Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.

More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album

[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.

Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid

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Spanish

El Cementerio de la Recoleta es un famoso cementerio ubicado en el distinguido barrio de la Recoleta de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina diseñado por Próspero Catelin1 y en donde se encuentran sepultadas el mayor número de personalidades del país.

Historia

Acceso Principal al Cementerio de la Recoleta, vista desde el interior.

Los frailes de la orden de los recoletos descalzos llegaron a esta zona, entonces en las afueras de Buenos Aires, a principios del siglo XVIII. Construyeron en el lugar un convento y una iglesia, en 1732, que colocaron bajo la advocación de la Virgen del Pilar. Actualmente la Basílica de Nuestra Señora del Pilar es un Monumento Histórico Nacional. Los lugareños terminaron denominando a la iglesia de los recoletos en simplemente la Recoleta, nombre que se extendió a toda la zona. Cuando la orden fue disuelta en 1822, el 17 de noviembre1 de ese año, la huerta del convento fue convertida en el primer cementerio público de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Los responsables de su creación fueron el entonces gobernador de la provincia de Buenos Aires Martín Rodríguez (sus restos descansan en el Cementerio) y su ministro de Gobierno, Bernardino Rivadavia.

Sus dos primeros moradores fueron el niño negro liberto Juan Benito y la joven María Dolores Maciel.

Durante la década de 1870, como consecuencia de la epidemia de fiebre amarilla que asoló la ciudad, muchos porteños de clase alta abandonaron los barrios de San Telmo y Montserrat y se mudaron a la parte norte de la ciudad, a Recoleta. Al convertirse en barrio de clase alta, el cementerio se convirtió en el último reposo de las familias de mayor prestigio y poder de Buenos Aires. Al mismo tiempo se inauguraba el Cementerio de la Chacarita o Cementerio del Oeste, por oposición al Cementerio del Norte nombre menos común que recibe la Recoleta.

En el ingreso al cementerio hay tres fechas grabadas sobre el piso: 1822 (año de su creación), 1881 (fecha de su primera remodelación) y 2003 (tercera remodelación).

English

La Recoleta Cemetery (Spanish: Cementerio de la Recoleta) is a cemetery located in the Recoleta neighbourhood of Buenos Aires, Argentina. It contains the graves of notable people, including Eva Perón, presidents of Argentina, Nobel Prize winners, the founder of the Argentine Navy and a granddaughter of Napoleon. In 2011, the BBC hailed it as one of the world's best cemeteries, and in 2013, CNN listed it among the 10 most beautiful cemeteries in the world.

History

The monks of the Order of the Recoletos arrived in this area, then the outskirts of Buenos Aires, in the early eighteenth century. The cemetery is built around their convent and a church, Our Lady of Pilar (Iglesia de Nuestra Señora del Pilar), built in 1732. The order was disbanded in 1822, and the garden of the convent was converted into the first public cemetery in Buenos Aires. Inaugurated on 17 November of the same year under the name of Cementerio del Norte (Northern Cemetery), those responsible for its creation were the then-Governor Martin Rodríguez, who would be eventually buried in the cemetery, and government minister Bernardino Rivadavia. The 1822 layout was done by French civil engineer Próspero Catelin, who also designed the current facade of the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral. The cemetery was last remodeled in 1881, while Torcuato de Alvear was mayor of the city, by the Italian architect Juan Antonio Buschiazzo.

Wikipedia

Situata di fronte al Naviglio Grande, la villa Visconti-Castiglioni-Maineri occupa il lato orientale del canale ed appare nel suo prestigio, colorata del giallo della Milano settecentesca e neoclassica. E’ un modello di palazzo di città, compatto e chiuso, che si presenta con una pianta ad H.

Già frequentata nel '700 come sede di villeggiatura signorile dalla nobiltà milanese, Cassinetta di Lugagnano si trova a 3 km da Abbiategrasso lungo il Naviglio Grande.

Il patrimonio storico di Cassinetta di Lugagnano è costituito dalle ville aristocratiche legate ai nomi delle grandi famiglie milanesi. Queste “case da nobile” costituivano per i proprietari i punti di riferimento per effettuare periodici controlli sulla gestione dei terreni da parte dei fittavoli ma, poiché la zona possedeva pregevoli attrattive ambientali, erano usate anche come residenza per lo svago ed il riposo.

Almost opposite of the Naviglio Grande the villa Visconti-Castiglioni-Maineri occupies the eastern side of the channel and appears in its prestige, the yellow color of the eighteenth-century neoclassical city of Milan. It 's a model of city palace, compact and closed, with a H plant. Already popular in the ‘700 as the site of stately homes by the milanese nobility, Cassinetta di Lugagnano is located 3 km from Abbiategrasso along the Naviglio Grande.

The historical legacy of Cassinetta di Lugagnano consists of the aristocratic villas linked to the names of the great families in Milan. These "noble houses" were for the owners points of reference for carrying out periodic checks on the management of land cultivated

by the tenants but, cause the area had valuable environmental attractions, they were also used as a residence for leisure and rest.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

Diabolik / Taschenbuch-Reihe

> Diabolik / Giochi di Prestigio

art: Sergio Zaniboni, Giorgio Montorio

(reprint from Diabolik #v26#1 / 1987)

Verlag: Astoria (Mailand / Italien; 2003)

ex libris MTP

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabolik

(29/04/2022) · De la mà de Laidelys Quintero Gutiérrez, wellness manager de l’Andorra Park Hotel, i de Terri-Anne Smith, global training executive de la firma londinenca The Organic Pharmacy, els clients del prestigiós hotel van conèixer de primera mà una variada línia de productes orgànics i naturals per a la cura de la pell i del cos.

Exterior of the Sistine Chapel, from saint Peter's Basilic Sistine Chapel.

Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

Sistine Chapel (Italian: Cappella Sistina) is the best-known chapel in the Apostolic Palace, the official residence of the Pope in Vatican City. Its fame rests on its architecture, evocative of Solomon's Temple of the Old Testament and on its decoration which has been frescoed throughout by the greatest Renaissance artists including Michelangelo, Raphael, Bernini, and Sandro Botticelli. Under the patronage of Pope Julius II, Michelangelo painted12,000 square feet (1,100 m2) of the chapel ceiling between 1508 and 1512. He resented the commission, and believed his work only served the Pope's need for grandeur. However, today the ceiling, and especially The Last Judgement, are widely believed to be Michelangelo's crowning achievements in painting.

The Sistine Chapel takes its name from a pope, Pope Sixtus IV, who restored the old Cappella Magna between 1477 and 1480. During this period a team of painters that included Pietro Perugino, Sandro Botticelli and Domenico Ghirlandaio created a series of frescoed panels depicting the life of Moses and the life of Christ, offset by papal portraits above and trompe l’oeil drapery below. These paintings were completed in 1482, and on August 15, 1483, Sixtus IV consecrated the first mass in honor of Our Lady of the Assumption.

Since the time of Sixtus IV, the chapel has served as a place of both religious and functionary papal activity. Today it is the site of the Papal conclave, the ceremony by which a new Pope is selected.

The Sistine Chapel is best known for being the location of Papal conclaves. More commonly, it is the physical chapel of the Papal Chapel. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV in the late 15th century, this corporate body comprised about 200 people, including clerics, officials of the Vatican and distinguished laity. There were 50 occasions during the year on which it was prescribed by the Papal Calendar that the whole Papal Chapel should meet. Of these 50 occasions, 35 were masses, of which 8 were held in Basilicas, generally St. Peters, and were attended by large congregations. These included the Christmas Day and Easter masses, at which the Pope himself was the celebrant. The other 27 masses could be held in a smaller, less public space, for which the Cappella Maggiore was used before it was rebuilt on the same site as the Sistine Chapel.

The Cappella Maggiore derived its name, the Greater Chapel, from the fact that there was another chapel also in use by the Pope and his retinue for daily worship. At the time of Pope Sixtus IV this was the Chapel of Pope Nicholas V, which had been decorated by Fra Angelico. The Cappella Maggiore is recorded as existing in 1368. According to a communication from Andreas of Trebizond to Pope Sixtus IV, by the time of its demolition to make way for the present chapel the Cappella Maggiore was in a ruinous state with its walls leaning.

The present chapel, on the site of the Cappella Maggiore, was designed by Baccio Pontelli for Pope Sixtus IV, for whom it is named, and built under the supervision of Giovannino de Dolci between 1473 and 1481. The proportions of the present chapel appear to closely follow those of the original. After its completion, the chapel was decorated with frescoes by a number of the most famous artists of the High Renaissance, including Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Perugino and Michelangelo.

The first mass in the Sistine Chapel was celebrated on August 9, 1483, the Feast of the Assumption, at which ceremony the chapel was consecrated and dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The Sistine Chapel has maintained its function to the present day, and continues to host the important services of the Papal Calendar, unless the Pope is travelling. There is a permanent choir for whom much original music has been written, the most famous piece being Allegri's Miserere.

One of the primary functions of the Sistine Chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. On the occasion of a conclave, a chimney is installed in the roof of the chapel, from which smoke arises as a signal. If white smoke appears, created by burning the ballots of the election and some chemical additives, a new Pope has been elected. If a candidate receives less than a two-thirds majority, the cardinals send up black smoke—created by burning the ballots along with wet straw or chemical additives—it means that no successful election has yet occurred.

The conclave also provides for the cardinals a space in which they can hear mass, and in which they can eat, sleep, and pass time abetted by servants. From 1455, conclaves have been held in the Vatican; until the Great Schism, they were held in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria sopra Minerva.

Canopies for each cardinal-elector were once used during conclaves—a sign of equal dignity. After the new Pope accepts his election, he would give his new name; at this time, the other Cardinals would tug on a rope attached to their seats to lower their canopies. Until reforms instituted by Saint Pius X, the canopies were of different colours to designate which Cardinals had been appointed by which Pope. Paul VI abolished the canopies altogether, since under his papacy, the population of the College of Cardinals had increased so much to the point that they would need to be seated in rows of two against the walls, making the canopies obstruct the view of the cardinals in the back row.

The Chapel is a high rectangular brick building, its exterior unadorned by architectural or decorative details, as common in many Medieval and Renaissance churches in Italy. It has no exterior facade or exterior processional doorways as the ingress has always been from internal rooms within the Papal Palace, and the exterior can only be seen from nearby windows and light-wells in the palace. The internal spaces are divided into three stories of which the lowest is huge with a robustly vaulted basement with several utilitarian windows and a doorway giving onto the exterior court.

Above is the main space, the Chapel, the internal measurements of which are 40.9 meters (134 ft) long by 13.4 meters (44 ft) wide—the dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament. The vaulted ceiling rises to 20.7 meters (68 ft). The building had six tall arched windows down each side and two at either end. Several of these have been blocked, but the chapel is still accessible. Above the vault rises a third story with wardrooms for guards. At this level an open projecting gangway was constructed, which encircled the building supported on an arcade springing from the walls. The gangway has been roofed as it was a continual source of water leaking in to the vault of the Chapel.

Subsidence and cracking of masonry such as must also have affected the Cappella Maggiore has necessitated the building of very large buttresses to brace the exterior walls. The accretion of other buildings has further altered the exterior appearance of the Chapel.

As with most buildings measured internally, absolute measurement is hard to ascertain. However, the general proportions of the chapel are clear to within a few centimetres. The length is the measurement and has been divided by three to get the width and by two to get the height. Maintaining the ratio, there were six windows down each side and two at either end. The screen which divides the chapel was originally placed half way from the altar wall, but this has changed. Clearly defined proportions were a feature of Renaissance architecture and reflected the growing interest in the Classical heritage of Rome.

The ceiling of the chapel is a flattened barrel vault springing from a course that encircles the walls at the level of the springing of the window arches. This barrel vault is cut transversely by smaller vaults over each window, which divide the barrel vault at its lowest level into a series of large pendentives rising from shallow pilasters between each window. The barrel vault was originally painted brilliant blue and dotted with gold stars, to the design of Piermatteo Lauro de' Manfredi da Amelia. The pavement is in opus alexandrinum, a decorative style using marble and coloured stone in a pattern that reflects the earlier proportion in the division of the interior and also marks the processional way form the main door, used by the Pope on important occasions such as Palm Sunday.

The screen or transenna in marble by Mino da Fiesole, Andrea Bregno and Giovanni Dalmata divides the chapel into two parts. Originally these made equal space for the members of the Papal Chapel within the sanctuary near the altar and the pilgrims and townsfolk without. However, with growth in the number of those attending the Pope, the screen was moved giving a reduced area for the faithful laity. The transenna is surmounted by a row of ornate candlesticks, once gilt, and has a wooden door, where once there was an ornate door of gilded wrought iron. The sculptors of the transenna also provided the cantoria or projecting choir gallery.

During occasional ceremonies of particular importance, the side walls are covered with a series of tapestries originally designed for the chapel from Raphael, but looted a few years later in the 1527 Sack of Rome and either burnt for their precious metal content or scattered around Europe. The tapestries depict events from the Life of St. Peter and the Life of St. Paul as described in the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles. In the late 20th century a set was reassembled (several further sets had been made) and displayed again in the Sistine Chapel in 1983. The full-size preparatory cartoons for seven of the ten tapestries are known as the Raphael Cartoons and are in London.

Michelangelo Buonarroti was commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 to repaint the ceiling, originally representing golden stars on a blue sky; the work was completed between 1508 and 1 November 1512. He painted the Last Judgment over the altar, between 1535 and 1541, on commission from Pope Paul III Farnese.

Michelangelo was intimidated by the scale of the commission, and made it known from the outset of Julius II's approach that he would prefer to decline. He felt he was more of a sculptor than a painter, and was suspicious that such a large scale project was being offered to him by enemies as a set-up for an inevitable fall. For Michelangelo, the project was a distraction from the major marble sculpture that had preoccupied him for the previous few years.

The sources of Michelangelo's inspiration are not easily determined; both Joachite and Augustinian theologians were within the sphere of Julius influence. Nor is known the extent to which his own hand physically contributed to the actual physical painting of any of particular images attributed to him.

n 1508, Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the vault, or ceiling of the chapel. It took him until 1512 to complete. To be able to reach the ceiling, Michelangelo needed a support; the first idea was by Julius' favoured architect Donato Bramante, who wanted to build for him a scaffold to be suspended in the air with ropes. However, Bramante did not successfully complete the task, and the structure he built was flawed. He had perforated the vault in order to lower strings to secure the scaffold. Michelangelo laughed when he saw the structure, and believed it would leave holes in the ceiling once the work was ended. He asked Bramante what was to happen when the painter reached the perforations, but the architect had no answer.

The matter was taken before the Pope, who ordered Michelangelo to build a scaffold of his own. Michelangelo created a flat wooden platform on brackets built out from holes in the wall, high up near the top of the windows. He stood on this scaffolding while he painted.

Michelangelo used bright colours, easily visible from the floor. On the lowest part of the ceiling he painted the ancestors of Christ. Above this he alternated male and female prophets, with Jonah over the altar. On the highest section Michelangelo painted nine stories from the Book of Genesis. He was originally commissioned to paint only 12 figures, the Apostles. He turned down the commission because he saw himself as a sculptor, not a painter. The Pope offered to allow Michelangelo to paint biblical scenes of his own choice as a compromise. When the work was finished there were more than 300. His figures showed the creation, Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden and the Great Flood.

The Sistine Chapel's ceiling restoration began on November 7th, 1984. The restoration complete, the chapel was re-opened to the public on April 8th, 1994. The part of the restoration in the Sistine Chapel that has caused the most concern is the ceiling, painted by Michelangelo. The emergence of the brightly-coloured Ancestors of Christ from the gloom sparked a reaction of fear that the processes being employed in the cleaning were too severe.

The problem lies in the analysis and understanding of the techniques utilised by Michelangelo, and the technical response of the restorers to that understanding. A close examination of the frescoes of the lunettes convinced the restorers that Michelangelo worked exclusively in "buon fresco"; that is, the artist worked only on freshly laid plaster and each section of work was completed while the plaster was still in its fresh state. In other words, Michelangelo did not work "a secco"; he did not come back later and add details onto the dry plaster.

The restorers, by assuming that the artist took a universal approach to the painting, took a universal approach to the restoration. A decision was made that all of the shadowy layer of animal glue and "lamp black", all of the wax, and all of the overpainted areas were contamination of one sort or another:- smoke deposits, earlier restoration attempts and painted definition by later restorers in an attempt to enliven the appearance of the work. Based on this decision, according to Arguimbau's critical reading of the restoration data that has been provided, the chemists of the restoration team decided upon a solvent that would effectively strip the ceiling down to its paint-impregnated plaster. After treatment, only that which was painted "buon fresco" would remain.

Vista externa da Capela Sistina do alto da cúpula principal da Basílica de São Pedro.

Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia livre:

A Capela Sistina é uma capela situada no Palácio Apostólico, residência oficial do Papa na Cidade do Vaticano, erigida entre os anos 1475 e 1483, durante o pontificado do Papa Sisto IV. A Celebração Eucarística de inauguração ocorreu em 15 de Agosto de 1483.

Era um projeto relativamente simples e despretensioso, no início, destinado ao culto particular dos papas e da alta hierarquia eclesiástica, contudo, fruto de uma época de expansão política e territorial da Santa Sé, viria a tornar-se num dos símbolos desta, tamanha magnificência adquiriu.

A celebridade da capela deve-se, também, ao fato de nela se realizarem os conclaves para a eleição do Sumo Pontífice da Igreja Católica Romana.

A virada do Quattrocento para o Cinquecento foi um dos momentos mais marcantes para a História da arte ocidental, quiçá mundial. A Itália, com epicentro em Florença, deu ao mundo uma tal gama de geniais artistas que parece milagrosa. "Não há como explicar a existência do gênio. É preferível apreciá-lo", diz Gombrich, tentando entender por que tantos grandes mestres nasceram no mesmo período.

A Capela Sistina é um dos locais mais propícios para aquilatar a dimensão desta explosão criativa. Para a sua feitura concorreram os maiores nomes de que dispunha a Itália no momento.

Sisto IV, como parte da política que empreendia para o restabelecimento do prestígio e fortalecimento do papado, convocou a Roma os maiores artistas da Itália. Florença era o centro de excelência até então. De lá e da Úmbria vieram os maiores nomes, fato que deslocaria para Roma a capitalidade cultural, que atingiria o zênite algumas décadas depois, com a eleição de Júlio II para ocupar a Cátedra de São Pedro. Para a história da cultura o significado do projeto e construção da Sistina é imenso, juntamente com as demais obras encomendadas por Sisto IV. Não somente porque marca o deslocamento da capitalidade cultural para Roma, mas por se tratar do ciclo pictórico de maior relevo da Itália no final do século XV, "constituindo além disso um documento inapreciável para observar as virtudes e os limites da pintura do Quattrocento'".

Com exceção de Ghirlandaio, os pintores que nela assinalaram seus talentos avançam com a sua obra o século seguinte e os gênios que mudaram os rumos da pintura no período estão todos estreitamente relacionados com eles: Ghirlandaio fora mestre de Michelangelo; Rafael aprendiz de Perugino; e no atelier de Verrocchio passaram: Leonardo, Perugino e Botticelli.

Mais que um liame entre o Quattrocento e o Cinquecento, esta geração de artistas "representa um ponto final, a constatação de uma crise. Algo que ficará manifesto pelo fato de que tanto Leonardo como Michelangelo construírem em boa medida suas respectivas linguagens sobre a negação da deles".

foi o autor do projeto arquitetônico para a construção da capela. Este florentino era um dos responsáveis pela reformulação e revitalização urbanística que Sisto IV efetuava em Roma, tendo realizado dezenas de obras públicas.

No projeto, construído com a supervisão de Giovannino de Dolci entre 1473 e 1484, emprestaram seus dons: Perugino, Botticelli, Ghirlandaio, Rosselli, Signorelli, Pinturicchio, Piero di Cosimo, Bartolomeo della Gatta, Rafael e outros. Coroando este festival, alguns anos depois, um dos maiores gênios artísticos de todos os tempos: Michelangelo Buonarroti.

As dimensões do projeto de Baccio Pontelli tiveram como inspiração as descrições contidas no Antigo Testamento relativas ao Templo de Salomão. A sua forma é retangular medindo 40,93 m de longitude, 13,41 m e largura e 20,70 m de altura. Os numerosos artistas vestiram o seu interior, esculpindo e pintando as suas paredes, transformando-a em um estupendo e célebre lugar conhecido em todo o mundo pelas maravilhosas obras de arte que encerra.

Uma finíssima transenna de mármore, em que trabalharam Mino de Fiesole, Giovanni Dálmata e Andréa Bregno, divide a capela em duas partes desiguais. Os mesmos artistas levaram a cabo a construção do coro.

Internamente, as paredes, divididas por cornijas horizontais, apresentam 3 níveis:

* o primeiro nível, junto ao chão em mármore - que, em alguns setores, apresenta o característico marchetado cosmatesco - simula refinadas tapeçarias. No lado direito, próximo à transenna está o coro;

* o intermediário é onde figuram os afrescos narrando os episódios da vida de Cristo e de Moisés. A cronologia inicia-se a partir da parede do altar, onde se encontravam, antes da feitura do Juízo Final de Michelangelo, as primeiras cenas e um retábulo de Perugino representando a Virgem da Assunção, a quem foi dedicada a capela.

* o nível mais alto, onde estão as pilastras que sustentam os pendentes do teto. Acima da cornija estão situadas as lunettes, entre as quais foram alocadas as imagens dos primeiros papas.

No último quartel do século XX, obras empreendidas no teto da Capela Sistina no intuito de recuperar o brilho original do tempo de Michelangelo foram motivo de inúmeras controvérsias.

Restaurações vinham sendo feitas ao longo dos anos, e desde a década de 1960 já se trabalhava nos afrescos mais antigos. O projeto mais audacioso, a cargo do restaurador Gianluigi Colalucci, iniciou-se em 1979 com a limpeza da parede do altar: o Juízo Final, de Michelangelo.

Durante este período a capela esteve fechada ao público que visita o Museu do Vaticano - cerca de 3.000.000 pessoas por ano - só voltando a ser reaberta em 8 de Abril de 1994.

Els de Cristian Catena superen al Vila-real a la tanda de penals a la final disputada a Vinaròs, després d’empatar 0-0, i arrodoneix un cap de setmana espectacular on s’han guanyat tres Campionats de Catalunya i tres tornejos més de Futbol 7

El futbol formatiu amateur blaugrana ha viscut un cap de setmana espectacular. L’Infantil A, l’Aleví A i el Benjamí A es van proclamar campions de Catalunya a Martorell, mentre que el Cadet B de Cristian Catena va guanyar la Nike Premier Cup a Vinaròs. A aquests quatre èxits s’han d’afegir les victòries de l’Aleví B, el Benjamí C i el Benjamí D als tornejos Jaume Tubau, Sant Fost i Xevi Remon, respectivament. La Masia batega amb força. Es cert que l’objectiu no es un altre que formar jugadors però les 8 Lligues, 3 Campionats de Catalunya i 48 tornejos guanyats aquesta temporada i el bon joc desplegat per tots els equips demostren que s’està fent be la feina al futbol formatiu amateur.

CADET B – TORNEIG NIKE PREMIER CUP

Campions a la tanda de penals contra el Vila-real

El Cadet B ha posat aquest cap de setmana la cirereta del pastís a una temporada extraordinària. L’equip de Cristian Catena ha sumat el títol de la Nike Premier Cup a la Lliga i la MECUP 2016 que ja havia guanyat amb anterioritat. El Cadet B es va imposar al Vila-real als penals a la final del prestigiós torneig disputat a Vinaròs després d’empatar 0-0 al final del temps reglamentari tot i jugar millor i haver estavellat dos llançaments al pal. A la tanda de penals, Arnau Tenas va parar dos llançaments i Nils Mortimer, Miguelete, Eric García i Àlex Rico no van perdonar i van anotar els gols blaugranes. El defensa central blaugrana Eric García va ser escollit millor jugador del campionat.

El Cadet B va superar a la primera fase a l’Athletic, per 2-1, amb dos gols de Nils Mortimer, i va empatar 2-2 amb el Vila-real, amb gols de Nils Mortimer i Adrià Bernabé, i 0-0 contra l’Atlètic de Madrid. A les semifinals, van superar per un contundent 3-0 a l’Espanyol, en una extraordinària primera meitat, amb gols d’Antonio Jesús Cantón, Nils Mortimer i Konrad de la Fuente. Nou anys després, la Nike Premier Cup torna a ser blaugrana.

INFANTIL B – TORNEIG INTERNACIONAL CIUTAT DE SANT CUGAT

foto: FCB

Els penals donen l’esquena als blaugranes a la final

L’Infantil B de Sergi Milà va finalitzar en segona posició el Torneig Internacional de Sant Cugat després de perdre a la tanda de penals contra l’Espanyol una final que va acabar amb 0-0 al temps reglamentari. Una llàstima per què l’Infantil B va ser superior i va tenir oportunitats per guanyar, però la sort li va donar l’esquena en el moment decisiu. L’Infantil B va arribar a la final després de desfer-se de la Penya Blaugrana Sant Cugat (6-0) i l’Elit BEC USA (8-0) i d’empatar amb el Cornellà (0-0). A la segona fase, disputada en forma de lligueta, l’Infantil B va derrotar a la Damm (1-0) i el Liverpool (3-0) i es va classificar per unes semifinals a les que va superar al Vila-real als penals després d’empatar 0-0 al final del temps reglamentari.

All Stars Inclusive Football

L’Infantil B, representat per Pau Servat i Arnau Farnós, va participar en l’All Star Inclusive Football que va organitzat la Fundació Itinerarium. Al partit van jugar infantils del Torneig Internacional Ciutat de Sant Cugat barrejats amb nois i noies amb necessitats especials. El resultat del partit, 2-2, va ser el de menys. L’objectiu es va complir amb escreix. La metodologia Inclusive Football va demostrar que fa compartir valors i amistat entre nois i noies amb i sense necessitats especials i el Barça està sent un dels clubs pioners en donar suport a aquesta iniciativa.

ALEVÍ B – TORNEIG JAUME TUBAU

Foto: FCB

Campions a la final disputada contra el Cornellà (2-1)

L’Aleví B va guanyar a Sant Cugat el seu tercer torneig de la temporada després dels èxits aconseguits a O Cantinho Cup a Kemps (França) i el Torneig Internacional Ciudad de Aljaraque. Els nanos de Jordi Font es van imposar al Cornellà per 2-1 a la final del II Torneig Jaume Tubau gràcies als dos gols aconseguits per Pol Muñoz i Iker Merino. L’Aleví B va signar un torneig impecable. Va guanyar a la primera fase al Racing Sarrià (6-0), el Llagostera (8-0) i el Júnior (1-0) sense encaixar cap gol. A les semifinals, es va desfer del Girona per un contundent 7-3.

ALEVÍ C – AZPEITIA CUP 2016

Tercers classificats després de guanyar al València (3-1)

Bon torneig de l’Aleví C al País Basc, on va quedar en tercera posició a la prestigiosa Azpeitia Cup, que reuneix als jugadors alevins de primer any dels equips de Primera Divisió. Els nanos d’Òscar Jorquera es van classificar per a la segona fase del torneig després de superar a l’Aurrera Ondarroa (1-0), l’Sporting de Gijón (2-1), l’Azpeitia Cup (5-0) i el Màlaga (3-0) i de perdre davant del València (1-2). A la segona fase, disputada en forma de lligueta, l’Aleví D va imposar-se al Sevilla, per 2-0, amb dos gols de Gerard Hernández, i va empatar contra el Deportivo (1-1), amb un altre gol de Gerard Hernández. L’Aleví C va caure eliminat al perdre per 0-2 a les semifinals disputades contra l’Atlètic de Madrid, tot i el bon joc realitzat, i va guanyar el partit pel tercer i quart lloc al València per 3-1, amb dos gols de Bilal Achhiba i un de Llorenç Ferrés.

ALEVÍ D – TOURNOI INTERNACIONAL U11 2016

Cauen als penals contra el Benfica a la final

Maleits penals. L’Aleví D va perdre contra el Benfica la final del Torneig Internacional U11 disputat a Ajaccio (Còrsega) tot i ser superior als portuguesos en joc. El partit va finalitzar 0-0 i es va decidir als penals. Va ser un final molt cruel pels nanos de Dani Horcas que, fins aleshores, havien signat un torneig impecable amb un empat a la primera fase contra el Saint Denis (0-0) i victòries contra el Standard de Liege (1-0), el Propiano (3-0), el Pietrosella (4-0), el CA Bastia (3-0), el SC Bastia (2-0) i el Genoa (2-1). A la segona fase, l’Aleví D va imposar-se contra el Stade de Reims, per 2-0, als vuitens de final i contra el Dijon, per 1-0, als quarts de final. La semifinal la va resoldre guanyant per 3-0 a l’Ajaccio.

BENJAMÍ B – TORNEIG UD SAN MAURO

Subcampions al perdre la final contra el Sant Cugat (0-1)

El Benjamí B, dirigit en aquest torneig per Alejandro Urrestarazu, va perdre per 0-1 contra el Sant Cugat Esport la final del Torneig del 50 Aniversari de l’UD San Mauro. Una llàstima per què el Benjamí B havia fet un bon torneig previ amb victòries contra el Mollet (2-0), el San Mauro (10-0) i el Tàrrega (5-0). Als quarts de final, van superar al Sitges als penals, després d’empatar 0-0, i a les semifinals també van guanyar als penals al Mollet després d’empatar 2-2 al final del temps reglamentari.

BENJAMÍ C – TORNEIG SANT FOST

Foto: FCB

Campions guanyant a la final al San Fost (4-1)

Tercer torneig de la temporada que guanya el Benjamí C després dels èxits aconseguits a la Polinyà Cup i el MIC F7 2016. Els nanos d’Albert Puig es van desfer del Sant Fost a la final del seu torneig per 4-1, amb dos gols de Lamine Yamal i un de David Sáez i Rubén Núñez. El Benjamí C es va classificar per a la fase final després de guanyar al Sant Fost (5-0), At. Vallès (8-0), Bufala (4-0) i Sabadell Nord (3-0). A les semifinals van superar l’Alella, per 3-0, amb un triplet de Lamine Yamal.

BENJAMÍ D – TORNEIG XEVI RAMON

Foto: FCB

Campions superant al Vilassar de Mar (2-0)

Segon torneig que guanya aquesta temporada el Benjamí D després de l’èxit assolit al Memorial Pau i Alié. Els nois d’Alexis Pintó van aconseguir el títol al III Torneig Xevi Ramon al imposar-se per 2-0 al Vilassar de Mar a la final, amb gols de Gibert Jordana i Joel Escaler. El Benjamí D va desfer-se a la primera fase del Girona (2-1) i del Jàbac (1-0) i va empatar amb el Vilassar de Mar (0-0). Als quarts de final van superar a l’Ametlla del Vallès per 4-1 i a les semifinals al Mataró per 6-2, amb tres gols de Landry Farré i Iker del Moral, Gibert Jordana i Albert Navarro.

PREBENJAMÍ – TORNEIG FUTBOL BASE VILASSAR DE DALT

Empats amb la Damm i l’Espanyol però s’escapa el títol

El Prebenjamí de Juanan Gil no va tenir sort al IV Torneig de Futbol Base de Vilassar de Dalt. El petits blaugranes van guanyar al Vilassar de Dalt per 0-2, amb gols de Madou Murcia i Albert Vicens, i va empatar amb la Damm (1-1), amb gol de Piti, i l’Espanyol (1-1), amb gol de David Juan. Al final, l’Espanyol es va adjudicar el torneig

Javier Fernandez Auditor

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English and Portuguese

English

Évora is located in the Alentejo province, a region of wide plains to the south of the Tagus River (Rio Tejo in Portuguese). The distance from the capital, Lisbon, is some 130 km.

History

Évora has a history dating back more than two millennia. It may have been the kingdom of Astolpas., and may be named after ivory workers. It was known as Ebora by the Lusitanians, who made the town their regional capital. The Romans conquered the town in 57 BC and expanded it into a walled town. Vestiges from this period (city walls and ruins of Roman baths) still remain. The Romans had extensive gold mining in Portugal, and the name may be derived from that oro, aurum, gold). Julius Caesar called it "Liberalitas Julia" (Julian generosity). The city grew in importance because it lay at the junction of several important routes. During his travels through Gaul and Lusitania, Pliny the Elder also visited this town and mentioned it in his book Naturalis Historia as Ebora Cerealis, because of its many surrounding wheat fields. In those days Évora became a flourishing city. Its high rank among municipalities in Roman Hispania is clearly shown by many inscriptions and coins. The monumental Corinthian temple in the centre of the town dates from the 1st century and was probably erected in honour of emperor Augustus. In the fourth century, the town had already a bishop, named Quintianus.

During the barbarian invasions, Évora came under the rule of the Visigothic king Leovirgild in 584. The town was later raised to the status of a cathedral city. Nevertheless this was a time of decline and very few artefacts from this period remain.

In 715, the city was conquered by the Moors under Tariq ibn-Ziyad, who called it Yeborah. During their rule (715–1165), the town slowly began to prosper again and developed into an agricultural centre with a fortress and a mosque. The present character of the city is evidence of the Moorish influence.

Évora was wrested from the Moors through a surprise attack by Gerald the Fearless (Geraldo Sem Pavor) in September 1165. The town came under the rule of the Portuguese king Afonso I in 1166. It then flourished as one of the most dynamic cities in the Kingdom of Portugal during the Middle Ages, especially in the 15th century. The court of the first and second dynasties resided here for long periods, constructing palaces, monuments and religious buildings. Évora became the scene for many royal weddings and a site where many important decisions were made.

Particularly thriving during the Avis Dynasty (1385–1580), especially under the reign of Manuel I and John III, Évora became a major centre for the humanities (André de Resende - buried in the cathedral) and artists, such as the sculptor Nicolau Chanterene, the painters Cristóvão de Figueiredo and Gregório Lopes, the composers Manuel Cardoso and Duarte Lobo, the chronicler Duarte Galvão, and the father of Portuguese drama, Gil Vicente.

The city became the seat of an archbishopric in 1540. The university was founded by the Jesuits in 1559, and it was here that great European Masters such as the Flemish humanists Nicolaus Clenardus (Nicolaas Cleynaerts) (1493–1542), Johannes Vasaeus (Jan Was) (1511–1561) and the theologian Luis de Molina passed on their knowledge. In the 18th century the Jesuits, who had spread intellectual and religious enlightenment since the 16th century, were expelled from Portugal, the university was closed in 1759 by the Marquis of Pombal and Évora went into decline. The university was only reopened in 1973.

In 1834, Évora was the site of the surrender of the forces of King Miguel I, which marked the end of the Liberal Wars.

The many monuments erected by major artists of each period now testify to Évora's lively cultural and rich artistic and historical heritage. The variety of architectural styles (Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, Baroque), the palaces and the picturesque labyrinth of squares and narrow streets of the city centre are all part of the rich heritage of this museum-city.

Today, the historical centre has about 4000 buildings and an area of 1.05 km².

Main sights

Água de Prata Aqueduct (Aqueduct of Silver Water): With its huge arches stretching for 9 km, this aqueduct was built in 1531–1537 by King João III to supply the city with water. Designed by the military architect Francisco de Arruda (who had previously built the Belém Tower), the aqueduct ended originally in the Praça do Giraldo. This impressive construction has even been mentioned in the epic poem Os Lusíadas by Luís de Camões. The end part of the aqueduct is remarkable with houses, shops and cafés built between the arches.

Cathedral of Évora: Mainly built between 1280 and 1340, it is one of the most important gothic monuments of Portugal. The cathedral has a notable main portal with statues of the Apostles (around 1335) and a beautiful nave and cloister. One transept chapel is Manueline and the outstanding main chapel is Baroque. The pipeorgan and choir stalls are renaissance (around 1566).

S. Brás Chapel: Built around 1480, it is a good example of Mudéjar-Gothic with cylindrical buttresses. Only open for prayer.

Saint Francis Church (Igreja de São Francisco): Built between the end of the 15th and the early 16th centuries in mixed Gothic-Manueline styles. The wide nave is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture. Contains many chapels decorated in Baroque style, including the Chapel of Bones (Capela dos Ossos), totally covered with human bones.

Palace of Vasco da Gama: Vasco da Gama resided here in 1519 and 1524, the dates corresponding to his nomination as the Count of Vidigueira and Viceroy of India. The Manueline cloister and some of its Renaissance mural paintings are still preserved.

Palace of the Counts of Basto: Primitive Moorish castle and residence of the kings of the Afonsine dynasty. Its outer architecture displays features of Gothic, Manueline, Mudéjar and Renaissance styles.

Palace of the Dukes of Cadaval: The palace with its 17th-century façade is constituted in part by an old castle burnt in 1384; it is dominated by the architectural elements of the Manueline-Moorish period and by a tower called Tower of the Five Shields. This palace of the governor of Évora served from time to time as royal residence. The first-floor rooms houses a collection manuscripts, family portraits and religious art from the 16th century.

Lóios Convent and Church: Built in the 15th century, contains a number of tombs; the church and the cloister are Gothic in style, with a Manueline chapterhouse with a magnificent portal. The church interior is covered in azulejos (ceramic tiles) from the 18th century. In 1965 it has been converted into a top-end pousada

Ladies' Gallery of Manuel I's Palace (Galeria das Damas do Palácio de D. Manuel): Remnants of a palace built by King Manuel I in Gothic-Renaissance style. According to some chroniclers, it was in this palace, in 1497, that Vasco da Gama was given the command of the squadron he would lead on his maritime journey to India.

Roman Temple of Évora: Improperly called Diana Temple, this 1st century-temple was probably dedicated to the Cult of Emperor Augustus (but some texts date it to the second or even the third century). It is one of a kind in Portugal. The temple was incorporated into a mediaeval building and thus survived destruction. It has become the city's most famous landmark. The temple in Corinthian style has six columns in front (Roman hexastyle) with in total fourteen granite columns remaining. The base of the temple, the capitals and the architraves are made of marble from nearby Estremoz. The intact columns are 7.68 m (25.20 ft) high. It can be compared to the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France.

University of Évora: Formerly a Jesuit college built by Cardinal-King Henrique in 1559, it includes the 16th century Mannerist church and the academic buildings surrounding the large 17th-18th century cloister.

Renaissance fountain at Largo das Portas de Moura: Built in 1556 in Renaissance style. This original fountain has the shape of a globe surrounded by water, a reference to the Age of Discovery.

Giraldo Square (Praça do Geraldo): Centre of the city; in this square King Duarte built the Estaus Palace which even today maintains its Gothic look. The Renaissance fountain (fonte Henriquina) dates from 1570. Its eight jets symbolize the eight streets leading into the square. At the northern end of the quare lies St Anton's church (Igreja de Santo Antão) built by Manuel Pires, also from the 16th century. This is a rather plump church with three aisles. The antependium of the altar displays a valuable 13th century Roman-Gothic bas relief. In 1483 Fernando II , Duke of Braganza was decapitated on this square, in the presence of his brother-in-law king John II. This square also witnessed thousands of Autos-de-fé during the period of the Inquisition; 22.000 condemnations, it seems, in about 200 years.[6]

Cromeleque dos Almendres, 15 km from Évora: Megalithic monument, a cromlech with archaeoastronomical interest.

Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, about 10 km from Évora near Valverde: It is the larger dolmen in the region.

Português

Évora é uma cidade portuguesa, capital do Distrito de Évora, e situada na região Alentejo e subregião do Alentejo Central, com uma população de cerca de 41 159 habitantes.

É sede de um dos maiores municípios de Portugal, com 1307,04 km² de área e 54.780 habitantes (2008), subdividido em 19 freguesias. O município é limitado a norte pelo município de Arraiolos, a nordeste por Estremoz, a leste pelo Redondo, a sueste por Reguengos de Monsaraz, a sul por Portel, a sudoeste por Viana do Alentejo e a oeste por Montemor-o-Novo. É sede de distrito e de antiga diocese, sendo metrópole eclesiástica (Arquidiocese de Évora).

É conhecida como a Capital do Alentejo e Cidade-Museu.

História

O nome Lusitano da cidade de Évora era Eburobrittium, provavelmente relacionado com a divindade celta Eburianus. A raiz etimológica viria do Celta *eburos, a árvore do Teixo. A cidade teve o nome de Ebora Cerealis durante a República Romana, tomando o nome de Liberalitas Julia no tempo do general Júlio César, sendo então já uma cidade importante, como o demonstram as ruínas de um templo clássico e os vestígios de muralhas romanas.

Conquistada aos Mouros em 1165 por Geraldo Sem Pavor, data em que se restaurou a sua diocese. Foi residência régia durante largos períodos, essencialmente nos reindados de D.João II, D.Manuel I e D.João III. O seu prestígio foi particularmente notável no século XVI, quando foi elevada a metrópole eclesiástica e foi fundada a Universidade de Évora (afecta à Companhia de Jesus), pelo Cardeal Infante D.Henrique, primeiro Arcebispo da cidade. Um rude golpe para Évora foi a extinção da prestigiada instituição universitária, em 1759 (que só seria restaurada cerca de dois séculos depois), na sequência da expulsão dos Jesuítas do país, por ordem do Marquês de Pombal. Évora é testemunho de diversos estilos e corentes estéticas, sendo ao longo do tempo dotada de obras de arte a ponto de ser classificada pela UNESCO, em 1986, como Património Comum da Humanidade.

Monumentos principais da cidade

Templo romano de Évora: também chamado Templo de Diana, é um dos monumentos romanos mais importantes de Portugal. Situa-se no ponto mais alto da cidade e é um dos lugares mais visitados da cidade. Pensa-se que foi criado por volta do século III a.C. para homenagear o Imperador Romano César Augusto, mas mais tarde passou a ser conhecido por Templo de Diana (deusa da caça), nome atribuído por um jesuíta no século XVI pelo facto da cidade ser conhecida pela boa caça.

Sé Catedral

Igreja de São Francisco: um dos últimos e imponentes edifício da Dinastia e Avis conhecida pela mistura entre os estilos gótico e manuelino.

Capela dos Ossos: situada na Igreja de São Francisco, é conhecida pela famosa frase escrita à entrada "Nós ossos que aqui estamos pelos vossos esperamos"

Palácio de D. Manuel

Convento dos Lóios: actualmente a funcionar como pousada.

El Palau Nacional, edifici emblemàtic de l'Exposició Internacional de 1929, és la seu del Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya. Està situat a la muntanya de Montjuïc, un entorn privilegiat des del qual pots gaudir d'una vista magnífica i única de la ciutat de Barcelona.

El Palau Nacional està situat en un enclavament únic: Montjuïc, la muntanya dels museus, del lleure i de l'esport, que és en vies d'esdevenir un espai de vida i de cultura. Les institucions que trobes repartides arreu del Parc, de prestigi reconegut en l'àmbit internacional, converteixen Montjuïc en el centre museístic per excel·lència de Barcelona, amb una oferta completa i diversa. Hi pots visitar, a més del Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, entre d'altres, la Fundació Joan Miró, el Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya, el Museu Etnològic i CaixaForum.

El Palacio Nacional, edificio emblemático de la Exposición Internacional de 1929, es la sede del Museo Nacional de Arte de Cataluña. Está situado en la montaña de Montjuïc, un entorno privilegiado desde el que puedes disfrutar de una vista magnífica y única de la ciudad de Barcelona.

El Palacio Nacional está situado en un enclave único: Montjuïc, la montaña de los museos, del ocio y del deporte, que está en vías de convertirse en un espacio de vida y de cultura. Las instituciones que encuentras repartidas por todo el Parque, de reconocido prestigio en el ámbito internacional, convierten Montjuïc en el centro museístico por excelencia de Barcelona, con una oferta completa y diversa. Puedes visitar, además del Museo Nacional de Arte de Cataluña, entre otros, la Fundación Joan Miró, el Museo de Arqueología de Cataluña, el Museo Etnológico y CaixaForum.

Pulsar L

Todi HDR HaloMatix - vivid colors

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TODI (ita)

Todi è un comune di 17.207 abitanti della provincia di Perugia.

Conosciuta come "la città più vivibile del mondo" in base alle ricerche pubblicate dal professore Richard S. Levine della U.S. Kentucky University, sorge in cima ad una collina, la cui sommità supera di poco i 400 metri, che si affaccia sulla media valle del Tevere.

Il territorio comunale, uno dei più vasti della regione Umbria, è per lo più collinare è composto da una miriade di piccoli insediamenti. I centri principali, oltre alla città di Todi, sono Pantalla e la zona di Ponterio-Pian di Porto, che comprende anche l'area industriale della città.

Il centro storico, medievale, vanta edifici sacri di prestigio come la cattedrale di Santa Maria Assunta, la chiesa di San Fortunato ed il convento di San Giovanni Battista. Fuori dalle mura si trova la famosa chiesa rinascimentale di Santa Maria della Consolazione.

Nella cattedrale della Santissima Annunziata vi è un dipinto di Ferraù da Faenza, d'ispirazione michelangiolesca, chiamato Il giudizio universale. Nella cripta vi è un museo.

Nella cripta della chiesa di San Fortunato vi è una tomba di 4 santi (tra cui San Cassiano) e, su di una parete del muro, un ovale con l'immagine ad affresco del beato Jacopone da Todi.

D'interesse è anche la rocca, che con i suoi 411 m s.l.m. è il punto più elevato della citta. La rocca è stata edificata per volontà di papa Gregorio IX nel 1373. Per la sua edificazione è stato necessario abbattere alcuni edifici nei dintorni (il monastero di San Leucio e alcune case private del "Borgo di San Giorgio"). Dopo svariati anni, nel 1503, fu demolita per volontà di Ludovico degli Atti. Ora restano della rocca:

un torrione rotondo

"il Mastio"

resti di fortificazione.

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TODI (eng)

Todi is a town and comune (municipality) of the province of Perugia (Umbria) in central Italy. It is perched on a tall two-crested hill overlooking the east bank of the river Tiber, commanding distant views in every direction.

In the 1990s, Richard S. Levine, a professor of architecture at the University of Kentucky, chose Todi as the model sustainable city, because of its scale and its ability to reinvent itself over time. After that, the Italian press reported on Todi as the world's most livable city.

Almost all Todi's main medieval monuments — the co-cathedral church (Duomo), the Palazzo del Capitano, the Palazzo del Priore and the Palazzo del Popolo — front on the main square on the lower breast of the hill: the piazza is thus one of the most picturesque in Italy and is often used as a movie set. The whole landscape is sited over some huge ancient Roman cisterns, with more than 500 pits, which remained in use until 1925.

The Cathedral

The Cathedral (11th century) is a striking Gothic edifice on the Lombard plan, said to be erected over an ancient Roman building, probably a temple dedicated to Apollo (here an ancient bronze statue of Mars[1], now at the Vatican Museum, was found). The current church was almost totally rebuilt after a fire in 1190. The main feature of the squarish façade is the central great rose-window, added in 1513. Of the same period is the wooden door of the portal, by Antonio Bencivenni from Mercatello, of which only the four upper panels remain today.

The church follows the plan of the Latin cross, with a nave and two aisles. Bonifacio VIII allegedly had a second aisle on one side, commonly known as "La navatina". The counter-façade is occupied by a giant fresco depicting the Universal Judgment by Ferraù Faenzone, called "Il Faenzone", a work commissioned by Cardinal Angelo Cesi, in which the influence, if nowhere near the genius, of Michaelangelo is easily discerned. The choir includes the Gothic altar and a magnificent wooden choir-enclosure (1521) with two floors. One important work of art is the 13th century Crucifixion of the Umbrian school.

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Cascada de la Font del Gat.

Els Jardins de Laribal

És una de les perles del Parc de Montjuïc i passejar-s'hi és una autèntica delícia. La vegetació riquíssima, juntament amb l'aigua que baixa per cascades i llisca delicadament pel mig d'amples baranes, els bancs de rajola i les placetes, creen un conjunt de bellesa excepcional. Aquest és un lloc per estar-s'hi, per contemplar-lo i per anar descobrint els mil detalls que el configuren, amb una harmonia difícil de superar.

Els Jardins de Laribal, de gran valor històric, estan configurats per terrasses, camins, placetes, bassinyols i una vegetació esponerosa i consolidada. Una sèrie de terrasses superposades estan unides entre elles per camins i dreceres de fort pendent, amb trams d'escales intercalats amb un disseny sempre diferent. Pèrgoles de maó vist, pedra i pilars blancs, ombregen les àrees més planeres. La vegetació, és majoritàriament exòtica, rica i variada en espècies.

Jardins mediterranis

Aquests jardins, inclosos dins del recinte de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, van obtenir una gran anomenada. Els seus autors, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier i Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, van crear un nou estil paisatgístic d'arrel mediterrània.

La vegetació preexistent -des de plantes autòctones fins als arbres fruiters del passat agrícola de la muntanya-, es va integrar en els jardins amb un concepte de jardineria renovador i original, que segueix lliurement la inspiració dels antics jardins àrabs i dels "cármenes" de Granada, amb una gran presència de rajoles ceràmiques, aigües ornamentals i el conreu de plantes de flor en testos situats en baranes i ampits.

Les escales del Generalife

L'aigua és l'essència del jardí, amb estanys i estanyols. Per connectar la part superior del parc amb els Jardins Amargós -actualment Jardins del Teatre Grec-, Forestier va fer una escala inspirada en la dels jardins del Generalife, amb cascades als passamans, estanyols amb brolladors als replans i bancs d'obra per reposar i gaudir de la fresca i el so de l'aigua.

Els jardins de la font del Gat

Unes pèrgoles mirador porten d'uns jardins als altres, units per eixos de rampes, escales i cascades que desemboquen a la font del Gat, des de la qual es poden contemplar unes magnífiques vistes de Barcelona.

Ocupen el pendent que va des de la part més alta dels Jardins Laribal fins al passeig de Santa Madrona, i integren la popular font del Gat i un edifici del segle dinou. Es tracta d'un conjunt de camins, terrasses i racons que s'adapten al relleu del terreny amb escales, rampes i una cascada monumental amb quatre seccions separades per camins i canals, que van connectant els diferents trams.

Tot està cobert d'una espessa fronda mediterrània i d'arbres fruiters, com ara nesprers i figueres, i palmeres d'enormes capçades. Si ens ho mirem des de baix, a tocar del pg. de Santa Madrona, uns xiprers altíssims situats a l'inici de la cascada accentuen la verticalitat del conjunt.

El roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de xiprers, amb una petita font al centre, marca l'inici d'un recorregut que, sota una pèrgola amb pilars de terracota, porta a un pati ovalat i reclòs, també envoltat de xiprers: és el roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs.

El jardí es configura en diversos plans, amb aire de pati, que estan vorejats per vorades, també de xiprer, i rengleres de troanes. En diversos parterres rectangulars hi ha plantades varietats antigues de rosers. Al centre destaca un bassinyol quadrangular amb rajols esmaltats, presidit a la part de dalt per Estival, un nu femení de marbre que contempla el roserar i, més enllà, Barcelona.

La plaça del Claustre

És a tocar del passeig de Santa Madrona i, de fet, es tracta del Jardí de Sant Miquel, on destaquen tres grans plàtans ja existents abans que Forestier dissenyés els jardins. Al fons, els murs del que fou una antiga pedrera confereixen a aquesta part dels jardins Laribal un aire reclòs i claustral. D'aquí el seu nom. A la dreta, un passadís comunica amb els Jardins del Teatre Grec.

Vegetació

La vegetació madura i mediterrània dóna sentit als jardins. Així, hi ha, entre d'altres espècies, pins blancs (Pinus halepensis), pins pinyers (Pinus pinea), llorers (Laurus nobilis), tarongers amargs (Citrus aurantium) i xiprers (Cupressus sempervirens).

Les escales del Generalife estan envoltades per grans acàcies (Robinia pseudoacacia) i arbustos com la troana (Ligustrum lucidum) i el pitòspor (Pittosporum tobira), una espècie arbustiva molt abundant als jardins, juntament amb el baladre (Nerium oleander) i l'evònim del Japó (Evonymus japonicus).

En testos de terracota, llueixen les elegants fulles de saló (Aspidistra elatior) i els geranis (Pelargonium sp.), i cobrint les pèrgoles, anglesines (Wisteria sinensis) i Rosa banksiae. En diferents llocs dels jardins hi ha plantes aromàtiques, com l'espígol (Lavandula angustifolia) i el romaní (Rosmarinus officinalis), i espècies entapissants com l'heura (Hedera helix)

Els Jardins de Laribal també hi ha pins australians (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptus (Eucalyptus globulus), xiprers de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedres de l'Himàlaia (Cedrus deodara) i, a la plaça del Claustre, tres grans exemplars de plàtan (Platanus X hispanica).

Art i arquitectura

L'escultura és notable en aquests jardins, tant per la seva qualitat com per la seva bellesa. Presidint el roserar hi ha Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina asseguda d'estil art déco feta de marbre.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), és un altre nu femení, en aquest cas de bronze, i representa una noia jove recollint-se els cabells en una trena. És en una placeta ombrívola, molt a prop de les escales que comuniquen amb altres nivells dels jardins.

La tercera escultura també és d'una dona i de Josep Viladomat, que la va fer partint d'un original de Manolo Hugué. Es tracta de Repòs (1925), un nu femení de pedra de mida natural situat en una placeta circular molt a prop de l'entrada que hi ha al costat de la Fundació Joan Miró.

A prop del roserar hi ha una font de ceràmica esmaltada amb motius marins, coronada amb un brollador, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La font del Gat

L'aigua que raja de la font del Gat ho fa des del cap d'un felí, esculpit per Joan Antoni Homs el 1918, que és quan van quedar enllestits els Jardins Laribal. Aquesta font era una de les moltes que aleshores rajava a Barcelona, i el lloc on està situada, molt popular a la ciutat a finals del segle XIX.

Tan popular era la font, que el periodista i autor teatral Joan Amich va escriure una cançó: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que avui encara es canta i que inclou l'estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Història

Al començament del segle passat, la zona que avui ocupen els jardins Laribal era lloc de trobades populars, sobretot a la font del Gat, o de reunions selectes, com ara les que feia la Colla de l'Arròs, un grup entre gastronòmic i polític que va tenir una certa influència a la Barcelona de la darreria del segle XIX i principi del XX, i que es reunia en un petit edifici situat on ara hi ha el Museu Etnològic.

La part alta dels actuals jardins pertanyia a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigiós advocat el nom del qual s'ha perpetuat als jardins. S'hi va fer construir un xalet neoàrab, envoltat d'uns jardins eclèctics, amb grans arbres.

Mort Laribal, el 1908 la finca va ser adquirida per l'Ajuntament, que hi va fundar l'Escola del Bosc, encara existent. Simultàniament, es van iniciar els estudis per urbanitzar i enjardinar la muntanya, amb un projecte global que va ser encarregat inicialment a Josep Amargós.

L'Exposició de 1929

Els Jardins de Laribal, enllestits el 1922, estan vinculats a un esdeveniment posterior: l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Aquest esdeveniment va representar la culminació d'un projecte iniciat l'any 1905 per organitzar a Montjuïc una exposició sobre les indústries elèctriques, l'energia emergent d'aquell temps.

Un dels comissaris de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona va ser Francesc Cambó, que va encarregar els treballs d'enjardinament a l'enginyer i paisatgista francès Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Va ser ajudant seu el jove arquitecte Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que el 1917 es convertiria en el director de la Direcció de Parcs Públics i Arbrat, antecedent del Servei de Parcs i Jardins de Barcelona, del qual va ser primer responsable i una de les persones determinants en el futur desenvolupament dels espais verds públics de la ciutat.

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These gardens are one of the treasures of the Park of Montjuïc and taking a stroll around them is a real pleasure. The rich plant life, together with the water that flows delicately through the wide handrails; the tiled benches and the small squares all create exceptionally beautiful gardens. It is a place to be, to gaze at and to discover the thousands of details that shape a harmony that is difficult to surpass.

The historically-important Laribal Gardens are sculpted by terraces, pathways, small squares, ponds and lush, established plant life. A series of terraces are linked by paths and steeply sloped shortcuts, with stretches of differently designed stairways interspersed. The flattest areas are afforded shade by exposed brick, stone and white pillar pergolas. The mostly exotic plant life has a rich and varied range of species.

Mediterranean Gardens

These gardens, which were included in the International Exposition of Barcelona (a World's Fair) in 1929, were greatly reputed. The garden's designers, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier and Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, created a new style of Mediterranean landscaping.

The pre-existing plant life, from native plants to fruit trees from the mountain's agricultural past, was integrated into the gardens with an original and innovative gardening concept that is openly inspired by the ancient Arabian gardens and from the "Carmenes" in Granada with prominent ceramic tiles, ornamental water features and flowering plants in pots on railings and parapets.

The Stairway of the Generalife Gardens

Water is the essence of this garden, with its large and small ponds. In order to connect the upper area of the park with the Amargós Gardens, now the Teatre Grec Gardens, Forestier designed a stairway inspired by the one in the Generalife Gardens, with waterfalls on the banisters, small ponds with fountains on the landings and benches for relaxing and enjoying the freshness and sound of the water.

The Gardens of the Font del Gat

Viewpoint pergolas link the gardens with ramps, stairs and waterfalls that flow into the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat"), a point at which magnificent views of Barcelona can be enjoyed.

The gardens lie on the slope from the highest point of the Laribal Gardens down to the Passeig de Santa Madrona and include the popular Font del Gat and a nineteenth-century building. There are paths, terraces and corners that adapt to the terrain with stairways, ramps and a monumental waterfall with four sections separated by paths and canals that connect the different areas.

Everything is covered in a thick, Mediterranean foliage, fruit trees such as loquat and fig and enormous palm trees. From the Passeig de Santa Madrona below, some very tall cypresses by the waterfall accentuate its height.

The Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs

A circle of cypress trees with a small fountain in the centre marks the beginning of a path that, beneath a pergola with terracotta pillars, leads to an oval patio surrounded by cypresses. These are the Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs.

These gardens are arranged on different levels with the feeling of being on a patio, bordered by rows of cypresses and privets. In various rectangular parterres, many diverse old varieties of roses have been planted. At the centre is a square pool with ceramic tiles, dominated by the marble female nude sculpture "Estival", who looks over the rose garden and beyond to Barcelona.

Plaça del Claustre

From the Sant Miquel Garden, next to the Passeig de Santa Madrona, there are three large London Plane trees that existed before Forestier designed the gardens. At the end, the walls of what was once an old quarry gives this part of the Laribal Gardens a confined and cloister-like air. This is where it gets its name. On the right there is a path that connects the gardens with the Teatre Grec Gardens.

Plant Life

The mature and Mediterranean plant life gives the gardens meaning. Among other species there are Aleppo Pines (Pinus halepensis), Umbrella Pines (Pinus pinea), Bay Laurels (Laurus nobilis), Bitter Orange trees (Citrus aurantium) and Mediterranean Cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens).

The Generalife stairs are surrounded by large Black Locust trees (Robinia pseudoacacia) and shrubs such as the Chinese Privet (Ligustrum lucidum) and the Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira), a species in abundance in the gardens along with the Oleander (Nerium oleander) and the Japanese Spindle tree (Euonymus japonicus).

The elegant leaves of an Aspidistra elatior shine in terracotta pots and Garden Geraniums (Pelargonium sp.), Chinese Wisterias (Wisteria sinensis) and Lady Banks' Roses (Rosa banksiae) cover the pergolas. In different areas around the gardens aromatic plants like Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Rosemary (Rosmarinus offcinalis) and climbing plants such as Ivy (Hedera helix) can be found.

In the Laribal Gardens there are also River Oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana), Tasmanian Blue Gums (Eucalyptus globules), Monterey Cypresses (Cupressus macrocarpa) Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara) and in Plaça del Claustre, three large London Planes (Platanus X hispanica).

Art and Architecture

The sculptures are notable in these gardens, both for their quality and their beauty. There is an Art Deco style marble female nude, "Estival" (1929) by Jaume Otero, that dominates the rose garden.

The "Noia de la trena" (1928) by Joseph Viladomar is another female nude, in this case made of bronze, which represents a young girl plaiting her hair. It is in a small shaded square, close to the stairway that links to other areas of the gardens.

The third sculpture is again of a woman and by Joseph Viladomar and was based on the Manolo Hugué original. "Repòs" (1925) a life-sized female nude made of stone situated in a small square close to the entrance next to the Joan Miró Foundation.

Near the rose garden, there is a glazed ceramic fountain influenced by the sea, crowned by a jet, which was the work of Llorenç Artigas.

The Font del Gat

The water from the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat") pours from a feline head, sculpted by Joan Antoni Homs in 1918, when the Laribal Gardens were being finished. This fountain is one of many that flowed in Barcelona at the time and is situated in a place in the city that was very popular at the end of the nineteenth century.

The fountain was so popular that the journalist and playwright Joan Amich wrote a song about it: "La Marieta de l'ull viu" that is still sung today and includes the verse: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat..." ("Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl, a girl / Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl with a soldier...").

History

The area where the Laribal Gardens now lie was a popular meeting place at the beginning of the last century, in particular the Font del Gat, which was also an area for exclusive gatherings, such as those of Colla de l'Arròs, a gastronomic-political group who had a certain influence over Barcelona at the turn of the last century, would meet in a small building situated where the Museu Etnològic (Ethnological Museum) now stands.

The upper part of the current gardens once belonged to Joseph Laribal, an esteemed lawyer whose name the gardens bear. He built a neo-Arabian chalet, surrounded by eclectic gardens, with large trees.

After Laribal died in 1908, the house was acquired by the Town Council, which established the Escola del Bosc, which still exists to this day. Simultaneously, studies began for the development and gardening of the mountain, a comprehensive project that was initially the responsibility of Josep Amargós.

The 1929 World's Fair

Completed in 1922, the Laribal Gardens are linked to a later event: the International Exposition of Barcelona of 1929 (a World's Fair). This event represented the culmination of a project which began in 1905 to organise an exhibition on Montjuïc about the electrical industries, the emerging energy at the time.

One of the commissioners at the International Exhibition of Barcelona was Francesc Cambó, who was responsible for the gardening and engineering work and the work of the French landscape architect Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. His assistant was the young architect Nicolau M. Rubió I Tudurí, who, in 1917, became the director of the Public and Wooded Parks Board, the predecessor of the Parks and Gardens Service of Barcelona, of which he was mainly responsible and one of the key people in the development of green spaces in the city.

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Es una de las perlas del Parque de Montjuïc y pasearse por ellos es un autentica delicia. La riquísima vegetación, junto con el agua que baja por cascadas y se escurre delicadamente en medio de amplias barandillas, los bancos de ladrillo y las placetas, crean un conjunto de una belleza excepcional. Es un lugar en el que estar, para contemplarlo e ir descubriendo los miles de detalles que lo configuran, con una armonía difícil de superar.

Los Jardines de Laribal, de gran valor histórico, están formados por terrazas, caminos, placetas, pequeños estanques y una vegetación lozana y consolidada. Una serie de terrazas sobrepuestas están unidas entre si por caminos y atajos de gran pendiente, con tramos de escaleras intercalados de diseño siempre diferente. Pérgolas de ladrillo visto, piedra y pilares blancos dan sombra a las zonas más llanas. La vegetación, exótica en su mayoría, es rica y variada en especies.

Jardines mediterráneos

Estos jardines, incluidos en el recinto de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, obtuvieron una gran reputación. Sus autores, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier y Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, crearon un nuevo estilo paisajístico de raíz mediterránea.

La vegetación preexistente, desde plantas autóctonas hasta árboles frutales del pasado agrícola de la montaña, se integró en los jardines con un concepto de jardinería renovador y original, que sigue libremente la inspiración de los antiguos jardines árabes y de los "cármenes" de Granada, con una gran presencia de azulejos de cerámica, aguas ornamentales y el cultivo de plantas de flor en macetas colocadas en barandillas y alféizares.

Las escaleras del Generalife

El agua es la esencia del jardín, con pequeños y grandes estanques. Para conectar la parte superior del parque con los Jardines Amargós, actualmente Jardines del Teatre Grec, Forestier diseñó una escalera inspirada en la de los jardines del Generalife, con cascadas en los pasamanos, estanques con fuentes en los rellanos y bancos de piedra para reponerse y disfrutar del frescor y el sonido del agua.

Los jardines de la Font del Gat

Unas pérgolas mirador llevan de unos jardines a otros, unidos por ejes de rampas, escaleras y cascadas que desembocan en la Font del Gat desde donde se pueden contemplar unas magníficas vistas de Barcelona.

Ocupan la pendiente que va desde la parte más alta de los jardines Laribal hasta el paseo de Santa Madrona e integran la popular Font del Gat y un edificio decimonónico. Se trata de un conjunto de caminos, terrazas y rincones que se adaptan al relieve con escaleras, rampas y una cascada monumental con cuatro secciones separadas por caminos y canales, que van conectando los diferentes tramos.

Todo está cubierto por un espeso follaje mediterráneo y árboles frutales, como nísperos e higueras y palmeras de enormes copas. Si lo miramos desde abajo, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, vemos que los altísimos cipreses situados al inicio de la cascada acentúan la verticalidad del conjunto.

La rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de cipreses, con una pequeña fuente en el centro, marca el inicio de un recorrido que, debajo de una pérgola con pilares de terracota, conduce a un patio ovalado y recluido también rodeado de cipreses: la rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

El jardín se configura en diferentes planos, con aire de patio, que están rodeados de cipreses e hileras de aligustres. En diferentes parterres rectangulares se han plantado antiguas variedades de rosales. En el centro destaca un pequeño estanque cuadrangular con azulejos esmaltados, presidido en la parte superior por Estival, una escultura de un desnudo femenino en mármol que contempla la rosaleda y, más allá, Barcelona.

La plaza del Claustre

De hecho se trata del jardín de Sant Miquel, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, en el que destacan tres grandes plataneros que ya existían antes de que Forestier diseñara los jardines. Al fondo, los muros de lo que antes había sido una antigua cantera confieren a esta parte de los jardines Laribal un aire recluido y claustral. Y de aquí viene su nombre. A la derecha encontramos un corredor que comunica con los jardines del Teatre Grec.

Vegetación

La vegetación madura y mediterránea da sentido a los jardines. Así, entre otras especies, hay pinos carrascos (Pinus halepensis), pinos piñoneros (Pinus pinea), laureles (Laurus nobilis), naranjos amargos (Citrus aurantium) y cipreses (Cupressus sempervirens).

Las escaleras del Generalife están rodeadas de grandes acacias (Robinia pseudoacacia) y arbustos como el aligustre (Ligustrum lucidum) y el pitosporo (Pittosporum tobira), una especie de arbusto muy abundante en los jardines, junto con la adelfa (Nerium oleander) y el evónimo del Japón (Evonymus japonicus).

En macetas de terracota lucen las elegantes hojas de salón (Aspidistra elatior) y los geranios (Pelargonium sp.), al tiempo que las glicinias (Wisteria sinensis) y los rosales de Banksia (Rosa banksiae) cubren las pérgolas. En diferentes lugares de los jardines encontramos plantas aromáticas, como la lavanda (Lavandula angustifolia), el romero (Rosmarinus officinalis) y otras especies tapizantes como la hiedra (Hedera helix).

En los jardines de Laribal también encontramos pinos australianos (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptos (Eucalyptus globulus), cipreses de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedros del Himalaya (Cedrus deodara) y, en la plaza del Claustre, tres grandes ejemplares de platanero (Platanus X hispanica).

Arte y arquitectura

En estos jardines la escultura es notable, tanto por su calidad como por su belleza. Presidiendo la rosaleda tenemos el Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina sentada, de estilo art decó y realizada en mármol.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), es otro desnudo femenino, en este caso de bronce, que representa una joven que se recoge el pelo en una trenza. Se encuentra en una placeta sombría muy cerca de las escaleras que comunican con los otros niveles de los jardines.

La tercera escultura también es de una mujer y de Josep Viladomat, que la realizó en base a un original de Manolo Hugué. Se trata de Repòs (1925), un desnudo femenino de piedra, a tamaño natural, situado en una placeta circular muy cerca de la entrada que hay al lado de la Fundació Joan Miró.

Cerca de la rosaleda se encuentra una fuente de cerámica esmaltada con motivos marinos, coronada con un surtidor, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La Font del Gat

El agua de la Font del Gat mana desde la cabeza de un felino, esculpido por Joan Antoni Homs en 1918, año en el que se terminaron los jardines Laribal. Esta fuente era una de las muchas que manaban en aquellos momentos en Barcelona y, el lugar en el que se encuentra era muy popular en la ciudad a finales del siglo XIX.

La fuente era tan popular que el periodista y autor teatral Joan Amich escribió una canción: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que todavía hoy se canta e incluye la estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Historia

A principios del siglo pasado, en la zona que hoy ocupan los jardines Laribal se celebraban encuentros populares, sobre todo en la Font del Gat, o reuniones selectas, como las que hacía la Colla de l'Arròs, un grupo medio gastronómico medio político que tuvo una cierta influencia en la Barcelona del final del siglo XIX y principio del XX y que se reunía en un pequeño edificio situado donde ahora se encuentra el Museo Etnológico.

La parte alta de los actuales jardines pertenecía a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigioso abogado cuyo nombre se ha perpetuado en los jardines. Allí se hizo construir un chalet neoárabe, rodeado de unos jardines eclécticos, con grandes árboles.

Tras la muerte de Laribal en 1908, la finca fue adquirida por el Ayuntamiento que fundó en ella la Escola del Bosc, que todavía existe. Simultáneamente, se iniciaron los estudios para urbanizar y enjardinar la montaña, con un proyecto global que inicialmente se encargó a Josep Amargós.

La Exposición de 1929

Los jardines de Laribal, terminados en el 1922, también están vinculados con un acontecimiento posterior: la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Este acontecimiento representó la culminación de un proyecto iniciado en 1905 para organizar en Montjuïc una exposición sobre las industrias eléctricas, la energía emergente de aquel momento.

Uno de los comisarios de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona fue Francesc Cambó, que encargó los trabajos de ajardinamiento al ingeniero y paisajista francés Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Su ayudante fue el joven arquitecto Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que en 1917 se convertiría en el director de la Dirección de Parques Públicos y Arbolado, antecedente del Servicio de Parques y Jardines de Barcelona, del que fue el primer responsable y una de las personas determinantes en el futuro desarrollo de los espacios verdes públicos de la ciudad.

En el año 713 de la Era cristiana Ilipla pasó a manos musulmanas, instalándose en la ciudad un grupo de origen yemeni. Cuando en el año 756 Abd-al-Rahman I se hace con el poder de al-Andalus, la ciudad y su cora se integran en el emirato cordobés, construyéndose entre estos momentos y el periodo califal un nuevo recinto amurallado. Este aparece superpuesto sobre los recintos anteriores, tal vez aprovechando íntegramente algunas de sus partes o derribando otras para utilizar los mismos materiales de construcción. En la zona que mira al río, este recinto aparece con una superficie lisa conformada por bloques de piedra de diferentes tamaños, con tramos rectos y torres macizas situadas a intervalos irregulares.

La historia de Lebla, durante el periodo islámico, es rica y variada como le corresponde a una ciudad andalusí de su importancia política y económica.

En la fitna, desmembración que supone el final del califato omeya, la dinastía de los BeniYahya se hace con el poder de la ciudad, convirtiéndose Yahsopi en rey taifa independiente en el año 1019.

En los acontecimientos políticos del siglo XI, el ejército de Niebla destaca como aliado de los reinos taifas de Mértola y Silves que, junto con el de Badajoz se enfrentan al de Sevilla por el dominio de al-Garb. Sus ejércitos lucharán a las puertas de la ciudad en 1048, tres años antes de que la ciudad finalmente se rindiese a Al-Mutadid, dejando de ser independiente al ser absorbida por el reino de Sevilla en 1051.

Estas luchas hegemónicas provocarán que los almarávides, tribus guerreras muy religiosas del Sáhara, invadirán la Península Ibérica. Con la presencia de la tribus bereberes en la Península, Labla al-Hmra, alcanzará un gran periodo de esplendor. En 1091 los Almorávides dominarán todo al-Andalus, y la ciudad dejará de depender de Al-Mutadid de Sevilla. En este periodo la ciudad alcanzará un alto grado de desarrollo, en el que se mantiene con la tolerancia islámica un buen grupo de cristianos que conservan su fe y sus costumbres, incluyendo las iglesias con sus obispos y cultos.

No obstante, la presión ejercida por los almorávides, hizo que las aristocracias de al-Andalus buscaran la protección del nuevo poder almohade, ya que en ese momento, se habían adueñado de gran parte del norte de Africa. Niebla sería ocupada por sus tropas, aunque se rebelará después a la guarnición que en ella habían dejado. Por ello, en 1154, Abú-Zacarya ben Yumar, enviado por el emir almohade a pacificar al-Garb, tomó Lebla por asalto, donde se habían encerrado los habitamtes de la antigua cora, pasando a cuchillo a todos los varones que habían defendido y vendido como esclavos a mujeres y niños. Posiblemente el cerco anterior quedaría muy dañado, dando lugar al inicio de la reconstrucción de un nuevo recinto, instalándose en la ciudad pobladores de la dinastía de los Beni-Yahya.

Durante el periodo almohade Niebla se convertiría en una de las ciudades de más peso del Suroeste, no solo por su posición, sino por la calidad de sus moradores.

Entre ellos destaca la religiosidad y el prestigio de al-Qasim, que le valió iniciar la primera oración del viernes en la nueva mezquita construida en Sevilla por los almohades.

Con la batalla de la Navas de Tolosa, en 1212, el poder de los almohades irá perdiendo su importancia, desmembrándose al-Andalus en varios reinos independientes otra vez. El último de los reyes islámicos de la historia de Niebla será Ibn-Mahfoh, que para evitar su conquista prestó vasallaje a Fernando III el Santo.

------ En Inglés -----------

In the year 713 A.C. Ilipla passed into muslim hands and a group of yemeni origin settled in the town. When Abd-al Rahman I got hold of power in Al-Andalus in 756, the town and its cora become a part of Córdoba's emirate and a new fortified enclosure will be built from that time through the califal period. The walls are superimposed on the former enclosures; in some cases some parts were wholly made use of , and in other cases some parts were pulled down in order to make use of the same building materials.

On the area facing the river, this enclosure presents a flat surface made of irregular stone blocks and solid towers at regular intervals.

The history of Lebla throughout the muslim period is rich and varied as the history of any andalusí town of its political and economic importance is expected to be.

In the fitna, the dismemberment that means the end of the omeya caliphate, the Beni Yahya dinasty took power of the town and Yahsopi became an independent taifa king in 1019.

During the political events of the 11th century, Niebla's army stood out as an ally of the taifa kingdoms of Mértola and Silves which, together with the one of Badajoz, met the kingdom of Seville for the control over the al-Garb. Their armies fought at the gateway of the town in 1048, three years before the town finally surrendered to Al-Mutadid and lost its independence becoming a part of the kingdom of Seville in 1051.

Dhese fight for the hegemony brought about the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by the almoravides, very religious and warlike tribes from the Sahara desert. With the presence of the bereber tribes in the Peninsula, Labla al Hmra lived a thriving period. In 1091, the almoravides ruled all Al-Andalus, and the town would not be under the rule of Al-Mutadid of Seville any longer. In this period, the town reached a high degree of development and the tolerance was an essential feature of this town; as a proof of it, a number of christians retained their faith and habits, including their churches, bishops and cults.

Nevertheless, the pressure wielded by the almoravides, made Al-Andalous's aristocracies seek the protection of the new almohade power, for at that moment they had taken possession of most North Africa. Niebla was accupied by their troops, although some time later the town would rebel against the garrison that remained there. That is why, in 1154, Abú-Zacarya ben Yumar, sent by the almohade emir to pacify al-Garb, took Lebla by storm, put all the men who had defended the cora to the sword, and sold all the women and children as slaves. The former enclosure would probably be severely damaged, so a new enclosure would be reconstructed by people of the Beni-Yahya dinasty who settled in the town.

During the almohade period, Niebla became one of the most important cities of the south -west, not only because of its location, but because of the quality of its inhabitants as well; one of them, al-Qasim, stood out by his religiosity and prestige, thanks to which he said the first Friday prayer in the new mosque built in Seville by the almohades.

After the Navas de Tolosa battle in 1212, the power of almohades would decay progressively and Al-Andalus would be desmembered again into several independent kingdoms. The last of the muslim kings of Niebla was Ibn-Mahfoh, who became vassal of Fernando III the Saint to avoid the conquest of Niebla.

Domitian, Museu Chiaramonti, Braccio Nuovo.

Following, a text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:

Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian (69–79), his elder brother Titus (79–81), and that of Domitian himself.

Domitian spent much of his youth and early career in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during the First Jewish-Roman War. This situation continued under the rule of Vespasian, who became emperor on 21 December 69, following a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. While Titus effectually reigned as co-emperor with his father, Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities. Vespasian died on 23 June 79 and was succeeded by Titus, whose own reign came to an unexpected end when he was struck by a fatal illness on 13 September 81. The following day Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius.

As emperor, Domitian strengthened the economy by reevaluating the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, while in Dacia, Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. His memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political program was a precursor to the peaceful 2nd century, rather than the twilight of the tumultuous 1st century.

See much more at the wikipedia address: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domitian

A seguir um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a Enciclopédia livre:

Domiciano

Tito Flávio Domiciano (em latim Titus Flavius Domitianus) (24 de outubro de 51 – 18 de setembro de 96) foi imperador romano de 81 a 96. Tito Flávio Domiciano era filho de Vespasiano com sua mulher Domitila e irmão de Tito Flávio, a quem ele sucedeu.

Quando Tito, o último dos Flávios, era ainda jovem, o pai Vespasiano impôs-lhe uma vida modesta, enquanto que o seu irmão Tito, mais velho, por seu turno, era educado na corte e vivia de forma mais faustosa. Ainda que privado de cargos e de prestígio, Domiciano não deixou de ser uma pessoa ambiciosa e sedenta de poder, embora, na opinião de seu pai, não tivesse capacidade para o gerir. Chocado com o comportamento arrogante e imprudente de Domiciano em Roma no turbulento ano de 69, Vespasiano - que não deixava de gracejar com o filho dizendo-lhe que estava disposto a designar o próximo imperador para que ele pudesse demonstrar o seu poder e prestígio - limitou-se a conferir-lhe um poder meramente formal, não o associando demasiadamente ao governo.

Sucedeu a seu irmão Tito em 81 no Império, concluindo a seguir a conquista da Bretanha, em 79-80, que seu irmão quase terminara. Na Germânia, anexou os Campos Decúmanos depois de 89, organizou provincialmente os territórios na margem esquerda do Reno e na Mésia, alcançando também acordos com outros povos, como os Dácos. Venceu também os quados, caledônios e dácios.

O temperamento desconfiado e irascível de Domiciano - que desde sempre, por exemplo, teve um grande fascínio pela personalidade e governação de Tibério - e a sua cobiça do poder fizeram, todavia, com que o seu reinado fosse marcado por uma tirania intolerante. O poder, de fato, foi imediatamente concentrado nas suas mãos. Considerando-se deus e patrono supremo, aboliu todas as formalidades imperiais, que serviam para esconder o poder absoluto do príncipe.

Domiciano reformou a administração romana, recompôs Roma a partir das ruínas provocadas pelos incêndios de 64 e de 80, e cobriu a fronteira danubiana com uma linha de fortificações. Expulsou de Roma filósofos e matemáticos, e perseguiu os cristãos. Com Domiciano deu-se a segunda perseguição aos cristãos, numerosos foram condenados à morte, ao desterro ou à confiscação de seus bens.

Domiciano aterrorizou a aristocracia e atraiu o ódio do Senado por sua intenção de dominá-lo. Subjugou, cruel e violentamente, quaisquer formas de contestação ou rebelião (como a do legado Antônio Saturnino, em Janeiro de 89, à frente de duas legiões revoltosas na Germânia), para além de ofender sucessivas vezes senadores e conselheiros (favorecendo os cavaleiros, sua base de apoio, em detrimento daqueles) e de ver suspeitos e inimigos por todo o lado. Esta espiral de suspeição e de repressão terminou com o assassinato de Domiciano em Setembro de 96, perpetrado por membros da sua própria família, entre os quais a sua mulher, Domícia Longina, e instigado por senadores. Foi o último dos doze césares.

Domiciano, portanto, não fez um bom governo.

Segundo a tradição Judaico-Cristã, e pelo que nos guarda a tradição da católica, exilou o Apóstolo João na Ilha de Patmos, no mar Egeu. Seu ódio aos cristãos levou à morte elementos convertidos da aristocracia romana, como fora o caso de um cônsul que, depois de degolado, fora vingado por um parente seu (tratava-se da família Cesário convertida às pregações de São Pedro em Roma). Domiciano morrera assim apunhalado.

A moralização imperial levada a efeito pelos imperadores que sucederam a Domiciano, foi sempre elogiada e louvada por todos quantos sobreviveram ao reinado de terror do filho de Vespasiano. Os seus excessos de absolutismo da seu governo tornaram-no comparável, principalmente pelos seus opositores, aos imperadores Calígula e Nero. Plínio e Tácito, dois grandes historiadores romanos do seu tempo, criticaram-no duramente, embora não tenham deixado de lhe reconhecer uma certa habilidade política, marcada por boas opções em termos de conduta do Estado, por toda uma energia e empenho em resolver os problemas militares que afligiam sempre a fronteira do Danúbio, para além do rigor das suas medidas de natureza econômica. Neste âmbito, por exemplo, deixou refrear a tendência de sobreprodução que fazia baixar os preços agrícolas, revelando perspicácia, como sucede também no estreitar de relações comerciais com a China e principalmente a Índia. As províncias foram também bastante urbanizadas no seu principado. Foi, na verdade, um homem de cultura e com rasgos de humanismo notáveis, como sucedeu quando proibiu a castração de escravos. Ainda que mórbido e impiedoso, egocêntrico e cruel, em termos de atitudes políticas ou públicas, face ao seu desrespeito pelas altas magistraturas romanas e de certo modo pela tradição, não deixou de ser um Flávio em termos de governação, afastando-se por isso do extravagante Calígula ou do "criminoso" Nero. Como Flávio, notabilizou-se também nas obras públicas: concluiu o fórum que seu pai, Vespasiano, começara; edificou o Palatino; e mandou construir o enorme Palácio Flávio. A sua obra mais célebre, contudo, foi o estádio com o seu nome, que está na origem da atual Piazza Navona, um recinto que desde Domiciano era usado para espectáculos naumáquicos (representação ou simulação dum combate naval).

FOTO DAL MIO PC !!!

UN UOMO UN MEDICO

youtu.be/hj_3bmfAyag

EL DOCTOR - VIDEO

ENGLISH VERSION

youtu.be/CXQz5wqzaSk

ESPANOL VERSION - EL DOCTOR

youtu.be/-qgPD6sbcUY

Jack McKee, è un medico di successo, brillante e spregiudicato chirurgo quarantenne con una troppo buona opinione di sé e una scarsa considerazione per gli altri. Interamente assorbito dal prestigio e dai vantaggi della propria professione, trascura la moglie e il figlio, mostra decisamente poca empatia e poco tatto nel rapporto coi propri pazienti, opera non lesinando battute e freddure agli assistenti anche nel momenti più drammatici di un intervento. Sembra convinto che per fare il proprio lavoro si debba alzare un muro verso i pazienti e difendersi dai sentimenti che essi possono suscitare in lui, così da non correre il rischio di farsi coinvolgere troppo. Improvvisamente però, quando gli viene diagnosticato un tumore alla laringe, si trova ad essere dall'altra parte della barricata nel ruolo del paziente bisognoso di cure e deve subire analisi fastidiose, supponenza ed arroganza del medici, intralci burocratici. Questo cambiamento di prospettiva gli apre gli occhi sui valori dei rapporti umani di comprensione e di solidarietà con altri malati. Fra questi spicca la giovane June Ellis, la quale ha avuto la diagnosi di tumore cerebrale in ritardo per colpa dell'assicurazione, che non le ha consentito l'unico esame in grado di diagnosticarlo in tempo, perché troppo costoso.....

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Jack McKee is a doctor with it all: he's successful, he's rich, and he has no problems.... until he is diagnosed with throat cancer. Now that he has seen medicine, hospitals, and doctors from a patient's perspective, he realises that there is more to being a doctor than surgery and prescription ....

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Cuando a Jack MacKee (Hurt), un médico frío y distante, le diagnostican una enfermedad, pasa a ser un paciente más de su propio hospital. Entonces sabrá lo que sienten los enfermos, tendrá que confiar ciegamente en un sistema médico que sabe que no es infalible y habrá de soportar con paciencia unos trámites burocráticos que se eternizan, unos reconocimientos humillantes y unas abarrotadas salas de espera..

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O médico Jack MacKee (William Hurt) é um renomado cirurgião em um grande hospital de ensino. Ele e sua esposa possuem uma vida confortável devido ao dinheiro ganho por ele. Entretanto, Jack trabalha tanto que mal tem tempo para passar um tempo com a mulher e o filho pequeno. O seu relacionamento com a mulher é extremamente frio. Pior ainda é seu modo de tratar os paciente, que geralmente estão muito doentes.

Um dia, após um jantar, Jack tem um acesso de tosse. Eles ficam espantados após ele apresentar hemoptise. Ele vai ao médico e realiza uma biópsia, constatando câncer de laringe.

Ele experimenta, então, o lado do paciente na doença, ao invés do lado que ele conhecia, o do médico. Ele percebe, então, o quão frio é o tratamento ao paciente dentro dos hospitais e o quão ruim pode ser o tratamento dos médicos, seu colegas. Ele começa a empatizar com os paciente, algo totalmente novo para ele. Ele torna-se amigo de June Ellis, uma paciente quep ossui um tumor inoperável no cérebro.

Enquanto que o câncer de Jack é tratado e curado, June morre. A experiência muda Jack para sempre. Qunado ele volta a trabalhar, ele começa a ensinar aos internos a importância de mostrar compaixão e sensibilidade aos pacientes, tornando-os, assim, médicos melhores.

El monestir de Sant Joan de Poio (en gallec, mosteiro de San Xoán de Poio) és un antic monestir benedictí que actualment és ocupat per una comunitat mercedària. Els seus orígens són una mica confusos i fins i tot la seva fundació s'ha volgut vincular a Sant Fructuós de Braga, cosa que sembla poder descartar-se. Hom coneix que fou dotat econòmicament pel rei Bermudo II (982-999) i per la reina Urraca l'any 1116, tot i que per la primera referència documental cal retrocedir fins l'any 942. Després la casa va quedar vinculada a la seu de Santiago arran d'una donació efectuada per Fernando II, el 1169. A finals del segle XV l'establiment es trobava en decadència, una visita de l'any 1494 el troba en una situació caòtica. Més tard les circumstàncies van canviar i es va redreçar, l'any 1548 s'hi va fundar un prestigiós col·legi de teologia. Va mantenir la seva activitat com a comunitat benedictina fins el 1835, quan la desamortització va clausurar l'establiment. A partir del 1890 el lloc va passar a estar ocupat pels mercedaris, que encara es mantenen en aquest lloc.

La façana del monestir és una obra barroca de traça simple que compta amb una coberta amb un nínxol en el qual alberga la imatge de Sant Benet.

L'obra de l'església va ser contractada a Pedro de Monteagudo en 1691 seguint les traces de Gabriel de Casas. En 1700, l'obra va quedar inacabada i va haver de ser completada per un altre mestre. Les torres, segons l'opinió d'alguns autors, es posen en relació amb el barroc compostel·là, en concret amb la manera de fer de Fernando de Casas Novoa.

La façana de l'església està emmarcada per dues esveltes torres amb una portada amb dos parells de columnes dòriques a la part inferior del cos i dos parells de columnes corínties a la part superior. A la portada destaca una imatge de Sant Joan Baptista.

L'interior de l'església es va iniciar en virtut d'un plànol clàssic adquirint elements barrocs durant el seu llarg procés de construcció que es va acabar al segle XVIII. Així, el treball no es va completar d'acord amb el plànol original, tot i que era molt respectat, així en 1708 s'estava fent la bòveda en el creuer i en 1731 la construcció de la sagristia. Fins i tot, en l'any 1743, el Pare Sarmiento va dir que l'església encara estava oberta.

Es configura en una gran nau coberta amb voltes de canó i voltes de creueria. En ella s'obren tres petites capelles amb arcs de mig punt i sobre ells una sèrie de balcons.

La capella major s'orna amb el retaule major, treball realitzat en l'any 1735, i es divideix en columnes salomòniques. Mostra imatges de sants mercedaris del convent de Madrid, juntament amb imatges de la Mare de Déu de la Mercè, patrona de l'orde, i Sant Joan Baptista, patró del convent. L'antic retaule, encarregat a Bernardo Cabrera en 1631, va ser aprofitat en part pel retaule de la capella de Crist (antiga sagristia), on hi ha la tomba de Santa Trahamunda.

Ruta excursionista a Wikiloc.

A Google Maps.

Chile se ha convertido en la ultimas décadas en uno de los mas importantes productores de vino en el mundo. Ninguna otra región del país es mejor conocida y nombrada como lo es el Valle de Colchagua. Elegida en 2005 por la revista Wine Enthusiast como la "Mejor Region Vitivinicola del Mundo" por su capacidad para producir vinos tintos de clase mundial. Además por su belleza paisajística fue seleccionada entre los 10 lugares del mundo que usted debe conocer en el 2012.

El Valle de Colchagua se ubica a 160 kms al sur de Santiago. Es un rico valle de clima seco mediterráneo pero bien regado por los Rios Tinguirica y Chimbarongo. Las primeras haciendas datan de los tiempos de la colonización española, dedicadas a la agruicultura fueron adquiridas por prominentes familias de origen hispano. Estas familias cuyas fortunas provenían de la explotación minera a fines del siglo IXX, remplazaron las rusticas variedades de vino español por las finas sepas de Francia.

Chile es el único lugar del mundo que permanece libre de la peste por Phylloxera, que devastó las viñas europeas en el siglo IXX. Asi el Valle de Colchagua tiene viñedos de mas de 100 años de antigüedad.

Con mas de 50 viñas dedicadas a la producción de vino, incluyendo 27 marcas de prestigio mundial que se han establecido en el valle obteniendo premiados vinos tintos de fama internacional, sus Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah y Malbec figuran frecuentemente encabezando los listados de los mejores vinos del mundo. Asi la Ruta del Vino es uno de los mayores y mejores atractivos turísticos de Chile, tanto por la variedad de atracciones y actividades como su organización, tales como vuelos sobre el valle, cabalgatas, caminatas en bellos senderos, visitas a museos, bodegas, restaurantes y mucho mas.

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Chile has become a big league player in the global wine market in recent decades. And no other region in the country stands out as much as the Colchagua Valley, chosen by the Wine Enthusiast magazine as 2005’s Best Wine Region of the World for its ability to produce world class red wines. Choose one of the top ten region of the world that you should to known in 2012

The Colchagua Valley is 180 km to the south of Santiago. It is a rich valley with a mediterranean dry weather but with an abundant water supply from the Tinguiririca and Chimbarongo River. The valley’s first haciendas were established during colonial times. These vast autonomous agriculture and livestock farms were acquired by wealthy families of Spanish origin. These families, most of whom had earned their fortunes in Chile’s mining industry in the late 19th century, replaced the rustic Spanish varieties with fine French varieties.

Chile is the only wine-producing country in the world that remains free of Phylloxera, the pest that devastated European wineries in the 19th century. As a result, the Colchagua Valley has vineyards that are more than 100 years old

With over 50 vineyards inlcuding 27 vines of international reputation have settled their production centers is this valley, obtaining awarded red wines of international fame. Its full-bodied Cabernet, Carmenere, Syrah and Malbec, and its wines regularly appear high on the world´s list of leading wines. The Wine Route is one of the velley finest tourist attraction and one of the most in the country, a wide range of activities can be found such as Flights over the valley, and Horseback Riding or Hiking on beautiful trails, museums, restaurants and many more.

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

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If you're from Brazil you know very well "Bolo Prestígio".

If you are not, this is a chocolate cake with coconut stuffing [ trying to explain...hahaha]

I COOKED THE CAKE!

Só pra constar: eu que fiz hahaha

The Amphitheater of Catania

The Amphitheater of Catania was the northern edge of the old city, behind the hill Montevergine around the core of the village, in an area that today is part of the historic city center, but where in the past were the ancient necropolis .

Structure

The building of the plant had an elliptical shape, the arena measuring a diameter greater than 70 m and a minor of about 50 m. I had outside diameters of 125 x 105 m, while the outer circumference was 309 meters and circumference of 192 meters dell’Arena, and it was calculated that could hold 15,000 spectators seated and almost double that figure by adding wooden scaffolding for the spectators standing [1]. Shifted to the nearby hill was separated by a corridor with large arches and vaults that were to be support for the tiers. It was probably also covered with large tarpaulins for shelter from strong sun or in case of rain. The cavea had 14 steps. It was built with lava stone dell’Etna covered with marble and had orders thirty-two seats. There is also the place Naumachie, real naval battles with ships and fighters after it filled with water by the ancient aqueduct. The amphitheater of Catania is structurally the most complex of amphitheaters Sicilians and the largest after the Coliseum l ‘Capua amphitheater, the amphitheater of Milan, the’ Arena di Verona el ‘amphitheater in Syracuse (diameter 140 x 119 m). Presents a structure built with radial walls and sometimes against the ground, where the facade does not rely directly to radial walls, but a tunnel distribution device. The building technique includes the use of vittata on the inside and square on the outside. The heads of the pillars are in place with small square blocks of lava rock. The parameters show a somewhat neglected: the sets of square-cut are irregular and appear largely carryover. The arches are made externally with large rectangular blocks cut and joined by regular mortar of good quality, while inside are made in a large cement works radial scales. Singular, despite the overall simplicity of the building, was to show the color contrast between the dark brown lava rock and vestments of the red bricks of the arch ring. A note of prestige was represented by the marble, not only for the coating on the podium, but for some decorations like herms sides of the main entrance to the arena. Most likely the steps would be in a limestone building a strong game between the white color of the seats and the black of the ladder, as assumed by the contemporary buildings.

Entrance

At the excavation dell’Anfiteatro is accessed through an iron gate decorated with arches traforati in the upper register and completely smooth in the lower register. A decoration of the gate metal were recovered in 1906 some fragments of marble columns, which originally were to be part of the upper porch, two capitals and ionic fragments of an architrave on which was engraved the inscription AMPHITHEATRVM ITEMS. The input is thus formed: at the center where the metal door jambs are the columns with capitals, crowned dall’architrave; the remaining two columns are located in the two lateral ends and inserted between the central and there are two stone walls bearing the stories of two famous characters from Greek times related to this area (Caronda left, Stesicoro right).

History

The monument was built in the second century, the exact date is uncertain, but the architecture is leaning on ‘era of the emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Was reached by the lava of 252-253 and not long after (in the fifth century) King Theodoric of the Ostrogoths had used the materials to give the city a quarry from which to draw for the construction of masonry houses in [3] and, in ‘XI century, its facilities were used by Roger II of Sicily as a quarry for the construction of the Cathedral of Sant’Agata, whose apses still recognize the stones perfectly cut, and perhaps also of the Castello Ursino Federiciana age. In the thirteenth century, according to tradition, his efforts were vomitoria (inputs) by the Angevins to enter the city during the so-called War of the Vespers. In the next century entrances were walled up and the ruins were incorporated into the network of fortifications Aragonese (1302), but a pooling of safety came only with the building plan of the walls of the city occurred in 1550 with the killing of the first and second floor and filling the tunnel with its own rubble. After the earthquake of 1693, was definitively buried only to be turned into military training. It was later covered by the construction of new houses and the church of San Biagio (or Sant’Agata to Hell). The Prince of Biscari, as some visitors had denied that had ever existed in Catania, spent large sums of his money to perform the excavations and in two years it took a whole day a corridor and four great arches of the gallery outside [4] . In the nineteenth century were still visit from the excavations on Via del Colosseo, the populace called – and still call – Catania old and over it is all kind of embroidered legend. Of all that of a class that insinuatasi structures for a visit, no more left.

Discovery

In 1904, during the administration of De Felice architect Filadelfo Fichera, we began work to restore them to the light, then completed two years later. In 1907 took place the opening ceremony, which was also the King Vittorio Emanuele III.

Even in the postwar period the amphitheater began to decline and many buildings above the tunnels used it as sanitation facilities. During the bombardment of the Allies, which reduced the city into heaps of rubble, in 1943, the building was used like a refuge. For many years it has remained closed for safety concerns following the tragic events connected with the curiosity of visitors and researchers trying to explore the underground tunnels. Renovated in 1997, was open only during the summer and then closed because the drains of the houses adjacent to the waste water discharged inside the amphitheater. Partially renovated in July 1999 it was reopened to the public. Over the years he has suffered closures and taps, and in late 2007 and early 2008 were carried out archaeological surveys to understand the state of conservation of the structures of the pillars outside. Its ruins can be visited from Stesicoro square, representing less than one quarter of the amphitheater, and vico Amphitheater where you see the height up to the third floor, while until 2007 it was possible to see a portion of second floor of Via del Colosseo, now entirely covered by the new terrace of Villa Cerami. In the latter building, now headquarters of the Faculty of Law of the University of Catania, you can see part of the string that connected the amphitheater of the hill Montevergine (probably the ancient acropolis of the city). The rest of the amphitheater is still buried beneath the zone of Via Neve, Via Manzoni and Via Penninello.

L’Anfiteatro di Catania

L’Anfiteatro di Catania si trovava ai margini settentrionali della città antica, a ridosso della collina Montevergine che ospitava il nucleo principale dell’abitato, in una zona che oggi fa parte del centro storico della città, ma dove in passato si trovavano le antiche necropoli.

Struttura

L’edificio presentava la pianta di forma ellittica, l’arena misurava un diametro maggiore di 70 m ed uno minore di circa 50 m. I diametri esterni erano di 125 x 105 m, mentre la circonferenza esterna era di 309 metri e la circonferenza dell’Arena di 192 metri, e si è calcolato che poteva contenere 15.000 spettatori seduti e quasi il doppio di quella cifra con l’aggiunta di impalcature lignee per gli spettatori in piedi[1]. Addossato alla vicina collina ne era separato da un corridoio con grandi archi e volte che facevano da sostegno per le gradinate. Era probabilmente prevista anche una copertura con grandi teli per il riparo dal forte sole o nel caso di pioggia. La cavea presentava 14 gradoni. Venne costruito con la pietra lavica dell’Etna ricoperta da marmi ed aveva trentadue ordini di posti. Vi si svolgevano anche le naumachie, vere battaglie navali con navi e combattenti dopo averlo riempito di acqua mediante l’antico acquedotto. L’anfiteatro di Catania è strutturalmente il più complesso degli anfiteatri siciliani e il più grande dopo il Colosseo l’ anfiteatro di Capua, l’anfiteatro di Milano, l’ Arena di Verona e l’ anfiteatro di Siracusa (diametro 140 x 119 m). Presenta una struttura realizzata con muri radiali e volte non addossata al terreno, dove la facciata non si appoggia direttamente ai muri radiali, bensì a una galleria di distribuzione periferica. La tecnica edilizia prevede l’uso dell’opera vittata per le parti interne e quadrata per l’esterno. Le testate dei pilastri sono in opera quadrata con piccoli blocchi di pietra lavica. I paramenti denotano una certa trascuratezza: i blocchetti dell’opera quadrata sono a taglio irregolare e appaiono in buona parte di riporto. Gli archi sono realizzati esternamente con grossi mattoni rettangolari dal taglio regolare e uniti da malta di buona qualità, mentre internamente sono fatti in opera cementizia a grosse scaglie radiali. Singolare, nonostante la complessiva sobrietà dell’edificio, doveva apparire il contrasto cromatico tra la scurissima pietra lavica dei paramenti e il rosso dei mattoni delle ghiere degli archi. Una nota di prestigio era rappresentata dall’utilizzo del marmo, non solo per il rivestimento del podio, ma anche per alcune decorazioni come le erme ai lati dell’ingresso principale dell’arena. Molto probabilmente le gradinate dovevano essere in pietra calcarea realizzando un forte gioco cromatico tra il bianco dei sedili e il nero delle scalette, così come supponibile dalle costruzioni coeve.

Ingresso

Allo scavo dell’Anfiteatro si accede mediante una porta di ferro decorata ad archetti traforati nel registro superiore e totalmente liscio nel registro inferiore. A decorazione del portone metallico vennero recuperati nel 1906 alcuni frammenti di colonne marmoree che in origine dovevano costituire parte del loggiato superiore, due capitelli ionici frammentari e parte di un architrave su cui fu incisa la scritta AMPHITHEATRVM INSIGNE. L’ingresso è così formato: al centro il portone metallico i cui stipiti sono le colonne con capitello, coronato dall’architrave; le restanti due colonne sono situate nelle due estremità laterali e inserite tra queste e quelle centrali vi sono due pareti in pietra recanti le storie di due illustri personaggi di epoca Greca legati a questa zona (Caronda a sinistra, Stesicoro a destra).

Storia

Il monumento fu costruito nel II secolo, la data precisa è incerta, ma l’architettura fa propendere per l’ epoca tra gli imperatori Adriano e Antonino Pio. Fu raggiunto dalla lava del 252-253 e dopo non molto tempo (nel V secolo) Teodorico re degli Ostrogoti fece usare i materiali per dotare la città di una cava da cui poter attingere per la edificazione di case in muratura[3] e, nell’XI secolo, le sue strutture furono utilizzate da Ruggero II di Sicilia come cava per la costruzione della Cattedrale di Sant’Agata, sulle cui absidi si riconoscono ancora le pietre perfettamente tagliate, e forse anche del Castello Ursino in età Federiciana. Nel XIII secolo, secondo la tradizione, furono adoperati i suoi vomitoria (gli ingressi) da parte degli Angioini per accedere nella città durante la cosiddetta Guerra dei Vespri. Nel secolo successivo gli ingressi furono murati e il rudere venne inglobato nella rete di fortificazioni Aragonese (1302), ma una messa in sicurezza dell’edificio si ebbe solo con il piano di costruzione delle mura di città avvenute nel 1550 con l’abbattimento del primo e del secondo piano e del riempimento delle gallerie con le sue stesse macerie. Dopo il terremoto del 1693, fu definitivamente sepolto per poi essere trasformato in piazza d’armi. Fu in seguito coperto dalla costruzione di nuove case e della Chiesa di San Biagio (o di Sant’Agata alla Fornace). Il principe di Biscari, dato che alcuni visitatori stranieri avevano negato che fosse mai esistito a Catania, impiegò consistenti somme del suo denaro per eseguire degli scavi e in due anni ne portò a giorno un intero corridoio e quattro grandi archi della galleria esterna[4]. Nel XIX secolo erano ancora visitabili gli scavi dall’ingresso su Via del Colosseo, che il popolino chiamava – e chiama tutt’ora – Catania Vecchia e su di essi si ricamava ogni tipo di leggenda. Tra tutte quella di una scolaresca che, insinuatasi nelle strutture per una visita, non ne uscì più.

Riscoperta

Nel 1904, durante l’amministrazione De Felice ad opera dell’architetto Filadelfo Fichera, si iniziarono i lavori per riportarlo alla luce, conclusi poi due anni più tardi. Nel 1907 si svolse la cerimonia di apertura, a cui fu presente anche il re Vittorio Emanuele III.

Già nel primo dopoguerra l’Anfiteatro iniziò a decadere e molti edifici soprastanti ne usarono le gallerie come strutture fognarie. Durante il bombardamento degli Alleati, che ridusse la città in cumuli di macerie, del 1943, la struttura venne adoperata a guisa di rifugio. Per molti anni è rimasto chiuso per problemi di sicurezza a seguito di episodi tragici legati alla curiosità di visitatori e ricercatori che provavano ad esplorare i cunicoli sotterranei. Ristrutturato nel 1997, è stato aperto solo durante la stagione estiva e poi richiuso perché le fognature delle case limitrofe scaricavano le acque reflue all’interno dell’anfiteatro. Parzialmente risanato, nel luglio 1999 è stato riaperto al pubblico. Nel corso degli anni ha subìto chiusure e riaperture, mentre tra la fine del 2007 e l’inizio del 2008 sono stati effettuati sondaggi archeologici per capire lo stato di conservazione delle strutture dei pilastri esterni. I suoi resti sono visitabili dall’ingresso di piazza Stesicoro, rappresentanti meno di un quarto dell’intero anfiteatro, e dal vico Anfiteatro dove se ne vede l’altezza fino a parte del terzo piano, mentre fino al 2007 era possibile vederne una porzione del secondo piano da Via del Colosseo, oggi interamente coperto dal nuovo terrazzo di Villa Cerami. In quest’ultimo edificio, sede oggi della Facoltà di Giurisprudenza dell’Università degli Studi di Catania, è possibile vedere parte del sistema d’archi che collegava l’Anfiteatro alla collina Montevergine (probabilmente l’antica acropoli della città). La restante parte dell’anfiteatro è ancora interrata sotto le zone di Via Neve, Via Manzoni e Via Penninello.

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Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

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Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

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ARGIÑETAKO HILERRIA

Argiñetako nekropoli hau Euskadiko hileta-monumentuen arteko garrantzitsuenetarikoa da bertan beste leku batzuetan baino hilobi gehiago dagoelako eta baita sarkofagoen kronologiagatik ere -zaharrenak VII-IX mendeetan datatu dira eta berrienak Goi Erdi Aroan-.

Elorrioko Zenita auzunean dagoen nekropoli honetako multzoa 21 piezak eta San Adrian baselizak osotzen dute, eta hauen artean, sarkofago bikoitza eta bost hilarri nabarmendu behar dira. Baseliza XVI. mendean berreraiki zen eta harrez geroztik hainbat bider berritu da.

Sarkofagoak inguruko auzunetako (Mendraka, Miñota, Berrio) nekropolietarako egin baziren ere, geroago Elorrioko parrokoa zen Retolaza jaunak gaur dauden lekuan batu zituen XIX. mendean, paraje gogoragarria eta erromantikoa sortuz.

Hilobiak eta hilarriak egiteko Oiz menditik garraiatu zuten kareharria.

HILOBIAK ETA HILOBIETAKO INSKRIPZIOAK

Hilobi bakoitzak bi zati ditu: bat kutxa da, itxura antropoformoa duena eta pieza osokoa; eta bestea, estalkia, teilatu itxurakoa, sekzioa triangeluarra duena. Neurri ezberdinak dituzte eta kasu batzuetan kutxari ezarri zaion estalkia ez da berena.

Interesgarrienak ezker aldeko ilarako bigarren eta hirugarren hilobiak dira estalkietan inskripzioak dituztelako, eta hauek, Bizkaian kristauak zeudela frogatzen duten idaztizko lekuko zaharrenak dira.

Bigarrenean irakur daitekeen inskripzioa honako hau da: “Obiit F(a)m¯ (u)l(u)s d¯ (e)i Paterna XVII k(l)ds Augustas” (Paterna hil zen, Jainkoaren mirabea, Abuztuko kalendetako 17an). Hirugarrenean honako hau da inskripzioa: “In De(i) Niomine Momus in copore bibentem /in era DCCCCXXI mi fecit/ ic dormit” (Jainkoaren izenean, Momus zena/ 921 aroan (883 urtea) sortu ninduen/Hemen datza".

Bildutako hilobien luzera 2 metro ingurukoa da: 13 luzeagoak dira, eta zazpi laburragoak, baina guztiak 1,83 metro baino luzeagoak. Barruko baoek -bertan hilobiratutakoen gutxi gorabeherako altuera kalkulatzeko aukera ematen dutenak- 1,63 eta 1,97 metroko luzera dute, sakonera 0,32 metrokoa, eta zabalera 0,60 eta 0,70 m bitartekoa.

Bao antropomorfodun kutxa batek baino ez du dekoratuta kutxaren ingurua kanpo aldetik. Marrazkiak, ziztada sinplez egina, alboa luzeran zeharkatzen du. Egun zerrenda nahiko galduta dago, eta hainbaten zerra-haginez beterik egongo zen horzdun orla izango zena, hilarrietan ere marrazki bera agertzen da eta.

HILARRIAK

Hamahiru dira baseliza barruan dauden multzo honetako piezak. Baseliza aurrean bost ikus daitezke, interesgarrienak. Hauetako lauk disko itxura dute -diskoaren diametroa 70 cm-koa izanik-. Bosgarrenak triangelu itxura du.

Disko itxurako hilarrietan buru handi obalak nabarmentzen dira lepo estuen gainean jarrita, itxura antropomorfoa lirainduz. Marraztutako ikonografia, gehienbat, astrala da (zirkulu zentrokideak, luzapen erradialak, gurutze-formakoak, horzdun orlak, eta abar). Marrazkiak belaunaldiz belaunaldi jasotako tradizio luzekoak dira, nahiz eta hauen eskemak iparpiriniar jatorrizkoak izan, lurraldean VI. mendearen amaiera arte ezezagunak zirenak.

Interesgarria historia ikuspegitik

Egungo Argiñetak ez du zerikusirik Goi Erdi Aroan zuen itxurarekin, besteak beste, orduan Durangaldeko beste hainbeste nekropoli batzuen itxurakoa zelako. Argiñetako nekropolia eliza txiki baten inguruan zegoen eta kalitate ezberdineko hilobiak zituen, sasoiko ohituren arabera hobiratzeak gizartean eta hierarkian hobiratuak zuen mailaren barruan egiten zirelako. Hau da, hierarkiako maila beherengoan zeudenak lurrean egindako zuloetan lurperatzen ziren aztertzeko eta interpretatzeko dauden frogen arabera.

Edozein modutan, Argiñeta aztertzen ari direnentzat eta lehendik aztertu dutenentzat, nekropoli honetan garrantzitsuena edo erakargarriena baseliza barruan eta kanpo aldean batutako hilarri- eta hilobi-multzoa da. Eta erakargarri egiten du antzinatasunak -K.o. VII eta VIII. mendekoak dira-, nahiz eta pieza batzuk, inskripzioak dituztenak, IX. mendekoak izan daitezkeen. Hilarri hauen balio historikoa iparpirinear beste testuinguru batzuetan aurkitutakoekin konparatu daiteke, Argiñetako nekropoliak zalantzarik gabeko antzekotasuna duelako. Gogoratu besterik ez dago disko itxurako morfologia eta astroen munduarekin lotutako marrazkiak denbora luzean zaindu diren ohituren ondokoak direla.

Beste alde batetik, Argiñetan aurkitutako inskripzio batzuk Bizkaian eta Euskal Herrian, hainbaten, aurkitu diren kristau aroko zaharrenak direla esan daiteke. Azaldutako guztiaren ondoren, nekropoli hau kristautasuna sartu eta hedatu zenean sortu zen interesetik kanpo ez zen geratu.

Baina, oraintsu egindako zundaketen emaitzek Argiñetan ezarri behar den tratamendu tematiko barri baterantz eroaten gaituzte, eta ez kristau garaiarekin lotuta, Goi Erdi Aroko biziguneen dinamikekin baino. Berez, aurkitutako hiru laginek, carbono-14 bidezko datazioa egin zaiena, K.o. X eta XII. mendeetakoak direla esaten dute, IX. mendera arte joan daitezkeenak. Hau da, 2010 urtean zulatu ziren zutoinen zuloak, gutxienik, esandako mendeetan eraikitako eraikinei dagozkiela esan genezake, Erdi Aro Goiztarrean eta Berant Erdi Aroan Argiñetan gure arbasoak bizi zirela egiaztatzen baitute.

Argiñetako aztarnategia Bizkaiko arkeologia arloaren barruan lehenengo mailako ondare elementua da, Erdi Aroan zeuden biziguneak ezagutzeko beharrezkoa.

EL ENCLAVE FUNERARIO DE ARGIÑETA

Tanto por el número como por la cronología de los sarcófagos - construidos desde los siglos VII – IX hasta la alta Edad Media, es uno de los monumentos funerarios más importantes de Euskadi. Se trata de un conjunto compuesto por la necrópolis –veintiún piezas entre las que destacan un sarcófago doble y cinco estelas- y la ermita de San Adrián - reconstruida en el S. XVI y reformada varias veces más- y situado en el barrio de Zenita en la localidad de Elorrio. Los sarcófagos fueron construidos para ser utilizados en las necrópolis de los distintos barrios del entorno (Mendraka, Miota, Berrio), pero fueron reagrupados por el entonces párroco de la localidad Sr. Retolaza en la ubicación actual en el siglo XIX creando un paraje evocador y romántico. Tanto los sepulcros como las estelas funerarias fueron erigidos con piedra arenisca procedente de las canteras del monte Oiz.

Los sepulcros y sus inscripciones

Constan de dos partes: la caja, de una sola pieza, con forma antropomorfa, y la cubierta, de sección triangular a modo de tejadillo. Son de dimensiones diversas y, en algunos casos, no se corresponden los dos elementos.

Los que mayor interés tienen son el segundo y el tercero de la hilera de la izquierda puesto que en sus tapas se pueden leer sendas inscripciones funerarias que constituyen los testimonios escritos más antiguos de la presencia de núcleos cristianos en Bizkaia.

En la inscripción del segundo se lee: “Obiit F(a)m¯ (u)l(u)s d¯ (e)i Paterna XVII k(l)ds Augustas” (Murió paterna, siervo de Dios, el 17 de las Kalendas de Agosto). La inscripción del tercero, por su parte, dice “In De(i) Niomine Momus in copore bibentem /in era DCCCCXXI mi fecit/ ic dormit” (En el nombre de Dios, Momus en vida corpora/ en la era 921 (año 883) me hizo/ Aquí duerme”.

La longitud media de los sepulcros recopilados ronda los 2 metros: trece cajas superan esta medida y siete no llegan a alcanzarla, aunque en cualquier caso rebasan 1,83 metros. Los huecos interiores -que permiten establecer una aproximación relativa a la altura de los individuos inhumados- oscilan entre 1,63 y 1,97 metros de longitud, la profundidad ronda los 0,32 metros y las anchuras oscilan entre 0,60 y 0,70 metros.

Sólo una de las cajas de hueco antropomorfo y exterior de bañera Ileva decoración conseguida mediante incisión simple que recorre el perímetro del costado exterior de la pieza. Muy perdida en la actualidad, debió ir rellena de dientes de sierra formando una orla perimetral dentada, también presente en las estelas.

LAS ESTELAS

El conjunto está formado por un total de trece piezas que se conservan en el interior de la ermita. En el entorno exterior pueden contemplarse cinco copias de las más interesantes. Cuatro son discoideas –con un diámetro entorno a los 70 centímetros- y una triangular.

De las primeras destacan las grandes cabezas ovales que apoyan en estrechos cuellos realzando el aspecto antropomorfo de las mismas. La iconografía representada es fundamentalmente de carácter astral (círculos concéntricos, prolongaciones radiales, cruciformes, orlas dentadas, etc.), repitiendo motivos heredados de una larga tradición aunque interpretados según esquemas mentales de filiación norpirinaica, desconocidos hasta finales del siglo VI en el territorio.

Interés histórico

La imagen actual de Argiñeta difiere sensiblemente de la que poseía en la Alta Edad Media, ya que entonces era una necrópolis, como tantas otras del Duranguesado, ubicada en los alrededores de una pequeña iglesia y con enterramientos de diversa calidad, respondiendo al prestigio social y jerarquía de los distintos miembros de la comunidad. De hecho los de menor rango eran enterrados en fosas excavadas en la tierra, de las que todavía quedan testimonios, pendientes de ser analizados e interpretados.

En cualquier caso, para todos quienes estudian y han estudiado Argiñeta, el principal atractivo de esta necrópolis radica en el conjunto de estelas y sepulcros agrupados en el interior y en exterior de la ermita, que permite ser datado entre los siglos VII y VIII d.C. aunque algunas piezas, especialmente las que presentan inscripción, pudieran pertenecer al siglo IX. El valor histórico de estas estelas sólo permite ser equiparable al de las encontradas en otros contextos norpirenaicos, con los que la necrópolis de Argiñeta presenta indudables analogías. Basta recordar la morfología discoidal y los motivos decorativos de significación astral, herederos de una larga tradición.

Pero además, algunas de las inscripciones registradas en Argiñeta se consideran las inscripciones cristianas más antiguas de Bizkaia, y quizá del País Vasco. Por todo ello, esta necrópolis no fue ajena hace varias décadas al interés que despertaba la introducción y expansión del cristianismo.

Sin embargo, resultados de sondeos actuales apuntan a un nuevo tratamiento temático a aplicar al área de Argiñeta y relacionarlo no tanto con el cristianismo cuanto con las dinámicas de poblamiento altomedieval. De hecho, Las tres muestras enviadas al análisis mediante el Carbono 14 ofrecen una cronología situada entre los siglos X y XII D.c., pudiéndose adelantar incluso al siglo IX. Es decir, que los agujeros de poste que se excavaron en 2010 pertenecen a edificios construidos, como mínimo, en estos siglos, confirmando la existencia de una ocupación alto y plenomedieval en Argiñeta.

El yacimiento de Argiñeta constituye un elemento patrimonial de primer orden dentro del panorama de la arqueología de Bizkaia, imprescindible para el conocimiento del poblamiento durante la Edad Media.

NECROPOLIS OF ARGIÑETA.

The necropolis of Argiñeta is one of the main funeral monuments in Euskadi, because of the number and quality of its features and the remote chronology of some of them (7th-9th centuries).

This necropolis, formed by about 20 sepulchres and five steles, is located opposite to the hermitage of San Adrián, on the outskirts of Elorrio. The monuments were built in the Upper Middle Ages in order to be used in the different neighbourhoods' necropolises (Mendraka, Miota, Berrio), but were grouped in their present location in the 19th century. Both sepulchres and steles were built in sandstone coming from Oiz Mountain's quarries.

Two part sepulchres

Sepulchres have two parts: the box, only one piece with anthropomorphic form, and the cover, triangular and placed as a roof. Both pieces are different sizes and sometimes they do not match. In two of them the visitor will find inscriptions that constitute the first testimony of Christian settlements in Bizkaia.

With regard to funeral steles, four of them are circular and the last one triangular. In the formers we will mention the big oval heads supported in narrow necks, which stress their anthropomorphic appearance. They feature an iconography of astral nature.

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

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Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

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Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Vintage Store - Marina di Massa

Despues de llegar la 319.323 a Ferrol regresa nuevamente a Coruña(2 horas mas tarde de lo normal) lo que no me esperaba era el cruce con el maderas,ya que me supuse que mañana al ser festivo no circularía...en fin..mañana de suerte

Sin menoscabo de las aportaciones románticas, se puede afirmar que la verdadera expansión del orientalismo en nuestro país se produjo a partir de la contienda Hispano-marroquí (1859- 1860). La guerra cambió la visión del mundo magrebí que tenían nuestros pintores, ya que a raíz de esta, algunos viajaron a Marruecos y tuvieron contacto directo con un territorio hasta entonces poco conocido. La contienda produjo un gran número de manifestaciones culturales propagandistas de la superioridad de las armas españolas, pero a su vez abrió los ojos a los artistas, a una realidad que hasta ese momento solo se conocía a través de relatos y representaciones, mayoritariamente imaginarias.

En el ámbito pictórico el ejemplo más ilustrativo fue el de Mariano Fortuny, que viajó por primera vez al norte de África durante la guerra a cargo de la Diputación de Barcelona para documentar los cuadros de batallas que debía pintar, destinados a decorar el Salón del Consejo de la institución comitente. Posteriormente, el artista volvió a visitar el norte de África en 1862 y en 1871 con el propósito de documentar de forma gráfica la vida y los paisajes marroquíes. Las composiciones orientalistas resultantes se encuentran entre lo mejor de este género y tuvieron una gran ascendencia en el imaginario artístico de ese periodo, su influjo fue fundamental en la pintura orientalista peninsular del último tercio de la centuria. A partir de los apuntes tomados in situ y de su imaginación componía unas obras de ejecución ágil y expresiva, que presentaban imágenes de apariencia verosímil, aunque el argumento y muchos de los elementos que aparecen en ellas eran producto del imaginario y del attrezzo que disponía en su taller. El prestigio de sus obras difundió una imagen del Magreb en extremo pintoresca y exótica, donde se respiraba una atmósfera ancestral, decadente, con frecuencia misteriosa.

________________

Without diminishing the romantic contributions, it can be said that the real expansion of Orientalism in our country took place after the Spanish-Moroccan conflict (1859-1860). The war changed the vision of the Maghreb world that our painters had, since as a result of it, some travelled to Morocco and had direct contact with a territory that had been little known until then. The war produced a large number of cultural manifestations that propagated the superiority of Spanish weapons, but at the same time it opened the eyes of the artists to a reality that until then was only known through stories and representations, mostly imaginary.

In the field of painting, the most illustrative example was that of Mariano Fortuny, who travelled for the first time to North Africa during the war at the expense of the Diputació de Barcelona to document the paintings of battles that he had to paint, destined to decorate the Council Chamber of the institution that commissioned the work. Later, the artist revisited North Africa in 1862 and 1871 with the aim of graphically documenting Moroccan life and landscapes. The resulting orientalist compositions are among the best of this genre and had a great influence on the artistic imagination of that period, its influence was fundamental in the peninsular orientalist painting of the last third of the century. From the notes taken in situ and from his imagination he composed works of agile and expressive execution, which presented images of plausible appearance, although the plot and many of the elements that appear in them were the product of the imagination and the props that he had in his workshop. The prestige of his works spread an extremely picturesque and exotic image of the Maghreb, where an ancestral, decadent and often mysterious atmosphere was breathed.

Hôtel de ville de Paris

Période ou styleNéorenaissance

TypeHôtel de ville

ArchitecteThéodore Ballu

Édouard Deperthes

Date de construction1357,

1533,

1874-1882

Destination actuelleMairie de Paris

Géographie

Pays France

RégionÎle-de-France

LocalitéParis

Localisation

Coordonnées48° 51′ 23″ Nord 2° 21′ 08″ Est

Géolocalisation sur la carte : Paris

L'hôtel de ville de Paris héberge les institutions municipales de Paris depuis 1357, et est situé dans le 4e arrondissement.

Ce site est desservi par les stations de métro Hôtel de Ville et Châtelet.

Ancien Hôtel de ville et place de grève vers 1583 par Theodor Josef Hubert Hoffbauer.

Étienne Marcel fait l'acquisition de la « Maison aux Piliers » au nom de la municipalité en juillet 1357. C'est là que, depuis lors, se dresse le centre des institutions municipales de Paris.

La « Maison aux Piliers » est remplacée au xvie siècle par un véritable palais dessiné par l'architecte italien Boccador. Sa construction débute en 1533 et s'achève en 1628. D'après les plans de Godde et Lesueur l'agrandissement et la reconstruction partielle de l'hôtel-de-ville a été menée de 1837 et 1848 tout en préservant la façade Renaissance. Antoine Vivenel, entrepreneur général, dirigeait le chantier.

Ancien Hôtel de ville après l'incendie de 1871.

Pendant la Commune de Paris, l'incendie déclenché par un groupe de communards le 24 mai 1871 réduit le palais en cendres. Les archives et la bibliothèque partent donc également en fumée. Ainsi, les deux collections de l'état civil parisien (celle de la ville et celle du greffe) antérieur à 1860 sont à jamais perdues : la première dans l'incendie de l'Hôtel de ville et la seconde dans celui du Palais de Justice.

Le bâtiment est reconstruit entre 1874 et 1882 sur les plans des architectes Théodore Ballu et Édouard Deperthes. La façade, de style néorenaissance, s'inspire largement de celle du bâtiment disparu.

l'Hôtel de Ville au début du xxe siècle.

La place de Grève, rebaptisée place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville le 19 mars 1803, est devenue en 1982 un espace réservé aux piétons.

Paris ayant connu diverses insurrections, l'Hôtel de ville fut souvent le point de ralliement d'émeutiers, insurgés et révolutionnaires. D'Étienne Marcel à la Fronde, de la Révolution aux journées révolutionnaires de juillet 1830 et février 1848, de la Commune à la Libération de Paris, l'Hôtel de ville est un lieu chargé d'histoire (voir l'article Chronologie de Paris).

Lieu de pouvoir où siège le conseil de Paris et de prestige où sont reçus les hôtes du maire, l'Hôtel de Ville est le plus grand bâtiment municipal en Europe. Jusqu'en 1977, l'actuel bureau du maire (155 m2) était celui occupé par le préfet de Paris. Le maire disposait à l'origine d'un appartement de fonction de 1 400 m2, en partie transformé en crèche.

ESPAGNOL

Ayuntamiento de París

Fachada del Ayuntamiento de París.

El Ayuntamiento de París (Hôtel de Ville de Paris, en francés) alberga las instituciones del gobierno municipal de París. El mismo se ubica frente a la Plaza del Ayuntamiento (Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, anteriormente llamada Place de Grève) en el IV Distrito de la ciudad. Ha albergado el ayuntamiento de París desde 1357; Actualmente se utiliza para múltiples propósitos: aloja la administración de la ciudad, allí tiene su despacho el alcalde de París (desde 1977), y también se utiliza para brindar grandes recepciones. En los últimos años, la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville se ha engalanado en gran parte de primavera y verano con un "jardín efímero", en el que el Ayuntamiento instala miles de especies vegetales además de un hermoso estanque con sus respectivas especies de plantas, sin embargo, en 2009 no hubo estanque.

Índice [ocultar]

1 Historia

2 Véase también

3 Galería fotográfica

4 Enlaces externos

Historia[editar · editar código]

Historia Etienne Marcel adquirió la "Casa de las Columnas" en nombre del municipio en julio de 1357 . Aquí es donde, desde entonces, se encuentra el centro administrativo de París, las instituciones municipales. La "Casa de las Columnas" se sustituye en el siglo XVI por un palacio diseñado por el arquitecto italiano Boccador . Su construcción comenzó en 1533 y terminó en 1628 . Las ampliaciones se añadieron entre 1836 y 1850 conservando la fachada renacentista. Durante la Comuna de París , el incendio provocado por un grupo de comuneros en 1871 redujo a cenizas el palacio. Los archivos y la biblioteca de la ciudad sufrieron el mismo trágico suceso. Ambas colecciones vitales de París anteriores a 1860 (documentos de la ciudad y el registro) se perdieron para siempre, los primeros en un incendio en el Ayuntamiento y el segundo en el palacio de justicia . El edificio fue reconstruido entre 1874 y 1882 sobre los planes de los arquitectos Teodoro Ballu y Edouard Deperthes . La fachada de estilo neo-renacentista , se basa en gran medida de la del edificio desaparecido.

Ayuntamiento a principios de la xx º siglo . La plaza de Greve , rebautizada como la Place de l'Hotel de Ville de 19 de marzo 1803 , se ha convertido en un espacio peatonal desde 1982 . París ha sido objeto de varias insurrecciones, el ayuntamiento era a menudo el punto focal de los motines, los rebeldes y los revolucionarios. Desde Etienne Marcel en la Fronda , la Revolución de julio 1830 y febrero 1848 , la Comuna a la liberación de París , el ayuntamiento es un lugar cargado de historia. Lugar donde se asienta el ayuntamiento de París es de gran prestigio, es donde los huéspedes son recibidos por el Alcalde, el Ayuntamiento también se ha convertido en un espacio para exposiciones, es el edificio municipal más grande de Europa. Hasta 1977, la oficina del alcalde fue ocupado por el prefecto de París, que mide 155 metros cuadrados. El alcalde tuvo originalmente una vivienda oficial de 1400 metros cuadrados, en parte transformado en vivero.

Fachada del Ayuntamiento La fachada principal está decorada con las personas importantes de la ciudad de París, artistas, académicos, políticos, industriales, cuyos nombres se representó en la fachada en orden alfabético 1 : Jean le Rond d'Alembert Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville Antoine Arnauld Jean Sylvain Bailly Claude Ballin Antoine-Louis Barye Pierre-Jean de Beranger Pierre-Antoine Berryer Jean-Baptiste Biot Nicolas Boileau Etienne Boileau Louis Antoine de Bougainville André-Charles Boulle Guillaume Budé Jean Bullant Armand-Gaston Camus Godofredo Cavaignac Jean Siméon Chardin Alexis Claude Clairaut Paul-Louis Courier Charles-François Daubigny Jacques Louis David Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps Eugene Delacroix Paul Delaroche Ambroise Firmin-Didot Charles Dumoulin Henri Estienne Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Marie-Therese Rodet Geoffrin Jean Goujon Aquiles Harlay Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles Fernando Herold Víctor Jacquemont Nicolas Lancret Antoine Lavoisier Domingo de Cortona Charles Le Brun Henri-Louis Cain André Le Nôtre Pierre Lescot La piedra Estoile Eustache Le Sueur Nicolás Malebranche Mansart Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux Jules Michelet François Miron Mathieu Molé Pierre de Montereau Alfred de Musset Jean-Nicolas Pache Étienne Pasquier Charles Perrault Jean-Rodolphe Perronet Louis-Benoît Picard Jean-Baptiste Pigalle Germain Pilon Philippe Quinault Jean-Francois Regnard Henri Victor Regnault Se trata de Henri Regnault 1843-1871 Richelieu Manon Roland Théodore Rousseau Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy Rouvroy Luis, duque de Saint-Simon Henri Sauval Eugene Scribe Jean-Michel Sedaine Madame de Stael Eugenio Sue François-Joseph Talma Jacques-Auguste de Thou Anne Hilarion de Costentin Tourville Horace Vernet Abel-François Villemain Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Voltaire Molière En la plaza, se encuentran dos estatuas de bronce, alegorías de las Arte realizada por Laurent Marqueste y las Ciencias por Jules Blanchard .

El salón de baile del Hotel de Ville en París.

El salón de baile del Hotel de Ville en París, fue diseñado como una réplica "republicana" Salón de los Espejos de Versalles, construida dos siglos antes. Después de haber sido quemados durante la Comuna de París (1871), el Ayuntamiento fue reconstruido en estilo renacentista, durante la Tercera República. Los frescos de los arcos del salón de baile del Hotel son las dieciséis provincias de Francia. Fueron realizadas por cuatro pintores: Jean Joseph Weerts , Ehrmann François-Émile , Milliet Pablo y Fernando Humberto. Arcos del Norte por Jean Weerts José: - Flandes - Picardía Arcos del Este por François-Emile Ehrmann: - Baya - Champán - Bretaña - Borgoña - Auvernia - Lorena Arcos del Sur por Paul Milliet: - Normandía - Condado de Niza Arcos al oeste por Fernando Humbert: - Argelia - Lyon - Languedoc - Gascuña - Provenza - Guayana Algunas provincias francesas que no están incluidas como las de Franche-Comté y el Lemosín . Además, la Alsacia anexada a Alemania en 1871 (recuperada en 1919 por el Tratado de Versalles ) está ausente; mientras que Argelia anexionó a Francia en 1830 (abandonó la República en 1961 por el referéndum sobre la autodeterminación ) está presente en el Salón de Baile.

2014 Weekly Alphabet Challenge: E is for Energy

La Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica (CNEA) es el organismo del Estado argentino, dependiente del Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios, encargado de asesorar al Poder ejecutivo Nacional en la definición de las políticas en actividades nucleares. Es considerada una de las 9 entidades académicas en ciencias nucleares con mayor prestigio a nivel mundial y líder en Latinoamerica.

The National Atomic Energy Commission (Spanish: Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, CNEA) is the Argentine government agency in charge of nuclear energy research and development.

The agency was created on May 31, 1950 with the mission of developing and controlling nuclear energy for peaceful purposes in the country.

CNEA's facilities include the Bariloche Atomic Center (in San Carlos de Bariloche), Constituyentes Atomic Center (in the city of Buenos Aires), and Ezeiza Atomic Center(in Ezeiza, Buenos Aires Province). Research reactors exist in all of these sites.

Research activities:

CNEA has currently three main research centers, as well as other activities in smaller units around the country.

The Centro Atómico Bariloche contains the Instituto Balseiro which depends academically on the National University of Cuyo. It has trained a couple of hundred physicists and nuclear engineers and produced hundreds of peer-reviewed scientific papers as well as other important contributions to applied and basic science.

The Centro Atómico Constituyentes has pioneered the construction of research reactors in Argentina, and has research groups in metallurgy, physics and chemistry. The Tandar accelerator is a large tandem Van de Graaff type facility dedicated to nuclear physics, condensed matter physics and medical research. It also has an academic unit, the Instituto Sábato, in association with the Universidad de San Martín that grants Masters and Doctors degrees in Materials Science.

The Centro Atómico Ezeiza produces nuclear isotopes for medicine in its RA-3 research/production reactor, and houses other research facilities.

The CNEA currently holds two U.S. patents(see external links)

Spinoffs:

Although power reactors in the 100-megawatt range have not been built by Argentina on its own, INVAP S.E., a company owned by the Río Negro Province, started by graduates of the Instituto Balseiro in 1976, has exported research reactors to Peru, Algeria, Egypt and most recently Australia (2000). The Australian reactor, OPAL, featuring a core power of 20 MW became operational in 2006, reaching full power in November of that year.

Repòs

per Josep Viladomat.

1925.

Els Jardins de Laribal

És una de les perles del Parc de Montjuïc i passejar-s'hi és una autèntica delícia. La vegetació riquíssima, juntament amb l'aigua que baixa per cascades i llisca delicadament pel mig d'amples baranes, els bancs de rajola i les placetes, creen un conjunt de bellesa excepcional. Aquest és un lloc per estar-s'hi, per contemplar-lo i per anar descobrint els mil detalls que el configuren, amb una harmonia difícil de superar.

Els Jardins de Laribal, de gran valor històric, estan configurats per terrasses, camins, placetes, bassinyols i una vegetació esponerosa i consolidada. Una sèrie de terrasses superposades estan unides entre elles per camins i dreceres de fort pendent, amb trams d'escales intercalats amb un disseny sempre diferent. Pèrgoles de maó vist, pedra i pilars blancs, ombregen les àrees més planeres. La vegetació, és majoritàriament exòtica, rica i variada en espècies.

Jardins mediterranis

Aquests jardins, inclosos dins del recinte de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, van obtenir una gran anomenada. Els seus autors, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier i Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, van crear un nou estil paisatgístic d'arrel mediterrània.

La vegetació preexistent -des de plantes autòctones fins als arbres fruiters del passat agrícola de la muntanya-, es va integrar en els jardins amb un concepte de jardineria renovador i original, que segueix lliurement la inspiració dels antics jardins àrabs i dels "cármenes" de Granada, amb una gran presència de rajoles ceràmiques, aigües ornamentals i el conreu de plantes de flor en testos situats en baranes i ampits.

Les escales del Generalife

L'aigua és l'essència del jardí, amb estanys i estanyols. Per connectar la part superior del parc amb els Jardins Amargós -actualment Jardins del Teatre Grec-, Forestier va fer una escala inspirada en la dels jardins del Generalife, amb cascades als passamans, estanyols amb brolladors als replans i bancs d'obra per reposar i gaudir de la fresca i el so de l'aigua.

Els jardins de la font del Gat

Unes pèrgoles mirador porten d'uns jardins als altres, units per eixos de rampes, escales i cascades que desemboquen a la font del Gat, des de la qual es poden contemplar unes magnífiques vistes de Barcelona.

Ocupen el pendent que va des de la part més alta dels Jardins Laribal fins al passeig de Santa Madrona, i integren la popular font del Gat i un edifici del segle dinou. Es tracta d'un conjunt de camins, terrasses i racons que s'adapten al relleu del terreny amb escales, rampes i una cascada monumental amb quatre seccions separades per camins i canals, que van connectant els diferents trams.

Tot està cobert d'una espessa fronda mediterrània i d'arbres fruiters, com ara nesprers i figueres, i palmeres d'enormes capçades. Si ens ho mirem des de baix, a tocar del pg. de Santa Madrona, uns xiprers altíssims situats a l'inici de la cascada accentuen la verticalitat del conjunt.

El roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de xiprers, amb una petita font al centre, marca l'inici d'un recorregut que, sota una pèrgola amb pilars de terracota, porta a un pati ovalat i reclòs, també envoltat de xiprers: és el roserar de la Colla de l'Arròs.

El jardí es configura en diversos plans, amb aire de pati, que estan vorejats per vorades, també de xiprer, i rengleres de troanes. En diversos parterres rectangulars hi ha plantades varietats antigues de rosers. Al centre destaca un bassinyol quadrangular amb rajols esmaltats, presidit a la part de dalt per Estival, un nu femení de marbre que contempla el roserar i, més enllà, Barcelona.

La plaça del Claustre

És a tocar del passeig de Santa Madrona i, de fet, es tracta del Jardí de Sant Miquel, on destaquen tres grans plàtans ja existents abans que Forestier dissenyés els jardins. Al fons, els murs del que fou una antiga pedrera confereixen a aquesta part dels jardins Laribal un aire reclòs i claustral. D'aquí el seu nom. A la dreta, un passadís comunica amb els Jardins del Teatre Grec.

Vegetació

La vegetació madura i mediterrània dóna sentit als jardins. Així, hi ha, entre d'altres espècies, pins blancs (Pinus halepensis), pins pinyers (Pinus pinea), llorers (Laurus nobilis), tarongers amargs (Citrus aurantium) i xiprers (Cupressus sempervirens).

Les escales del Generalife estan envoltades per grans acàcies (Robinia pseudoacacia) i arbustos com la troana (Ligustrum lucidum) i el pitòspor (Pittosporum tobira), una espècie arbustiva molt abundant als jardins, juntament amb el baladre (Nerium oleander) i l'evònim del Japó (Evonymus japonicus).

En testos de terracota, llueixen les elegants fulles de saló (Aspidistra elatior) i els geranis (Pelargonium sp.), i cobrint les pèrgoles, anglesines (Wisteria sinensis) i Rosa banksiae. En diferents llocs dels jardins hi ha plantes aromàtiques, com l'espígol (Lavandula angustifolia) i el romaní (Rosmarinus officinalis), i espècies entapissants com l'heura (Hedera helix)

Els Jardins de Laribal també hi ha pins australians (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptus (Eucalyptus globulus), xiprers de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedres de l'Himàlaia (Cedrus deodara) i, a la plaça del Claustre, tres grans exemplars de plàtan (Platanus X hispanica).

Art i arquitectura

L'escultura és notable en aquests jardins, tant per la seva qualitat com per la seva bellesa. Presidint el roserar hi ha Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina asseguda d'estil art déco feta de marbre.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), és un altre nu femení, en aquest cas de bronze, i representa una noia jove recollint-se els cabells en una trena. És en una placeta ombrívola, molt a prop de les escales que comuniquen amb altres nivells dels jardins.

La tercera escultura també és d'una dona i de Josep Viladomat, que la va fer partint d'un original de Manolo Hugué. Es tracta de Repòs (1925), un nu femení de pedra de mida natural situat en una placeta circular molt a prop de l'entrada que hi ha al costat de la Fundació Joan Miró.

A prop del roserar hi ha una font de ceràmica esmaltada amb motius marins, coronada amb un brollador, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La font del Gat

L'aigua que raja de la font del Gat ho fa des del cap d'un felí, esculpit per Joan Antoni Homs el 1918, que és quan van quedar enllestits els Jardins Laribal. Aquesta font era una de les moltes que aleshores rajava a Barcelona, i el lloc on està situada, molt popular a la ciutat a finals del segle XIX.

Tan popular era la font, que el periodista i autor teatral Joan Amich va escriure una cançó: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que avui encara es canta i que inclou l'estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Història

Al començament del segle passat, la zona que avui ocupen els jardins Laribal era lloc de trobades populars, sobretot a la font del Gat, o de reunions selectes, com ara les que feia la Colla de l'Arròs, un grup entre gastronòmic i polític que va tenir una certa influència a la Barcelona de la darreria del segle XIX i principi del XX, i que es reunia en un petit edifici situat on ara hi ha el Museu Etnològic.

La part alta dels actuals jardins pertanyia a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigiós advocat el nom del qual s'ha perpetuat als jardins. S'hi va fer construir un xalet neoàrab, envoltat d'uns jardins eclèctics, amb grans arbres.

Mort Laribal, el 1908 la finca va ser adquirida per l'Ajuntament, que hi va fundar l'Escola del Bosc, encara existent. Simultàniament, es van iniciar els estudis per urbanitzar i enjardinar la muntanya, amb un projecte global que va ser encarregat inicialment a Josep Amargós.

L'Exposició de 1929

Els Jardins de Laribal, enllestits el 1922, estan vinculats a un esdeveniment posterior: l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Aquest esdeveniment va representar la culminació d'un projecte iniciat l'any 1905 per organitzar a Montjuïc una exposició sobre les indústries elèctriques, l'energia emergent d'aquell temps.

Un dels comissaris de l'Exposició Internacional de Barcelona va ser Francesc Cambó, que va encarregar els treballs d'enjardinament a l'enginyer i paisatgista francès Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Va ser ajudant seu el jove arquitecte Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que el 1917 es convertiria en el director de la Direcció de Parcs Públics i Arbrat, antecedent del Servei de Parcs i Jardins de Barcelona, del qual va ser primer responsable i una de les persones determinants en el futur desenvolupament dels espais verds públics de la ciutat.

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These gardens are one of the treasures of the Park of Montjuïc and taking a stroll around them is a real pleasure. The rich plant life, together with the water that flows delicately through the wide handrails; the tiled benches and the small squares all create exceptionally beautiful gardens. It is a place to be, to gaze at and to discover the thousands of details that shape a harmony that is difficult to surpass.

The historically-important Laribal Gardens are sculpted by terraces, pathways, small squares, ponds and lush, established plant life. A series of terraces are linked by paths and steeply sloped shortcuts, with stretches of differently designed stairways interspersed. The flattest areas are afforded shade by exposed brick, stone and white pillar pergolas. The mostly exotic plant life has a rich and varied range of species.

Mediterranean Gardens

These gardens, which were included in the International Exposition of Barcelona (a World's Fair) in 1929, were greatly reputed. The garden's designers, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier and Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, created a new style of Mediterranean landscaping.

The pre-existing plant life, from native plants to fruit trees from the mountain's agricultural past, was integrated into the gardens with an original and innovative gardening concept that is openly inspired by the ancient Arabian gardens and from the "Carmenes" in Granada with prominent ceramic tiles, ornamental water features and flowering plants in pots on railings and parapets.

The Stairway of the Generalife Gardens

Water is the essence of this garden, with its large and small ponds. In order to connect the upper area of the park with the Amargós Gardens, now the Teatre Grec Gardens, Forestier designed a stairway inspired by the one in the Generalife Gardens, with waterfalls on the banisters, small ponds with fountains on the landings and benches for relaxing and enjoying the freshness and sound of the water.

The Gardens of the Font del Gat

Viewpoint pergolas link the gardens with ramps, stairs and waterfalls that flow into the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat"), a point at which magnificent views of Barcelona can be enjoyed.

The gardens lie on the slope from the highest point of the Laribal Gardens down to the Passeig de Santa Madrona and include the popular Font del Gat and a nineteenth-century building. There are paths, terraces and corners that adapt to the terrain with stairways, ramps and a monumental waterfall with four sections separated by paths and canals that connect the different areas.

Everything is covered in a thick, Mediterranean foliage, fruit trees such as loquat and fig and enormous palm trees. From the Passeig de Santa Madrona below, some very tall cypresses by the waterfall accentuate its height.

The Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs

A circle of cypress trees with a small fountain in the centre marks the beginning of a path that, beneath a pergola with terracotta pillars, leads to an oval patio surrounded by cypresses. These are the Rose Gardens of the Colla de l'Arròs.

These gardens are arranged on different levels with the feeling of being on a patio, bordered by rows of cypresses and privets. In various rectangular parterres, many diverse old varieties of roses have been planted. At the centre is a square pool with ceramic tiles, dominated by the marble female nude sculpture "Estival", who looks over the rose garden and beyond to Barcelona.

Plaça del Claustre

From the Sant Miquel Garden, next to the Passeig de Santa Madrona, there are three large London Plane trees that existed before Forestier designed the gardens. At the end, the walls of what was once an old quarry gives this part of the Laribal Gardens a confined and cloister-like air. This is where it gets its name. On the right there is a path that connects the gardens with the Teatre Grec Gardens.

Plant Life

The mature and Mediterranean plant life gives the gardens meaning. Among other species there are Aleppo Pines (Pinus halepensis), Umbrella Pines (Pinus pinea), Bay Laurels (Laurus nobilis), Bitter Orange trees (Citrus aurantium) and Mediterranean Cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens).

The Generalife stairs are surrounded by large Black Locust trees (Robinia pseudoacacia) and shrubs such as the Chinese Privet (Ligustrum lucidum) and the Pittosporum (Pittosporum tobira), a species in abundance in the gardens along with the Oleander (Nerium oleander) and the Japanese Spindle tree (Euonymus japonicus).

The elegant leaves of an Aspidistra elatior shine in terracotta pots and Garden Geraniums (Pelargonium sp.), Chinese Wisterias (Wisteria sinensis) and Lady Banks' Roses (Rosa banksiae) cover the pergolas. In different areas around the gardens aromatic plants like Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), Rosemary (Rosmarinus offcinalis) and climbing plants such as Ivy (Hedera helix) can be found.

In the Laribal Gardens there are also River Oaks (Casuarina cunninghamiana), Tasmanian Blue Gums (Eucalyptus globules), Monterey Cypresses (Cupressus macrocarpa) Deodar Cedar (Cedrus deodara) and in Plaça del Claustre, three large London Planes (Platanus X hispanica).

Art and Architecture

The sculptures are notable in these gardens, both for their quality and their beauty. There is an Art Deco style marble female nude, "Estival" (1929) by Jaume Otero, that dominates the rose garden.

The "Noia de la trena" (1928) by Joseph Viladomar is another female nude, in this case made of bronze, which represents a young girl plaiting her hair. It is in a small shaded square, close to the stairway that links to other areas of the gardens.

The third sculpture is again of a woman and by Joseph Viladomar and was based on the Manolo Hugué original. "Repòs" (1925) a life-sized female nude made of stone situated in a small square close to the entrance next to the Joan Miró Foundation.

Near the rose garden, there is a glazed ceramic fountain influenced by the sea, crowned by a jet, which was the work of Llorenç Artigas.

The Font del Gat

The water from the Font del Gat ("Fountain of the Cat") pours from a feline head, sculpted by Joan Antoni Homs in 1918, when the Laribal Gardens were being finished. This fountain is one of many that flowed in Barcelona at the time and is situated in a place in the city that was very popular at the end of the nineteenth century.

The fountain was so popular that the journalist and playwright Joan Amich wrote a song about it: "La Marieta de l'ull viu" that is still sung today and includes the verse: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat..." ("Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl, a girl / Coming down from the cat Fountain / a girl with a soldier...").

History

The area where the Laribal Gardens now lie was a popular meeting place at the beginning of the last century, in particular the Font del Gat, which was also an area for exclusive gatherings, such as those of Colla de l'Arròs, a gastronomic-political group who had a certain influence over Barcelona at the turn of the last century, would meet in a small building situated where the Museu Etnològic (Ethnological Museum) now stands.

The upper part of the current gardens once belonged to Joseph Laribal, an esteemed lawyer whose name the gardens bear. He built a neo-Arabian chalet, surrounded by eclectic gardens, with large trees.

After Laribal died in 1908, the house was acquired by the Town Council, which established the Escola del Bosc, which still exists to this day. Simultaneously, studies began for the development and gardening of the mountain, a comprehensive project that was initially the responsibility of Josep Amargós.

The 1929 World's Fair

Completed in 1922, the Laribal Gardens are linked to a later event: the International Exposition of Barcelona of 1929 (a World's Fair). This event represented the culmination of a project which began in 1905 to organise an exhibition on Montjuïc about the electrical industries, the emerging energy at the time.

One of the commissioners at the International Exhibition of Barcelona was Francesc Cambó, who was responsible for the gardening and engineering work and the work of the French landscape architect Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. His assistant was the young architect Nicolau M. Rubió I Tudurí, who, in 1917, became the director of the Public and Wooded Parks Board, the predecessor of the Parks and Gardens Service of Barcelona, of which he was mainly responsible and one of the key people in the development of green spaces in the city.

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Es una de las perlas del Parque de Montjuïc y pasearse por ellos es un autentica delicia. La riquísima vegetación, junto con el agua que baja por cascadas y se escurre delicadamente en medio de amplias barandillas, los bancos de ladrillo y las placetas, crean un conjunto de una belleza excepcional. Es un lugar en el que estar, para contemplarlo e ir descubriendo los miles de detalles que lo configuran, con una armonía difícil de superar.

Los Jardines de Laribal, de gran valor histórico, están formados por terrazas, caminos, placetas, pequeños estanques y una vegetación lozana y consolidada. Una serie de terrazas sobrepuestas están unidas entre si por caminos y atajos de gran pendiente, con tramos de escaleras intercalados de diseño siempre diferente. Pérgolas de ladrillo visto, piedra y pilares blancos dan sombra a las zonas más llanas. La vegetación, exótica en su mayoría, es rica y variada en especies.

Jardines mediterráneos

Estos jardines, incluidos en el recinto de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929, obtuvieron una gran reputación. Sus autores, Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier y Nicolau M. Rubió Tudurí, crearon un nuevo estilo paisajístico de raíz mediterránea.

La vegetación preexistente, desde plantas autóctonas hasta árboles frutales del pasado agrícola de la montaña, se integró en los jardines con un concepto de jardinería renovador y original, que sigue libremente la inspiración de los antiguos jardines árabes y de los "cármenes" de Granada, con una gran presencia de azulejos de cerámica, aguas ornamentales y el cultivo de plantas de flor en macetas colocadas en barandillas y alféizares.

Las escaleras del Generalife

El agua es la esencia del jardín, con pequeños y grandes estanques. Para conectar la parte superior del parque con los Jardines Amargós, actualmente Jardines del Teatre Grec, Forestier diseñó una escalera inspirada en la de los jardines del Generalife, con cascadas en los pasamanos, estanques con fuentes en los rellanos y bancos de piedra para reponerse y disfrutar del frescor y el sonido del agua.

Los jardines de la Font del Gat

Unas pérgolas mirador llevan de unos jardines a otros, unidos por ejes de rampas, escaleras y cascadas que desembocan en la Font del Gat desde donde se pueden contemplar unas magníficas vistas de Barcelona.

Ocupan la pendiente que va desde la parte más alta de los jardines Laribal hasta el paseo de Santa Madrona e integran la popular Font del Gat y un edificio decimonónico. Se trata de un conjunto de caminos, terrazas y rincones que se adaptan al relieve con escaleras, rampas y una cascada monumental con cuatro secciones separadas por caminos y canales, que van conectando los diferentes tramos.

Todo está cubierto por un espeso follaje mediterráneo y árboles frutales, como nísperos e higueras y palmeras de enormes copas. Si lo miramos desde abajo, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, vemos que los altísimos cipreses situados al inicio de la cascada acentúan la verticalidad del conjunto.

La rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

Una glorieta de cipreses, con una pequeña fuente en el centro, marca el inicio de un recorrido que, debajo de una pérgola con pilares de terracota, conduce a un patio ovalado y recluido también rodeado de cipreses: la rosaleda de la Colla de l'Arròs

El jardín se configura en diferentes planos, con aire de patio, que están rodeados de cipreses e hileras de aligustres. En diferentes parterres rectangulares se han plantado antiguas variedades de rosales. En el centro destaca un pequeño estanque cuadrangular con azulejos esmaltados, presidido en la parte superior por Estival, una escultura de un desnudo femenino en mármol que contempla la rosaleda y, más allá, Barcelona.

La plaza del Claustre

De hecho se trata del jardín de Sant Miquel, junto al paseo de Santa Madrona, en el que destacan tres grandes plataneros que ya existían antes de que Forestier diseñara los jardines. Al fondo, los muros de lo que antes había sido una antigua cantera confieren a esta parte de los jardines Laribal un aire recluido y claustral. Y de aquí viene su nombre. A la derecha encontramos un corredor que comunica con los jardines del Teatre Grec.

Vegetación

La vegetación madura y mediterránea da sentido a los jardines. Así, entre otras especies, hay pinos carrascos (Pinus halepensis), pinos piñoneros (Pinus pinea), laureles (Laurus nobilis), naranjos amargos (Citrus aurantium) y cipreses (Cupressus sempervirens).

Las escaleras del Generalife están rodeadas de grandes acacias (Robinia pseudoacacia) y arbustos como el aligustre (Ligustrum lucidum) y el pitosporo (Pittosporum tobira), una especie de arbusto muy abundante en los jardines, junto con la adelfa (Nerium oleander) y el evónimo del Japón (Evonymus japonicus).

En macetas de terracota lucen las elegantes hojas de salón (Aspidistra elatior) y los geranios (Pelargonium sp.), al tiempo que las glicinias (Wisteria sinensis) y los rosales de Banksia (Rosa banksiae) cubren las pérgolas. En diferentes lugares de los jardines encontramos plantas aromáticas, como la lavanda (Lavandula angustifolia), el romero (Rosmarinus officinalis) y otras especies tapizantes como la hiedra (Hedera helix).

En los jardines de Laribal también encontramos pinos australianos (Casuarina cunninghamiana), eucaliptos (Eucalyptus globulus), cipreses de Lambert (Cupressus macrocarpa), cedros del Himalaya (Cedrus deodara) y, en la plaza del Claustre, tres grandes ejemplares de platanero (Platanus X hispanica).

Arte y arquitectura

En estos jardines la escultura es notable, tanto por su calidad como por su belleza. Presidiendo la rosaleda tenemos el Estival, de Jaume Otero (1929), una figura femenina sentada, de estilo art decó y realizada en mármol.

La Noia de la trena, de Josep Viladomat (1928), es otro desnudo femenino, en este caso de bronce, que representa una joven que se recoge el pelo en una trenza. Se encuentra en una placeta sombría muy cerca de las escaleras que comunican con los otros niveles de los jardines.

La tercera escultura también es de una mujer y de Josep Viladomat, que la realizó en base a un original de Manolo Hugué. Se trata de Repòs (1925), un desnudo femenino de piedra, a tamaño natural, situado en una placeta circular muy cerca de la entrada que hay al lado de la Fundació Joan Miró.

Cerca de la rosaleda se encuentra una fuente de cerámica esmaltada con motivos marinos, coronada con un surtidor, obra del ceramista Llorenç Artigas.

La Font del Gat

El agua de la Font del Gat mana desde la cabeza de un felino, esculpido por Joan Antoni Homs en 1918, año en el que se terminaron los jardines Laribal. Esta fuente era una de las muchas que manaban en aquellos momentos en Barcelona y, el lugar en el que se encuentra era muy popular en la ciudad a finales del siglo XIX.

La fuente era tan popular que el periodista y autor teatral Joan Amich escribió una canción: "La Marieta de l'ull viu", que todavía hoy se canta e incluye la estrofa: "Baixant de la font del Gat, / una noia, una noia, / baixant de la font del Gat / una noia amb un soldat...".

Historia

A principios del siglo pasado, en la zona que hoy ocupan los jardines Laribal se celebraban encuentros populares, sobre todo en la Font del Gat, o reuniones selectas, como las que hacía la Colla de l'Arròs, un grupo medio gastronómico medio político que tuvo una cierta influencia en la Barcelona del final del siglo XIX y principio del XX y que se reunía en un pequeño edificio situado donde ahora se encuentra el Museo Etnológico.

La parte alta de los actuales jardines pertenecía a la finca de Josep Laribal, un prestigioso abogado cuyo nombre se ha perpetuado en los jardines. Allí se hizo construir un chalet neoárabe, rodeado de unos jardines eclécticos, con grandes árboles.

Tras la muerte de Laribal en 1908, la finca fue adquirida por el Ayuntamiento que fundó en ella la Escola del Bosc, que todavía existe. Simultáneamente, se iniciaron los estudios para urbanizar y enjardinar la montaña, con un proyecto global que inicialmente se encargó a Josep Amargós.

La Exposición de 1929

Los jardines de Laribal, terminados en el 1922, también están vinculados con un acontecimiento posterior: la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona de 1929. Este acontecimiento representó la culminación de un proyecto iniciado en 1905 para organizar en Montjuïc una exposición sobre las industrias eléctricas, la energía emergente de aquel momento.

Uno de los comisarios de la Exposición Internacional de Barcelona fue Francesc Cambó, que encargó los trabajos de ajardinamiento al ingeniero y paisajista francés Jean Claude Nicolas Forestier. Su ayudante fue el joven arquitecto Nicolau M. Rubió i Tudurí, que en 1917 se convertiría en el director de la Dirección de Parques Públicos y Arbolado, antecedente del Servicio de Parques y Jardines de Barcelona, del que fue el primer responsable y una de las personas determinantes en el futuro desarrollo de los espacios verdes públicos de la ciudad.

I Suri o Surma utilizzano i loro corpi come una tela e la terra come tavolozza, a prescindere dall'aspetto ludico, sono estremamente orgogliosi delle loro creatività, non si tratta di manifestazioni carnevalesche ma di espressioni d'arte necessarie, si dipingono l'un l'altro e non hanno uno scopo decorativo, ma di disponibilità, di prestigio sociale; sono molto attenti e consapevoli di fare qualcosa d'importante. I pigmenti puri e concentrati sono ricavati dall'ambiente in cui vivono e una volta spalmati sui corpi riflettono una luce intensa, ogni giorno si dipingono i corpi senza i tabù, senza moralismi (occidentali), omaggiano il corpo e ne esaltano la sensualità. Fin da piccoli imparano dalle loro madri la gestualità dei segni colorati in piena libertà accompagnati da una straordinaria freschezza, sono soprattutto gli adolescenti a praticare con frequenza questa forma artistica, la loro inventiva è basata sulle reazioni dei compagni , in particolare è derivata dal successo di richieste fotografiche di fotografi come me entusiasti di fotografarli. I Surma sono molto vicini alla natura e si adornano con grande spontaneità di piante, fiori, rami. Ho desiderato fortemente conoscere questa fantastica popolazione e sono stato ripagato alla grande dalle loro rappresentazioni artistiche.

The Surma or Suri use their bodies as a canvas and the Earth as a palette, apart from the fun aspect, are extremely proud of their creativity, it is not Carnival events but necessary art expressions, you paint one another and don't have a purpose, but of availability, of social prestige; I am very careful and aware of doing something important. Pure pigments and concentrates are obtained from the environment in which they live and once coated bodies reflect bright light, every day you paint the bodies without taboos, without moralizing (Western), in homage to the body and enhance the sensuality. From an early age they learn from their mothers gestures of colored signs freely accompanied by an extraordinary freshness, are primarily teens to practice this art form frequently, their inventiveness is based on the reactions of the companions, in particular is derived from the success of photo requests of photographers like me excited to photograph them. The Surma are very close to nature and adorn with great spontaneity of plants, flowers, branches. I wanted to know this fantastic firmly and I was paid off big time by their artistic performances.

Vintage Store - Marina di Massa

Vintage Store - Marina di Massa

First time seeing one of these in a very long time...

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Update October 2022: Now Scrapped

The Piazza del Duomo ("Cathedral Square") is a wide, walled area at the heart of the city of Pisa, Tuscany, Italy, recognized as one of the main centers for medieval art in the world. Partly paved and partly grassed, it is dominated by four great religious edifices: the Duomo, the Leaning Tower (the cathedral's campanile), the Baptistry and the Camposanto.In 1987 the whole square was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The heart of the Piazza del Duomo is, obviously, the Duomo, the medieval cathedral, entitled to Santa Maria Assunta (St. Mary of the Assumption). This is a five-naved cathedral with a three-naved transept. The church is known also as the Primatial, the archbishop of Pisa being a Primate since 1092.Construction was begun in 1064 by the architect Busketo, and set the model for the distinctive Pisan Romanesque style of architecture. The mosaics of the interior, as well as the pointed arches, show a strong Byzantine influence.The façade, of grey marble and white stone set with discs of coloured marble, was built by a master named Rainaldo, as indicated by an inscription above the middle door: Rainaldus prudens operator.The massive bronze main doors were made in the workshops of Giambologna, replacing the original doors destroyed in a fire in 1595. The central door was in bronze and made around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano, while the other two were probably in wood. However worshippers never used the façade doors to enter, instead entering by way of the Porta di San Ranieri (St. Ranieri's Door), in front of the Leaning Tower, made in around 1180 by Bonanno Pisano.Above the doors there are four rows of open galleries with, on top, statues of Madonna with Child and, on the corners, the Four evangelists.Also in the façade we can find the tomb of Busketo (on the left side) and an inscription about the foundation of the Cathedral and the victorious battle against Saracens.The interior is faced with black and white marble and has a gilded ceiling and a frescoed dome. It was largely redecorated after a fire in 1595, which destroyed most of the medieval art works.Fortunately, the impressive mosaic, in the apse, of Christ in Majesty, flanked by the Blessed Virgin and St. John the Evangelist, survived the fire. It evokes the mosaics in the church of Monreale, Sicily. Although it is said that the mosaic was done by Cimabue, only the head of St. John was done by the artist in 1302 and was his last work, since he died in Pisa in the same year. The cupola, at the intersection of the nave and the transept, was decorated by Riminaldi showing the ascension of the Blessed Virgin.The impressive granite Corinthian columns between the nave and the aisle came originally from the mosque of Palermo, captured by the Pisans in 1063.The coffer ceiling of the nave was replaced after the fire of 1595. The present gold-decorated ceiling carries the coat of arms of the Medici.The elaborately carved pulpit (1302-1310), which also survived the fire, was made by Giovanni Pisano and is one the masterworks of medieval sculpture. It was packed away during the redecoration and was not rediscovered and re-erected until 1926. The pulpit is supported by plain columns (two of which mounted on lions sculptures) on one side and by caryatids and a telamon on the other: the latter represent St. Michael, the Evangelists, the four cardinal virtues flanking the Church, and a bold, naturalistic depiction of a naked Hercules. A central plinth with the liberal arts supports the four theological virtues. The present day reconstruction of the pulpit is not the correct one. Now it lies not in the same original position, that was nearer the main altar, and the disposition of the columns and the panels are not the original ones. Also the original stairs (maybe in marble) were lost.The upper part has nine panels dramatic showing scenes from the New Testament, carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect and separated by figures of prophets: Annunciation, Massacre of the Innocents, Nativity, Adoration of the Magi, Flight into Egypt, Crucifixion, and two panels of the Last Judgement.The church also contains the bones of St Ranieri, Pisa's patron saint, and the tomb of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII, carved by Tino da Camaino in 1315. That tomb, originally in the apse just behind the main altar, was disassembled and changed position many times during the years for political reasons. At last the sarcophagus is still in the Cathedral, but some of the statues were put in the Camposanto or in the top of the façade of the church. The original statues now are in the Museum of the Opera del Duomo.The Cathedral has a prominent role in determining the beginning of the Pisan New Year. Between the tenth century and 1749, when the Tuscan calendar was reformed, Pisa used its own calendar, in which the first day of the year on March 25, which is the day of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary. The Pisan New Year begins 9 months before the ordinary one. The exact moment is determined by a ray of sun that, through a window on the left side, hit a shelf egg-shaped on the right side, just above the pulpit by Giovanni Pisano. This occurs at noon.In the Cathedral also can be found some relics brought during the Crusades: the remains of three Saints (Abibo, Gamaliel and Nicodemus) and a vase that it is said to be one of the jars of Cana.The building, as have several in Pisa, has tilted slightly since its construction.

Il Duomo di Santa Maria Assunta è la cattedrale medievale di Pisa.Capolavoro assoluto del romanico, in particolare del romanico pisano, rappresenta la testimonianza tangibile del prestigio e della ricchezza raggiunti dalla Repubblica marinara di Pisa nel momento del suo massimo splendoreL'aspetto attuale del complesso edificio è il risultato di ripetute campagne di restauro succedutesi in diverse epoche. I primi radicali interventi seguirono il disastroso incendio del 1595, a seguito del quale fu rifatto il tetto e furono eseguite le tre porte bronzee della facciata,a partire dal Settecento iniziò il progressivo rivestimento delle pareti interne con grandi dipinti su tela.Gli interventi successivi si ebbero nel corso dell'Ottocento ed interessarono sia le decorazioni interne sia quelle esterne.La ricchissima decorazione comprende marmi multicolori, mosaici e numerosi oggetti di bronzo L'interno è rivestito di marmi bianchi e neri, con colonne monolitiche di marmo grigio e capitelli di ordine corinzio. Ha un soffitto a cassettoni dorati seicenteschi, in legno dorato.Le impressionanti colonne granitiche in stile corinzio fra la navata e l'abside provengono dalla moschea di Palermo, bottino della battaglia nella Cala dai Pisani nel 1063.La chiesa conserva inoltre le reliquie di San Ranieri, patrono di Pisa, e la frammentaria tomba di Arrigo VII di Lussemburgo, imperatore del Sacro Romano Impero, morto a Buonconvento mentre assediava invano Firenze.L'edificio, come la torre campanaria, è sprofondato percettibilmente nel suolo, e alcuni dissesti nella costruzione sono ben visibili, come le differenze di livello tra la navata di Buscheto e il prolungamento ad opera di Rainaldo (le campate verso ovest e la facciata).

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[ENG] The Garden El Capricho is one of the most beautiful parks of Madrid. It was created on 1784 when the Dukes of Osuna acquire this estate for his playtime. The duchess dona Maria Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel was the principal promoter of this park, who worked in the artists and set designers gardeners most prestigious. To his death it entered in a period of decadence, it was acquired in auction by the family Baüer, and little by little his belongings were sold. During the Civil war it turned into Headquarters of the Army of the Center. In 1974 the Town hall of Madrid bought the park and after several years of abandon, was recovered in 1999, and successively restored.

More pictures on the "El Capricho" Garden album

[ESP] El jardín El Capricho es los parques más bellos de Madrid. Se creó sobre 1784 cuando los Duques de Osuna adquieren esta finca para su recreo. La duquesa doña María Josefa de la Soledad Alonso Pimentel fue la principal impulsora de este parque, en el que trabajaron los artistas, jardineros y escenógrafos de más prestigio. A su muerte entró en un período de decadencia, fue adquirido en subasta por la familia Baüer, y poco a poco fueron vendiéndose sus pertenencias. Durante la Guerra Civil se convirtió en Cuartel General del Ejército del Centro. En 1974 el Ayuntamiento de Madrid compró el parque y tras varios años de abandono, fue recuperado en 1999, y sucesivamente restaurado.

Más fotografías en el álbum Jardín "El Capricho", Madrid

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El monestir de Sant Joan de Poio (en gallec, mosteiro de San Xoán de Poio) és un antic monestir benedictí que actualment és ocupat per una comunitat mercedària. Els seus orígens són una mica confusos i fins i tot la seva fundació s'ha volgut vincular a Sant Fructuós de Braga, cosa que sembla poder descartar-se. Hom coneix que fou dotat econòmicament pel rei Bermudo II (982-999) i per la reina Urraca l'any 1116, tot i que per la primera referència documental cal retrocedir fins l'any 942. Després la casa va quedar vinculada a la seu de Santiago arran d'una donació efectuada per Fernando II, el 1169. A finals del segle XV l'establiment es trobava en decadència, una visita de l'any 1494 el troba en una situació caòtica. Més tard les circumstàncies van canviar i es va redreçar, l'any 1548 s'hi va fundar un prestigiós col·legi de teologia. Va mantenir la seva activitat com a comunitat benedictina fins el 1835, quan la desamortització va clausurar l'establiment. A partir del 1890 el lloc va passar a estar ocupat pels mercedaris, que encara es mantenen en aquest lloc.

La façana del monestir és una obra barroca de traça simple que compta amb una coberta amb un nínxol en el qual alberga la imatge de Sant Benet.

El claustro das procesións, eEl claustre principal o processional, és el de menor grandària i construït sota la direcció de Mateo López al segle XVI, arran dels plànols de Juan Ruiz de Pamames. De planta quadrada consta de dos nivells dividits en arcs. Les naus es cobreixen amb volta de creueria estrellades.

Ruta excursionista a Wikiloc.

A Google Maps.

English and Portuguese

English

Évora is located in the Alentejo province, a region of wide plains to the south of the Tagus River (Rio Tejo in Portuguese). The distance from the capital, Lisbon, is some 130 km.

History

Évora has a history dating back more than two millennia. It may have been the kingdom of Astolpas., and may be named after ivory workers. It was known as Ebora by the Lusitanians, who made the town their regional capital. The Romans conquered the town in 57 BC and expanded it into a walled town. Vestiges from this period (city walls and ruins of Roman baths) still remain. The Romans had extensive gold mining in Portugal, and the name may be derived from that oro, aurum, gold). Julius Caesar called it "Liberalitas Julia" (Julian generosity). The city grew in importance because it lay at the junction of several important routes. During his travels through Gaul and Lusitania, Pliny the Elder also visited this town and mentioned it in his book Naturalis Historia as Ebora Cerealis, because of its many surrounding wheat fields. In those days Évora became a flourishing city. Its high rank among municipalities in Roman Hispania is clearly shown by many inscriptions and coins. The monumental Corinthian temple in the centre of the town dates from the 1st century and was probably erected in honour of emperor Augustus. In the fourth century, the town had already a bishop, named Quintianus.

During the barbarian invasions, Évora came under the rule of the Visigothic king Leovirgild in 584. The town was later raised to the status of a cathedral city. Nevertheless this was a time of decline and very few artefacts from this period remain.

In 715, the city was conquered by the Moors under Tariq ibn-Ziyad, who called it Yeborah. During their rule (715–1165), the town slowly began to prosper again and developed into an agricultural centre with a fortress and a mosque. The present character of the city is evidence of the Moorish influence.

Évora was wrested from the Moors through a surprise attack by Gerald the Fearless (Geraldo Sem Pavor) in September 1165. The town came under the rule of the Portuguese king Afonso I in 1166. It then flourished as one of the most dynamic cities in the Kingdom of Portugal during the Middle Ages, especially in the 15th century. The court of the first and second dynasties resided here for long periods, constructing palaces, monuments and religious buildings. Évora became the scene for many royal weddings and a site where many important decisions were made.

Particularly thriving during the Avis Dynasty (1385–1580), especially under the reign of Manuel I and John III, Évora became a major centre for the humanities (André de Resende - buried in the cathedral) and artists, such as the sculptor Nicolau Chanterene, the painters Cristóvão de Figueiredo and Gregório Lopes, the composers Manuel Cardoso and Duarte Lobo, the chronicler Duarte Galvão, and the father of Portuguese drama, Gil Vicente.

The city became the seat of an archbishopric in 1540. The university was founded by the Jesuits in 1559, and it was here that great European Masters such as the Flemish humanists Nicolaus Clenardus (Nicolaas Cleynaerts) (1493–1542), Johannes Vasaeus (Jan Was) (1511–1561) and the theologian Luis de Molina passed on their knowledge. In the 18th century the Jesuits, who had spread intellectual and religious enlightenment since the 16th century, were expelled from Portugal, the university was closed in 1759 by the Marquis of Pombal and Évora went into decline. The university was only reopened in 1973.

In 1834, Évora was the site of the surrender of the forces of King Miguel I, which marked the end of the Liberal Wars.

The many monuments erected by major artists of each period now testify to Évora's lively cultural and rich artistic and historical heritage. The variety of architectural styles (Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, Baroque), the palaces and the picturesque labyrinth of squares and narrow streets of the city centre are all part of the rich heritage of this museum-city.

Today, the historical centre has about 4000 buildings and an area of 1.05 km².

Main sights

Água de Prata Aqueduct (Aqueduct of Silver Water): With its huge arches stretching for 9 km, this aqueduct was built in 1531–1537 by King João III to supply the city with water. Designed by the military architect Francisco de Arruda (who had previously built the Belém Tower), the aqueduct ended originally in the Praça do Giraldo. This impressive construction has even been mentioned in the epic poem Os Lusíadas by Luís de Camões. The end part of the aqueduct is remarkable with houses, shops and cafés built between the arches.

Cathedral of Évora: Mainly built between 1280 and 1340, it is one of the most important gothic monuments of Portugal. The cathedral has a notable main portal with statues of the Apostles (around 1335) and a beautiful nave and cloister. One transept chapel is Manueline and the outstanding main chapel is Baroque. The pipeorgan and choir stalls are renaissance (around 1566).

S. Brás Chapel: Built around 1480, it is a good example of Mudéjar-Gothic with cylindrical buttresses. Only open for prayer.

Saint Francis Church (Igreja de São Francisco): Built between the end of the 15th and the early 16th centuries in mixed Gothic-Manueline styles. The wide nave is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture. Contains many chapels decorated in Baroque style, including the Chapel of Bones (Capela dos Ossos), totally covered with human bones.

Palace of Vasco da Gama: Vasco da Gama resided here in 1519 and 1524, the dates corresponding to his nomination as the Count of Vidigueira and Viceroy of India. The Manueline cloister and some of its Renaissance mural paintings are still preserved.

Palace of the Counts of Basto: Primitive Moorish castle and residence of the kings of the Afonsine dynasty. Its outer architecture displays features of Gothic, Manueline, Mudéjar and Renaissance styles.

Palace of the Dukes of Cadaval: The palace with its 17th-century façade is constituted in part by an old castle burnt in 1384; it is dominated by the architectural elements of the Manueline-Moorish period and by a tower called Tower of the Five Shields. This palace of the governor of Évora served from time to time as royal residence. The first-floor rooms houses a collection manuscripts, family portraits and religious art from the 16th century.

Lóios Convent and Church: Built in the 15th century, contains a number of tombs; the church and the cloister are Gothic in style, with a Manueline chapterhouse with a magnificent portal. The church interior is covered in azulejos (ceramic tiles) from the 18th century. In 1965 it has been converted into a top-end pousada

Ladies' Gallery of Manuel I's Palace (Galeria das Damas do Palácio de D. Manuel): Remnants of a palace built by King Manuel I in Gothic-Renaissance style. According to some chroniclers, it was in this palace, in 1497, that Vasco da Gama was given the command of the squadron he would lead on his maritime journey to India.

Roman Temple of Évora: Improperly called Diana Temple, this 1st century-temple was probably dedicated to the Cult of Emperor Augustus (but some texts date it to the second or even the third century). It is one of a kind in Portugal. The temple was incorporated into a mediaeval building and thus survived destruction. It has become the city's most famous landmark. The temple in Corinthian style has six columns in front (Roman hexastyle) with in total fourteen granite columns remaining. The base of the temple, the capitals and the architraves are made of marble from nearby Estremoz. The intact columns are 7.68 m (25.20 ft) high. It can be compared to the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France.

University of Évora: Formerly a Jesuit college built by Cardinal-King Henrique in 1559, it includes the 16th century Mannerist church and the academic buildings surrounding the large 17th-18th century cloister.

Renaissance fountain at Largo das Portas de Moura: Built in 1556 in Renaissance style. This original fountain has the shape of a globe surrounded by water, a reference to the Age of Discovery.

Giraldo Square (Praça do Geraldo): Centre of the city; in this square King Duarte built the Estaus Palace which even today maintains its Gothic look. The Renaissance fountain (fonte Henriquina) dates from 1570. Its eight jets symbolize the eight streets leading into the square. At the northern end of the quare lies St Anton's church (Igreja de Santo Antão) built by Manuel Pires, also from the 16th century. This is a rather plump church with three aisles. The antependium of the altar displays a valuable 13th century Roman-Gothic bas relief. In 1483 Fernando II , Duke of Braganza was decapitated on this square, in the presence of his brother-in-law king John II. This square also witnessed thousands of Autos-de-fé during the period of the Inquisition; 22.000 condemnations, it seems, in about 200 years.[6]

Cromeleque dos Almendres, 15 km from Évora: Megalithic monument, a cromlech with archaeoastronomical interest.

Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, about 10 km from Évora near Valverde: It is the larger dolmen in the region.

Português

Évora é uma cidade portuguesa, capital do Distrito de Évora, e situada na região Alentejo e subregião do Alentejo Central, com uma população de cerca de 41 159 habitantes.

É sede de um dos maiores municípios de Portugal, com 1307,04 km² de área e 54.780 habitantes (2008), subdividido em 19 freguesias. O município é limitado a norte pelo município de Arraiolos, a nordeste por Estremoz, a leste pelo Redondo, a sueste por Reguengos de Monsaraz, a sul por Portel, a sudoeste por Viana do Alentejo e a oeste por Montemor-o-Novo. É sede de distrito e de antiga diocese, sendo metrópole eclesiástica (Arquidiocese de Évora).

É conhecida como a Capital do Alentejo e Cidade-Museu.

História

O nome Lusitano da cidade de Évora era Eburobrittium, provavelmente relacionado com a divindade celta Eburianus. A raiz etimológica viria do Celta *eburos, a árvore do Teixo. A cidade teve o nome de Ebora Cerealis durante a República Romana, tomando o nome de Liberalitas Julia no tempo do general Júlio César, sendo então já uma cidade importante, como o demonstram as ruínas de um templo clássico e os vestígios de muralhas romanas.

Conquistada aos Mouros em 1165 por Geraldo Sem Pavor, data em que se restaurou a sua diocese. Foi residência régia durante largos períodos, essencialmente nos reindados de D.João II, D.Manuel I e D.João III. O seu prestígio foi particularmente notável no século XVI, quando foi elevada a metrópole eclesiástica e foi fundada a Universidade de Évora (afecta à Companhia de Jesus), pelo Cardeal Infante D.Henrique, primeiro Arcebispo da cidade. Um rude golpe para Évora foi a extinção da prestigiada instituição universitária, em 1759 (que só seria restaurada cerca de dois séculos depois), na sequência da expulsão dos Jesuítas do país, por ordem do Marquês de Pombal. Évora é testemunho de diversos estilos e corentes estéticas, sendo ao longo do tempo dotada de obras de arte a ponto de ser classificada pela UNESCO, em 1986, como Património Comum da Humanidade.

Monumentos principais da cidade

Templo romano de Évora: também chamado Templo de Diana, é um dos monumentos romanos mais importantes de Portugal. Situa-se no ponto mais alto da cidade e é um dos lugares mais visitados da cidade. Pensa-se que foi criado por volta do século III a.C. para homenagear o Imperador Romano César Augusto, mas mais tarde passou a ser conhecido por Templo de Diana (deusa da caça), nome atribuído por um jesuíta no século XVI pelo facto da cidade ser conhecida pela boa caça.

Sé Catedral

Igreja de São Francisco: um dos últimos e imponentes edifício da Dinastia e Avis conhecida pela mistura entre os estilos gótico e manuelino.

Capela dos Ossos: situada na Igreja de São Francisco, é conhecida pela famosa frase escrita à entrada "Nós ossos que aqui estamos pelos vossos esperamos"

Palácio de D. Manuel

Convento dos Lóios: actualmente a funcionar como pousada.

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

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Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

© Saúl Tuñón Loureda

twitter.com/Woody_Twitt

www.facebook.com/stloureda

Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Colosseum

Following, a text, in english, from the Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia:

The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD[1] under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus,[2] with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96).[3] The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators,[1][4][5] the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum.[6]

The Colosseum is also depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

The Colosseum's original Latin name was Amphitheatrum Flavium, often anglicized as Flavian Amphitheater. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name, after the reign of Emperor Nero.[7] This name is still used in modern English, but generally the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.[8][9] This name was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed an amphitheater of the same name in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli).[10]

The name Colosseum has long been believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero nearby.[3] (the statue of Nero itself being named after one of the original ancient wonders, the Colossus of Rhodes[citation needed]. This statue was later remodeled by Nero's successors into the likeness of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun god, by adding the appropriate solar crown. Nero's head was also replaced several times with the heads of succeeding emperors. Despite its pagan links, the statue remained standing well into the medieval era and was credited with magical powers. It came to be seen as an iconic symbol of the permanence of Rome.

In the 8th century, a famous epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").[11] This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to what was still known as the Flavian amphitheatre.

The Colossus did eventually fall, possibly being pulled down to reuse its bronze. By the year 1000 the name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre. The statue itself was largely forgotten and only its base survives, situated between the Colosseum and the nearby Temple of Venus and Roma.[12]

The name further evolved to Coliseum during the Middle Ages. In Italy, the amphitheatre is still known as il Colosseo, and other Romance languages have come to use similar forms such as le Colisée (French), el Coliseo (Spanish) and o Coliseu (Portuguese).

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian[3] in around 70–72AD. The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine Hills, through which a canalised stream ran. By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.[12]

Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt in 70AD. The Colosseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument built in the Roman tradition of celebrating great victories[12], placating the Roman people instead of returning soldiers. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can also be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were located on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre; in effect, placing it both literally and symbolically at the heart of Rome.

The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished and the building inaugurated by his son, Titus, in 80.[3] Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of the amphitheatre. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian, who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius[13]) which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484[14] and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century, with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes, criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost.

The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use during the medieval period. By the late 6th century a small church had been built into the structure of the amphitheatre, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle.

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349, causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvional terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. A religious order moved into the northern third of the Colosseum in the mid-14th century and continued to inhabit it until as late as the early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheatre was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime.[12] The bronze clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the vast derelict hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.[15] In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.

In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed as official Church policy the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there (see Christians and the Colosseum). However there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone prior to the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s.

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices). In recent years it has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,[16] or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold when capital punishment was abolished in the American state of New Mexico in April 2009.

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002),[18] Paul McCartney (May 2003),[19] Elton John (September 2005),[20] and Billy Joel (July 2006).

Exterior

Unlike earlier Greek theatres that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two Roman theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic meters (131,000 cu yd) of travertine stone which were set without mortar held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.[12] However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium on which stands a tall attic, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters.[21] Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology.

Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning, known as the velarium, that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.[3] It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium, were used to work the velarium.[22]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadiums to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.[3] Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIV (54) still survive.[12]

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

Interior

According to the Codex-Calendar of 354, the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins, providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.

The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum, was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (equites). The next level up, the maenianum secundum, was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (plebians) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis, was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.

Each tier was divided into sections (maeniana) by curved passages and low walls (praecinctiones or baltei), and were subdivided into cunei, or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (gradus) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.

The arena itself was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet).[12] It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata, provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.[12]

The hypogeum was connected by underground tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.[12]

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms[12] and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct.

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus, a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the Armamentarium, comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium, where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium, which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning.

Right next to the Colosseum is also the Arch of Constantine.

he Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige, and were immensely popular with the population. Another popular type of show was the animal hunt, or venatio. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros, hippopotamuses, elephants, giraffes, aurochs, wisents, barbary lions, panthers, leopards, bears, caspian tigers, crocodiles and ostriches. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. Such events were occasionally on a huge scale; Trajan is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days.

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong, or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum).[12]

Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor. Animals would be introduced to populate the scene for the delight of the crowd. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

The Colosseum today is now a major tourist attraction in Rome with thousands of tourists each year paying to view the interior arena, though entrance for EU citizens is partially subsidised, and under-18 and over-65 EU citizens' entrances are free.[24] There is now a museum dedicated to Eros located in the upper floor of the outer wall of the building. Part of the arena floor has been re-floored. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways once used to transport wild animals and gladiators to the arena opened to the public in summer 2010.[25]

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI leads the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum[26][27] on Good Fridays.

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was clearly not regarded as a sacred site. Its use as a fortress and then a quarry demonstrates how little spiritual importance was attached to it, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated. It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius — but not the Colosseum — as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian order, but apparently not for any particular religious reason.

It appears to have been only in the 16th and 17th centuries that the Colosseum came to be regarded as a Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. This seems to have been a minority view until it was popularised nearly a century later by Fioravante Martinelli, who listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.

Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary, though quarrying continued for some time.

At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of the Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms, prior to his death in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains a Christian connection today. Crosses stand in several points around the arena and every Good Friday the Pope leads a Via Crucis procession to the amphitheatre.

Coliseu (Colosseo)

A seguir, um texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre:

O Coliseu, também conhecido como Anfiteatro Flaviano, deve seu nome à expressão latina Colosseum (ou Coliseus, no latim tardio), devido à estátua colossal de Nero, que ficava perto a edificação. Localizado no centro de Roma, é uma excepção de entre os anfiteatros pelo seu volume e relevo arquitectónico. Originalmente capaz de albergar perto de 50 000 pessoas, e com 48 metros de altura, era usado para variados espetáculos. Foi construído a leste do fórum romano e demorou entre 8 a 10 anos a ser construído.

O Coliseu foi utilizado durante aproximadamente 500 anos, tendo sido o último registro efetuado no século VI da nossa era, bastante depois da queda de Roma em 476. O edifício deixou de ser usado para entretenimento no começo da era medieval, mas foi mais tarde usado como habitação, oficina, forte, pedreira, sede de ordens religiosas e templo cristão.

Embora esteja agora em ruínas devido a terremotos e pilhagens, o Coliseu sempre foi visto como símbolo do Império Romano, sendo um dos melhores exemplos da sua arquitectura. Actualmente é uma das maiores atrações turísticas em Roma e em 7 de julho de 2007 foi eleita umas das "Sete maravilhas do mundo moderno". Além disso, o Coliseu ainda tem ligações à igreja, com o Papa a liderar a procissão da Via Sacra até ao Coliseu todas as Sextas-feiras Santas.

O coliseu era um local onde seriam exibidos toda uma série de espectáculos, inseridos nos vários tipos de jogos realizados na urbe. Os combates entre gladiadores, chamados muneras, eram sempre pagos por pessoas individuais em busca de prestígio e poder em vez do estado. A arena (87,5 m por 55 m) possuía um piso de madeira, normalmente coberto de areia para absorver o sangue dos combates (certa vez foi colocada água na representação de uma batalha naval), sob o qual existia um nível subterrâneo com celas e jaulas que tinham acessos diretos para a arena; Alguns detalhes dessa construção, como a cobertura removível que poupava os espectadores do sol, são bastante interessantes, e mostram o refinamento atingido pelos construtores romanos. Formado por cinco anéis concêntricos de arcos e abóbadas, o Coliseu representa bem o avanço introduzido pelos romanos à engenharia de estruturas. Esses arcos são de concreto (de cimento natural) revestidos por alvenaria. Na verdade, a alvenaria era construída simultaneamente e já servia de forma para a concretagem. Outro tipo de espetáculos era a caça de animais, ou venatio, onde eram utilizados animais selvagens importados de África. Os animais mais utilizados eram os grandes felinos como leões, leopardos e panteras, mas animais como rinocerontes, hipopótamos, elefantes, girafas, crocodilos e avestruzes eram também utilizados. As caçadas, tal como as representações de batalhas famosas, eram efetuadas em elaborados cenários onde constavam árvores e edifícios amovíveis.

Estas últimas eram por vezes representadas numa escala gigante; Trajano celebrou a sua vitória em Dácia no ano 107 com concursos envolvendo 11 000 animais e 10 000 gladiadores no decorrer de 123 dias.

Segundo o documentário produzido pelo canal televisivo fechado, History Channel, o Coliseu também era utilizado para a realização de naumaquias, ou batalhas navais. O coliseu era inundado por dutos subterrâneos alimentados pelos aquedutos que traziam água de longe. Passada esta fase, foi construída uma estrutura, que é a que podemos ver hoje nas ruínas do Coliseu, com altura de um prédio de dois andares, onde no passado se concentravam os gladiadores, feras e todo o pessoal que organizava os duelos que ocorreriam na arena. A arena era como um grande palco, feito de madeira, e se chama arena, que em italiano significa areia, porque era jogada areia sob a estrutura de madeira para esconder as imperfeições. Os animais podiam ser inseridos nos duelos a qualquer momento por um esquema de elevadores que surgiam em alguns pontos da arena; o filme "Gladiador" retrata muito bem esta questão dos elevadores. Os estudiosos, há pouco tempo, descobriram uma rede de dutos inundados por baixo da arena do Coliseu. Acredita-se que o Coliseu foi construído onde, outrora, foi o lago do Palácio Dourado de Nero; O imperador Vespasiano escolheu o local da construção para que o mal causado por Nero fosse esquecido por uma construção gloriosa.

Sylvae, ou recreações de cenas naturais eram também realizadas no Coliseu. Pintores, técnicos e arquitectos construiriam simulações de florestas com árvores e arbustos reais plantados no chão da arena. Animais seriam então introduzidos para dar vida à simulação. Esses cenários podiam servir só para agrado do público ou como pano de fundo para caçadas ou dramas representando episódios da mitologia romana, tão autênticos quanto possível, ao ponto de pessoas condenadas fazerem o papel de heróis onde eram mortos de maneiras horríveis mas mitologicamente autênticas, como mutilados por animais ou queimados vivos.

Embora o Coliseu tenha funcionado até ao século VI da nossa Era, foram proibidos os jogos com mortes humanas desde 404, sendo apenas massacrados animais como elefantes, panteras ou leões.

O Coliseu era sobretudo um enorme instrumento de propaganda e difusão da filosofia de toda uma civilização, e tal como era já profetizado pelo monge e historiador inglês Beda na sua obra do século VII "De temporibus liber": "Enquanto o Coliseu se mantiver de pé, Roma permanecerá; quando o Coliseu ruir, Roma ruirá e quando Roma cair, o mundo cairá".

A construção do Coliseu foi iniciada por Vespasiano, nos anos 70 da nossa era. O edifício foi inaugurado por Tito, em 80, embora apenas tivesse sido finalizado poucos anos depois. Empresa colossal, este edifício, inicialmente, poderia sustentar no seu interior cerca de 50 000 espectadores, constando de três andares. Aquando do reinado de Alexandre Severo e Gordiano III, é ampliado com um quarto andar, podendo suster agora cerca de 90 000 espectadores. A grandiosidade deste monumento testemunha verdadeiramente o poder e esplendor de Roma na época dos Flávios.

Os jogos inaugurais do Coliseu tiveram lugar ano 80, sob o mandato de Tito, para celebrar a finalização da construção. Depois do curto reinado de Tito começar com vários meses de desastres, incluindo a erupção do Monte Vesúvio, um incêndio em Roma, e um surto de peste, o mesmo imperador inaugurou o edifício com uns jogos pródigos que duraram mais de cem dias, talvez para tentar apaziguar o público romano e os deuses. Nesses jogos de cem dias terão ocorrido combates de gladiadores, venationes (lutas de animais), execuções, batalhas navais, caçadas e outros divertimentos numa escala sem precedentes.

O Coliseu, como não se encontrava inserido numa zona de encosta, enterrado, tal como normalmente sucede com a generalidade dos teatros e anfiteatros romanos, possuía um “anel” artificial de rocha à sua volta, para garantir sustentação e, ao mesmo tempo, esta substrutura serve como ornamento ao edifício e como condicionador da entrada dos espectadores. Tal como foi referido anteriormente, possuía três pisos, sendo mais tarde adicionado um outro. É construído em mármore, pedra travertina, ladrilho e tufo (pedra calcária com grandes poros). A sua planta elíptica mede dois eixos que se estendem aproximadamente de 190 m por 155 m. A fachada compõe-se de arcadas decoradas com colunas dóricas, jónicas e coríntias, de acordo com o pavimento em que se encontravam. Esta subdivisão deve-se ao facto de ser uma construção essencialmente vertical, criando assim uma diversificação do espaço.

Os assentos eram em mármore e a cavea, escadaria ou arquibancada, dividia-se em três partes, correspondentes às diferentes classes sociais: o podium, para as classes altas; as maeniana, sector destinado à classe média; e os portici, ou pórticos, construídos em madeira, para a plebe e as mulheres. O pulvinar, a tribuna imperial, encontrava-se situada no podium e era balizada pelos assentos reservados aos senadores e magistrados. Rampas no interior do edifício facilitavam o acesso às várias zonas de onde podiam visualizar o espectáculo, sendo protegidos por uma barreira e por uma série de arqueiros posicionados numa passagem de madeira, para o caso de algum acidente. Por cima dos muros ainda são visíveis as mísulas, que sustentavam o velarium, enorme cobertura de lona destinada a proteger do sol os espectadores e, nos subterrâneos, ficavam as jaulas dos animais, bem como todas as celas e galerias necessárias aos serviços do anfiteatro.

O monumento permaneceu como sede principal dos espetáculos da urbe romana até ao período do imperador Honorius, no século V. Danificado por um terremoto no começo do mesmo século, foi alvo de uma extensiva restauração na época de Valentinianus III. Em meados do século XIII, a família Frangipani transformou-o em fortaleza e, ao longo dos séculos XV e XVI, foi por diversas vezes saqueado, perdendo grande parte dos materiais nobres com os quais tinha sido construído.

Os relatos romanos referem-se a cristãos sendo martirizados em locais de Roma descritos pouco pormenorizadamente (no anfiteatro, na arena...), quando Roma tinha numerosos anfiteatros e arenas. Apesar de muito provavelmente o Coliseu não ter sido utilizado para martírios, o Papa Bento XIV consagrou-o no século XVII à Paixão de Cristo e declarou-o lugar sagrado. Os trabalhos de consolidação e restauração parcial do monumento, já há muito em ruínas, foram feitos sobretudo pelos pontífices Gregório XVI e Pio IX, no século XIX.

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Montmartre es una colina de 130 metros de altura situada en la orilla derecha del río Sena, en el XVIII Distrito de París, principalmente conocida por la cúpula blanca de la Basílica del Sacré Cœur (en español "sagrado corazón"), ubicada en su cumbre. Cerca, otra iglesia, la más antigua de la colina es Saint Pierre de Montmartre, fundada por la reina de Francia en el siglo XII. En la cripta de la capilla del Martyrium, ubicada en la calle Yvonne Le Tac, se fundó la orden de sacerdotes Jesuitas el 15 de agosto de 1534.

El barrio fue cuna de los impresionistas, de la bohemia parisina del siglo XIX e importante teatro de batallas durante la Guerra Franco-Prusiana y la Comuna.

En La Bohème (1965), quizás la canción más conocida del cantautor Charles Aznavour, un pintor rememora sus años de juventud en un Montmartre que ha dejado de existir:

Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts («Ya no reconozco/ Ni los muros ni las calles/Que habían visto mi juventud/En lo alto de una escalera/Busco un taller/Del que nada sobrevive/Con su nueva decoración/Montmartre parece triste/Y las lilas están muertas»).

Charles Aznavour en su canción La Boheme

La canción es una despedida de lo que, según Aznavour, fueron los últimos días del barrio como lugar de actividad bohemia.

El museo de Montmartre se ubica en la casa donde el pintor Maurice Utrillo vivió, un estudio del segundo piso. La mansión principal en el jardín trasero es el hotel más antiguo del barrio. Uno de sus primeros propietarios fue Claude Roze, también conocido como Roze de Rosimond, quien la compró en 1860. Roze fue el actor que reemplazó a Molière y, al igual que su predecesor, murió en escena. La casa fue la primera residencia de Pierre-Auguste Renoir en Montmartre y muchos otros fueron viviendo en ella por el prestigio del primer inquilino. Justo al final de la colina, se ubica el museo Espace Dalí, donde se exhibe el trabajo del artista surrealista Salvador Dalí. En las cercanías se encuentran la Place du Tertre, donde los artistas realizan sus obras al aire libre, y el cabaret del Lapin Agile. Muchos renombrados artistas están enterrados en el Cementerio de Montmartre y el de Saint-Vincent. La película Amélie está ambientada en el Montmartre contemporáneo. Un tren funicular, el funicular de Montmartre, gestionado por la RATP, asciende por la colina desde el sur, mientras que el servicio de autobús la circunda. Colina abajo, hacia el sudoeste, se encuentra la zona roja de Pigalle. Esa zona en la actualidad es mayormente conocida por la amplia variedad de sex shops y prostitutas. También alberga gran número de almacenes especializados en instrumentos de música rock, así como varias salas de conciertos utilizadas para la música rock.

En la Rue Veron Nº 18 se encuentra el Hotel Clermont, donde residió Edith Piaf a los 14 años al separarse de su padre en 1929.15 Hace su propio camino como cantante en la calle Pigalle, Ménilmontant, y los suburbios de París (véase la canción "Elle fréquentait la Rue Pigalle").Alrededor de los dieciséis años cuando se enamoró de un chico de los recados, Louis Dupont.15 Poco después tuvo su única hija, una niña llamada Marcelle, que murió a la edad de dos años de meningitis.15

En este hotel son frecuentes las presentaciones de grupos de rock en las noches.

El barrio está declarado oficialmente distrito histórico.

es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

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Montmartre (French pronunciation: ​[mɔ̃.maʁtʁ]) is a large hill in Paris's 18th arrondissement. It is 130 metres high and gives its name to the surrounding district, part of the Right Bank in the northern section of the city. The historic district established by the City of Paris in 1995 is bordered by rue Caulaincourt and rue Custine on the north; rue de Clignancourt on the east; boulevard de Clichy and boulevard de Rochechouart to the south.[1] containing sixty hectares.[2] Montmartre is primarily known for the white-domed Basilica of the Sacré-Cœur on its summit and as a nightclub district. The other, older, church on the hill is Saint Pierre de Montmartre, which claims to be the location at which the Jesuit order of priests was founded.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, during the Belle Époque, many artists had studios or worked in or around Montmartre, including Salvador Dalí, Amedeo Modigliani, Claude Monet, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Piet Mondrian, Pablo Picasso, Camille Pissarro and Vincent van Gogh. Montmartre is also the setting for several hit films. This site is served by metro line 2 stations of Anvers, Pigalle and Blanche and the line 12 stations of Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck - Caulaincourt and Jules Joffrin.

In "La Bohème" (1965), perhaps the best-known song by popular singer-songwriter Charles Aznavour, a painter recalls his youthful years in a Montmartre that has ceased to exist: Je ne reconnais plus/Ni les murs, ni les rues/Qui ont vu ma jeunesse/En haut d'un escalier/Je cherche l'atelier/Dont plus rien ne subsiste/Dans son nouveau décor/Montmartre semble triste/Et les lilas sont morts ('I no longer recognize/Neither the walls nor the streets/That had seen my youth/At the top of a staircase/I look for a studio-apartment/Of which nothing survives/In its new décor/Montmartre seems sad/And the lilacs died'). The song is a farewell to what, according to Aznavour, were the last days of Montmartre as a site of bohemian activity.

There is a small vineyard in the Rue Saint-Vincent, which continues the tradition of wine production in the Île de France; it yields about 500 litres per year.[15]

The Musée de Montmartre is in the house where the painter Maurice Utrillo lived and worked in a second-floor studio. The mansion in the garden at the back is the oldest hotel on Montmartre, and one of its first owners was Claude de la Rose, a 17th-century actor known under the name of Rosimond, who had bought it in 1680. Claude de la Rose was the actor who replaced Molière, and who, like his predecessor, died on stage. The house was Pierre-Auguste Renoir's first Montmartre address and many other names moved through the premises.

Just off the top of the butte, Espace Dalí showcases surrealist artist Salvador Dalí's work. Nearby, day and night, tourists visit such sights as Place du Tertre and the cabaret du Lapin Agile, where the artists had worked and gathered. Many renowned artists are buried in the Cimetière de Montmartre and the Cimetière Saint-Vincent.

Montmartre is an officially designated historic district with limited development allowed in order to maintain its historic character.

A funicular railway, the Funiculaire de Montmartre, operated by the RATP, ascends the hill from the south while the Montmartre bus circles the hill.

Downhill to the southwest is the red-light district of Pigalle. That area is, today, largely known for a wide variety of stores specializing in instruments for rock music. There are also several concert halls, also used for rock music. The actual Moulin Rouge theatre is also in Pigalle, next to Blanche métro station.

Montmartre in films

The Heart of a Nation (released 1943) features a family resident in Montmartre from 1870 to 1939.

An American in Paris (1951), with Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron, was the winner of the Oscar for the best film of 1951. Many important scenes, including the last scenes, take place in Montmartre, although most of the film was shot in Hollywood.

Moulin Rouge told the story of the life and lost loves of painter Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.

French Cancan (1954), a French musical comedy with Jean Gabin and Maria Felix, takes place in Montmartre, and tells the story of the Moulin Rouge and the invention of the famous dance. The director, Jean Renoir, was the son of the painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir, who painted several important works while living in Montmartre.

The Great Race (1965), shows Professor Fate in the "Hannibal 8" driving down the Basilica steps after a wrong turn while racing to the Eiffel tower.

Amélie (2001): the story of a young Parisian woman determined to help the lives of others and find her true love, is set in Montmartre and includes a key scene in the gardens below the Basilica.

Moulin Rouge! (2001): a musical film set in Montmartre, is about the night club and a young writer who falls in love with a famous courtesan.

La Môme (2007) (La vie en rose): tells the life of French singer Edith Piaf who was discovered while singing in Pigalle. bordering on Montmartre.

Ronin (1998): Outside of the café at the beginning and end.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montmartre

Montmartre est un quartier du nord de Paris couvrant la colline de la butte Montmartre, qui est l'un des principaux lieux touristiques parisiens. C'est à Montmartre qu'est situé le point culminant de la capitale : 130,53 mètres, altitude du sol naturel à l’intérieur du cimetière du Calvaire, qui jouxte l’église Saint-Pierre de Montmartre.

Jusqu'à son annexion par Paris en 1860, Montmartre était une commune française du département de la Seine, à la superficie plus étendue que le quartier actuel. L'essentiel de son territoire constitue depuis lors les quartiers administratifs des Grandes-Carrières et de Clignancourt, dans le 18e arrondissement de la capitale, dit « quartier de la butte-Montmartre », et une fraction fut attribuée à la commune de Saint-Ouen.

Les deux accès les plus connus pour le sommet de la colline sont le funiculaire ou la rue Foyatier, un escalier de 222 marches avec paliers le longeant.

Ce quartier est desservi par la ligne (M) (2) du métropolitain avec les stations Anvers, Pigalle et Blanche ainsi que par la ligne (M) (12) (stations Pigalle, Abbesses, Lamarck — Caulaincourt et Jules Joffrin).

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english

Pedro de Mezonzo (Curtis, 930 - Santiago de Compostela, 1003) was a Galician bishop was Bishop of Iriæ Flaviae supposedly between 985 until his death. It is revered as a saint in the Catholic Church. His liturgical feast is celebrated on September 10.

Hagiography

He was the son of Martin Placêncio, Galician knight of the family that founded the monastery of Santa Eulalia de Curtis, and Mustacia. His brothers were Adelfio also monk Vimara, father of Bishop of Orense of the same name, and Aragaonta Mustacia.

In captivity, the hand of his mother, was at the service of the Infanta Dona Paterna, mother of the bishop of Iria Sisnando II, as chaplain. Then joined the monastery of Santa María de Mezonzo. Monastery libros nimis abundanter where he acquired an education highlighted both classical authors as the Fathers of the Church and of having achieved fame intellectual and human wisdom. When in 955 the monastery of monks absorbed the Sobrado of Mezonzo, became the first, in which he served as notary.

Abbot

Is elected abbot in 965. Such was the prestige of this great monastery Sisnando that the bishop and his brothers Rodrigo and Elvira donated him all his possessions. The king Ramiro III of León donated so important perks that became one of the most important religious centers of Christianity Hispanic.

The lands of Sobrado suffered Horrorum normandorum, amazement population bloody incursions by invaders Vikings. This forced Pedro to keep hope and confidence in a people terrified and continuous despair. Rosendo Celanova and Count Gonzalo turned to flight the invasion, when the nun Leonese monarchy was not who would defend the country Galician, abandoned to their fate against the Norman threat.

After this time, Peter endeavored to reconstruct the devastated convent of Santa Eulalia, to reorganize the lands and people dependent on Sobrado, and comfort the afflicted and the wounded and hurt.

Later went ahead of the monastery of San Palo Antealtares, favored by his government are Rosendo, now the head of government of the diocese of Iria Flavia-Santiago, as Bishop of Dume. He followed this to the council which was held in Leon to suppress the bishopric of Simancas.

Meanwhile reigned in Galicia Bermudo II supported by the Galician nobility and also longed to govern lands in Leon. Peter, at least, nnot decreased the opposition faced by the monarch Galician Ramiro III of León, because after doing that with all the kingdom of Leon, did not suffer a reduction in their ecclesiastical authority, well before recebuu donations of Count Tello Alvite in 985 with the blessing of the bishops are Viliulfo Tui, Hermenegildo de Lugo, Armentario of Dumio, Gonzalo de Ourense and Pelagius of Iria Flavia-Santiago.

Bishop

Maybe removed by the new king Galician, Pelagius Rodríguez renounces Mitra. All votes converge Pedro. This signing a document on November 16, 985 as bishop of Iria and the Apostolic See. Peter reiterated this last title that inspire so many fears in Rome that would cause him and, decades later, Crescônio the penalty of excommunication.

This year, participating in the Cortes convened by Bermudo II to reaffirm its undisputed dominion over the whole kingdom of León In January 986, a diploma of King confirms the Galician monastery of San Salvador de Celanova, and February 7, one gets that privilege for his Church were donated land where knights imprisoned and martyred for Almançor after the devastation of the city of Simancas. Later, donated her areas of Salvaterra in southern Galicia, and Portomarín in the center. Some of these goods were granted in usufruct including the case that waives compostelar miter, which is a clear demonstration of affection and veneration which the king professed by the charismatic and revered bishop.

The Galician nobility that apoiaava the Bermudo was not satisfied with the perks of the new status quo and worked to negotiate alliances with Almançor victorious by awe, as desired by impulse protection and the owner of Hispania.

The powerful Gundemariz Suero, Gonzalo Menendez, Osorio Galindo and Diaz came to rise up, but Pedro remained loyal to the king and was not Galician division factor or turbulence. In these moments of anguish and uncertainty, both the king and the bishop favor the ascetics of Mount Ilicino (Pico Sacro) to assist people with their prayers and sermons. At that time also peacefully resolved certain disputes between Sobrado and bishopric of Lugo. Also signed concordats with the monastery of Samos and restored the buildings and buildings of the monastery of St. Estevo Boiro spoiled by the Normans, attaching it to the Antealtares. At the monastery of San Martiño Pinario favored Crafts Cult of constructing a church for monks in a tidy moment in which the convent was outside the city walls and the cathedral was risky respond.

The destruction of Almançor

In 997, Almançor undertook another of its dreaded and victorious campaigns. Its imposing infantry embarked in Cordoba and into the Douro to join his effective cavalry that were added to the Galicians and earls Leoneans who were betting on the indisputable superiority of the Muslim warlord in Spain. It then crossed the Minho and devastated the lands of Salvaterra, destroyed the city of Tui, plundered the monastery of San Cosme and San Damián while the fugitives took refuge in the mountains or on the island of São Simão After the assault on the castle of Ponte Sampaio you closed the passage, fell on the unforgiving land of Santiago.

Peter took charge of evacuating the city seeking to save the relics of the Apostle who took him even as the lives of the people who did not want to expose clearly useless in a fight. The city, silent and deserted, was abandoned to the Islamic leader. This found kneeling before the sartego Santiago elder monk who inspired such respect that no one had bothered him while ordering the complete destruction and burning of the city and the surrounding villages and monasteries.

For eight days everything was looted and destroyed. Finished the goal of letting reduced to ashes the spiritual capital of the Christian West, returned with four thousand captives. As a final humiliation, made load on the shoulders of some of the bells and the sanctuary doors were placed in the apostolic magnificent mosque of Córdoba [1].

Peter was applied after this terrible flood of destruction, an intense and fast restoration work of its cities, villages and monasteries, including the monastery of San Lorenzo of Carboeiro, as well as to renew their spirits dejected and disconsolate of his faithful .

999 died in the Galician King Bermudo II, leaving several illegitimate and a legitimate child, a small five years. In order to avoid further unrest in the Christian kingdoms, his guardian, Count II portucalense Mendo Gonçalves, and Peter himself hastened to do so in Leo anoint At the same moment of coronation, the young King Afonso V of the hand Earl Galician, signs a privilege that confirms, as the first among the bishops of their kingdoms, Pedro de Mezonzo.

Personal life

In the documents of the time, particularly the royal appear testimonies of moral prestige of Peter who is called God's beloved, and tutor in material and spiritual. The queen Elvira, a widow, called her father and the pontiff. On the basis of these documents and other traditions, Antonio López Ferreiro describes him as the father of the poor, of the destitute tutor, defender of the weak against the ongoing atrocities and too powerful, and all that he obtained his acudiam benign and paternal acceptance. He simply autoqualificava as sinful.

Pope Benedict XIV collects the tradition that assigns canticum celebrate the Christian people in times of trouble and distress, the Salve Regina, which begs the hand of Jesus life as sweetness and our hope, compassionate eye. Collect the pope what you read in the Annals of Benedictine Mabillon, year 986: Petrus episcopus, cognomento of Moson, qui ante episcopatum monasterii Sancti Petri ante Altaria in eaden Urbe (Compostella) abbas extiterat. Hic Beata Virgine of PLAM antiphonam, nempe Salve Regina, compuesi dicetur.

Português

Pedro de Mezonzo (Curtis, 930 — Santiago de Compostela, 1003) foi um bispo galego, foi bispo de Iriæ Flaviæ supostamente entre 985 até a sua morte. É venerado na Igreja Católica como santo. Sua memória litúrgica é celebrada em 10 de setembro.

Hagiografia

Era filho de Martinho Placêncio, cavaleiro galego da familia que fundara o mosteiro de Santa Eulalia de Curtis, e de Mustacia. Os seus irmãos foram Adelfio, também monge, Vimara, pai do bispo de Ourense do mesmo nome, Aragaonta e Mustacia.

De cativo, da mão da sua mãe, esteve a serviço da Infanta Dona Paterna, mãe do bispo Sisnando II de Iria, como capelão. Ingressou depois no mosteiro de Santa María de Mezonzo. Mosteiro libros nimis abundanter onde adquiriu uma formação destacada tanto de autores clássicos como dos Padres da Igreja e alcançou fama de possuir sabedoria intelectual e humana. Quando em 955 o mosteiro de Sobrado dos Monges absorveu o de Mezonzo, passou ao primeiro, no que desempenhou o cargo de notário.

Abade

Em 965 é eleito abade. Tal foi o prestígio deste grande mosteiro que o bispo Sisnando e os seus irmãos Rodrigo e Elvira doaram-lhe todos os seus bens. O rei Ramiro III de Leão doou importantes regalias de forma que se converteu num dos centros religiosos mais importantes da cristandade hispana.

As terras de Sobrado sofreram o Horrorum normandorum, espanto da população pelas sanguinolentas incursões dos invasores Vikings. Isto obrigou a Pedro manter a esperança e a confiança num povo estarrecido e em contínuo desespero. Rosendo de Celanova e o conde Gonzalo puseram em fuga a invasão, nun momento em que a monarquia leonesa não era quem deveria defender o país galego, abandonado à sua sorte frente à ameaça normanda.

Depois deste momento, Pedro esforçou-se em reconstruír o assolado mosteiro de Santa Eulalia, em reorganizar as terras e pessoas dependentes de Sobrado, e em consolar os afligidos e socorrer os feridos e magoados.

Mais tarde passou à frente do mosteiro de San Paio de Antealtares, propiciado o seu governo por São Rosendo, agora à frente do governo da diocese de Iria Flavia-Santiago, como bispo de Dume. Acompanhou a este ao concílio que foi celebrado em Leão para suprimir o bispado de Simancas.

Neste intervalo passou a reinar na Galiza Bermudo II apoiado pela nobreza galega e que ansiava governar também em terras leonesas. Pedro, quando menos, nnão diminuiu a oposição ao monarca galego enfrentado por Ramiro III de Leão, pois depois de fazer aquilo com todo o reino de Leão, não sofreu a diminuição da sua autoridade eclesiástica, antes bem recebuu doações do Conde Tello Alvite em 985 com a benção dos bispos São Viliulfo de Tui, Hermenegildo de Lugo, Armentario de Dumio, Gonzalo de Ourense e Pelágio de Iria Flavia-Santiago.

Bispo

Talvez removido pelo novo rei galego, Pelágio Rodríguez renuncia à Mitra. Todos os votos convergem em Pedro. Este assina um documento em 16 de novembro de 985 como bispo de Iria e da Sé Apostólica. Reafirmou Pedro este último título que tantos receios inspirariam em Roma e que lhe causariam, décadas depois, a Crescônio a pena de excomunhão.

Nesse ano, participa nas Cortes convocadas por Bermudo II para reafirmar o seu dominio pacífico sobre todo o reino de Leão. Em janeiro de 986, confirma um diploma do rei galego ao mosteiro de San Salvador de Celanova, e o 7 de fevereiro, recebe daquele um privilégio para a sua Igreja onde foram doadas terras de cavaleiros aprisionados e martirizados por Almançor depois da devastação da cidade de Simancas. Mais adiante, doara-lhe os domínios de Salvaterra no sul da Galiza, e Portomarín, no centro. Alguns destes bens foram concedidos em usufruto inclusive para o caso de que renuncie a mitra compostelar, o que é uma mostra clara do afeto e veneração que o rei professava pelo carismático e reverenciado bispo.

A nobreza galega que apoiaava a Bermudo não ficou satisfeita com as regalias do novo status quo e trabalharam em negociar alianças com o vitorioso Almançor, por temor, já por desejar a proteção e o impulso do dono da Hispânia.

Os poderosos Suero Gundemariz, Gonzalo Menéndez, Galindo e Osorio Díaz chegaram a sublevar-se, mas Pedro manteve-se fiel ao rei galego e não foi fator de divisão nem turbulência. Nesses momentos de angústia e incerteza, tanto o rei como o bispo favorecem aos ascetas do monte Ilicino (o Pico Sacro) para que assistam a sua população com as orações e pregações. Por aquele então também resolveu pacificamente certas disputas entre Sobrado e o bispado de Lugo. Assinou também concordatas com o mosteiro de Samos e restaurou os prédios e edificações do mosteiro de Santo Estevo de Boiro estragado pelos normandos, anexando-o ao de Antealtares. No mosteiro de San Martiño Pinario favoreceu os Ofícios do Culto construíndo para os monges uma igreja ajeitada num momento no que o convento estava fora dos muros da cidade e era arriscado acudir à Catedral.

A destruição de Almançor

Em 997, Almançor empreendia outra das suas temidas e vitoriosas campanhas. A sua imponente infantaria embarcava em Córdoba e entrava pelo Douro para unir-se à sua eficaz cavalaria à que se agregaram condes galegos e leoneses que apostavam na indiscutível superioridade do caudilho muçulmano da Espanha. Seguidamente, cruzavam o Minho e arrasavam as terras de Salvaterra, destruíam a cidade de Tui, saqueavam o mosteiro de San Cosme e San Damián enquanto os fugitivos se refugiavam nas montanhas ou na Ilha de São Simão. Depois do assalto ao castelo de Ponte Sampaio que lhe fechava a passagem, caíam implacáveis ​​sobre as terras de Santiago.

Pedro encarregou-se da evacuação da cidade buscando salvar as relíquias do Apóstolo que levou consigo, assim como as vidas do povo a quem não quiz expor numa luta claramente inútil. A cidade, silenciosa e deserta, ficou abandonada ao líder islâmico. Este encontrou ajoelhado perante o sartego de Santiago um monge ancião que inspirou tal respeito que mandou que ninguém o incomodasse, enquanto ordenava a completa destruição e incêndio da cidade e as vilas e mosteiros dos arredores.

Durante oito dias tudo foi saqueado e destruído. Acabado o objetivo de deixar reduzida a cinzas a capital espiritual do ocidente cristão, retornou com quatro mil cativos. Como humilhação final, fez carregar nos ombros de alguns deles os sinos e as portas do santuário apostólico que foram colocados na magnífica mesquita de Córdoba[1].

Aplicou-se Pedro, depois dessa terrível enxurrada de destruição, a um intenso e rápido trabalho de restauração das suas cidades, vilas e mosteiros, entre eles o mosteiro de San Lourenzo de Carboeiro, assim como a renovar o ânimo abatido e desconsolado dos seus fiéis.

No 999 morria o rei galego Bermudo II, deixando vários bastardos e um filho legítimo, um pequeno de cinco anos. Com o fim de evitar novas agitações nos reinos cristãos, o seu tutor, o conde portucalense Mendo II Gonçalves, e o próprio Pedro apressaram-se a fazê-lo ungir em Leão. No mesmo momento da coroação, o rei jovem Afonso V, da mão do conde galego, assina um privilégio que confirma, como o primeiro entre os bispos dos seus reinos, Pedro de Mezonzo.

Vida pessoal

Nos documentos da época, particularmente os régios, aparecem testemunhos do prestígio moral de Pedro a quem chamam amado de Deus, e tutor no material e no espiritual. A rainha Elvira, já viúva, denomina-o o seu pai e pontífice. Sobre a base destes documentos e outras tradições, Antonio López Ferreiro descreve-o como pai dos pobres, tutor dos desvalidos, defensor dos fracos contra as contínuas e demasiadas atrocidades dos poderosos; e todos os que a ele acudiam obtinham dele benigna e paternal acolhida. Ele, simplesmente, autoqualificava-se como pecador.

O Papa Bento XIV recolhe a tradição que lhe atribui o celebre canticum do povo cristão em momentos de tribulação e angústia, a Salve Regina, onde se implora à mão de Jesus como vida e doçura esperança nossa, de olhos misericordiosos. Recolhe o papa o que se lê nos Anais Benedictinos de Mabillón, ano de 986: Petrus Episcopus, cognomento de Moson, qui ante episcopatum monasterii Sancti Petri de ante Altaria in eaden Urbe (Compostella) abbas extiterat. Hic piam antiphonam de Beata Virgine, nempe Salve Regina, compuesi dicetur.

La Packard è stata una Casa automobilistica americana attiva a Detroit tra il 1899 e il 1958, specializzata in automobili di prestigio.

La Packard fu fondata da James Ward Packard, William Doud Packard e George Lewis Weiss nella città di Warren, nell’Ohio. Proprietario di un’azienda di apparecchiature elettriche, J.W. Packard si incuriosì al nascente settore dell’automobilismo, tanto da acquistare una delle prime vetture costruite da Alexander Winton a Cleveland. Questa vettura incorse in una serie di guai meccanici che indussero Packard a costruire in proprio automobili: nel 1899 viene presentata la prima Packard, la "A". Questa vettura ebbe grande successo, tanto da indurre Packard e soci a fondare la Ohio Automobile Company, la quale introdusse numerose innovazioni, come il comando dello sterzo a volante (anziché a barra).

Packard was an American luxury automobile marque built by the Packard Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, and later by the Studebaker-Packard Corporation of South Bend, Indiana. The first Packard automobiles were produced in 1899 and the last in 1958.

Entering into the 1930s, Packard attempted to beat the stockmarket crash and subsequent Great Depression by manufacturing ever more opulent and expensive cars than it had prior to October 1929. The Packard Twin Six (designed by Jesse Vincent)[15] was introduced for 1932 and renamed the Packard Twelve for the remainder of its run (through 1939). For one year only, 1932, Packard tried fielding an upper-medium-priced car called the Light Eight.

1931 Packard 833As an independent automaker, Packard did not have the luxury of a larger corporate structure absorbing its losses, as Cadillac did with GM and Lincoln with Ford. However, Packard did have a better cash position than other independent luxury marques. Peerless fell under receivership in 1929 and ceased production in 1932. By 1938, Franklin, Marmon, Ruxton, Stearns-Knight, Stutz, Duesenberg, and Pierce-Arrow had all closed.

Packard also had one other advantage that some other luxury automakers did not: a single production line. By maintaining a single line and interchangeability between models, Packard was able to keep its costs down. Packard did not change cars as often as other manufacturers did at the time. Rather than introducing new models annually, Packard began using its own "Series" formula for differentiating its model changeovers in 1923. New model series did not debut on a strictly annual basis, with some series lasting nearly two years, and others lasting as short a time as seven months. In the long run, though, Packard did average approximately one new series per year. By 1930, Packard automobiles were considered part of its Seventh Series. By 1942, Packard was in its Twentieth Series. The "Thirteenth Series" was omitted.

1899–1905

A Packard foi fundada por James Ward Packard, William Doud Packard e por George L. Weiss, na cidade de Warren, Ohio.James acreditava que eles poderiam fabricar carros melhores que os da Winton Weiss, e sendo ele um engenheiro mecanico, tinha em mente várias idéias para a melhoria do design dos carros da época. Packard não estava muito satisfeito com seu Winton, carro que havia comprado há pouco.Ele chegou a escrever para Alexander Winton uma carta com muitas reclamações e sugestões, no entanto, sentindo-se ofendido pela critica de Packard, o Sr. Winton escreveu a Packard desafiando o mesmo a construir um carro melhor. E foi o que Packard fez, construiu um carro de luxo, e assim, fez com que sua marca superasse a de Winton durante muitas décadas. Packard fabricaria o seu primeiro carro em Warren, Ohio, no dia 6 de novembro de 1899. Em setembro de 1900, a Ohio Automobile Company seria registrada como a fabricante, e enquanto isso, os carros seriam vendidos como Packard.Tendo em vista que esses automoveis ganharam uma notoriedade muito grande e em pouco tempo, e não havia mais a fabricante de automoveis intitulada Ohio, seu nome foi mudado, passando, em 1902, a ser chamada Packard Motor Car Company. Desde o inicio, os automoveis Packard introduziriam uma série de inovações em seus projetos, incluindo o volante moderno, e um ano depois, a primeira produção de um motor 12 cilindros, já que até 1903, todos os Packard tinham um motor monocilindrico.

[editar] Decada de trinta

No inicio, durante e depois da década de trinta, os Packard fabricados foram considerados muito caros, para o padrão americano, já que bem nessa época, os Estados Unidos vivam na grande depressão aconomica causada pela queda da bolsa em 1929.todos se referiam a Packard como sendo um dos três "P's" da realeza automobilistica americana, junto com a Pierce Arrow, de Buffalço, Nova York e a Peerless, de Cleveland, Ohio.Durante quase toda a sua historia, a Packard foi comandada pelo seu presidente e gerente geral Alvan Macauley, que também foi presidente da National Automobile Manufactures Association.Indicado para o hall da fama do automobilismo, Macauley foi o criador do slogan da packard, que era Pergunte ao homem que possui um.

{Wikipedia}

Hôtel de ville de Paris

Période ou styleNéorenaissance

TypeHôtel de ville

ArchitecteThéodore Ballu

Édouard Deperthes

Date de construction1357,

1533,

1874-1882

Destination actuelleMairie de Paris

Géographie

Pays France

RégionÎle-de-France

LocalitéParis

Localisation

Coordonnées48° 51′ 23″ Nord 2° 21′ 08″ Est

Géolocalisation sur la carte : Paris

L'hôtel de ville de Paris héberge les institutions municipales de Paris depuis 1357, et est situé dans le 4e arrondissement.

Ce site est desservi par les stations de métro Hôtel de Ville et Châtelet.

Ancien Hôtel de ville et place de grève vers 1583 par Theodor Josef Hubert Hoffbauer.

Étienne Marcel fait l'acquisition de la « Maison aux Piliers » au nom de la municipalité en juillet 1357. C'est là que, depuis lors, se dresse le centre des institutions municipales de Paris.

La « Maison aux Piliers » est remplacée au xvie siècle par un véritable palais dessiné par l'architecte italien Boccador. Sa construction débute en 1533 et s'achève en 1628. D'après les plans de Godde et Lesueur l'agrandissement et la reconstruction partielle de l'hôtel-de-ville a été menée de 1837 et 1848 tout en préservant la façade Renaissance. Antoine Vivenel, entrepreneur général, dirigeait le chantier.

Ancien Hôtel de ville après l'incendie de 1871.

Pendant la Commune de Paris, l'incendie déclenché par un groupe de communards le 24 mai 1871 réduit le palais en cendres. Les archives et la bibliothèque partent donc également en fumée. Ainsi, les deux collections de l'état civil parisien (celle de la ville et celle du greffe) antérieur à 1860 sont à jamais perdues : la première dans l'incendie de l'Hôtel de ville et la seconde dans celui du Palais de Justice.

Le bâtiment est reconstruit entre 1874 et 1882 sur les plans des architectes Théodore Ballu et Édouard Deperthes. La façade, de style néorenaissance, s'inspire largement de celle du bâtiment disparu.

l'Hôtel de Ville au début du xxe siècle.

La place de Grève, rebaptisée place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville le 19 mars 1803, est devenue en 1982 un espace réservé aux piétons.

Paris ayant connu diverses insurrections, l'Hôtel de ville fut souvent le point de ralliement d'émeutiers, insurgés et révolutionnaires. D'Étienne Marcel à la Fronde, de la Révolution aux journées révolutionnaires de juillet 1830 et février 1848, de la Commune à la Libération de Paris, l'Hôtel de ville est un lieu chargé d'histoire (voir l'article Chronologie de Paris).

Lieu de pouvoir où siège le conseil de Paris et de prestige où sont reçus les hôtes du maire, l'Hôtel de Ville est le plus grand bâtiment municipal en Europe. Jusqu'en 1977, l'actuel bureau du maire (155 m2) était celui occupé par le préfet de Paris. Le maire disposait à l'origine d'un appartement de fonction de 1 400 m2, en partie transformé en crèche.

ESPAGNOL

Ayuntamiento de París

Fachada del Ayuntamiento de París.

El Ayuntamiento de París (Hôtel de Ville de Paris, en francés) alberga las instituciones del gobierno municipal de París. El mismo se ubica frente a la Plaza del Ayuntamiento (Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville, anteriormente llamada Place de Grève) en el IV Distrito de la ciudad. Ha albergado el ayuntamiento de París desde 1357; Actualmente se utiliza para múltiples propósitos: aloja la administración de la ciudad, allí tiene su despacho el alcalde de París (desde 1977), y también se utiliza para brindar grandes recepciones. En los últimos años, la Place de l'Hôtel-de-Ville se ha engalanado en gran parte de primavera y verano con un "jardín efímero", en el que el Ayuntamiento instala miles de especies vegetales además de un hermoso estanque con sus respectivas especies de plantas, sin embargo, en 2009 no hubo estanque.

Índice [ocultar]

1 Historia

2 Véase también

3 Galería fotográfica

4 Enlaces externos

Historia[editar · editar código]

Historia Etienne Marcel adquirió la "Casa de las Columnas" en nombre del municipio en julio de 1357 . Aquí es donde, desde entonces, se encuentra el centro administrativo de París, las instituciones municipales. La "Casa de las Columnas" se sustituye en el siglo XVI por un palacio diseñado por el arquitecto italiano Boccador . Su construcción comenzó en 1533 y terminó en 1628 . Las ampliaciones se añadieron entre 1836 y 1850 conservando la fachada renacentista. Durante la Comuna de París , el incendio provocado por un grupo de comuneros en 1871 redujo a cenizas el palacio. Los archivos y la biblioteca de la ciudad sufrieron el mismo trágico suceso. Ambas colecciones vitales de París anteriores a 1860 (documentos de la ciudad y el registro) se perdieron para siempre, los primeros en un incendio en el Ayuntamiento y el segundo en el palacio de justicia . El edificio fue reconstruido entre 1874 y 1882 sobre los planes de los arquitectos Teodoro Ballu y Edouard Deperthes . La fachada de estilo neo-renacentista , se basa en gran medida de la del edificio desaparecido.

Ayuntamiento a principios de la xx º siglo . La plaza de Greve , rebautizada como la Place de l'Hotel de Ville de 19 de marzo 1803 , se ha convertido en un espacio peatonal desde 1982 . París ha sido objeto de varias insurrecciones, el ayuntamiento era a menudo el punto focal de los motines, los rebeldes y los revolucionarios. Desde Etienne Marcel en la Fronda , la Revolución de julio 1830 y febrero 1848 , la Comuna a la liberación de París , el ayuntamiento es un lugar cargado de historia. Lugar donde se asienta el ayuntamiento de París es de gran prestigio, es donde los huéspedes son recibidos por el Alcalde, el Ayuntamiento también se ha convertido en un espacio para exposiciones, es el edificio municipal más grande de Europa. Hasta 1977, la oficina del alcalde fue ocupado por el prefecto de París, que mide 155 metros cuadrados. El alcalde tuvo originalmente una vivienda oficial de 1400 metros cuadrados, en parte transformado en vivero.

Fachada del Ayuntamiento La fachada principal está decorada con las personas importantes de la ciudad de París, artistas, académicos, políticos, industriales, cuyos nombres se representó en la fachada en orden alfabético 1 : Jean le Rond d'Alembert Jean-Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville Antoine Arnauld Jean Sylvain Bailly Claude Ballin Antoine-Louis Barye Pierre-Jean de Beranger Pierre-Antoine Berryer Jean-Baptiste Biot Nicolas Boileau Etienne Boileau Louis Antoine de Bougainville André-Charles Boulle Guillaume Budé Jean Bullant Armand-Gaston Camus Godofredo Cavaignac Jean Siméon Chardin Alexis Claude Clairaut Paul-Louis Courier Charles-François Daubigny Jacques Louis David Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps Eugene Delacroix Paul Delaroche Ambroise Firmin-Didot Charles Dumoulin Henri Estienne Jean Bernard Leon Foucault Marie-Therese Rodet Geoffrin Jean Goujon Aquiles Harlay Marie-Jean Hérault de Séchelles Fernando Herold Víctor Jacquemont Nicolas Lancret Antoine Lavoisier Domingo de Cortona Charles Le Brun Henri-Louis Cain André Le Nôtre Pierre Lescot La piedra Estoile Eustache Le Sueur Nicolás Malebranche Mansart Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de Marivaux Jules Michelet François Miron Mathieu Molé Pierre de Montereau Alfred de Musset Jean-Nicolas Pache Étienne Pasquier Charles Perrault Jean-Rodolphe Perronet Louis-Benoît Picard Jean-Baptiste Pigalle Germain Pilon Philippe Quinault Jean-Francois Regnard Henri Victor Regnault Se trata de Henri Regnault 1843-1871 Richelieu Manon Roland Théodore Rousseau Antoine-Isaac Silvestre de Sacy Rouvroy Luis, duque de Saint-Simon Henri Sauval Eugene Scribe Jean-Michel Sedaine Madame de Stael Eugenio Sue François-Joseph Talma Jacques-Auguste de Thou Anne Hilarion de Costentin Tourville Horace Vernet Abel-François Villemain Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Voltaire Molière En la plaza, se encuentran dos estatuas de bronce, alegorías de las Arte realizada por Laurent Marqueste y las Ciencias por Jules Blanchard .

El salón de baile del Hotel de Ville en París.

El salón de baile del Hotel de Ville en París, fue diseñado como una réplica "republicana" Salón de los Espejos de Versalles, construida dos siglos antes. Después de haber sido quemados durante la Comuna de París (1871), el Ayuntamiento fue reconstruido en estilo renacentista, durante la Tercera República. Los frescos de los arcos del salón de baile del Hotel son las dieciséis provincias de Francia. Fueron realizadas por cuatro pintores: Jean Joseph Weerts , Ehrmann François-Émile , Milliet Pablo y Fernando Humberto. Arcos del Norte por Jean Weerts José: - Flandes - Picardía Arcos del Este por François-Emile Ehrmann: - Baya - Champán - Bretaña - Borgoña - Auvernia - Lorena Arcos del Sur por Paul Milliet: - Normandía - Condado de Niza Arcos al oeste por Fernando Humbert: - Argelia - Lyon - Languedoc - Gascuña - Provenza - Guayana Algunas provincias francesas que no están incluidas como las de Franche-Comté y el Lemosín . Además, la Alsacia anexada a Alemania en 1871 (recuperada en 1919 por el Tratado de Versalles ) está ausente; mientras que Argelia anexionó a Francia en 1830 (abandonó la República en 1961 por el referéndum sobre la autodeterminación ) está presente en el Salón de Baile.

Enna is a city and comune located roughly at the center of Sicily, southern Italy, in the province of Enna, towering above the surrounding countryside. It has earned the nicknames "belvedere" (panoramic viewpoint) and "ombelico" (navel) of Sicily.At 931m above sea level, Enna is the highest Italian province capital.Enna is situated near the center of the island; whence the Roman writer Cicero called it Mediterranea maxime, reporting that it was within a day's journey of the nearest point on all the three coasts. The peculiar situation of Enna is described by several ancient authors, and is indeed one of the most remarkable in Sicily. The ancient city was placed on the level summit of a gigantic hill, so lofty as almost to deserve to be called a mountain, and surrounded on all sides with precipitous cliffs almost wholly inaccessible, except in a very few spots which are easily defended, abundantly supplied with water which gushes from the face of the rocks on all sides, and having a fine plain or table land of about 5 km in circumference on the summit, it forms one of the most remarkable natural fortresses in the world.Archaeological findings dating from the 14th century BC have proved the human presence in the area since Neolithic times. A settlement from before the 11th century BC, assigned by some to the Sicani, has been identified at the top of the hill; later it was a center of the Siculi. In historical times it became renowned in Sicily and Italy for the cult of the goddess Demeter (the Roman Ceres), whose grove in the neighborhood was known as the umbilicus Siciliae ("The navel of Sicily"). Ceres' temple in Henna was a famed site of worship.

Enna è un comune italiano di 27.792 abitanti, capoluogo della provincia omonima in Sicilia.Nota per essere il capoluogo di provincia più alto d'Italia, per via dell'altitudine del centro abitato che si attesta a 970 m presso il Municipio, raggiunge i 992 m al Castello di Lombardia, l'antica acropoli, precedendo Caltanissetta e Ragusa in Sicilia.Fino al 1926 nota con il nome di Castrogiovanni, la città è inoltre celebre sotto i motti di Urbs Inexpugnabilis, come i romani la definirono per la sua imprendibilità, Ombelico di Sicilia, grazie alla sua centralità geografica rispetto all'Isola, e Belvedere di Sicilia, per le superbe vedute panoramiche che da qui si hanno su buona parte dell'isola.Dopo un passato glorioso che la vide, già da oltre tre millenni or sono, roccaforte privilegiata per sicani, greci, romani, bizantini, arabi, normanni, svevi e aragonesi, Enna vive oggi un periodo di rinnovato sviluppo e accresciuto prestigio sul piano nazionale ed internazionale, grazie principalmente alla sua moderna università, quarto polo universitario della Sicilia, al suo Autodromo di Pergusa in cui in passato si sono disputati gran premi della Formula 3000 e della Formula 2 (Gran Premio di Enna), ed al suo polo industriale, nel quale sono in costruzione un impianto per la produzione di energia elettrica attraverso lo sfruttamento delle biomasse ma grazie altresì alle grandiose tracce che una storia lunga e fiorente vi hanno impresso, che si rivelano nel suo castello, nelle sue torri, nei suoi quartieri più antichi e nel centro storico ricco di belle chiese, pregevoli palazzi ed eccezionali belvedere.Enna sorge nella parte più elevata di un'ampia dorsale montuosa, che svetta sulla valle del Dittaino a 931 m d'altitudine, tale dorsale avente forma di V dolce o, secondo altre interpretazioni, di piramide mozzata si trova proprio nel centro geografico della Sicilia, i rilievi che circondano Enna fanno parte della catena dei monti Erei, montagne calcaree e arenacee poco sviluppate in altezza, che costituiscono la maggiore presenza orografica della provincia ennese. Il versante settentrionale del monte è assai ripido e ha un maggiore dislivello rispetto agli altri, ragion per cui è ammantato da un ampio bosco. Quello meridionale, invece, è notevolmente urbanizzato, poiché costituisce un importante passaggio tra la città alta e quella bassa, che si sviluppa ai piedi dell'altopiano. Il comune di Enna rientra tra i primi 30 comuni più estesi d'Italia: il suo territorio occupa infatti una superficie di 357,14 km², la porzione centro-occidentale della Provincia, costituiti prevalentemente di rilevi aventi altitudine estremamente variabile, compresa tra la minima di 230 m s.l.m. e la massima di 990 corrispondente alla cima del monte su cui sorge la città e ove aveva sito l'acropoli antica. Circa 10 km a sud del centro storico si trova il lago Pergusa, a 677 m s.l.m., caratterizzato da un bacino endoreico, importante luogo di sosta e svernamento per decine di specie di avifauna attorno alle cui rive si snoda l'omonimo circuito automobilistico, il più importante dell'Italia meridionale. Per quanto concerne i fiumi, quelli che scorrono nel territorio di Enna hanno principalmente carattere torrentizio, se si escludono il Dittaino, affluente del Simeto, ed il Salso o Imera meridionale. Enna è comunemente suddivisa in due "macro-aree", Enna Alta ed Enna Bassa, cui si aggiunge Pergusa, pur essendo una frazione. Tutte e tre sono aree urbane nettamente separate dal punto di vista geografico.

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