de Alcalá y termina en la plaza de España. Es un importante hito en la ciudad desde su construcción a principios de siglo XX visto desde el punto de vista comercial, turístico y de ocio. En éste último aspecto es famosa por sus cines, si bien en los últimos años algunos de ellos han cerrado y otros se han reconvertido con gran éxito al teatro musical, por lo que el tramo comprendido entre la plaza de Callao y la de España se conoce como el Broadway madrileño. El tramo comprendido entre la red de San Luis y la plaza de Callao alberga en la actualidad numerosas tiendas de cadenas internacionales de moda.
Además de para servir como vía de comunicación este-oeste de la ciudad, la Gran Vía fue planificada como punto de encuentro de los ciudadanos y como área recreativa y comercial. En estos dos aspectos, supuso un cambio en las costumbres de los madrileños, ya que albergó los primeros grandes almacenes de la ciudad, escaparates de lujo, grandes salas de cine o cafés que se harían muy frecuentados durante sus primeras décadas de vida.
El primer tramo, entre Alcalá y la Red de San Luis, estuvo dedicado desde el comienzo al comercio de lujo, a imitación de otras calles surgidas en el siglo XIX por toda Europa, como la Rue de la Paix (París); Regent Street (Londres) o la Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II (Milán). Cabe destacar tiendas de moda como Almacenes Rodríguez, Samaral o Sánchez-Rubio; joyerías como Aldao, Brooking, Grassy, Perera o Sanz; concesionarios de automóviles, como Chenard-Walker, Fiat, Ford o Hispano-Suiza; cafés como el Abra, Chicote, Pidoux o Sicilia Molinero; compañías de seguros como La Unión y el Fénix o Seguros La Estrella; y hoteles, como el Hotel de Roma. Aunque todavía perdura alguna firma de prestigio, a partir de los años sesenta del siglo XX este uso comenzó a decaer, dando paso a otros establecimientos menos especializados. También se instalaron en esta zona varios casinos, los centros de reunión de la alta burguesía de principios del siglo XX.
El segundo tramo, hasta Callao, es el más espacioso, como corresponde a su antiguo diseño de bulevar. Desde el comienzo, con la apertura de la estación de metro de Gran vía en 1919, fue un continuo ir y venir de gentes. Aquí, por ejemplo, se abrieron los primeros grandes almacenes de Madrid, los Almacenes Madrid-París, inaugurados en enero de 1924 y siendo uno de los primeros de la ciudad en contar con escaleras mecánicas, tras su quiebra el edificio sería comprado por Sepu (Sociedad Española de Precios Únicos) en 1934 para la apertura de su sucursal en Madrid. Otros dos grandes almacenes, El Corte Inglés y Galerías Preciados, surgieron junto a la plaza de Callao. También se establecieron numerosas compañías de seguros, la mayoría propietarias de los edificios en que se ubicaban. A partir de los años cincuenta, con el auge del turismo y la instalación de numerosos hoteles, se produjo su época dorada, con la apertura de cafés, bares y salas de fiestas, como el famoso Pasapoga. También son de destacar, característica que comparte con el siguiente tramo, los edificios que se construyeron para albergar, de modo polivalente, salas de cine y teatro, como el Palacio de la Música o el Cine Avenida. En los años 80, en Gran Vía 25, abrió sus puertas una tienda de la emblemática cadena de venta de discos Madrid Rock.
El tercer tramo, hasta la plaza de España, albergó espacios destinados al ocio, como cines, teatros, salas de fiestas y cafeterías “a la americana”, y comercios como librerías y tiendas de tejidos, entre otras. También edificios completamente de oficinas. Durante la Guerra Civil, por su proximidad al frente situado en la Ciudad Universitaria y en la Casa de Campo, esta zona de la Gran Vía fue la que más se resintió. Destacan de nuevo los edificios dedicados a salas de cine como el Palacio de la Prensa, el Callao, el Capitol, el Coliseum, el Rialto, el Imperial o el Lope de Vega.
En la actualidad, alrededor de 50.000 coches circulan diariamente por la Gran Vía y, en hora punta, lo hacen 185 autobuses. Hay cuarenta y un hoteles, quince sucursales bancarias, cuatro cines (llegaron a ser 12), tres teatros y dos museos. Dispone de ciento cuatro papeleras y ciento nueve farolas.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gran_V%C3%ADa#La_Gran_V.C3.ADa_en_l...
Gran Vía (literally "Great Way") is an ornate and upscale shopping street located in central Madrid.Now, the street is known as the Spanish Broadway, and is one of the streets with more nightlife in Europe. It is known as the street that never sleeps. It leads from Calle de Alcalá, close to Plaza de Cibeles, to Plaza de España.
The lively street is one of the city's most important shopping areas, with a large number of hotels and large movie theaters; it is also noted for the grand architecture prevalent among many of its buildings. Now, most of the theaters are being replaced by shopping malls.
It is considered a showcase of early 20th century architecture, with patterns ranging from Vienna Secession style, Plateresque, Neo-Mudéjar, Art Deco and others.
Conception
In the mid 19th century, Madrid's urban planners decided that a new thoroughfare had to be created, connecting the Calle de Alcalá with the Plaza de España. The project required many buildings in the center of the city to be demolished, earning it the name of 'an axe blow on the map'. Decades after the first plans were made, construction still hadn't started and the media ridiculed the project, cynically calling it the 'Gran Vía' or 'Great Road'. Finally in 1904 it was approved and construction started a couple of years later. The last part of the street was completed in 1929.
The new road created opportunities for architects, who had the ability to create large buildings in the latest architectural styles. The first eye catching building starting from the Calle de Alcalá is the most famous of all, the Edificio Metrópolis or Metropolis Building. The landmark was built between 1907 and 1911 after a design by the architects Jules and Raymond Février. The original statue was replaced in 1975 by a statue of a winged Goddess Victory.
A bit further along the Gran Vía, on the left hand side is another landmark, the Edificio Grassy, another corner building with a small tower, built in 1917. Visible from here is the tower of the Telefónica Building, the first European skyscraper built between 1926 and 1929 for the Spanish telecommunications company. The 88-meter (290 ft) building was the tallest in Madrid and was designed by an American, Louis S. Weeks.
Plaza del Callao
Farther towards the Plaza de España, the Gran Vía crosses a small square, the Plaza del Callao, named after the battle of El Callao. This square is the heart of cinematic Madrid, with about six movie theaters. One of them, the Capitol, is located in a beautiful Art Deco building.
However, recent changes in building rules have allowed the reform of the theaters into more lucrative shopping centers.
The last part of the Gran Vía, constructed between 1925 and 1929 leads to the Plaza de España, a large square dominated by two skyscrapers built in the 1950s, the symmetric Edificio España and the Torre de Madrid. Here the Gran Vía becomes the Calle Princesa, leading north to the Arco de la Victoria.
Casa-Torre Tossal Montañés, situada en los alrededores de Valdeltormo (Teruel). historiasdelbajoaragon.wordpress.com/2012/06/13/arquitect...