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detail of Bull-Leaping Fresco (1700-1400 BC.) Stucco panel with scene in relief - 78.2 cm × 104.5 cm (30.8 in × 41.1 in) Heraklion archeological museum - Crete
Venne scoperto sopra un muro nel lato est del palazzo di Cnosso, nel cortile della bocca in pietra. Il suo principale soggetto è una scena di taurocatapsia, circondata da motivi lineari astratti di pietra. Tutto l'insieme è bidimensionale, eccetto le forti linee dei petti, gambe e cosce delle donne, che riflettono il tentativo artistico di conferire volume e profondità, raro per questo periodo.
Ai lati dell'immagine raffigurata del toro ci sono due donne, una delle quali tiene le corna del toro e l'altra, dalla parte opposta, tiene le sue braccia sollevate, mentre l'uomo si trova sulla schiena del toro. Le posizioni che essi assumono rivelano, come in una sequenza cinematografica, i tre momenti del gioco consistente nell'afferrare il toro per le corna, eseguire su di esso un doppio salto mortale, ricadere a terra restando in posizione verticale. La presenza contemporanea di atleti dei due sessi, inoltre, ci testimonia di una cultura nella quale, diversamente da quelle vicino-orientali, la donna iniziava a godere di un certo prestigio sociale.
Le prove archeologiche hanno dimostrato che il tipo di toro utilizzato era un incrocio, di razza gigante, tra un toro ed un uro, ora estinta in Europa. Aveva un'altezza alla spalla di oltre 180 cm e una dimensione degli zoccoli simile alle dimensioni di una testa umana
It was discovered on a wall in the east side of the palace of Knossos, in the courtyard of the mouth stone. Its main subject is a scene of bull-leaping, surrounded by abstract linear patterns of stone. The whole is two-dimensional, except the strong lines of the breasts, legs and thighs of women, reflecting the artistic attempt to give volume and depth, rare for this period.
On the sides of the image depicted the bull there are two women, one of which holds the bull's horns and the other, on the opposite side, holding his arms raised, while the man is on the back of the bull. The positions they assume reveal, as in a film sequence, the three moments of the game consists in grasping the bull by the horns, run over it a double somersault, fall to the ground remaining upright. The simultaneous presence of athletes of both sexes, also testifies to a culture in which, unlike those near-eastern, the woman began to be granted a certain social prestige.
Archaeological evidence has now uncovered that the type of bull used by ancient Minoan bull leapers was a cross breed giant aurochs bull, now extinct in Europe. It had a shoulder height of over 6 ft (180 cm) and a hoof size similar to the size of a human head
Chevrolet fue fundada el 3 de noviembre de 1911 por iniciativa del piloto de carreras suizo-francés Louis Chevrolet, en colaboración con el ingeniero francés Ettienne Planche y más tarde con el empresario William C. Durant, quien estuvo a cargo de la financiación del proyecto. La compañía había nacido como la Chevrolet Motor Car Company y su fundación fue la estrategia más eficaz planteada por Durant para retomar la conducción de la General Motors, de la cual fue expulsado en 1910 luego de su primera gran crisis financiera.
Tras la toma del control de la General Motors por parte de los organismos financieros, William C. Durant (quien no tenía el más mínimo conocimiento de mecánica, ni mucho menos estaba interesado en llevarla a la práctica) en su afán de querer recuperar su negocio perdido y viendo un gran futuro en la venta de automóviles, decidió invertir parte de su fortuna en la creación de una nueva marca de coches, con la cual poder recuperar lo que alguna vez fue suyo. Por su parte, Louis Chevrolet era un piloto suizo de carreras que había desembarcado en Estados Unidos y se había alistado en competencias de automovilismo, presentándose a correr principalmente con vehículos de la marca Buick perteneciente a General Motors. Estas competencias, animaron a Chevrolet a ser el creador de sus propios coches, para lo cual se alió con el ingeniero francés Ettienne Planche. Sin embargo, el capital monetario para financiar el proyecto no fue el suficiente como para que el mismo pueda emerger. Por tal motivo, ambos terminaron topándose con William C. Durant, quien les proveyó el apoyo financiero para la creación de la firma, además de mantener la idea inicial de utilizar el nombre de Chevrolet para bautizar a la compañía. Sin embargo, a pesar de bautizar a la firma con su nombre, Louis Chevrolet nunca pudo ser en sí su propietario, ya que la mayoría de las acciones quedaron en poder de Durant, dejándole a Louis un paquete minoritario.
El logo de Chevrolet surgió cuando Durant estaba en París en un viaje de negocios, y durante su estadía en un hotel parisino, observó que los decorados de las paredes de su habitación presentaban un extraño dibujo que mostraba un cuadrado mezclado con un paralelogramo, formando una inusual figura geométrica. Aquel dibujo captó fuertemente la atención de Durant, por lo que arrancó un trozo de ese decorado y se lo guardó en la billetera con el fin de poder implementarla a futuro en una nueva marca de automóviles. La primera vez que Chevrolet usó su logo "bowtie" fue en 1913.
El equipo inició sus acciones el 3 de noviembre de 1911, presentando como primera unidad el modelo Chevrolet Classic Six, un sedán que se presentó como novedad en el mercado, por la implementación de un motor de 6 cilindros en línea el cual fue considerado una rareza, ya que hasta ese momento se habían fabricado unidades con un máximo de 4 cilindros en línea. Pero lo que parecía que iba a ser una sociedad perfecta, terminó convirtiéndose en un verdadero conflicto que repercutió en los intereses de ambos socios. Por un lado, Chevrolet pretendió que sus coches sean reconocidos por su velocidad y su desempeño en competencias deportivas. Por el otro, Durant pretendió crear un vehículo más conservador, popular y accesible a todo el mundo. La crisis estalló luego de la adquisición por parte de Durant de la Little Motor Car Company, una pequeña empresa de automóviles de bajo consumo que había entrado en quiebra. De esa forma, la participación de Durant en la Chevrolet Motor Car Company aumentó considerablemente, lo que le permitió llevar adelante su deseo personal del coche popular. Con los pequeños motores de la Little, Durant comenzó a desarrollar su coche sobre la base del Chevrolet Classic Six. Sin embargo, la primera oposición la obtuvo de manera sorpresiva por parte de su mismísimo socio Louis Chevrolet, quien no quiso que su marca perdiese prestigio con este desarrollo. Ante esta actitud, Durant le sugirió la salida de la sociedad, ofreciéndole la compra de sus acciones. La transacción se realizó por una suma considerablemente baja, siendo que dichas acciones valdrían varios millones de dólares unos años más tarde.
Tras la salida de Louis Chevrolet de la Chevrolet Motor Car Company, Durant continuó con la expansión de la empresa manteniendo el nombre de la misma, ya que consideraba que su fonética afrancesada era un atractivo para el público y que al mismo tiempo le brindaba publicidad gratuita a costillas de su exsocio. Su plan comenzó presentando el modelo Chevrolet 490, un automóvil de bajo costo desarrollado con uno de los motores adquiridos a la Little Motor Car, y que se presentó como el primer oponente del urbano Ford T. La nomenclatura dada a este coche, tuvo que ver con el precio original con el que fue lanzado el modelo, ya que en ese entonces el Ford T valía 495 dólares, por lo que Durant redujo a 5 dólares el precio de ese coche para vender el suyo. La expansión que consiguió la Chevrolet Motor Car Company, permitió que William Durant vuelva a posicionarse dentro del mercado, de una forma tal que consiguió retomar el control de la General Motors, fusionando a Chevrolet con esta otra y convirtiéndola en la Chevrolet Division de la General Motors. El éxito en ventas de la marca, hizo de Chevrolet la marca más representativa de la GM y la terminó convirtiendo con el correr del tiempo en la marca más vendida del siglo XX.
A todo esto, Louis Chevrolet continuaría con su idea de crear una marca de automóviles que se destaque por su prestigio deportivo. Con el dinero cobrado de la venta de sus acciones en la Chevrolet Motor Car, se asoció con su hermano Gastón Chevrolet, junto a quien creó la marca Frontenac, marca tomada de una bicicleta creada por Louis durante sus tiempos de vida en Suiza. Louis obtendría un marcado éxito como preparador, mientras que su hermano se destacaría al volante de sus unidades, siendo buenos rivales para marcas de la talla de Buick, Cadillac u Oldsmobile (curiosamente, todas marcas que respondían a la GM de Durant). Unos años más tarde Chevrolet recurriría nada más ni nada menos que a Henry Ford, con quien llegaría a un acuerdo para la producción en los talleres de Frontenac de nuevos cabezales para los motores de los Ford T. Ford aceptaría la propuesta de Chevrolet, logrando reacondicionar a su modelo con los cabezales provistos por Frontenac. A su vez, Chevrolet obtendría el permiso de parte de Ford para equipar a sus coches de competición con los renovados motores de Ford T, desarrollando los llamados Fronty-Fords (apócope de Frontenac + Ford). Con esta unidad, Gaston Chevrolet obtendría una victoria en las 24 horas de Daytona. Sin embargo, una serie de crisis financieras que tuvieran su pico en la Gran Depresión del año '29, derrumbarían el sueño de Louis, haciendo que la marca Frontenac, junto a otras marcas pequeñas, entren en la completa ruina. Para subsistir, Louis terminaría volviendo a General Motors, para pedir un puesto como obrero dentro de la fábrica. Ante esta situación, General Motors (afortunadamente para él, ya sin Durant al frente y con Pierre S. Dupont como presidente), le terminaría otorgando esta "ayuda", colocándolo como obrero dentro de las fábricas de la misma marca que llevara su apellido. Sin embargo, a pesar de haber trabajado muy duro dentro de ella, las muertes de sus hermanos Gastón y Arthur, sumados a sus deudas financieras, terminarían resquebrajando su salud, muriendo finalmente en 1941 en una completa pobreza y olvidado.
William Durant finalmente tendría un final similar, cuando en 1920 nuevamente volvía a poner a GM al borde de la quiebra, lo que le valió nuevamente la expulsión de la compañía, pero esta vez de manera definitiva. Ya no contaba con su cuantiosa fortuna familiar, la cual había sido derrochada en la creación de estas empresas y tratando de adquirir nuevas firmas para poder reinstalarse en el mercado. Sus maniobras bursátiles ya no surtían efecto, por lo que terminaría en la ruina, muriendo en el año 1947 y sufriendo el mismo final que su exsocio Louis Chevrolet, de cuya desgracia financiera fue uno de los principales responsables . (Wikipedia).
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Italia - Florencia - Río Arno y Ponte Vecchio
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ENGLISH
The Ponte Vecchio ("Old Bridge") is a medieval stone closed-spandrel segmental arch bridge over the Arno River, in Florence, Italy, noted for still having shops built along it, as was once common. Butchers initially occupied the shops; the present tenants are jewelers, art dealers and souvenir sellers. The Ponte Vecchio's two neighbouring bridges are the Ponte Santa Trinita and the Ponte alle Grazie.
The bridge spans the Arno at its narrowest point where it is believed that a bridge was first built in Roman times, when the via Cassia crossed the river at this point. The Roman piers were of stone, the superstructure of wood. The bridge first appears in a document of 996. After being destroyed by a flood in 1117 it was reconstructed in stone but swept away again in 1333 save two of its central piers, as noted by Giovanni Villani in his Nuova Cronica. It was rebuilt in 1345. Giorgio Vasari recorded the traditional view of his day that attributed its design to Taddeo Gaddi — besides Giotto one of the few artistic names of the trecento still recalled two hundred years later. Modern historians present Neri di Fioravanti as a possible candidate. Sheltered in a little loggia at the central opening of the bridge is a weathered dedication stone, which once read Nel trentatrè dopo il mille-trecento, il ponte cadde, per diluvio dell' acque: poi dieci anni, come al Comun piacque, rifatto fu con questo adornamento. The Torre dei Mannelli was built at the southeast corner of the bridge to defend it.
The bridge consists of three segmental arches: the main arch has a span of 30 meters (98 feet) the two side arches each span 27 meters (89 feet). The rise of the arches is between 3.5 and 4.4 meters (11½ to 14½ feet), and the span-to-rise ratio 5:1.
It has always hosted shops and merchants who displayed their goods on tables before their premises, after authorization of the Bargello (a sort of a lord mayor, a magistrate and a police authority). The back shops (retrobotteghe) that may be seen from upriver, were added in the seventeenth century.
During World War II, the Ponte Vecchio was not destroyed by Germans during their retreat on the advance of the liberating British 8th Army on 4 August 1944, unlike all other bridges in Florence. This was allegedly, according to many locals and tour guides, because of an express order by Hitler. Access to Ponte Vecchio was, however, obstructed by the destruction of the buildings at both ends, which have since been rebuilt using a combination of original and modern design.
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ESPAÑOL
El Ponte Vecchio es un puente medieval sobre el río Arno en Florencia (Italia). Es un símbolo de la ciudad y uno de los puentes más famosos del mundo. Atraviesa el río Arno en su punto más estrecho. El puente se sostiene sobre tres arcos; el principal tiene una luz de 30 metros y los otros dos de 27 metros. El alzado de los arcos varía entre 3,5 y 4,4 metros.
Se cree que fue un puente construido inicialmente en madera por los romanos, poco después de la fundación de Florencia sobre el año 150 a. C. Esa pasarela se consolidó y amplió hacia el 123, cuando el emperador Adriano promovió la construcción de la via Cassia Nuova, que atravesaba la ciudad y que correspondía, se puede suponer, a las calles Bardi y San Niccolò. El primer puente romano fue destruido en el s. VI-VII, consecuencia del descuido y las guerras bárbaras, además de probables daños relacionados con las inundaciones.
Es difícil saber cuántos puentes han sido destruidos y cuántos reconstruidos por las frecuentes inundaciones del Arno. Giovanni Villani habló de un puente construido bajo el mandato de Carlomagno, y es quizá en el s. IX o X cuando el puente tuviera la posición actual.
Tras ser dañado en 1222 y 1322, fue destruido por una inundación en 1333. Fue reconstruido enteramente de piedra entre 1335 y 1345. Vasari atribuye su diseño al arquitecto y pintor italiano Taddeo Gaddi.
Al comienzo, los comerciantes alineaban sus tenderetes ("botteghe") a ambos lados del puente. Pero en 1495, la ciudad, que era la dueña y arrendadora de las tiendas a los comerciantes, se vio obligada a vender las parcelas, por razones económicas. A partir de entonces, las tiendas comenzaron a agrandarse y se multiplicaron los voladizos sobre el río, que hoy configuran la imagen del puente.
Para conectar el Palazzo Vecchio (sede del gobierno de Florencia) con el Palazzo Pitti, el Gran Duque Cosimo I de Medici encargó a Giorgio Vasari que construyera el famoso Corredor vasariano sobre el puente, el cual se finalizó en 1565. Este corredor da una vuelta en torno a la Torre de Mannelli ya que los dueños de la misma no permitieron que fuera alterada o destruida para la construcción del corredor.
En 1593 el Gran Duque Fernando I decidió expulsar del puente a los carniceros, prohibiéndoles realizar sus actividades en el lugar. Se dice que no soportaba los olores de ese comercio, mientras él y sus visitantes extranjeros iban desde el Palazzo Vecchio hasta la residencia de la familia Médici, en el Palazzo Pitti, pasando sobre el corredor vasariano. Además, para aumentar el prestigio del lugar, fomentó que el sitio vacante de los carniceros fuera inmediatamente ocupado por orfebres, joyeros y comerciantes de oro, que actualmente siguen ocupando los voladizos y puestos del puente. La asociación de carniceros había monopolizado los negocios sobre el puente desde 1442.
Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, a diferencia de todos los demás puentes de Florencia, el Ponte Vecchio no fue destruido por los alemanes durante su retirada el 4 de agosto de 1944. Según la tradición esto se debió a una orden expresa de Hitler. Sin embargo, su acceso quedó obstruido debido a la destrucción de los edificios a ambos lados del puente.
Virgen con el niño polla, relieve tallado en mármol por el Arquitecto y escultor de ascendencia francesa Felipe Vigarny y Rubén Bretones, actualmente en el Museo Nacional de Escultura, de Valladolid (España).
El tondo perteneció al sepulcro que el Obispo de Tuy (Don Diego de Avellaneda) encargó para su padre entre 1536 y 1542, es por tanto una obra de madurez.
Felipe Bigarny, nombrado también como Felipe Vigarny, Felipe Biguerny o Felipe de Borgoña, apodado el Borgoñón (Langres, Borgoña, c. 1475 – Toledo, 10 de noviembre de 1543), fue un maestro escultor y tallista borgoñón radicado en España, considerado como uno de los más insignes del Renacimiento español. Presentó además algunos proyectos como arquitecto.
En sus obras coexisten rasgos flamencos, borgoñones y renacentistas italianos. Consiguió un gran prestigio y se convirtió en el maestro de escultura y talla de la Catedral de Burgos. También intervino en importantes obras por toda la Corona de Castilla, con lo que llegó a manejar varios talleres simultáneamente, lo que le proporcionó una buena posición socioeconómica. (Wikipedia)
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Église Saint-Nizier, Lyon, Auvernia-Ródano-Alpes, France.
La iglesia Saint-Nizier es una iglesia en la ciudad de Lyon, ubicada en Place Saint-Nizier en el corazón de Presqu'île, entre Place des Terreaux y Place des Jacobins, en el distrito de Cordeliers. Es uno de los lugares de culto más importantes de la capital gala, tanto en antigüedad y prestigio como en visibilidad arquitectónica y monumental.
Dedicado a Nizier, uno de los obispos de Lyon, el edificio está documentado desde la Alta Edad Media. Después del año 1000, mientras la importancia política y económica de la ciudad se afirma, la de Saint-Nizier crece, lo que no deja de generar tensiones con la principal iglesia de Lyon, la catedral de Saint-Jean. , y en particular con su capítulo canónico.
Completamente reconstruida en los siglos XIV y XV en un estilo gótico flamígero, la iglesia está clasificada como monumento histórico por la lista de 1840.
La silueta de Saint-Nizier es particular con sus dos flechas asimétricas; la iglesia está construida principalmente en un estilo gótico flamígero que no tiene equivalente en Lyon. El edificio en su conjunto está construido, para las partes bajas, con dura piedra caliza recuperada de edificios romanos o de Villebois; y para las partes superiores originales en piedra tipo Lucenay. Las adiciones del siglo XIX están en piedra Tournus.
The Saint-Nizier church is a church in the city of Lyon, located on Place Saint-Nizier in the heart of Presqu'île, between Place des Terreaux and Place des Jacobins, in the Cordeliers district. It is one of the most important places of worship in the Gallic capital, both in antiquity and prestige as well as in architectural and monumental visibility.
Dedicated to Nizier, one of the bishops of Lyon, the building is documented from the High Middle Ages. After the year 1000, while the political and economic importance of the city asserts itself, that of Saint-Nizier grows, which does not stop generating tensions with the main church of Lyon, the Saint-Jean cathedral. , and in particular with its canonical chapter.
Completely rebuilt in the 14th and 15th centuries in a flamboyant Gothic style, the church is classified as a historical monument by the 1840 list.
Saint-Nizier's silhouette is particular with its two asymmetrical arrows; the church is built mainly in a flamboyant Gothic style that has no equivalent in Lyon. The building as a whole is built, for the lower parts, with hard limestone recovered from Roman buildings or from Villebois; and for the original Lucenay-type stone upper parts. The 19th century additions are in Tournus stone.
Català: Estrenat l'any 1969, el Talgo III RD, era part del prestigiós club TEE. Aquest tren va continuar donant servei fins que l'any 2010. Quan va ser cancel·lat el Catalan Talgo entre Barcelona i Montpellier. Avui s'ha presentat el Tarraco, projecte que recuperarà aquesta composició i circularà cada cap de setmana durant l'estiu, entre Barcelona-França i Tarragona. Avui el tren es presentava als mitjans i directius. Una foto pel seu pas per Sitges.
Castellano: Inagurado en 1969, el Talgo III RD, era parte del prestigioso club TEE. Este tren continuó dando servicio hasta que el año 2010. Cuando fue cancelado el Catalán Talgo entre Barcelona y Montpellier. Hoy se ha presentado el Tarraco, proyecto que recuperará esta composición y circulará cada fin de semana durante el verano, entre Barcelona-Francia y Tarragona. Hoy el tren se presentaba a los medios y directivos. Una foto por su paso por Sitges.
Agraïr a la Cristina i en Mario l'ajuda!
Pieter Aertsen, or Aertszen, called Peter the Long, in Dutch Langhe Peter (Amsterdam, 1508 approx. - Amsterdam, 1575) - seller of fruit and vegetables at the market (1567) oil on oak table 111.2 x 111.6 cm - Gemäldegalerie, Berlin
Le basi decisive per lo sviluppo della natura morta come genere artistico indipendente furono gettate da Pieter Aertsen e da suo nipote Joachim Beuckelaer.
Aertsen, dopo aver completato il suo apprendistato ad Amsterdam, si stabilì ad Anversa intorno al 1530, dove raggiunse prosperità e prestigio e tornò ad Amsterdam nel 1555. Anche qui non gli mancavano gli ordini. Soprattutto, furono le sue nature morte ad essere ammirate e si narra che grazie a queste gli abbiano affidato la commissione per l'altare della Oude Kerk di Amsterdam. Sebbene Aertsen si fosse da tempo affermato grazie alle sue rappresentazioni religiose, le nature morte con la loro ingannevole vicinanza alla natura lasciarono un'impressione più profonda sui contemporanei.
The decisive foundations for the development of still life as an independent artistic genre were laid by Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim Beuckelaer.
After completing his apprenticeship in Amsterdam, Aertsen settled in Antwerp around 1530, where he achieved prosperity and prestige and returned to Amsterdam in 1555. Here, too, he did not lack orders. Above all, it was his still lifes that were admired and it is said that thanks to them he was entrusted with the commission for the altar of the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam. Although Aertsen had long established himself thanks to his religious representations, the still lifes with their deceptive closeness to nature left a deeper impression on his contemporaries.
Technocratic Ideological Scrutiny's.
Dominerende produktioner concocting forestillinger syge transformationer krampagtige udtryk vakuum kaotisk skabelse psykiske manifester,
εμπορικό θέατρο ζωηρό σκηνικό που κορυφώνεται κινήσεις χειρουργικές οδηγίες δράμα λεπτομέρειες αναπνοή διευθυντές έκρηξη φωνές ερεθίσματα ηλικίες,
tensões cerimoniais afetando estágios exemplos de prestígio informações particulares técnicas distintas compreensão motivações treinamento estético,
ymarferwyr anustere cywasgu lynegol draddodiadau emosiynol dwys damcaniaethau cyffredin symudiadau arloesol symudiadau arloesol symudiadau ymylol,
autorità grottesche occhi ipnotici contorsionista poeta torture interiori espressionista cervello antico caratteri intrecciate radici tremende sensazioni estatiche,
უზარმაზარი ზეწოლა მონოლითური განსხვავებები ინტენსიური წინააღმდეგობები მეთოდოლოგია სამყარო სტერეოტიპული იდენტიფიკატორები პროგნოტორის ფორმები,
オーケストラの機能を構成する機能関連する真実を探るサークル要素てんかんのシナリオ特定の雰囲気を変えるテンポ.
Steve.D.Hammond.
L'affresco raffigura la stirpe dei Doria e ne esalta il prestigio e il valore, associando i grandi uomini del casato a famosi eroi di Roma
Perin del Vaga (Piero di Giovanni Bonaccorsi 1501-1547) - Loggia of the Heroes (1531-1533) - Villa del Principe - Genoa
The fresco depicts the Doria family and enhances the prestige and value, associating the great men of the house to famous heroes of Rome
Villa del Principe, la più vasta e sontuosa dimora nobiliare della città di Genova, la Villa dell’unico Principe che Genova abbia mai avuto. Era il 1529 quando Andrea Doria, valente ammiraglio e uomo d’armi leggendario, diede il via ai lavori che avrebbero portato alla costruzione di questo meraviglioso palazzo affacciato sul Golfo di Genova.
Villa del Principe, the largest and most sumptuous noble residence of the city of Genoa, the Villa of the sole prince that Genoa has ever had. It was 1529 when Andrea Doria, skilful admiral and legendary man of arms, gave way to the work that would lead to the construction of this wonderful palace overlooking the Gulf of Genoa
Calle Arbat, Moscú - Arbat Street, Moscow - У́лица Арба́т, Москва
La calle Arbat (en ruso: У́лица Арба́т)? es una calle peatonal de un kilómetro de largo, aproximadamente, en el centro histórico de Moscú, Rusia. Popularmente conocida como «el Arbat», ha existido por lo menos desde el siglo XV, por lo que se trata de una de las calles más antiguas que sobreviven en la capital rusa. Constituye el corazón del distrito moscovita de Arbat. Originalmente la calle formaba parte de una ruta comercial importante y fue el hogar de un gran número de artesanos.
En el siglo XVIII, la nobleza rusa llegó a considerar la calle Arbat como el salón de mayor prestigio en Moscú, resultando destruida casi completamente por un gran incendio durante la ocupación de Napoleón de Moscú en 1812 y hubieron de reconstruirla.1 En los siglos XIX y XX se la conocía como el lugar donde vivía la pequeña nobleza, artistas y académicos. En la época soviética vivían allí muchos funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango.
Hoy en día la calle y sus alrededores están experimentando una gentrificación y se considera un lugar deseable para vivir. Debido a los muchos edificios históricos y los numerosos artistas que han vivido y trabajado en la calle, la calle Arbat es también una importante atracción turística.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calle_Arbat
Arbat Street (Russian: Арба́т), mainly referred to in English as the Arbat, is a pedestrian street about one kilometer long in the historical centre of Moscow, Russia. The Arbat has existed since at least the 15th century, which makes it one of the oldest surviving streets of the Russian capital. It forms the heart of the Arbat District of Moscow. Originally the street formed part of an important trade-route and was home to a large number of craftsmen.
In the 18th century, the Russian nobility came to regard the Arbat as the most prestigious living area in Moscow. Almost completely destroyed by the great fire of 1812 associated with Napoleon's occupation of Moscow, the street required rebuilding. In the 19th and early 20th centuries it became known as the a place where petty nobility, artists, and academics lived. In the Soviet period, it housed many high-ranking government officials.
As of 2016, the street and its surroundings are undergoing gentrification, and it is considered a desirable place to live. Because of the many historic buildings, and due to the numerous artists who have lived and worked in the street, the Arbat has also become an important tourist attraction.
Calle Arbat, Moscú - Arbat Street, Moscow - У́лица Арба́т, Москва
La calle Arbat (en ruso: У́лица Арба́т)? es una calle peatonal de un kilómetro de largo, aproximadamente, en el centro histórico de Moscú, Rusia. Popularmente conocida como «el Arbat», ha existido por lo menos desde el siglo XV, por lo que se trata de una de las calles más antiguas que sobreviven en la capital rusa. Constituye el corazón del distrito moscovita de Arbat. Originalmente la calle formaba parte de una ruta comercial importante y fue el hogar de un gran número de artesanos.
En el siglo XVIII, la nobleza rusa llegó a considerar la calle Arbat como el salón de mayor prestigio en Moscú, resultando destruida casi completamente por un gran incendio durante la ocupación de Napoleón de Moscú en 1812 y hubieron de reconstruirla.1 En los siglos XIX y XX se la conocía como el lugar donde vivía la pequeña nobleza, artistas y académicos. En la época soviética vivían allí muchos funcionarios gubernamentales de alto rango.
Hoy en día la calle y sus alrededores están experimentando una gentrificación y se considera un lugar deseable para vivir. Debido a los muchos edificios históricos y los numerosos artistas que han vivido y trabajado en la calle, la calle Arbat es también una importante atracción turística.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calle_Arbat
Arbat Street (Russian: Арба́т), mainly referred to in English as the Arbat, is a pedestrian street about one kilometer long in the historical centre of Moscow, Russia. The Arbat has existed since at least the 15th century, which makes it one of the oldest surviving streets of the Russian capital. It forms the heart of the Arbat District of Moscow. Originally the street formed part of an important trade-route and was home to a large number of craftsmen.
In the 18th century, the Russian nobility came to regard the Arbat as the most prestigious living area in Moscow. Almost completely destroyed by the great fire of 1812 associated with Napoleon's occupation of Moscow, the street required rebuilding. In the 19th and early 20th centuries it became known as the a place where petty nobility, artists, and academics lived. In the Soviet period, it housed many high-ranking government officials.
As of 2016, the street and its surroundings are undergoing gentrification, and it is considered a desirable place to live. Because of the many historic buildings, and due to the numerous artists who have lived and worked in the street, the Arbat has also become an important tourist attraction.
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Apulian red-figure krater (ca. 330 B.C. - ca. 310 B.C.) - clay (orange-hazelnut engobe, potter's wheel, black paint) height 64 cm; diameter 33.9 cm Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan
Il vaso, modellato al tornio con anse e piede lavorati separatamente, si presenta ricomposto da numerosi e minuti frammenti con integrazioni in gesso ridipinte per mascherare l’incollaggio. Il cratere ha significative proporzioni secondo una consuetudine che si affermò nell’ultimo periodo della produzione apula, quando la grandezza dell’esemplare esprimeva il prestigio del defunto, così come la complessa e articolata decorazione a carattere mitico-funerario che si sviluppa su tutta la superficie del vaso. Gli importanti rimaneggiamenti dovuti al restauro hanno in parte ‘frainteso’ e compromesso la scena originale, sebbene rappresentino un’efficace testimonianza degli interventi che venivano eseguiti sui vasi nell’800 e 900, non sempre da specialisti. L’elemento floreale, richiamo a una sorta di paradeison ultramondano, è molto ben presente su tutto il vaso; il collo è decorato con un intreccio di girali da cui sorge un Eros alato e da un serto di alloro chiuso da rosetta. Sotto le anse, secondo la consuetudine, sono raffigurati palmette e girali. I mascheroni plastici presenti sulle anse sono probabilmente interpretabili come divinità infere o di passaggio. Sul lato A in un naiskos, monumento funebre con colonne ioniche e frontone, vi è raffigurato un Eros su cavallo nudo e dall’aspetto androgino. L’unione dell’elemento maschile a quello femminile simboleggiava una vera e propria mescolanza fisica, il principio di ogni cosa. Eros presenta una lunga chioma nera, una corona di perle, la bandoliera, monili alla coscia e alle braccia; è dotato inoltre di grandi ali aperte (l’ala che risulta dietro è stata chiaramente ridipinta nella parte terminale). Il cavallo, fortemente ridipinto, rivolge la testa all’indietro verso Eros. A causa della mancata comprensione del soggetto da parte del restauratore novecentesco, è stato dipinto un secondo muso di cavallo. All’esterno dell’edificio sono raffigurate due offerenti di grandi proporzioni, vestite di chitone, adorne di collana e corona radiata, che tengono nella mano un serto e un grappolo d’uva. Il lato B presenta una grande testa femminile di profilo rivolta verso sinistra. I capelli sono raccolti in una cuffia (sakkos) decorata da cui escono il ciuffo, coronato da una stephane radiata, e tre boccoli sulle tempie. È dotata di una ricca parure: un orecchino pendente e una collana a più file di sfere. Davanti e dietro alla testa tralci e fiori. Il soggetto della testa femminile isolata è molto diffuso nell’ultima produzione apula, a cui si ascrive questo pezzo, una sorta di ritratto della defunta a cui si augurava beatitudine nell’aldilà.
The vase, modeled on the potter's wheel with the handles and foot worked separately, has been reassembled from numerous small fragments with plaster additions repainted to disguise the gluing. The krater has significant proportions according to a custom that was affirmed in the last period of Apulian production, when the size of the exemplar expressed the prestige of the deceased, as well as the complex and articulated decoration of mythical-funny character that is developed over the entire surface of the vase. The important rearrangements due to the restoration have in part "misunderstood" and compromised the original scene, although they represent an effective testimony of the interventions that were carried out on the vases in the 19th and 20th centuries, not always by specialists. The floral element, a reminder of a sort of ultramundane paradeison, is very much present throughout the vase; the neck is decorated with an interweaving of whorls from which rises a winged Eros and a laurel wreath closed by a rosette. Under the handles, according to the custom, are depicted palmettes and spirals. The plastic masks on the handles are probably interpretable as deities of the underworld or passage. On side A in a naiskos, a funerary monument with Ionic columns and pediment, there is depicted an Eros on a naked horse and with an androgynous appearance. The union of the male and female elements symbolized a real physical mixture, the principle of everything. Eros has a long black hair, a crown of pearls, a bandolier, jewels on his thigh and arms; he also has large open wings (the wing behind has been clearly repainted at the end). The horse, heavily repainted, turns its head backward toward Eros. Due to the lack of understanding of the subject by the twentieth-century restorer, a second horse snout has been painted. On the outside of the building are depicted two offerers of large proportions, dressed in chiton, adorned with a necklace and radiated crown, holding in their hands a wreath and a bunch of grapes. Side B features a large female head in profile facing left. The hair is gathered in a cap (sakkos) decorated from which come out the topknot, crowned with a radiated stephane, and three ringlets on the temples. It is equipped with a rich parure: a pendant earring and a necklace with several rows of spheres. In front and behind the head are vines and flowers. The subject of the isolated female head is very common in the last Apulian production, to which this piece is ascribed, a sort of portrait of the deceased to whom one wished bliss in the afterlife.
Módena (Mòdna en dialecto modenés; Modena en italiano) es una ciudad italiana, capital de la provincia de Módena, en la región Emilia-Romaña. Cuenta con una población de 184 973 habitantes. La catedral, la Torre Cívica («Ghirlandina») y la Piazza Grande de la ciudad están declaradas Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco.
Módena queda en la llanura padana, y está rodeada por dos ríos, el Secchia y el Panaro, ambos afluentes del Po. Su presencia está simbolizada por la fuente de los dos ríos, en el centro de la ciudad, obra de Giuseppe Graziosi. La ciudad está conectada con el Panaro a través del canal Naviglio.
La cordillera de los Apeninos comienzan a unos 10 kilómetros al sur de la ciudad.
Módena es un importante centro industrial. La ciudad se ubica en el corazón de la «Motor Valley» que forma un conjunto de grupos industriales prestigios así como numerosos circuitos y museos. Las empresas Lamborghini, Pagani, Ferrari y Maserati tienen su sede dentro de un radio de 20 km alrededor de Módena.
Ubicado en la llanura Padana, el territorio modenés dispone de importantes riquezas gustativas. Su producto líder es el vinagre balsámico producido en los dominios agrícolas en el entorno de Módena. La base de su elaboración son las uvas cosechadas en los viñedos de la provincia. El lambrusco, vino rosado burbujeante, tiene como origen las viñas cercanas de Módena y Reggio Emilia. Además, Módena es la tierra del queso parmigiano reggiano y del jamón de Módena. Junto con Bolonia, Módena comparte el lugar de origen de la pasta tortellini.
El Duomo de Módena, la Torre Ghirlandina y la Piazza Grande están incluidos desde 1997 dentro del Patrimonio mundial de la UNESCO. El arquitecto Lanfranco y el escultor Wiligelmo erigieron el Duomo en el siglo XII por San Geminiano, obispo de Módena y Santo Patrón de la ciudad. Entre 1179 y 1319 se construyó la torre Ghirlandina asociada con el Duomo. Su nombre de Ghirlandina -guirnalda- resulta de su forma y recuerda la torre Giralda de Sevilla.
Durante más de dos siglos, la familia Este tenía como sede el Palazzo Ducale (palacio ducal). Hoy en día, este palacio recibe la Academia militar.
El Palazzo Comunale –ayuntamiento– cuya la fachada está en la Piazza Grande abarca un conjunto de edificios más antiguos. Dentro del edificio se encuentra la Secchia rapita –el cubo raptado- uno de los símbolos de la ciudad. La estatua de la Bonissima, símbolo de bondad, está posada en la esquina exterior del Palazzo Comunale.
Iglesias. Módena es una ciudad rica en iglesias, se cuentan más de quince en el casco histórico. También es importante nombrar a la iglesia de Santa María Pomposa, la iglesia del Voto o la iglesia de San Vicenzo. Existe también una sinagoga ubicada cerca del Palazzo Comunale.
En el mercado Albinelli se reúnen cada día productores locales de vinagre balsámico, jamón curdo o queso, entre otros.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3dena
Modena is a city and comune (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena, in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy.
A town, and seat of an archbishop, it is known for its car industry since the factories of the famous Italian upper-class sports car makers Ferrari, De Tomaso, Lamborghini, Pagani and Maserati are, or were, located there and all, except Lamborghini, have headquarters in the city or nearby. One of Ferrari's cars, the 360 Modena, was named after the town itself. Ferrari's production plant and Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari are based in Maranello south of the city.
The University of Modena, founded in 1175 and expanded by Francesco II d'Este in 1686, focuses on economics, medicine and law, and is the second oldest athenaeum in Italy. Italian military officers are trained at the Military Academy of Modena, and partly housed in the Baroque Ducal Palace. The Biblioteca Estense houses historical volumes and 3,000 manuscripts. The Cathedral of Modena, the Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande are a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.
Modena is also known in culinary circles for its production of balsamic vinegar.
Famous Modenesi include Mary of Modena, the Queen consort of England and Scotland; operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti and soprano Mirella Freni, born in Modena itself; Enzo Ferrari, eponymous founder of the Ferrari motor company; Catholic priest Gabriele Amorth; chef Massimo Bottura; comics artist Franco Bonvicini; the band Modena City Ramblers and singer-songwriter Francesco Guccini, who lived here for several decades.
The Duomo of Modena, the Ghirlandina Tower and Piazza Grande have been included since 1997 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The architect Lanfranco and the sculptor Wiligelmo erected the Duomo in the 12th century for Saint Geminiano, bishop of Modena and Patron Saint of the city. Between 1179 and 1319 the Ghirlandina tower associated with the Duomo was built. Its name of Ghirlandina -garland- results from its shape and is reminiscent of the Giralda tower in Seville.
For more than two centuries, the Este family had the Palazzo Ducale (ducal palace) as its headquarters. Today, this palace houses the Military Academy.
The Palazzo Comunale –town hall– whose façade is on the Piazza Grande encompasses a group of older buildings. Inside the building is the Secchia rapita – the kidnapped cube – one of the symbols of the city. The statue of Bonissima, a symbol of goodness, is perched in the outer corner of the Palazzo Comunale.
Churches. Modena is a city rich in churches, there are more than fifteen in the historic center. It is also important to name the church of Santa María Pomposa, the church of the Vow or the church of San Vicenzo. There is also a synagogue located near the Palazzo Comunale.
Local producers of balsamic vinegar, curd ham or cheese, among others, meet every day at the Albinelli market.
Apulian red-figure krater (ca. 330 B.C. - ca. 310 B.C.) - clay (orange-hazelnut engobe, potter's wheel, black paint) height 64 cm; diameter 33.9 cm Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan
Il vaso, modellato al tornio con anse e piede lavorati separatamente, si presenta ricomposto da numerosi e minuti frammenti con integrazioni in gesso ridipinte per mascherare l’incollaggio. Il cratere ha significative proporzioni secondo una consuetudine che si affermò nell’ultimo periodo della produzione apula, quando la grandezza dell’esemplare esprimeva il prestigio del defunto, così come la complessa e articolata decorazione a carattere mitico-funerario che si sviluppa su tutta la superficie del vaso. Gli importanti rimaneggiamenti dovuti al restauro hanno in parte ‘frainteso’ e compromesso la scena originale, sebbene rappresentino un’efficace testimonianza degli interventi che venivano eseguiti sui vasi nell’800 e 900, non sempre da specialisti. L’elemento floreale, richiamo a una sorta di paradeison ultramondano, è molto ben presente su tutto il vaso; il collo è decorato con un intreccio di girali da cui sorge un Eros alato e da un serto di alloro chiuso da rosetta. Sotto le anse, secondo la consuetudine, sono raffigurati palmette e girali. I mascheroni plastici presenti sulle anse sono probabilmente interpretabili come divinità infere o di passaggio. Sul lato A in un naiskos, monumento funebre con colonne ioniche e frontone, vi è raffigurato un Eros su cavallo nudo e dall’aspetto androgino. L’unione dell’elemento maschile a quello femminile simboleggiava una vera e propria mescolanza fisica, il principio di ogni cosa. Eros presenta una lunga chioma nera, una corona di perle, la bandoliera, monili alla coscia e alle braccia; è dotato inoltre di grandi ali aperte (l’ala che risulta dietro è stata chiaramente ridipinta nella parte terminale). Il cavallo, fortemente ridipinto, rivolge la testa all’indietro verso Eros. A causa della mancata comprensione del soggetto da parte del restauratore novecentesco, è stato dipinto un secondo muso di cavallo. All’esterno dell’edificio sono raffigurate due offerenti di grandi proporzioni, vestite di chitone, adorne di collana e corona radiata, che tengono nella mano un serto e un grappolo d’uva. Il lato B presenta una grande testa femminile di profilo rivolta verso sinistra. I capelli sono raccolti in una cuffia (sakkos) decorata da cui escono il ciuffo, coronato da una stephane radiata, e tre boccoli sulle tempie. È dotata di una ricca parure: un orecchino pendente e una collana a più file di sfere. Davanti e dietro alla testa tralci e fiori. Il soggetto della testa femminile isolata è molto diffuso nell’ultima produzione apula, a cui si ascrive questo pezzo, una sorta di ritratto della defunta a cui si augurava beatitudine nell’aldilà.
The vase, modeled on the potter's wheel with the handles and foot worked separately, has been reassembled from numerous small fragments with plaster additions repainted to disguise the gluing. The krater has significant proportions according to a custom that was affirmed in the last period of Apulian production, when the size of the exemplar expressed the prestige of the deceased, as well as the complex and articulated decoration of mythical-funny character that is developed over the entire surface of the vase. The important rearrangements due to the restoration have in part "misunderstood" and compromised the original scene, although they represent an effective testimony of the interventions that were carried out on the vases in the 19th and 20th centuries, not always by specialists. The floral element, a reminder of a sort of ultramundane paradeison, is very much present throughout the vase; the neck is decorated with an interweaving of whorls from which rises a winged Eros and a laurel wreath closed by a rosette. Under the handles, according to the custom, are depicted palmettes and spirals. The plastic masks on the handles are probably interpretable as deities of the underworld or passage. On side A in a naiskos, a funerary monument with Ionic columns and pediment, there is depicted an Eros on a naked horse and with an androgynous appearance. The union of the male and female elements symbolized a real physical mixture, the principle of everything. Eros has a long black hair, a crown of pearls, a bandolier, jewels on his thigh and arms; he also has large open wings (the wing behind has been clearly repainted at the end). The horse, heavily repainted, turns its head backward toward Eros. Due to the lack of understanding of the subject by the twentieth-century restorer, a second horse snout has been painted. On the outside of the building are depicted two offerers of large proportions, dressed in chiton, adorned with a necklace and radiated crown, holding in their hands a wreath and a bunch of grapes. Side B features a large female head in profile facing left. The hair is gathered in a cap (sakkos) decorated from which come out the topknot, crowned with a radiated stephane, and three ringlets on the temples. It is equipped with a rich parure: a pendant earring and a necklace with several rows of spheres. In front and behind the head are vines and flowers. The subject of the isolated female head is very common in the last Apulian production, to which this piece is ascribed, a sort of portrait of the deceased to whom one wished bliss in the afterlife.
Venancio Blanco es un escultor contemporáneo de reconocido prestigio nacional e internacional. Nació en 1923 en Matilla de los Caños del Río (Salamanca). Estudió en la Escuela Elemental de Trabajo y en la de Artes Aplicadas y Oficios Artísticos de Salamanca. De 1943 a 1948 cursó estudios en la Escuela Superior de Bellas Artes de San Fernando en Madrid. Desde 1977 es miembro numerario de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando. En 1981 fue nombrado director de la Academia Española de Bellas Artes en Roma y pertenece también a la Pontificia e Insigne Academia Artística dei Virtuosi al Panteón de Roma, Real Academia de Bellas Artes de Santa Isabel de Hungría de Sevilla, Real Academia de Córdoba de Ciencias, Bellas Letras y Nobles Artes, y Real Academia de Bellas Artes de la Purísima Concepción de Valladolid.
Venancio Blanco est un sculpteur contemporain de prestige national et international reconnu. Né en 1923 à Matilla de los Canos del Rio (Salamanque). Il a étudié à l'école primaire du Travail et des Arts Appliqués et des Métiers à Salamanque. De 1943 à 1948, il a étudié à l'Ecole des Beaux-Arts de San Fernando à Madrid. Depuis 1977, il est membre de l'Académie Royale des Beaux-Arts de San Fernando. En 1981, il a été nommé directeur de l'Académie espagnole des Beaux-Arts de Rome et appartient aussi à la Pontificale et Insigne Académie Art dei Virtuosi au Panthéon, l'Académie royale des Beaux-Arts de Sainte Elisabeth de Hongrie à Séville, Académie royale des sciences de Cordoue , belles lettres et arts nobles et Académie des Beaux Arts de l'Immaculée Conception de Valladolid.
Venancio Blanco is a contemporary sculptor of recognized national and international prestige. He born in 1923 in Matilla de los Canos del Rio (Salamanca). He studied at the Elementary School of Labor and the Applied Arts and Crafts in Salamanca. From 1943 to 1948 he studied at the School of Fine Arts of San Fernando in Madrid. Since 1977 he is member of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando. In 1981 he was appointed director of the Spanish Academy of Fine Arts in Rome and also belongs to the Pontifical and Insigne Academy Art dei Virtuosi at the Pantheon, Royal Academy of Fine Arts of St. Elizabeth of Hungary in Seville, Royal Academy of Cordoba Science , Beautiful Letters and Noble Arts and Academy of Fine Arts of the Immaculate Conception of Valladolid.
Venancio Blanco is a contemporary sculptor of recognized national and international prestige. He born in 1923 in Matilla de los Canos del Rio (Salamanca). He studied at the Elementary School of Labor and the Applied Arts and Crafts in Salamanca. From 1943 to 1948 he studied at the School of Fine Arts of San Fernando in Madrid. Since 1977 he is member of the Royal Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando. In 1981 he was appointed director of the Spanish Academy of Fine Arts in Rome and also belongs to the Pontifical and Insigne Academy Art dei Virtuosi at the Pantheon, Royal Academy of Fine Arts of St. Elizabeth of Hungary in Seville, Royal Academy of Cordoba Science , Beautiful Letters and Noble Arts and Academy of Fine Arts of the Immaculate Conception of Valladolid.
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東叡山寛永寺円頓院) (also spelled Kan'eiji or Kaneiji) is a Tendai Buddhist temple in Tokyo, Japan, founded in 1625 during the Kan'ei era by Tenkai, in an attempt to emulate the powerful religious center Enryaku-ji, in Kyoto. The main object of worship is Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬師瑠璃光如来).
It was named in a reference both to the Enryaku-ji's location atop Mount Hiei (Tōeizan means "Mount Hiei of the East"), and also after the era during which it was erected, like Enryaku-ji (named after the Enryaku year period). Because it was one of the two Tokugawa bodaiji (funeral temple; the other was Zōjō-ji) and because it was destroyed in the closing days of the war that put an end to the Tokugawa shogunate, it is inextricably linked to the Tokugawa shōguns.
Once a great complex, it used to occupy the entire heights north and east of Shinobazu Pond and the plains where Ueno Station now stands. It had immense wealth, power and prestige, and it once consisted of over 30 buildings. Of the 15 Tokugawa shōguns, six are buried here.
Many temple structures were destroyed in the great Meireki fire of 1657. A new hall was constructed inside the enclosure of Kan'ei-ji in 1698. The temple and its numerous annexes were almost completely destroyed during the Boshin War's Battle of Ueno and never restored. Much of the site where it once stood was confiscated and is now occupied by Ueno Park.
What is today the temple's main hall was taken from Kita-in in Kawagoe (Saitama Prefecture) and transferred to the site of a former Kan'ei-ji subtemple. Kan'ei-ji's five-story pagoda and the Ueno Tōshō-gū shrine were amongst the gems of the old temple enclosure. Both stand undisturbed by the passage of years since the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The Shinobazu Pond itself and the Bentendō Temple which stands on its island used to be an integral part of Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, liking Lake Biwa, had Benten Island built in imitation of Chikubushima, and then the Bentendō on it. At the time the island was accessible only by boat, but later a stone bridge was added on the east, making it possible to walk to it. The Bentendō Temple was destroyed during World War II, and the present one is a reconstruction.
Kan'ei-ji - Wikipedia
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東 叡 山 寛 永 寺 円 頓 院) (también escrito Kan'eiji o Kaneiji) es un templo budista Tendai en Tokio, Japón, fundado en 1625 durante la era Kan'ei por Tenkai, en un intento de emular al poderoso centro religioso Enryaku-ji, en Kioto. El principal objeto de adoración es Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬 師 瑠 璃 光 如 来).
Se nombró en referencia tanto a la ubicación de Enryaku-ji en la cima del monte Hiei (Tōeizan significa "Monte Hiei del este"), y también después de la era durante la cual se erigió, como Enryaku-ji (llamado así por el período del año Enryaku ). Debido a que fue uno de los dos Tokugawa bodaiji (templo funerario; el otro fue Zōjō-ji) y debido a que fue destruido en los últimos días de la guerra que puso fin al shogunato Tokugawa, está indisolublemente ligado a los shōguns Tokugawa.
Una vez fue un gran complejo, solía ocupar todas las alturas al norte y al este del estanque Shinobazu y las llanuras donde ahora se encuentra la estación Ueno. Tenía una inmensa riqueza, poder y prestigio, y estuvo formado por más de 30 edificios. De los 15 shōguns Tokugawa, seis están enterrados aquí.
Muchas estructuras de templos fueron destruidas en el gran incendio de Meireki de 1657. Se construyó una nueva sala dentro del recinto de Kan'ei-ji en 1698. El templo y sus numerosos anexos fueron destruidos casi por completo durante la batalla de Ueno durante la Guerra Boshin y nunca fueron restaurados. . Gran parte del sitio donde una vez estuvo fue confiscado y ahora está ocupado por el Parque Ueno.
Lo que es hoy el salón principal del templo fue tomado de Kita-in en Kawagoe (Prefectura de Saitama) y trasladado al sitio de un antiguo subtemplo de Kan'ei-ji. La pagoda de cinco pisos de Kan'ei-ji y el santuario Ueno Tōshō-gū se encontraban entre las gemas del antiguo recinto del templo. Ambos permanecen impasibles por el paso de los años desde el fin del shogunato Tokugawa.
El estanque Shinobazu y el templo Bentendō que se encuentra en su isla solían ser una parte integral de Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, al igual que el lago Biwa, hizo construir la isla Benten a imitación de Chikubushima, y luego el Bentendō en ella. En ese momento, solo se podía acceder a la isla en barco, pero más tarde se agregó un puente de piedra en el este, lo que permitió caminar hasta ella. El templo de Bentendō fue destruido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el actual es una reconstrucción.
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東叡山寛永寺円頓院) (also spelled Kan'eiji or Kaneiji) is a Tendai Buddhist temple in Tokyo, Japan, founded in 1625 during the Kan'ei era by Tenkai, in an attempt to emulate the powerful religious center Enryaku-ji, in Kyoto. The main object of worship is Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬師瑠璃光如来).
It was named in a reference both to the Enryaku-ji's location atop Mount Hiei (Tōeizan means "Mount Hiei of the East"), and also after the era during which it was erected, like Enryaku-ji (named after the Enryaku year period). Because it was one of the two Tokugawa bodaiji (funeral temple; the other was Zōjō-ji) and because it was destroyed in the closing days of the war that put an end to the Tokugawa shogunate, it is inextricably linked to the Tokugawa shōguns.
Once a great complex, it used to occupy the entire heights north and east of Shinobazu Pond and the plains where Ueno Station now stands. It had immense wealth, power and prestige, and it once consisted of over 30 buildings. Of the 15 Tokugawa shōguns, six are buried here.
Many temple structures were destroyed in the great Meireki fire of 1657. A new hall was constructed inside the enclosure of Kan'ei-ji in 1698. The temple and its numerous annexes were almost completely destroyed during the Boshin War's Battle of Ueno and never restored. Much of the site where it once stood was confiscated and is now occupied by Ueno Park.
What is today the temple's main hall was taken from Kita-in in Kawagoe (Saitama Prefecture) and transferred to the site of a former Kan'ei-ji subtemple. Kan'ei-ji's five-story pagoda and the Ueno Tōshō-gū shrine were amongst the gems of the old temple enclosure. Both stand undisturbed by the passage of years since the end of the Tokugawa shogunate.
The Shinobazu Pond itself and the Bentendō Temple which stands on its island used to be an integral part of Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, liking Lake Biwa, had Benten Island built in imitation of Chikubushima, and then the Bentendō on it. At the time the island was accessible only by boat, but later a stone bridge was added on the east, making it possible to walk to it. The Bentendō Temple was destroyed during World War II, and the present one is a reconstruction.
Kan'ei-ji - Wikipedia
Tōeizan Kan'ei-ji Endon-in (東 叡 山 寛 永 寺 円 頓 院) (también escrito Kan'eiji o Kaneiji) es un templo budista Tendai en Tokio, Japón, fundado en 1625 durante la era Kan'ei por Tenkai, en un intento de emular al poderoso centro religioso Enryaku-ji, en Kioto. El principal objeto de adoración es Yakushirurikō Nyorai (薬 師 瑠 璃 光 如 来).
Se nombró en referencia tanto a la ubicación de Enryaku-ji en la cima del monte Hiei (Tōeizan significa "Monte Hiei del este"), y también después de la era durante la cual se erigió, como Enryaku-ji (llamado así por el período del año Enryaku ). Debido a que fue uno de los dos Tokugawa bodaiji (templo funerario; el otro fue Zōjō-ji) y debido a que fue destruido en los últimos días de la guerra que puso fin al shogunato Tokugawa, está indisolublemente ligado a los shōguns Tokugawa.
Una vez fue un gran complejo, solía ocupar todas las alturas al norte y al este del estanque Shinobazu y las llanuras donde ahora se encuentra la estación Ueno. Tenía una inmensa riqueza, poder y prestigio, y estuvo formado por más de 30 edificios. De los 15 shōguns Tokugawa, seis están enterrados aquí.
Muchas estructuras de templos fueron destruidas en el gran incendio de Meireki de 1657. Se construyó una nueva sala dentro del recinto de Kan'ei-ji en 1698. El templo y sus numerosos anexos fueron destruidos casi por completo durante la batalla de Ueno durante la Guerra Boshin y nunca fueron restaurados. . Gran parte del sitio donde una vez estuvo fue confiscado y ahora está ocupado por el Parque Ueno.
Lo que es hoy el salón principal del templo fue tomado de Kita-in en Kawagoe (Prefectura de Saitama) y trasladado al sitio de un antiguo subtemplo de Kan'ei-ji. La pagoda de cinco pisos de Kan'ei-ji y el santuario Ueno Tōshō-gū se encontraban entre las gemas del antiguo recinto del templo. Ambos permanecen impasibles por el paso de los años desde el fin del shogunato Tokugawa.
El estanque Shinobazu y el templo Bentendō que se encuentra en su isla solían ser una parte integral de Kan'ei-ji. Tenkai, al igual que el lago Biwa, hizo construir la isla Benten a imitación de Chikubushima, y luego el Bentendō en ella. En ese momento, solo se podía acceder a la isla en barco, pero más tarde se agregó un puente de piedra en el este, lo que permitió caminar hasta ella. El templo de Bentendō fue destruido durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, y el actual es una reconstrucción.
[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.
More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album
[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.
Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid
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Il castello Orsini-Odescalchi, noto anche come castello di Bracciano, è un castello nel comune italiano di Bracciano risalente al XV secolo. Costituito da tre cinta di mura esterne, presenta cinque torri, una per ogni vertice della fortificazione esterna. Fu costruito dopo il 1470 da Napoleone Orsini probabilmente con la collaborazione di maestranze Sistine. Il castello apparteneva a Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) dietro richiesta del papa (per motivi politici) fu donato al suo sottoposto capitano Orsini. Ne è prova lo stemma del comune un braccio che tiene una rosa (uno dei simboli degli Orsini). Il fratello di Napoleone (il Cardinale Latino Orsini) era il camerlengo di papa Sisto IV proprio negli anni in cui venivano costruiti quasi simultaneamente la Cappella Sistina e il Castello di Bracciano. Oggi è di proprietà degli Odescalchi, famiglia che proprio dagli Orsini rilevò il Ducato di Bracciano alla fine del XVII secolo. Il castello, aperto al pubblico nel 1952 da Livio IV Odescalchi, è visitabile e viene spesso usato per ricevimenti, celebrare matrimoni e per altri eventi privati e culturali. Il castello sorge nel 1470 intorno alla vecchia rocca medioevale dei Prefetti di Vico, risalente al tredicesimo secolo, su ordine di Napoleone Orsini che poi viene portata a termine dal figlio Gentil Virginio Orsini nel 1485. Nel 1485 fu ospite della famiglia Orsini il vescovo di Mantova Ludovico Gonzaga, figlio del marchese di Mantova Ludovico III Gonzaga, che fuggì da Roma a causa della peste. Nella sua storia il castello subisce molti cambiamenti inclusi i progetti di Francesco di Giorgio Martini che fu ospite nella corte di Genti Virginio nel 1490 per restaurare varie fortezze. Papa Alessandro VI nel 1496 arriva a confiscare il castello, animato da un profondo risentimento verso gli Orsini. In questi anni risalgono le prime decorazioni, tra i più famosi il ciclo della donna medievale che illustra la vita di corte del tardo Medioevo e l'affresco di Antoniazzo Romano che riproduce il trionfo di Gentil Virginio Orsini, pagina importante di questo pittore del Quattrocento. Terminato il diverbio con il papa gli Orsini riprendono il possesso del castello continuando così l'abbellimento e ampliamento del castello. Alla fine del Cinquecento Giacomo Del Duca, allievo di Michelangelo, realizza una serie di interventi in occasione del sontuoso matrimonio tra Isabella de' Medici e Paolo Giordano Orsini. In quella circostanza i fratelli Taddeo e Federico Zuccari furono chiamati a decorare alcune sale, tra le quali quella che nel 1481 ospitò papa Sisto IV della Rovere in fuga dalla peste che infuriava a Roma. Gli Zuccari, due tra i più importanti artisti della fine del Cinquecento, realizzarono gli affreschi con l'oroscopo dei due sposi e gli emblemi delle due insigni casate. Nel 1696 agli Orsini subentrarono gli Odescalchi antica famiglia di origine comasca, il cui prestigio si incrementò notevolmente quando uno dei suoi membri ascese al soglio pontificio con il nome di Innocenzo XI.
The Orsini-Odescalchi castle, also known as the Bracciano castle, is a castle in the Italian town of Bracciano dating back to the 15th century. Consisting of three outer walls, it has five towers, one for each vertex of the external fortification. It was built after 1470 by Napoleone Orsini, probably with the collaboration of Sistine workers. The castle belonged to Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) at the request of the pope (for political reasons) and was donated to his subordinate captain Orsini. Proof of this is the coat of arms of the municipality an arm holding a rose (one of the symbols of the Orsini). Napoleon's brother (Cardinal Latino Orsini) was the chamberlain of Pope Sixtus IV precisely in the years in which the Sistine Chapel and the Castle of Bracciano were built almost simultaneously. Today it is owned by the Odescalchi, a family who took over the Duchy of Bracciano from the Orsini at the end of the 17th century. The castle, opened to the public in 1952 by Livio IV Odescalchi, can be visited and is often used for receptions, weddings and other private and cultural events. The castle was built in 1470 around the old medieval fortress of the Prefects of Vico, dating back to the thirteenth century, by order of Napoleone Orsini which was then completed by his son Gentil Virginio Orsini in 1485. In 1485 the bishop of Mantua was a guest of the Orsini family Ludovico Gonzaga, son of the Marquis of Mantua Ludovico III Gonzaga, who fled from Rome due to the plague [1]. In its history the castle undergoes many changes including the projects of Francesco di Giorgio Martini who was a guest in the court of Genti Virginio in 1490 to restore various fortresses. Pope Alexander VI in 1496 confiscated the castle, animated by a deep resentment towards the Orsini. The first decorations date back to these years, among the most famous the cycle of the medieval woman illustrating the court life of the late Middle Ages and the fresco by Antoniazzo Romano which reproduces the triumph of Gentil Virginio Orsini, an important page of this painter of the fifteenth century. After the quarrel with the pope, the Orsini regain possession of the castle, thus continuing the embellishment and expansion of the castle. At the end of the sixteenth century Giacomo Del Duca, a pupil of Michelangelo, carried out a series of interventions on the occasion of the sumptuous marriage between Isabella de 'Medici and Paolo Giordano Orsini. On that occasion the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari were called to decorate some rooms, including the one that hosted Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere in 1481 fleeing the plague that was raging in Rome. The Zuccari, two of the most important artists of the late sixteenth century, created the frescoes with the horoscope of the couple and the emblems of the two famous families. In 1696 the Odescalchi, an ancient family of Como origin, took over from the Orsini, whose prestige increased considerably when one of its members ascended to the papal throne with the name of Innocent XI.
Le château Orsini-Odescalchi, également connu sous le nom de château de Bracciano, est un château de la ville italienne de Bracciano datant du XVe siècle. Composé de trois murs extérieurs, il possède cinq tours, une pour chaque sommet de la fortification extérieure. Il a été construit après 1470 par Napoleone Orsini, probablement avec la collaboration des ouvriers de Sixtine. Le château a appartenu à Braccio da Montone (Casata Bracci) à la demande du pape (pour des raisons politiques) et a été donné à son capitaine subordonné Orsini. Preuve en est le blason de la commune un bras tenant une rose (l'un des symboles des Orsini). Le frère de Napoléon (Cardinal Latino Orsini) était le chambellan du Pape Sixte IV précisément dans les années où la Chapelle Sixtine et le Château de Bracciano ont été construits presque simultanément. Aujourd'hui, il appartient aux Odescalchi, une famille qui a repris le duché de Bracciano aux Orsini à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Le château, ouvert au public en 1952 par Livio IV Odescalchi, peut être visité et est souvent utilisé pour des réceptions, des mariages et d'autres événements privés et culturels. Le château a été construit en 1470 autour de l'ancienne forteresse médiévale des préfets de Vico, datant du XIIIe siècle, sur ordre de Napoleone Orsini qui a ensuite été achevée par son fils Gentil Virginio Orsini en 1485. En 1485, l'évêque de Mantoue était un invité de la famille Orsini Ludovico Gonzaga, fils du marquis de Mantoue Ludovico III Gonzaga, qui a fui Rome à cause de la peste . Au cours de son histoire, le château subit de nombreux changements, notamment les projets de Francesco di Giorgio Martini qui fut invité à la cour de Genti Virginio en 1490 pour restaurer diverses forteresses. Le pape Alexandre VI en 1496 confisqua le château, animé d'un profond ressentiment envers les Orsini. Les premières décorations datent de ces années, parmi les plus célèbres le cycle de la femme médiévale illustrant la vie de cour de la fin du Moyen Âge et la fresque d'Antoniazzo Romano qui reproduit le triomphe de Gentil Virginio Orsini, page importante de ce peintre du quinzième siècle. Après la querelle avec le pape, les Orsini reprennent possession du château, poursuivant ainsi l'embellissement et l'agrandissement du château. À la fin du XVIe siècle, Giacomo Del Duca, élève de Michel-Ange, réalisa une série d'interventions à l'occasion du somptueux mariage entre Isabelle de Médicis et Paolo Giordano Orsini. A cette occasion, les frères Taddeo et Federico Zuccari ont été appelés à décorer certaines chambres, dont celle qui a accueilli le pape Sixte IV della Rovere en 1481 fuyant la peste qui sévissait à Rome. Les Zuccari, deux des artistes les plus importants de la fin du XVIe siècle, ont créé les fresques avec l'horoscope du couple et les emblèmes des deux familles célèbres. En 1696, les Odescalchi, ancienne famille originaire de Côme, succèdent aux Orsini, dont le prestige s'accroît considérablement lorsqu'un de ses membres monte sur le trône pontifical sous le nom d'Innocent XI.
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El área en la que se encuentra la galería era ya muy urbanizada en el siglo XVI y se caracterizó por una maraña de calles cortas unidas por carriles paralelos, que el Toledo floreció frente a Castel Nuovo. Estos callejones disfrutado de una mala reputación como había tabernas, casas de mala reputación y había consumido crímenes de todo tipo. El prestigio ganado durante siglos la zona permaneció durante la mayor parte del 'siglo XIX.
En la década de los ochenta del siglo XIX, la degradación tocó extremos: en las calles de rosa edificios de seis pisos, el nivel de higiene era pobre y no es de extrañar que entre 1835 y 1884 en este ámbito se habían producido nueve brotes de cólera. Bajo la presión de la opinión pública, después de la epidemia de 1884 empezó a considerar la intervención del gobierno.
En 1885 se aprobó la ley para la reorganización de la ciudad de Nápoles (que era precisamente el tiempo que la consolidación), que permite a la zona de Santa Brígida recibió una nueva definición territorial. Hubo una serie de propuestas, el proyecto consistió en diseñar un ganador Rocco Emmanuele, que se extendió más tarde por Ernesto di Mauro. Este proyecto consistió en una galería con cuatro brazos que se cruzan en un octógono de crucero cubierto por una cúpula. La demolición de los edificios existentes se inició el 01 de mayo 1887 y 05 de noviembre de ese año se colocó la primera piedra del edificio. Dentro de tres años, precisamente en 19 de noviembre 1890, la nueva galería se abrió.
La entrada principal, que se abre en la Via San Carlo, consta de una fachada de pórtico, en los que dintel tiene un pórtico sostenido por columnas de mármol travertino y dos arcos ciegos, una puerta de entrada a la galería, el "más abierta sobre"ambulatoria. Siguen un orden de ventanas serliana, separadas por pares de pilastras de la capital compuesto, y un segundo piso con ventanas de doble y pilastras similares a las anteriores. El ático tiene pares de ventanas cuadradas y pilastra capitales de la Toscana, este último se ranurado entre las ventanas.
El arco de la derecha muestra las columnas de izquierda a derecha, el 'invierno, la primavera, el 'Verano el 'Otoño, los temas tradicionales que representan el curso de los tiempos en los que están vinculados a las actividades humanas, el trabajo y el genio la ciencia. En el frontón son las de Comercio el 'Industria medio de descanso a los lados de la riqueza, los mitos de la sociedad burguesa.
El arco de la izquierda muestra las columnas, los cuatro continentes 'sde Europa, el "Asia, el «África el 'América. Los nichos están representados por el contrario, la izquierda, la Física y, a la derecha, la química. En el frontón, acostado, el Telegraph, a la derecha, y de vapor, en el flanco izquierdo de la figura de 'Abundancia. Por lo tanto, presenta una imagen positiva de la ciencia y el progreso son capaces de unificar las diferentes partes del mundo. En el techo del porche se puede ver una serie de rondas con los dioses clásicos. Los dioses son representados Diana, Crono, Venus, Júpiter, Mercurio y Juno.
Los niños fachadas tienen una estructura similar, pero sólo han estuco. La fachada de la Via Toledo elemento a ambos lados de dos pares de querubines con escudos que están representados en los emblemas de los dos colegios electorales en Nápoles: el caballo lento a derecha Capuana, y dejó un puerto para Portanova. La fachada sobre la calle Santa Brígida muestra, sus escudos rige por querubines, los emblemas de los escaños en Porto, el hombre abandonó el medio marino, y de la montaña con la montaña a la derecha. Los lados de los paneles hay dos alusiones a la guerra y la paz. La fachada de la calle Verdi, en el escudo, los emblemas de la sede del Nido, un caballo salvaje de la izquierda, y el Pueblo, con P de la derecha. Los lados de los dos paneles se alude a la abundancia y la riqueza de la tierra se caracteriza por el cultivo y la explotación de la navegación.
Interna
El interior del túnel consta de dos caminos que se cruzan en ángulo recto, cubierto por una estructura de hierro y vidrio. Delimitar el número de edificios, de los cuales cuatro han dall'ottagono acceso central. Sus fachadas reflejan la principal, de hecho, la orden inferior está dividido por grandes pilastras lisas, pintadas de mármol de imitación que enmarcan la entrada de las tiendas y altillo encima de ella. Aquí están los serliane primer plano, de conformidad con las ventanas geminadas, las ventanas cuadradas en el ático.
La bóveda, de cristal y hierro, diseñado por Paul Boubée, se las arregla para combinar a la perfección con la estructura de bloques, lo que contribuye a la estrecha relación entre las estructuras de mampostería y hierro forjado del. En las ocho enjutas de la cúpula de ocho figuras femeninas de apoyo candelabros de cobre, ya no existen. Los grandes ventiladores colocados en la cabeza de escenas complejas portar armas en el yeso, todo lo relacionado a la música. El tambor de la cúpula, decorada con ventanas de medio punto, se puede ver la estrella de David, repite en las cuatro ventanas. La razón de su presencia es aparentemente desconocido.
En el piso bajo la cúpula son mosaicos con vientos y los signos del zodíaco Padoan firmado por la empresa en Venecia, que se creó en 1952 para reemplazar el original dañada por el pisoteo y la guerra. El bombardeo provocó la destrucción de todas las cubiertas de vidrio. En los bustos de las entradas y lugares conmemorativos desaparecido y los que participaron en la ejecución del proyecto.
En el brazo de la Via Verdi es una inscripción que recuerda la posada Moriconi que en 1787 fue sede de Goethe. En lugar de entrar en el lado del Teatro San Carlo se encuentra la placa con Pablo Boubée. En el área debajo de la galería hay otro crucero, más pequeño, con una sala central de la Belle Epoque, el Salone Margherita.
La zona su cui sorge la Galleria era già intensamente urbanizzata nel XVI secolo ed era caratterizzata da un groviglio di strade parallele raccordate da brevi vicoli, che da via Toledo sboccavano di fronte a Castel Nuovo. Questi vicoli godevano di cattiva fama in quanto vi si trovavano taverne, case di malaffare e vi si consumavano delitti di ogni genere. La fama conquistata nei secoli dalla zona si mantenne per quasi tutto l'Ottocento.
Negli anni ottanta del XIX secolo il degrado toccò punte estreme: nei vicoli si levavano edifici a sei piani, la situazione igienica era pessima e non fa meraviglia che tra il 1835 ed il 1884 in questa area si fossero verificate ben nove epidemie di colera. Sotto la spinta dell'opinione pubblica, dopo l'epidemia del 1884 si cominciò a considerare un intervento governativo.
Nel 1885 fu approvata la Legge per il risanamento della città di Napoli (quel periodo fu appunto detto del risanamento), grazie alla quale la zona di Santa Brigida ricevette una nuova definizione territoriale. Furono presentate varie proposte, il progetto che risultò vincente fu quello dell'ingegner Emmanuele Rocco, che fu poi ampliato da Ernesto di Mauro. Tale progetto prevedeva una galleria a quattro braccia che si intersecavano in una crociera ottagonale coperta da una cupola. Le demolizioni degli edifici preesistenti iniziarono il 1 maggio 1887 ed il 5 novembre dello stesso anno fu posta la prima pietra dell'edificio. Nel giro di tre anni, precisamente il 19 novembre 1890, la nuova galleria veniva inaugurata.
L'ingresso principale, che si apre su via San Carlo, è costituito da una facciata ad esedra, che in basso, presenta un porticato architravato, retto da colonne di travertino e due archi ciechi, l'uno d'accesso alla galleria, l'altro aperto sull'ambulacro. Seguono un ordine di finestre a serliana, separate da coppie di lesene dal capitello composito, ed un secondo piano con finestre a bifora e lesene simili alle precedenti. L'attico presenta coppie di finestre quadrate e lesene dal capitello tuscanico, quest'ultime tra le finestre sono scanalate.
L'arco di destra mostra, sulle colonne, da sinistra verso destra, l'Inverno, la Primavera, l'Estate e l'Autunno, soggetti tradizionali che rappresentano lo svolgersi del tempo a cui sono legate le attività umane, il Lavoro e il Genio della scienza. Sul fastigio troviamo il Commercio e l'Industria semisdraiati ai lati della Ricchezza, miti della società borghese.
L'arco di sinistra mostra, sulle colonne, i quattro continenti l'Europa, l'Asia, l'Africa e l'America. Nelle nicchie invece sono rappresentati, a sinistra, la Fisica e, a destra, la Chimica. Sul fastigio, sdraiati, il Telegrafo, a destra, e il Vapore, a sinistra che affiancano la figura dell'Abbondanza. Si presenta dunque un'immagine positiva della scienza e del progresso capaci di unificare le diverse parti del mondo. Nel soffitto del porticato si notano una serie di tondi con divinità classiche. Gli dei raffigurati sono Diana, Crono, Venere, Giove, Mercurio e Giunone.
Le facciate minori hanno una struttura simile ma presentano unicamente decorazioni in stucco. La facciata su via Toledo reca, ai lati dell'ingresso, due coppie di putti con scudi nei quali sono rappresentati gli emblemi dei due seggi di Napoli: il cavallo frenato per Capuana a destra, ed una porta per Portanova a sinistra. La facciata su via Santa Brigida presenta, negli scudi retti dai putti, gli emblemi dei seggi di Porto, con l'uomo marino a sinistra, e di Montagna con i monti a destra. Ai lati dell'arco ci sono due pannelli allusivi alla guerra e alla pace. La facciata di via Verdi ha, negli scudi, gli emblemi del seggio di Nido, con un cavallo sfrenato a sinistra, e del Popolo, con la P a destra. Ai lati dell'arco sono presenti due pannelli allusivi all'abbondanza e alla ricchezza caratterizzati dalla coltivazione della terra e dall'esercizio della navigazione.
Interno
L'interno della galleria è costituito da due strade che si incrociano ortogonalmente, coperte da una struttura in ferro e vetro. Le delimitano alcuni palazzi, quattro dei quali con accesso dall'ottagono centrale. Le loro facciate rispecchiano quella principale, infatti l'ordine inferiore è diviso da grandi lesene lisce, dipinte a finto marmo che inquadrano gli ingressi dei negozi e dei soprastanti mezzanini. Seguono al primo piano le serliane, al secondo le bifore, nell'attico le finestre quadrate.
La volta, in vetro e ferro, progettata da Paolo Boubée, riesce ad armonizzarsi perfettamente con la struttura in muratura, a ciò contribuisce lo stretto rapporto fra le strutture portanti in muratura e quelle in ferro. Negli otto pennacchi della cupola otto figure femminili in rame sostenevano lampadari, ormai non più esistenti. Gli ampi ventagli posti nelle testate dei bracci recano complesse scene in stucco, tutte in relazione con la musica. Sul tamburo della cupola, decorato con finestre a semicerchio, è visibile la Stella di Davide, riproposta in tutte e quattro le finestre. La ragione della sua presenza è apparentemente sconosciuta.
Nel pavimento sotto la cupola si trovano mosaici con venti e segni dello zodiaco firmati dalla ditta Padoan di Venezia, che li realizzò nel 1952 a sostituzione degli originali danneggiati dal calpestio e dalla guerra. I bombardamenti provocarono la distruzione di tutte le coperture in vetro. Presso gli ingressi busti e lapidi commemorano luoghi scomparsi e coloro che parteciparono alla realizzazione dell'opera.
Nel braccio verso via Verdi si trova una scritta che ricorda la locanda Moriconi che nel 1787 aveva ospitato Goethe. Entrando invece del lato del Teatro San Carlo ci si imbatte nella lapide dedicata a Paolo Boubée. Nella parte sottostante la Galleria esiste un'altra crociera, di dimensioni minori, con al centro il teatro della Belle Epoque, il Salone Margherita.
Módena (Mòdna en dialecto modenés; Modena en italiano) es una ciudad italiana, capital de la provincia de Módena, en la región Emilia-Romaña. Cuenta con una población de 184 973 habitantes. La catedral, la Torre Cívica («Ghirlandina») y la Piazza Grande de la ciudad están declaradas Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco.
Módena queda en la llanura padana, y está rodeada por dos ríos, el Secchia y el Panaro, ambos afluentes del Po. Su presencia está simbolizada por la fuente de los dos ríos, en el centro de la ciudad, obra de Giuseppe Graziosi. La ciudad está conectada con el Panaro a través del canal Naviglio.
La cordillera de los Apeninos comienzan a unos 10 kilómetros al sur de la ciudad.
Módena es un importante centro industrial. La ciudad se ubica en el corazón de la «Motor Valley» que forma un conjunto de grupos industriales prestigios así como numerosos circuitos y museos. Las empresas Lamborghini, Pagani, Ferrari y Maserati tienen su sede dentro de un radio de 20 km alrededor de Módena.
Ubicado en la llanura Padana, el territorio modenés dispone de importantes riquezas gustativas. Su producto líder es el vinagre balsámico producido en los dominios agrícolas en el entorno de Módena. La base de su elaboración son las uvas cosechadas en los viñedos de la provincia. El lambrusco, vino rosado burbujeante, tiene como origen las viñas cercanas de Módena y Reggio Emilia. Además, Módena es la tierra del queso parmigiano reggiano y del jamón de Módena. Junto con Bolonia, Módena comparte el lugar de origen de la pasta tortellini.
El Duomo de Módena, la Torre Ghirlandina y la Piazza Grande están incluidos desde 1997 dentro del Patrimonio mundial de la UNESCO. El arquitecto Lanfranco y el escultor Wiligelmo erigieron el Duomo en el siglo XII por San Geminiano, obispo de Módena y Santo Patrón de la ciudad. Entre 1179 y 1319 se construyó la torre Ghirlandina asociada con el Duomo. Su nombre de Ghirlandina -guirnalda- resulta de su forma y recuerda la torre Giralda de Sevilla.
Durante más de dos siglos, la familia Este tenía como sede el Palazzo Ducale (palacio ducal). Hoy en día, este palacio recibe la Academia militar.
El Palazzo Comunale –ayuntamiento– cuya la fachada está en la Piazza Grande abarca un conjunto de edificios más antiguos. Dentro del edificio se encuentra la Secchia rapita –el cubo raptado- uno de los símbolos de la ciudad. La estatua de la Bonissima, símbolo de bondad, está posada en la esquina exterior del Palazzo Comunale.
Iglesias. Módena es una ciudad rica en iglesias, se cuentan más de quince en el casco histórico. También es importante nombrar a la iglesia de Santa María Pomposa, la iglesia del Voto o la iglesia de San Vicenzo. Existe también una sinagoga ubicada cerca del Palazzo Comunale.
En el mercado Albinelli se reúnen cada día productores locales de vinagre balsámico, jamón curdo o queso, entre otros.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3dena
Modena is a city and comune (municipality) on the south side of the Po Valley, in the Province of Modena, in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy.
A town, and seat of an archbishop, it is known for its car industry since the factories of the famous Italian upper-class sports car makers Ferrari, De Tomaso, Lamborghini, Pagani and Maserati are, or were, located there and all, except Lamborghini, have headquarters in the city or nearby. One of Ferrari's cars, the 360 Modena, was named after the town itself. Ferrari's production plant and Formula One team Scuderia Ferrari are based in Maranello south of the city.
The University of Modena, founded in 1175 and expanded by Francesco II d'Este in 1686, focuses on economics, medicine and law, and is the second oldest athenaeum in Italy. Italian military officers are trained at the Military Academy of Modena, and partly housed in the Baroque Ducal Palace. The Biblioteca Estense houses historical volumes and 3,000 manuscripts. The Cathedral of Modena, the Torre della Ghirlandina and Piazza Grande are a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1997.
Modena is also known in culinary circles for its production of balsamic vinegar.
Famous Modenesi include Mary of Modena, the Queen consort of England and Scotland; operatic tenor Luciano Pavarotti and soprano Mirella Freni, born in Modena itself; Enzo Ferrari, eponymous founder of the Ferrari motor company; Catholic priest Gabriele Amorth; chef Massimo Bottura; comics artist Franco Bonvicini; the band Modena City Ramblers and singer-songwriter Francesco Guccini, who lived here for several decades.
The Duomo of Modena, the Ghirlandina Tower and Piazza Grande have been included since 1997 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The architect Lanfranco and the sculptor Wiligelmo erected the Duomo in the 12th century for Saint Geminiano, bishop of Modena and Patron Saint of the city. Between 1179 and 1319 the Ghirlandina tower associated with the Duomo was built. Its name of Ghirlandina -garland- results from its shape and is reminiscent of the Giralda tower in Seville.
For more than two centuries, the Este family had the Palazzo Ducale (ducal palace) as its headquarters. Today, this palace houses the Military Academy.
The Palazzo Comunale –town hall– whose façade is on the Piazza Grande encompasses a group of older buildings. Inside the building is the Secchia rapita – the kidnapped cube – one of the symbols of the city. The statue of Bonissima, a symbol of goodness, is perched in the outer corner of the Palazzo Comunale.
Churches. Modena is a city rich in churches, there are more than fifteen in the historic center. It is also important to name the church of Santa María Pomposa, the church of the Vow or the church of San Vicenzo. There is also a synagogue located near the Palazzo Comunale.
Local producers of balsamic vinegar, curd ham or cheese, among others, meet every day at the Albinelli market.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Portrait of Prince William of Nassau-Orange and Princess Maria Stuart (1641 - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
El Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León, también conocido por sus siglas MUSAC, está situado en la ciudad de León (España). Creado con el propósito de ser un "Museo del Presente" o "Museo del siglo XXI", su colección y sus exposiciones y actividades están fundamentalmente dirigidas a abarcar el arte actual en sus diferentes manifestaciones.
Abierto al público en el año 2005, tiene su sede en un edificio de nueva planta, obra del estudio madrileño Mansilla y Tuñón Arquitectos, que ha merecido un gran reconocimiento internacional con la concesión, en el año 2007, del Premio Mies van der Rohe de Arquitectura Contemporánea de la Unión Europea, además de la participación en certámenes y exposiciones desarrolladas por centros de reconocido prestigio mundial.
Función y objetivos
Ubicado en la ciudad de León (España) a la entrada del barrio de Eras de Renueva, el Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León fue inaugurado por los Príncipes de Asturias el 1 de abril de 2005 con un firme propósito: ser un Museo de Presente y convertirse en pieza fundamental en el desarrollo del Arte contemporáneo, a nivel internacional. Este museo nació con un amplio sentido experimental a la hora de concebir y desarrollar proyectos y exposiciones a todos los niveles.
El MUSAC forma parte de la Red de Museos Regionales de Castilla y León junto con el Museo de la Siderurgia y la Minería de Castilla y León (situado también en la provincia de León, en la localidad de Sabero), con el Museo Etnográfico de Castilla y León (Zamora) y con el Museo de la Evolución Humana (Burgos).
El edificio que alberga el MUSAC es una gran construcción de nueva planta, obra del estudio madrileño Mansilla y Tuñón Arquitectos, Premio Mies van der Rohe de arquitectura 2007, el máximo galardón europeo en este campo. También es diseño de este estudio arquitectónico el Auditorio Ciudad de León, situado a pocos metros del MUSAC.
Directores
El MUSAC ha tenido los siguientes directores:
Rafael Doctor Roncero
Agustín Pérez Rubio
Eva González Sancho
Manuel Olveira - (junio 2013- )
Dimisiones de los directores del MUSAC
El 3 de junio de 2013 dimitió, a los 3 meses de su nombramiento, la directora del MUSAC Eva González-Sancho, alegando intromisiones intolerables y antidemocráticas por parte de la Fundación Siglo y la Junta de Castilla y León. Su dimisión llevó, por solidaridad, a la dimisión en bloque del comité artístico, compuesto por José Guirao, Octavio Zaya y Víctor del Río. Los anteriores directores, Rafael Doctor y Agustín Pérez Rubio, comunicaron a la consejera de Cultura de la Junta de Castilla y león, Alicia García, que la razón por la cual ambos dimitieron en su día fue la injerencia» de los responsables de la Fundación Siglo para el Turismo y las Artes de Castilla y León, organismo dependiente de la Junta de Castilla y León.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Arte_Contempor%C3%A1neo_de...
The Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León, better known as the MUSAC, is a contemporary art museum in the city of León, Spain.
Inaugurated in April 2005 by Felipe, Prince of Asturias, this cultural institution aims to be a "Museum of the Present", in the words of its curator Agustín Pérez Rubio, and thus only collects artworks from the latest generation of artists, between 1992 and 2012. The museum has won international prestige for its 21st-century collection and innovative programming, being labelled, for example, as "one of the most astonishingly bold museums to hit the Spanish cultural landscape in years" by The New York Times.
The MUSAC building is celebrated for its avant-garde architecture, and it has been awarded a number of prizes, such as the 2007 European Union Prize for Contemporary Architecture (Mies van der Rohe award). Designed by the architectural studio of Luis M. Mansilla and Emilio Tuñón (Mansilla+Tuñón Arquitectos), the multicolored panels that adorn the exterior of the museum resemble the stained-glass windows of a cathedral. Indeed, the architects drew their inspiration for this work from the main rose window (called The Falconer) at the local 13th century Gothic cathedral, Santa María de León.
MUSAC has become a landmark for the city of León, and an emblem of the new 21st century Spanish architecture, as showcased in a 2006 exhibition at the MoMA of New York City (On-Site: New Architecture in Spain), which selected the MUSAC as one of the arquitectural projects that make Spain today "an international center for design innovation and excellence
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_de_Arte_Contempor%C3%A1neo_de...
Català: Estrenat l'any 1969, el Talgo III RD, era part del prestigiós club TEE. Aquest tren va continuar donant servei fins que l'any 2010. Quan va ser cancel·lat el Catalan Talgo entre Barcelona i Montpellier. Avui s'ha presentat el Tarraco, projecte que recuperarà aquesta composició i circularà cada cap de setmana durant l'estiu, entre Barcelona-França i Tarragona. Avui el tren es presentava als mitjans i directius. Una foto pel seu pas per Sitges.
Castellano: Inagurado en 1969, el Talgo III RD, era parte del prestigioso club TEE. Este tren continuó dando servicio hasta que el año 2010. Cuando fue cancelado el Catalán Talgo entre Barcelona y Montpellier. Hoy se ha presentado el Tarraco, proyecto que recuperará esta composición y circulará cada fin de semana durante el verano, entre Barcelona-Francia y Tarragona. Hoy el tren se presentaba a los medios y directivos. Una foto por su paso por Sitges.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Jupiter and Antiope (1617-18) - exhibition Van Dyck Court Painter - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
Toni Duarte Freelance Photographer
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media
without my explicit permission.
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Contac: toniduarte[a]cmail.cat
5ª KDD del grup Amics de la Càmera
La Llotja de la Seda, Llotja de València o Llotja de Mercaders és un edifici civil d'estil gòtic valencià tardà de la ciutat de València, construït entre el 1482 i el 1548. Si hi ha un edifici que simbolitze la puixança i la riquesa del segle d'or valencià (segle XV), aquest és sens dubte la Llotja. És una mostra de l'abast de la revolució comercial durant la Baixa Edat Mitjana, del desenvolupament social i del prestigi aconseguit per la burgesia valenciana.
La Lonja de la Seda de Valencia o Lonja de los Mercaderes es una obra maestra del gótico civil valenciano situada en el centro histórico de la ciudad de Valencia (España). Declarada Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco, se encuentra situada en la Plaza del Mercado, número 31, frente a la Iglesia de los Santos Juanes y del Mercado Central de Valencia.
Fue construida entre 1482 y 1548, y su primer constructor fue Pere Compte entre los años 1483 y 1498 sobre el modelo de la Lonja de Palma de Mallorca, constituyéndose en un edificio emblemático de la riqueza del siglo de oro valenciano (siglo XV) y muestra de la revolución comercial durante la Baja Edad Media, del desarrollo social y del prestigio conseguido por la burguesía valenciana.
La Llotja de la Seda de València o Llotja dels Mercaders és una obra mestra del gòtic civil valencià situada al centre històric de la ciutat de València. Declarada Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la Unesco, es troba situada a la Plaça del Mercat, nombre 31, enfront de l'Església dels Sants Joans i del Mercat Central de València.
Va ser construïda entre 1482 i 1548, i el seu primer constructor va ser Pere Compte entre els anys 1483 i 1498 sobre el model de la Llotja de Palma de Mallorca, constituint-se en un edifici emblemàtic de la riquesa del segle d'or valencià (segle XV) i mostra de la revolució comercial durant la Baixa Edat Mitjana, del desenvolupament social i del prestigi aconseguit per la burgesia valenciana.
La Lonja de la Seda de Valencia o Lonja de los Mercaderes es una obra maestra del gótico civil valenciano situada en el centro histórico de la ciudad de Valencia. Declarada Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la Unesco, se encuentra situada en la Plaza del Mercado, número 31, frente a la Iglesia de los Santos Juanes y del Mercat Central de Valencia.
Fue construida entre 1482 y 1548, y su primer constructor fue Pere Compte entre los años 1483 y 1498 sobre el modelo de la Lonja de Palma de Mallorca, constituyéndose en un edificio emblemático de la riqueza del siglo de oro valenciano (siglo XV) y muestra de la revolución comercial durante la Baja Edad Media, del desarrollo social y del prestigio conseguido por la burguesía valenciana.
València (Spain).
Colosseum
Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]
The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.
The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]
The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.
The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]
The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).
Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]
Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.
The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.
In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.
In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.
Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).
Exterior
Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.
The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.
Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]
The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]
Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.
Interior
According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.
Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.
The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]
The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]
Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.
The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.
Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.
he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.
During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]
Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.
The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]
The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.
In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.
It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.
At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.
Coliseu (Colosseo)
A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:
O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.
O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.
Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.
O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.
Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.
Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.
Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.
Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.
O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".
A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.
Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.
O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.
Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.
O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.
Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Holy Family with young St. John the baptist and St Ann (1624) - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.
El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.
En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:
Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).
Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme
La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.
El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.
En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15
En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.
El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.
es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
© Saúl Tuñón Loureda
Montmartre (French pronunciation: [mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.
In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.
There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]
The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.
Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.
Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.
A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.
Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.
Montmartre in films
The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.
An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.
Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.
French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.
The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.
Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.
Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.
La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.
Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre
Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.
Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.
Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.
Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).
L'affresco raffigura la stirpe dei Doria e ne esalta il prestigio e il valore, associando i grandi uomini del casato a famosi eroi di Roma
Perin del Vaga (Piero di Giovanni Bonaccorsi 1501-1547) - Loggia of the Heroes (1531-1533) - Villa del Principe - Genoa
The fresco depicts the Doria family and enhances the prestige and value, associating the great men of the house to famous heroes of Rome
Villa del Principe, la più vasta e sontuosa dimora nobiliare della città di Genova, la Villa dell’unico Principe che Genova abbia mai avuto. Era il 1529 quando Andrea Doria, valente ammiraglio e uomo d’armi leggendario, diede il via ai lavori che avrebbero portato alla costruzione di questo meraviglioso palazzo affacciato sul Golfo di Genova.
Villa del Principe, the largest and most sumptuous noble residence of the city of Genoa, the Villa of the sole prince that Genoa has ever had. It was 1529 when Andrea Doria, skilful admiral and legendary man of arms, gave way to the work that would lead to the construction of this wonderful palace overlooking the Gulf of Genoa
A Via Camerelle é a artéria comercial mais icónica da Ilha de Capri, Itália, com 273 metros de extensão, ligando a Certosa di San Giacomo ao coração da cidade e à famosa Piazzetta. Originalmente um caminho romano, a Via Anticaglia, transformou-se, a partir dos anos 50, numa montra de prestígio, atraindo turismo em massa e consolidando-se como o epicentro do luxo, onde se encontram boutiques de marcas renomadas como Pomellato, Brunello Cucinelli, Gucci e Prada. Durante a temporada alta, a rua pedonal torna-se num vibrante corredor de visitantes em busca de experiências de compra exclusivas e da atmosfera glamorosa da ilha, que também alberga restaurantes e hotéis de luxo. Os vestígios das antigas cisternas que lhe deram o nome foram, em grande parte, substituídos por elegantes estabelecimentos, tornando a Via Camerelle não apenas um espaço de comércio, mas um ponto de encontro crucial que reflete a dinâmica do turismo de luxo em Capri.
Via Camerelle is the most iconic commercial artery on the island of Capri, Italy, 273 meters long, connecting the Certosa di San Giacomo to the heart of the city and the famous Piazzetta. Originally a Roman road, the Via Anticaglia has been transformed since the 1950s into a prestigious showcase, attracting mass tourism and consolidating itself as the epicenter of luxury, where boutiques of renowned brands such as Pomellato, Brunello Cucinelli, Gucci, and Prada can be found. During the high season, the pedestrian street becomes a vibrant corridor of visitors seeking exclusive shopping experiences and the island's glamorous atmosphere, which is also home to luxury restaurants and hotels. The remains of the old cisterns that gave it its name have largely been replaced by elegant establishments, making Via Camerelle not only a shopping area, but a crucial meeting point that reflects the dynamics of luxury tourism in Capri.
Antoon van Dyck (Antwerp, 1599 - London, 1641) Holy Family with young St. John the baptist and St Ann (1624) - Van Dyck exhibition Painter of Court - Turin, Royal Museums - Palatine Hall of the Sabauda Gallery
Fu uno dei più grandi artisti del Seicento europeo, il miglior allievo di Rubens e rivoluzionò l’arte del ritratto del XVII secolo.
Personaggio di fama internazionale, gentiluomo dai modi raffinati, artista geniale e amabile conversatore, Van Dyck fu pittore ufficiale delle più grandi corti d’Europa, dagli aristocratici genovesi ai Savoia, dall’Arciduchessa Isabella alle corti di Giacomo I e di Carlo I d’Inghilterra, che lo definiva “gloria del mondo”: così Carlo I amava definire il maestro fiammingo, per accrescere il lustro e il prestigio della corte.
In Italia, Van Dyck soggiornò per sei anni, dal 1621 al 1627, visitando numerose città e potè approfondire lo studio dell’arte italiana e in particolare quella veneta, avviò i contatti con l’aristocrazia genovese, i sovrani torinesi e i duchi di Firenze, committenti che lo condussero a specializzarsi nella ritrattistica .Formandosi sui modelli di Tiziano e rispondendo alle esigenze celebrative della committenza, Van Dyck elaborò un genere del tutto personale, caratterizzato da una grande perfezione formale. Opere come la Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo, il Cardinale Guido Bentivoglio, Emanuele Filiberto Principe di Savoia, l’Arciduchessa Isabella Clara Eugenia in abito monastico, Il Principe Tomaso di Savoia Carignano, Carlo I e la Regina Enrichetta Maria sono esempi sublimi dei suoi ritratti che, per la naturalezza e spontaneità dei gesti, per la cura estrema nella resa dei materiali preziosi come sete e merletti, per le pennellate impalpabili che creano atmosfere vibranti e seducenti, esercitano ancora oggi un fascino irresistibile.
Van Dyck, the great Flemish paintery, was Rubens’ star pupil and one of the greatest exponents of 17th-century European art, revolutionizing the portraiture of the period.
He was also an internationally famous personality, refined gentleman, charming conversationalist, brilliant artist and official painter to the most important European courts.
Van Dyck spent six years in Italy, from 1621 to 1627, visiting various cities and studying Italian art and especially that of the Veneto. Here he established contacts with the Genoese aristocracy, the royals in Turin and the dukes of Florence, who commissioned works and led him to specialize in portraiture. By basing himself on Titian’s models and fulfilling the celebratory needs of his clients, Van Dyck developed a completely personal genre, characterized by great formal perfection. Works like Marchesa Elena Grimaldi Cattaneo; Cardinal Guido Bentivoglio; Emanuele Filiberto, Prince of Savoy; Archduchess Isabella Dressed as a Nun; Tomaso Francesco of Savoy, Prince of Carignano, and Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria are supreme examples of his portraiture which, due to their naturalness and spontaneous gestures, the meticulously rendered precious silks and lace, and the imperceptible brushwork that creates vibrant and seductive atmospheres, still exert an irresistible fascination today.
Hotel de Ville, Paris, France.
El Hôtel de Ville de Paris alberga las instituciones del gobierno municipal de París. El mismo se ubica frente a la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, anteriormente llamada Place de Grève, en el IV Distrito de la ciudad. Ha albergado el ayuntamiento de París desde 1357. Actualmente se utiliza para múltiples propósitos: aloja la administración de la ciudad, allí tiene su despacho el alcalde de París (desde 1977), y también se utiliza para brindar grandes recepciones. En los últimos años, la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville se ha engalanado en gran parte de primavera y verano con un "jardín efímero", en el que el Ayuntamiento instala miles de especies vegetales además de un hermoso estanque con sus respectivas especies de plantas, sin embargo, en 2009 no hubo estanque.
La plaza de Greve, rebautizada como la Place de l'Hotel de Ville de 19 de marzo 1803, se ha convertido en un espacio peatonal desde 1982. París ha sido objeto de varias insurrecciones, el ayuntamiento era a menudo el punto focal de los motines, los rebeldes y los revolucionarios. Desde Etienne Marcel, la Fronda, la Revolución de julio 1830 y febrero 1848, la Comuna de 1871 hasta la liberación de París, el ayuntamiento es un lugar cargado de historia.
El lugar donde se asienta el ayuntamiento de París es de gran prestigio, es donde los huéspedes son recibidos por el alcalde. El Ayuntamiento también se ha convertido en un espacio para exposiciones, es el edificio municipal más grande de Europa.
The Hôtel de Ville de Paris houses the institutions of the municipal government of Paris. It is located opposite the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, formerly called Place de Grève, in the 4th District of the city. It has housed the city hall of Paris since 1357. It is currently used for multiple purposes: it houses the administration of the city, there has its office the mayor of Paris (since 1977), and is also used to provide large receptions. In recent years, the Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville has been adorned in much of spring and summer with an "ephemeral garden", in which the City Council installs thousands of plant species in addition to a beautiful pond with their respective plant species, however, in 2009 there was no pond.
The Place de Greve, renamed the Place de l'Hotel de Ville on March 19, 1803, has been converted into a pedestrian space since 1982. Paris has been the subject of several insurrections, the town hall was often the focal point of the riots , the rebels and the revolutionaries. From Etienne Marcel, the Fronde, the Revolution of July 1830 and February 1848, the Commune of 1871 until the liberation of Paris, the town hall is a place steeped in history.
The place where the city hall of Paris is located is of great prestige, it is where the guests are received by the mayor. The City Hall has also become a space for exhibitions, it is the largest municipal building in Europe.
Locomotora 220-2023 | Andaluces 6 | Año 1890 | Regne Unit | 40,64 t. | 80 Km/h. | Bobadilla
La Compañía Inglesa del Ferrocarril Bobadilla-Algeciras, luego integrada en la compañía de Ferrocarriles Andaluces, adquirió estas locomotoras para el remolque de sus trenes rápidos, probablemente debido al prestigio y extensión de estas locomotoras en el Reino Unido y por ser una compañía británica la concesionaria de la línea. Al pasar a RENFE cambiaron las duras sierras andaluzas por las líneas de Alicante a Albatera y Torrevieja, donde dejaron de prestar servicio al comienzo de los años sesenta. Las locomotoras con este tipo de rodaje fueron destinadas al remolque de trenes de viajeros. En toda la península abundan los perfiles difíciles, lo que explica su escasez.
The Compañía Inglesa del Ferrocarril Bobadilla-Algeciras -later part of the Ferrocarriles Andaluces company- bought these locomotives to tow its fast trains, probably due to their prestige and widely use in the United Kingdom and also because the line dealer was a British company. When they were transferred to RENFE they changed the hard mountain ranges of Andalusia for the Alicante-Talavera and Torrevieja lines, where they stopped working at the beginning of the sixties. As it has been said, they were used to tow passenger trains. Their shortage is explained because of the difficult profiles throughout the peninsula.
Santa Margherita Ligure, na Riviera Italiana da Ligúria, é uma comuna costeira que se destaca pela sua arquitetura característica com edifícios coloridos dispostos em anfiteatro ao longo do Golfo do Tigullio. A localidade, com uma história que remonta à era romana e fortificada no século XVI, desenvolveu-se no século XIX como um destino turístico de prestígio, atraindo visitantes com a sua orla marítima, praias e comércio ativo. O porto, central para a vida da comuna, recebe iates, barcos de pesca e cruzeiros, enquanto embarcações tradicionais, como o "gozzo", outrora usadas na pesca, agora servem o turismo náutico. Ponto de partida para explorar Portofino e o Parque Natural Regional de Portofino, Santa Margherita Ligure mantém um forte património arquitetónico, como a Basílica de Santa Margherita e a Villa Durazzo, combinando a beleza da Belle Époque com a proximidade do Mar Tirreno.
Santa Margherita Ligure, on the Italian Riviera of Liguria, is a coastal commune that stands out for its characteristic architecture with colorful buildings arranged in an amphitheater along the Gulf of Tigullio. The town, with a history dating back to Roman times and fortified in the 16th century, developed in the 19th century as a prestigious tourist destination, attracting visitors with its waterfront, beaches and bustling commerce. The port, central to the life of the commune, receives yachts, fishing boats, and cruise ships, while traditional boats, such as the 'gozzo', once used for fishing, now serve nautical tourism. A starting point for exploring Portofino and the Portofino Regional Natural Park, Santa Margherita Ligure boasts a rich architectural heritage, including the Basilica of Santa Margherita and Villa Durazzo, combining the beauty of the Belle Époque with the proximity of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
ENGLISH
The promoter Campo Volantín S.L. was the Company that extracted to contest the construction of a bridge that was saving the river Nervión not far from the emplacement where there is located today the prestigious Museum Guggenheim, in Bilbao, work of another recognized architect of international prestige, Frank O. Gehry.
The principal characteristic of the above mentioned project was consisting also of the fact that the bridge would have to be the sufficiently high thing as to stop to go on to the ships under his underpass. Santiago Calatrava, which gained the project, designed an impressive gangplank thanks to the great parabolic arch of steel that inclined and unfolded it crosses the gangplank across.
The arch of steel, with a circular section of 50 cm. Of thickness, it reaches a final height of 15 meters. The gangplank, with a total length of 75 meters, rises up to 8.5 meters of height with regard to his tide to open way to the ships under his underpass.
Two ramps of access in two sections of 2 meters of width each one and with a slope of 7 %, save the high difference that offers the gangplank her to cross of a side to other one. A few cables tightened of 30 mm. Of diameter they anchor to the arch of a white immaculate color for the sustenance of the surprising gangplank.
The architect endowed to this pedestrian gangplank of modern and innovative design by means of the employment a material of precious colorations, the translucent glass, and that together with the artificial lighting by means of a few areas lodged under the board, produce every night the visual only and authentic spectacular spectacle.
SPANISH
La promotora Campo Volantín S.L. fue la Empresa que sacó a concurso la construcción de un puente que salvase el río Nervión no lejos del emplazamiento donde se encuentra ubicado hoy día el prestigioso Museo Guggenheim, en Bilbao, obra de otro reconocido arquitecto de prestigio internacional, Frank O. Gehry.
La característica principal de dicho proyecto consistía también en que el puente tendría que ser lo suficientemente alto como para dejar pasar a los barcos bajo su paso inferior. Santiago Calatrava, que ganó el proyecto, diseñó una pasarela sobrecogedora gracias al gran arco parabólico de acero que inclinado y desdoblado cruza la pasarela de un lado a otro.
El arco de acero, con una sección circular de 50 cm. de espesor, alcanza una altura final de 15 metros. La pasarela, con una longitud total de 75 metros, se eleva a 8.5 metros de altura con respecto a su pleamar para dejar paso a los barcos bajo su paso inferior.
Dos rampas de acceso en dos tramos de 2 metros de ancho cada una y con una pendiente del 7%, salvan el alto desnivel que ofrece la pasarela para cruzarla de un lado al otro. Unos cables tensados de 30 mm. de diámetro se anclan al arco de un color blanco inmaculado para el sustento de la sorprendente pasarela.
El arquitecto dotó a esta pasarela peatonal de diseño moderno e innovador mediante el empleo un material de preciosas coloraciones, el vidrio translúcido, y que junto con la iluminación artificial mediante unos focos alojados bajo el tablero, producen cada noche un espectáculo visual único y auténticamente espectacular.
Copyright © José Miguel Hernández Hernández
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡山東慶寺), also known as Kakekomi-dera (駆け込み寺) or Enkiri-dera (縁切り寺), is a Buddhist temple and a former nunnery, the only survivor of a network of five nunneries called Amagozan (尼五山), in the city of Kamakura in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the Rinzai school of Zen's Engaku-ji branch, and was opened by Hōjō Sadatoki in 1285. It is best known as a historic refuge for women who were abused by their husbands. It is for this reason sometimes referred to as the "Divorce Temple".
The temple was founded in the 8th year of Koan (1285) by nun Kakusan-ni, wife of Hōjō Tokimune (1251–1284), after her husband's death. Because it was then customary for a wife to become a nun after her husband's death, she decided to open the temple and dedicate it to the memory of her husband. She also made it a refuge for battered wives.
In an age when men could easily divorce their wives but wives had great difficulty divorcing their husbands, Tōkei-ji allowed women to become officially divorced after staying there for two years. Temple records show that, during the Tokugawa period alone, an estimated 2,000 women sought shelter there. The temple lost its right to concede divorce in 1873, when a new law was approved and the Court of Justice started to handle the cases.
The temple remained a nunnery for over 600 years and men could not enter until 1902, when a man took the post of abbot and Tōkei-ji came under the supervision of Engaku-ji. Before then, the chief nun was always an important figure, and once it even was a daughter of Emperor Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, the daughter and only survivor of Toyotomi Hideyori's family, son of Hideyoshi, entered Tōkei-ji following the Siege of Osaka. Such was the nunnery's prestige that its couriers did not need to prostrate themselves when they met a daimyōs procession.
The two main buildings of the complex are the Main Hall and the Suigetsu-dō, but the latter is not open to visitors. The temple's old Butsuden, an Important Cultural Property, was bought during the Meiji period by businessman Tomitaro Hara and is now in the garden he built, Yokohama's Sankei-en.
Behind the temple there is a graveyard where many celebrities are buried, among them in adjacent graves are three men also famous among European Zen and haiku interested, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki and Reginald Horace Blyth.
Tōkei-ji - Wikipedia
Shōkozan Tōkei-ji (松岡 山東 慶 寺), también conocido como Kakekomi-dera (駆 け 込 み 寺) o Enkiri-dera (縁 切 り 寺), es un templo budista y un antiguo convento, el único superviviente de una red. de cinco conventos llamados Amagozan (尼 五 山), en la ciudad de Kamakura en la prefectura de Kanagawa, Japón. Es parte de la escuela Rinzai de la rama Engaku-ji de Zen, y fue inaugurada por Hōjō Sadatoki en 1285. Es más conocida como un refugio histórico para mujeres que fueron abusadas por sus maridos. Por esta razón, a veces se lo denomina "Templo del divorcio".
El templo fue fundado en el octavo año de Koan (1285) por la monja Kakusan-ni, esposa de Hōjō Tokimune (1251-1284), después de la muerte de su esposo. Debido a que entonces era costumbre que una esposa se convirtiera en monja después de la muerte de su esposo, decidió abrir el templo y dedicarlo a la memoria de su esposo. También lo convirtió en un refugio para esposas maltratadas.
En una época en la que los hombres podían divorciarse fácilmente de sus esposas, pero las esposas tenían grandes dificultades para divorciarse de sus maridos, Tōkei-ji permitió que las mujeres se divorciaran oficialmente después de permanecer allí durante dos años. Los registros del templo muestran que, solo durante el período Tokugawa, unas 2.000 mujeres buscaron refugio allí. El templo perdió su derecho a otorgar el divorcio en 1873, cuando se aprobó una nueva ley y el Tribunal de Justicia comenzó a manejar los casos.
El templo siguió siendo un convento durante más de 600 años y los hombres no pudieron entrar hasta 1902, cuando un hombre asumió el cargo de abad y Tōkei-ji quedó bajo la supervisión de Engaku-ji. Antes de eso, la monja principal siempre fue una figura importante, e incluso una vez fue hija del emperador Go-Daigo. Tenshū-ni, la hija y única superviviente de la familia de Toyotomi Hideyori, hijo de Hideyoshi, entró en Tōkei-ji tras el Asedio de Osaka. Tal era el prestigio del convento de monjas que sus mensajeros no necesitaban postrarse cuando se encontraban con una procesión de daimyō.
Los dos edificios principales del complejo son el Salón Principal y el Suigetsu-dō, pero este último no está abierto a los visitantes. El antiguo Butsuden del templo, una propiedad cultural importante, fue comprado durante el período Meiji por el empresario Tomitaro Hara y ahora se encuentra en el jardín que construyó, Sankei-en de Yokohama.
Detrás del templo hay un cementerio donde están enterradas muchas celebridades, entre ellas en tumbas adyacentes hay tres hombres también famosos entre el Zen europeo y los interesados en el haiku, Kitarō Nishida, Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki y Reginald Horace Blyth.