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siamo sognatori, siamo makers, partiamo dalle stampanti 3d per salvare il mondo.
Il nostro scopo è realizzare case di argilla a costo tendente a zero, utilizzando la terra del posto, stampandole in serie con una gigantesca stampante 3d.
Il sogno prende forma.
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Catedral
De estilo gótico, se inicio su construcción en 1433 por los arquitectos Ysambret y Carlín sobre la antigua mezquita mayor almohade, durando su construcción 65 años siendo terminada en 1507.
Templo de planta rectangular formado por cinco naves compartidas en 8 tramos de capillas y crucero. 28 pilares adosados, más 32 exentos, soportan las 68 bóvedas ojivales que se escalonan desde el tramo central mas alto (37 m) hasta el tramo más bajo situado en las capillas (12.80 m).
La nave central está formada por la capilla mayor y el coro. Se accede a la capilla mayor a través de tres rejas de hierro dorado realizadas en el siglo XVI. En su interior se ubica el retablo mayor.
Entre el coro y la capilla mayor se encuentra la capilla de San Fernando, el crucero y el trascoro. Entre el periodo comprendido entre 1528 y 1593 se construyeron una serie de dependencias en estilo plateresco y manierista anexas al templo en el lado sureste de la Catedral.
El periodo barroco de la Catedral corresponde a la construcción de la parroquia del Sagrario (1618-1663) decorada en su interior con relieves vegetales y grupo escultórico en las tribunas.
El Pabellón de Oficinas situado desde el crucero hacia los pies del templo comenzó siendo un granero en el siglo XVIII pero fue transformado en oficinas en 1930. Actualmente es el Pabellón de Recepción de visita turística.
Inicia su construcción en 1.401 en el solar de la mezquita mayor almohade.
Su financiación corre a cargo de donaciones privadas de canónicos, prelados y de algunos laicos, estableciéndose también un impuesto sobre el comercio de la carne cuyo importe se destina a la citada obra.
La catedral tiene planta de salón con cinco naves y capillas entre los contrafuertes. Mide 116 metros de largo por 76 de ancho y 93 vidrieras.
En 1.660 se fundó en el edificio la primera Academia de Bellas Artes Sevillana.
www.sevillaguia.com/sevillaguia/monumentos/catedral.htm
Puertas:
Del Bautismo. Aparece el bautismo de Cristo con varias estatuas de Santos, todos ellos obra de Lorenzo Mercadante de Bretaña, más una serie de ángeles y profetas, obra de Pedro Millán.
Del Nacimiento. Figura el nacimiento de Jesús con obras de Lorenzo Mercadante y Pedro Millán.
De la Asunción. Fue realizada en el siglo XIX en dos etapas, una de 1.829 al 1831, y otra de 1.877 al 1.898. En esta última Ricardo Ballver hizo el relieve del tímpano y las figuras de los apóstoles.
Del Príncipe o de San Cristóbal. Construida entre 1.887 y 1.895.
De la Concepción. Construida entre 1.895 a 1.927.
De los Palos. Representa la Adoración de los Reyes (siglo XVI).
De las Campanillas. Representa la entrada en Jerusalén (siglo XVI).
www.sevillaguia.com/sevillaguia/monumentos/catedral.htm
Capillas Principales:
Capilla Real. Su estilo es renacentista y fue proyectada e iniciada por Martín de Gainza en 1.541 y posteriormente por Hernán Ruiz. Por ser panteón de Fernando III, Alfonso X y Beatriz de Suabia se conservan en él una serie de obras de arte y recuerdos históricos relacionados con la familia real. La Virgen de los Reyes, proclamada patrona de la ciudad de Sevilla y de sus Archidiócesis en 1946 por el Papa Pío XII, también se encuentra situada en esta capilla por su especial vinculación con el Rey Fernando, el Santo.
Capilla Mayor. La ampliación de esta capilla se hizo en 1.518. Su estilo arquitectónico es renacentista. Las rejas de hierro dorado que cierran la capilla fueron realizadas por fray Francisco de Salamanca en 1.529 (sólo el frente principal). Las laterales son obra de Sancho Muñoz, Diego de Huidobro y Juan de Couillana. En ella se encuentra el retablo mayor.
En 1.528 Diego de Riaño Comienza la Sacristía Mayor.
La Capilla de la Virgen de la antigua. Está situada en el lugar que ocupaba el mihrab de la mezquita. La capilla es de planta rectangular, cubierta con bóveda de nervaduras.
El Retablo Mayor:
Es un retablo que resume las tendencias que conviven en la transición del gótico al renacimiento. Nombraremos algunos maestros que intervinieron en su construcción: Pieter Dancart (1.481 a 1.488), Marco (1.497 a 1.506), Pedro Millán ( 1.507 a 1.508), Alejo y Jorge Fernández. Tiene 230 metros cuadrados de superficie
Realizado en varias etapas iniciándose en 1482 y completándose en 1564. Fueron varios los escultores que trabajaron en él. Consta de cuatro cuerpos de altura y cuatro calles en vertical, rematada con crestería y enmarcado por pilares con relieves de los Reyes de Israel y Judá.
Forman el retablo un conjunto de cuarenta y cuatro relieves y más de doscientas figuras de santos que se disponen en las pilastras que articulan el retablo. Dosel con figura de la “Piedad” flanqueada por un apostolado y sobre ellos “Calvario” gótico del siglo XIV.
En el banco, figura gótica de la “Virgen de la Sede” realizada en el siglo XIII, acompañada por relieves de tres escenas de martirios de santos, las” Santas Justa y Rufina” y “San Isidoro y San Leandro”.
En el primer cuerpo: “ El Nacimiento de la Virgen”, “El abrazo de San Joaquín y Santa Ana”, “La Anunciación”, “ El Nacimiento de Cristo”, “ La matanza de los inocentes”, “La Circuncisión y "La Adoración a los Reyes”.
En el segundo cuerpo: “La Presentación del Niño en el Templo”, “ El Bautismo de Cristo”, “La Resurrección de Lázaro”, “La Asunción de la Virgen”, “La entrada de Cristo en Jerusalén”, “La Sagrada Cena” y “La Oración en el Huerto”.
En el tercer cuerpo: “Camino del Calvario”, “La Flagelación”, ”La Coronación de Espinas”, “La Resurrección”, “Ecce Homo”, “El Expolio” y “El Prendimiento de Cristo”.
En el cuarto cuerpo, “El Entierro de Cristo”, “Las Marías en el Sepulcro”, ”La Magdalena a los pies de Cristo Resucitado”, “La Ascensión", "Bajada de Cristo al Limbo”, “La Cena de Emaus" y “La Venida del Espíritu Santo”.
En los laterales del retablo representaciones de “La Creación de Eva”, “La Huida a Egipto”, “Cristo entre los Doctores”, “La Transfiguración” y “La Magdalena ungiendo los pies a Cristo”. A la derecha figuran “El Pecado original”,”El Juicio Final”, “La Multiplicación de los panes y de los peces”, “La Expulsión de los mercaderes del templo” y “La Conversión de San Pablo”.
Sala Capitular:
Es de planta elíptica, proyectada por Hernán Ruiz y completada, a su muerte, por Asensio de Maeda. Posee una decoración a base de relieves realizados por Juan Bautista Vázquez, Diego de Pesquera y Diego de Velasco. Está dedicada a reuniones del Cabildo.
La Catedral tiene cuatro patios: de los Naranjos, del Mariscal, de los Óleos, y de los Limones.
Patio de los Naranjos:
Al Claustro de la Catedral, conocido como Patio de los Naranjos, se realiza el acceso a través de la llamada puerta del Perdón, formada por arco de herradura apuntado y decorada con yeserías realizadas en 1522 por Bartolomé López, grupo escultórico en los laterales, formado por "San Pedro y San Pablo", y sobre estos, "la Virgen y el Arcángel San Gabriel" y relieve de la "Expulsión de los Mercaderes" situado sobre el arco de la puerta. Se iniciaron las obras de este patio en 1172 C. y se concluyeron en el año 1196 C. Posteriormente ha sido reformado aunque a mantenido parte de su estructura original.
Entre las obras escultóricas de interés mencionaremos; "Virgen de los Reyes" (siglo XIII, obra anónima de estilo gótico), "Virgen de la Sede" (siglo XIII, anónima de estilo gótico), "Sepulcro del Cardenal Cervantes" (siglo XV, obra gótica de Lorenzo Mercadante), "Cristo de la Clemencia" (siglo XVII, de Martínez Montañés obra barroca), "San Fernando" (siglo XVII, de Pedro Roldán), "Santas Justa y Rufina" (siglo XVIII, obra de Duque Cornejo de estilo barroco).
De las obras pictóricas destacaremos; "Virgen de la Antigua" (siglo XVI, obra anónima de estilo renacentista), "San Cristóbal" (siglo XVI, de Pérez de Alesio), "Inmaculada Concepción" (siglo XVII, obra de Zurbarán de estilo barroco) y "Visión de San Antonio " (siglo XVII, de Murillo).
La imagen pertenece al monumento fúnebre que recoge los supuestos restos de Cristóbal Colón. Sobre un podio, cuatro reyes portan el féretro sobre sus hombros. Estos personajes representan los reinos de Navarra, Valencia, León, Castilla y Granada.
Sevilla Catedral
Dirección:Avda. de la Constitución, 13
Teléfono:954 21 49 71
Horario:Invierno: De lunes a sábado: de 11:00 a 17:30. Domingos: de 14:30 a 18:30
Verano: De lunes a sábado: de 9:30 a 16:30. Domingos: de 14:30 a 18:30
BUS:C5 - Metro Centro
Acceso:Entrada general 8€. Estudiantes menores de 25 años y pensionistas 3€ con acreditación. Entrada gratuita(acreditación): menores de 15 años acompañados por un adulto, discapacitados y un acompañante, desempleados y naturales y residentes en la diocesis de Sevilla
They want this fast and they want a photo that looks like the location they're going. Is this horrible? Obviously, the title just a place holder. Have to print this tomorrow. Thanks.
SHIVA
En el hinduismo, Shiva es una de las deidades más importantes; El Señor Shiva (literalmente: el auspicioso) es la tercera persona de la Trimurti , formada por Brahma, el dios creado ; Vishnú, el conservador del universo, y Shiva, el destructor o transformador de toda la creación. En el hinduismo pueden existir diversas corrientes filosóficas y modos de pensamiento, por lo que la función de estas tres divinidades puede variar y ampliarse. Por ejemplo, para los seguidores de Vishnú, éste es "El todo poderoso", es "El absoluto", es la forma manifestada de la Conciencia Universal creadora, mejor conocida en Occidente como Dios; pero para los adoradores de Shiva, esa cualidad creadora, omnipresente y omnipotente, es una característica de Shiva, también denominado Shankara, Shambo, Ishvara, Pashupati y Nata-raja, entre otros. En realidad, para un estudioso del profundo Vedanta (una de las corrientes filosóficas más importantes de la India) todas esas divinidades no son más que formas, nombres y manifestaciones de una divinidad absoluta, sin forma, omnipotente, omnipresente, denominada Brahman (no Brahma) y que el ser humano ha establecido para explicar el universo.
Entre las variadas historias mitológicas hindúes, encontramos que Shiva participó en un concurso de baile, ante la presencia de su consorte Parvati y una asamblea, certamen en el que, obviamente, él salió vencedor. Esa danza cósmica divina y mítica se llevó a cabo en Chidambaram, al sur de la India. Es precisamente en esta región donde Shiva es principalmente adorado como el Señor de la danza o Nata-raja. Para algunos filósofos hindúes, esta representación de la deidad es la más clara imagen de la actividad de Dios.
EN SU ASPECTO SRI NATARAJA
El aspecto que está más relacionado con la Trinidad Brahmánica es el aspecto Nataraya (Nata: teatro, danza; Raja: realeza) "El Rey de la Danza Teatral" o más comúnmente llamado "El Señor de la Danza Cósmica"; un epíteto relacionado es el de Pasupati (Pasu: bestias; Pati: protector) el protector paternal de las bestias; o el de Digambara (Dig: vestimenta, Ambara: espacio) Aquél que se viste con el espacio, ya que es la deidad que luce su torso desnudo. El siguiente aspecto es el de MahaYogui (Maha: gran, Yogui: autorrealización) El gran autorrealizado, es el aspecto más conocido y venerado en la festividad de MahaSivaratri En el aspecto de Sri Nataraja se lo observa en postura de danza, ya que el sentido general de esta iconografía es que el Señor Shiva ejecuta la danza cósmica de la continuidad eterna de los ciclos de nacimientos y muertes. Es así, que generalmente detrás de Él y sujeto por siete mechones de cabello se ve el Agni Ananta (Agni: fuego; ananta: círculo) o gran círculo de fuego representando un ciclo completo.
Los relatos Shiva Purana explican cómo Shiva ofrece su cabeza para detener el descenso de la Diosa Gangá convertida en catarata, cuya potencia destruiría la tierra, así lo hizo y el agua separó su abundante y enmarañada cabellera en siete mechones, simbólicamente representan los siete brazos del río Ganges.
Su cabeza se ve coronada por una Mitra (corona) en cono truncado representación del Monte Meru o Morada de los Dioses. Luce dos aretes, uno masculino y otro femenino. De su tronco se desprenden cuatro brazos, cuyas manos adoptan diferentes posturas o sujetan algunos elementos simbólicos, dependiendo de la iconografía: una de las manos puede presentar la Simha Murkha Hasta Mudra o en cara de león o la misma sujetar un Damaru (tambor en reloj de arena) aquel que marca el ritmo de la creación. Otra mano en Mukula Hasta Mudra o en capullo, esta mano encenderá a Agni , el fuego de la aniquilación o purificación.
La cuarta mano en Abhaya Pataka (estandarte de protección) o en Ardha Candra Hasta Mudra ( Yo te protegeré por la senda de la devoción).
Rodeando la cintura se observa el Yajnopavita o Cordón Sagrado (cordón de iniciación) del cual se ha despojado (ya que el mismo debe ser usado sobre el pecho) para demostrar que no existen las castas.
Una de sus piernas, levantada y con el pie en postura de Ananda Marga, señala la senda de la salvación; apoyado en su otra pierna, postura que denota la destrucción del mal, ya que aplasta las tentaciones, que en este caso están representadas por un ser pequeño, un "monstruo" enano, Mayulaga, sobre el que se halla parado, de esta forma impide que dichas tentaciones obstaculicen el sendero de la bienaventuranza.
Sri Parvati es la Sakti (energía femenina), la consorte de Shiva, la cual tiene diferentes aspectos que le acompañan.
La danza de Shiva Nata- raja es un símbolo de la unidad y ritmo de la existencia. El proceso continuo y permanente de la creación y la destrucción del mundo, del universo. Un científico o físico puede señalar que todo objeto y ser está sujeto a un cambio, como lo explicó Albert Einstein, pues la energía se transforma; pero, desde el punto de vista filosófico-religioso hindú, ese cambio cíclico (creación- transformación) es parte del juego o lila creador de la divinidad, en la que ella misma sólo funge como espectadora, ya que es inmutable y absoluta. Esa danza representa las cinco actividades de Shiva: sristi (dominio, creación, evolución), sthiti (preservación o conservación), samhara (destrucción, evolución), tirobhava (velo, ilusión, corporeidad) y anugraha (liberación o salvación y gracia divina). De manera más concisa todo lo anterior significa la creación del universo, su apoyo y presencia en el espacio universal, su disolución al final del ciclo de las cuatro eras o yugas (en el hinduismo el tiempo es cíclico y está dividido en cuatro eras o etapas, a diferencia de la concepción occidental que es lineal), el ocultamiento de la naturaleza de la divinidad y la concesión del verdadero conocimiento al ser humano.
All photos in this gallery are all rights reserved. If you want to use any of them, please send an email before. Thanks for collaboration.
The thistle is blooming and the butterflies are hitting it in our area. I had a great couple of hours chasing several species today. This dark form tiger is in great condition.
Located on the grounds of the New York Hall of Science, this distinctive sculpture, dating to 1964, is by the modernist sculptor Theodore Roszak (1907–1981). It was commissioned as part of the permanent sculptural program of the New York World’s Fair of 1964-65.
Forms in Transit is a 43-foot long sculpture of aluminum and steel tubes and sheet metal. It suggests an aircraft, with fuselage and wings, but it is also meant to embody the concept of motion and change. The work is in keeping with one of the central themes of the fair, space exploration, and complemented several other significant features in the park, such as The Rocket Thrower statue, Court of Astronauts, Fountain of the Planets, Space Park and The Unisphere.
Portions of a damaged wing were removed in 1970. Though environmental corrosion is evident, some of the patchy, blistered surface of the sculpture appears to be original to the piece, and intended to suggest the incendiary voyage of the vessel as it passes at rapid speed through the atmosphere.
This is not the statues original location, although it is close to it. It was originally in the vicinity of the Chrysler and Transportation & Travel Pavilions, about 1/10 mile to the south.
Lella Lombardi / Giorgio Francia Osella PA9 BMW Sportscar.
All of photographs published here are copyright © Anthony Fosh All Rights Reserved. They may not be reproduced and/or used in any form of publication, print or the Internet without my written permission
We walked over the two tops that form the Screes, it rained low, snowed high, visibility on top was poor and then I decided to use the Screes path back to the car park at Wasdale. A big mistake in the wet, every boulder was deadly slippy. I only used the little G1X MK2, I carried the 5D but it stayed in my backpack for a change, there wasn't much to get excited about
We had a complete change this Christmas – we cancelled it! - we went walking in The Lakes, or Wasdale more precisely. We were staying at Irton Hall B & B, they had over 70 in for Christmas dinner but we ate jam bread on the slopes of Sca Fell Pike. Fantastic. We had a front wheel puncture on a run flat tyre on the new car with a 100 mile still to drive on the afternoon of Christmas eve on our way there. I drove straight to the nearest ATS – where I have an account – they shook their heads and directed me to Westhoughton Tyres, the lads there were fantastic and got us on our way in good time. BMW dealer advice was run on the flat tyre and then throw it away - £250! Where I would have got a tyre on the western side of the Lakes over Christmas I don’t know, ATS didn’t have one to sell me.
The weather was forecast good for Christmas day but after a fine start it was raining before we even left the car park in Wasdale. We headed up Lingmell and ran into snow on the summit. The path onto Sca Fell Pike was very icy, snow covered and visibility was low, the snow kept falling. We didn’t linger long, it was too cold to have dinner up there so we dropped down onto the Corridor Route, where we had our dinner. We went that way to stretch the walk out, having originally intended to cross to Great End. The tops were so icy, glazed, with not enough snow to get a grip on that we decide to leave it for another day. From Styhead we headed back to Wasdale and a dull but fine finish to the day. A drink in the bar at Irton Hall was on the radar.
Every morning we headed into Wasdale early, it got colder, icier and sunnier as the days went by. We went up Yewbarrow, it was an icy scramble up and I decided it was too dangerous to go down Stirrup Crag to Dore Head so went back the same way. It turned out to be the right decision as we lingered on the top, going to view points that we wouldn’t have and getting some decent photos. One morning we walked over the Screes tops, Illgill Head and Whin Rigg, dropping down the steep slope to The southern end of Wast Water. Having said that I would never walk the Screes path alongside Wast Water again the memory of how awful it is in the rain had faded. There is only really a quarter of a mile out of three miles that is really bad, every rock was like glass with the potential to break a leg every step. It seemed a long way and I was getting killer looks from Herself.
We made our way onto Sca Fell on a beautiful morning, clear blue sky. The snow line had got lower most nights but we never had the low level snow that caused problems in the rest of the country. I chose a, sometimes, pathless way to the summit, partly because I’d never been that way but also to stay in the sun, to keep the view and to avoid the ways that would be a touch dangerous, it was -4 and seared with ice for the last 600 feet. After 15 minutes on the summit wispy thin cloud came racing in, crossing the Lake District in minutes, the photos show it heading towards us and I was glad to have got the clear photos first. Looking out to sea a great mattress of cloud was heading straight for us. It was calm and sunny one minute and the next we were engulfed in thick cloud with 30 yards visibility at the most. I have never had a clear sky turn to cloud so fast – ever! We were going down to Slightside next which was OK, about a mile following the ridge down, the problem was getting back to Wasdale from there. We needed to get to Great Howe which meant a pathless trek a mile SW across Quagrigg Moss – a bog full of tarnlets, it would be a nightmare in low visibility. After getting some accurate compass bearings and heading down off Slightside we suddenly dropped out of the cloud and could see our target, brilliant, we legged it across the semi frozen bog and finally felt able to rest and grab a sandwich and cup of tea. We had to find our way down Raven Crags, which was interesting – and steep! We needed to get to the footbridge to get onto the Burnmoor Tarn path back to Wasdale. As we got closer to Burnmoor Tarn the light that I had been cursing gave us a gorgeous sunset. I had one eye on a gap in the cloud low down in the sky out at sea and I was hoping the sun would break through, it did. Burnmoor Tarn was like a mirror, reflecting the surrounding mountains, including Yewbarrow and parts of the Mosedale Horseshoe in the far distance. There was just the two of us, we had barely seen a soul all day, it was a fantastic end to a tough day. As we dropped into Wasdale I caught the deep pink and orange of the last of the sun, I was shooting into it but I had nothing to lose. There would have been quite a few tripods at the opposite end of the lake but I think I was in the better place – for a change.
On our final walking day we decided to head up Great Gable. It was clear of cloud for a change but ominously the surrounding tops, including the Sca Fells were cloud covered. Another beautiful but very cold morning, it was going to be very icy up there so we elected to go via Styhead and the tourist track. We would choose a way off once we were up there. Long before we got to the top, although we couldn’t see it, we knew the cloud was swirling in and out on the summit so it was going to be hit and miss for the photos. The cloud was down for the last 500 feet but once on the frozen top it kept clearing briefly – very briefly. There were more people up there than we had seen the entire trip previously. People were getting out after Christmas, many had parked at the top of Honister for the fairly easy walk in across Green Gable, some were not dressed for winter walking it has to be said. We left for an icy scramble down to Arron Slack, up onto Green Gable them we galloped down Arron Slack to Styhead and back to Wasdale.
Dieu peut changer le temps et les circonstances."
Il EST Ecrit!
Je connais les projets que J’ai formé à votre égard, dit l’Éternel, projets de paix et non de malheur, afin de vous donner un avenir et de l’espérance. Jérémie 29 :11
Notre Cher Haïti, Nos Frères et Sœurs haïtiens, dépendent de la bénédiction et de la sécurité de Dieu pour sortir de cette fange, et non pas sur la Capacité et sur l’intelligence d’une personne ou sur les 42 esprits ou Loas, souvent appelé dieux tutélaires de la race. !!! Le Dieu d’Abraham, d’Isaac, de Jacob et d’Harry Laventure, Qui se révèle comme YHVH est le seul Vrai créateur en Jésus Christ qui est le pourvoyeur de la sécurité, l’habitat et la nourriture.
Dans l'histoire, il est d'importantes périodes transitoires, véritables charnières entre plusieurs époques. En1492, Christophe Colomb conquit Haïti, tua ses habitants et emmena d’autres ressortissants.
Alors Haïti (Ayiti) Quisqueya Bohio, dans le langage des indigénistes jadis, traduit littéralement « terre de haute montagne », Terre qu’Espagne avait choisi en vue faire résider son nom, devient propriété des nations. Les dominateurs de l'histoire le foulèrent tour à tour : Le Portugal, La France, l’Angleterre, l’Allemagne, Les Etats-Unis et aujourd’hui tous les organisations paria de la terre connus sous les sobriquets « des nations unies, l’OEA, la Caricom » ; tous établirent successivement leur autorité, et se préoccupaient bien peu du bien être de nos frères et soeurs.
Durant 2 siècles (d’indépendance), les descendants du peuple noir choisi d’Afrique qui avaient chassé en 1804 leurs usurpateurs, connurent soit la dictature, soit l'occupation.
Et pour cause : un enseignement débraillé de la « La BIBLE »:
Il est écrit « Faites donc du règne de Dieu et de ce qui est juste à ses yeux votre préoccupation première, et toutes les choses matérielles vous seront données en plus. Matthieu 6 : 33
Mon peuple est détruit, parce qu’il lui manque la connaissance. Puisque tu as rejeté la connaissance, Je te rejetterai, et tu seras dépouillé de mon sacerdoce; Puisque tu as oublié la loi de ton Dieu, J’oublierai aussi tes enfants ». Osée 4 :6
Quand tu seras entré dans le pays que l’Éternel, ton Dieu, te donne, tu n’apprendras pas à faire selon les abominations de ces nations : il ne se trouvera au milieu de toi personne qui fasse passer par le feu son fils ou sa fille, ni devin qui se mêle de divination, ni pronostiqueur, ni enchanteur, ni magicien, ni sorcier, ni personne qui consulte les esprits, ni diseur de bonne aventure, ni personne qui interroge les morts ; car quiconque fait ces choses est en abomination à l’Éternel ; et à cause de ces abominations, l’Éternel, ton Dieu, les dépossède devant toi. Tu seras parfait avec l’Éternel, ton Dieu. Car ces nations, que tu vas déposséder, écoutent les pronostiqueurs et les devins ; mais pour toi, l’Éternel, ton Dieu, ne t’a pas permis d’agir ainsi.
Le 29 février 2004 de nouveau avec la complicité les frustrés de la race, le dérayé Jan Bètran Aristid a été kidnappé et déporté, surpris par le dénouement inattendu de cette kidnapping, voila l'arrivée des vomissements technocrates, bibliquement aveugles au timon des affaires du pays, Deux ans plutard ont cédé la place a René€ Garcia Préval(e) un récidiviste notoire, aveugle et vide. C’est toujours le même drame. Hélas, à l'heure où plus que jamais Nos Frères et Sœurs discutent sur leur sort, il est impérieux de nous pencher sur un changement vital et durable qui doit se reposer sur Deux grands axes:
1.-UNE AGRICULTURE Systématisée à partir (de 10 carreaux et avec tous les adjuvants par fermier sous la supervision directe d’un état responsable, exclut du système caporalisme agraire) 2- : UNE ÉDUCATION Décentralisée avec des écoles primaires secondaires universitaires et techniques fonctionnelles et uniformes dans tous les (570) sections communales.
La grande question »trouverions-nous un homme fidèle, ayant en lui l’Esprit du Dieu Saint pour concrétiser ce changement éternel tant souhaité dans la fidélité »?
! Ah !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Fidélité… En Haïti ? !
« La Fidélité » Ce petit mot brille comme un joyau dans la Bible si souvent annonciateur de sombres événements.
Le dictionnaire définit la fidélité en ces termes : Constance= Insistance= Patience= Persévérance =Ténacité ; respect de la parole donnée ; qualité de celui qui ne varie pas dans ses goûts et ses attachements ; probité =moralité= vertu= intégrité, conformité à la vérité, exactitude.
En nos temps d'infidélité et immoralité on comprend mieux à quel point le psalmiste avait raison lorsqu'il se lamentait à ce sujet: "Les fidèles disparaissent parmi les fils de l'homme."(Psaume 12:2) ; Son fils Salomon criait : Beaucoup d’hommes proclament chacun leur bonté ; mais un homme fidèle, qui le trouvera ? Proverbes 20 :6
Aujourd'hui, le Seigneur Jésus Christ cherche douze dirigeants Politiques, douze Pasteurs fidèles pour sauver ce peuple dispersé dans ce coin de terre, Haïti: "Il déclare « Celui qui est fidèle dans les moindres choses l'est aussi dans les grandes, et celui qui est injuste dans les moindres choses l'est aussi dans les grandes »." (Luc 16:10) ; "Paul nous dit : « ce qu'on demande des dispensateurs, c'est que chacun soit trouvé fidèle »." (1Corinthiens 4: 2)
Soyons fidèle à tous égards. Agriculteur, Paysan comme moi, Pasteur, Docteur, ingénieur, agronome, Avocat, Juge, Casec, Magistrat communal, Député, sénateur, Président. Et retenez ceci "Si tu marches dans le feu, tu ne te brûleras pas, Et la flamme ne t'embrasera pas. Car Je Suis l'Eternel, ton Dieu, Le Saint d'Israël, ton Sauveur." (Esaïe 43:2-3) Car, Je connais les projets que J’ai formés à votre égard, projets de paix et non de malheur, afin de vous donner un avenir et de l’espérance. Jérémie 29 :11
Choisi la Fidélité, c'est aussi choisi le programme de Dieu pour notre vie,
De ce choix dépendent : notre existence (dans sa totalité, la vie de tout notre être) la prolongation de nos jours (l’éducation, l’agriculture, l’urbanisation, le travail, la santé, la sécurité) Notre bonheur dans notre pays (la jouissance des biens, la protection, la paix.
Ces promesses de Dieu prennent un extraordinaire relief de nos jours, alors que les garanties humaines ont perdu de leur évidence.
Choisi la BIBLE... la compréhension afin que nous aimions notre Dieu en Jésus notre Sauveur Spirituel ; la force, afin que nous possédions la faculté d’obéir à sa voix ; et la Fidélité, afin que nous vivions éternellement..."
Ce Nègre de la race né en Égypte, Moïse, est non seulement l'auteur - sous l'inspiration du Saint-Esprit - les cinq premiers livres de la Bible et bien d’autre, mais un personnage historique qui est à la base de la vie nationales d'Israël noir avant notre déportation et notre éradication de l’Afrique du nord. Sa vie, ses expériences de conducteur, sa relation intime avec Dieu, sont les sources d'un enseignement qui nous concerne encore aujourd'hui comme Africain d’origine, déporté sur le continent Américain et propriétaire patenté de cette l’ile, la république d’Haïti. ( Ke’n acheté ak Sang’ n+Kob Nou)
Moise : le messager, le meneur d’homme, Pasteur, le général en chef de l’armée des premiers israéliens noir, l’écrivain sacré ne s'est pas trompé; quand Il nous introduit déjà dans l'état éternel, dont le temps présent n'est que le tremplin.
Choisir sans hésitation, sachant que ce choix implique l'amour, l'obéissance, la joie, la paix, la patience, la bonté, la bienveillance, la fidélité, la douceur, la tempérance et un attachement indéfectible à Jésus Christ, Notre Sauveur.
Montrons-nous dignes et fermes après avoir choisi, car nous sommes certains d'atteindre le but fixé de donner à manger à chaque frère et chaque sœur et de les instruire afin de gagner Haïti pour Jésus Christ, et vivre une vie bienheureuse.
Comme la fraîcheur de la neige au temps de la moisson, Ainsi est un messager fidèle pour celui qui l'envoie; Il restaure l'âme de son maître. Proverbes 25 :13 (Louis Segond) Soyez fidèle à tous égards.
Dr Harry Laventure,
57305 shunts Barrow Marine Terminal on 20 June 2018, in order to form 6X24, the 1220 Barrow Marine Terminal to Sellafield.
Forming extensive sheets on the trunks of Beech trees in Drumlanrig Castle Estate, Dumfries and Galloway.
Haredi Judaism is usually referred to as ultra-orthodox Judaism, though Haredi Jews (or Haredim) object to this title. Theologically they are more conservative than any other form of Judaism.
PB140467
Hasidism is a sub-sect within Haredi Judaism. It can often (but not always) be distinguished by its clothing:
"Clothing
Another notable distinction among Hasidic Jews is their mode of dress. Though black outerwear and white shirts are standard for men and long-sleeved and high-necked clothing are typical for women, several groups have subtly distinct clothing for men identifying them as members of a particular Hasidic sect. Chabad men, for example, wear a black fedora-style hat. In other groups, the men wear a more elaborate fur-trimmed hat called a shtreimel or a spodik. (Some non-Hasidic ultra-Orthodox Jews also wear black hats.) Hasidic men typically wear a black overcoat known as a bekishe or a kapota. And in some groups, men wear distinctive white stockings. Most Hasidic groups still use Yiddish as their primary language." — myjewishlearning.com
From Studies in Judaism, First Series by Solomon Schechter (1911) [3rd excerpt]:
[Hassidism is a sub-sect of Haredi Judaism, ultra-ultra-orthodox Judaism.]
After seven years, Gershon, who was well aware of the bitter poverty which his sister endured, relented and brought her and her husband back to Brody. At first he employed Baalshem as his coachman, but as he proved wholly unfit for this work Gershon rented a small inn in a remote village, and there established his sister and her husband. The business of the inn was managed by the wife, while Baalshem passed most of his time in a hut in a neighbouring forest. Here he once more gave himself up to meditation and preparation for his future work, and here, a little later, when nearly forty-two years of age, to a few chosen spirits, afterwards his most fervent disciples, he first revealed his true character and mission.
From this point unfortunately the materials for a continuous biography are wanting; we next hear of Baalshem discharging the functions of an ordinary Rabbi at Miedziboz in Podolia, but for the remainder of his personal history we have to be content with detached anecdotes [pg 010] and fragmentary passages in his life, the sum total of which goes to show that he resided in Podolia and Wallachia, teaching his doctrines to his disciples and “working Wonders.” He does not seem to have figured as a public preacher, nor has he left behind him any written work. He appears rather to have used the method, familiar to students of Greek philosophy, of teaching by conversations with his friends and disciples. These conversations, and the parables with which they were largely interspersed, were remembered and stored up by his hearers. By his neighbours the country folk, Baalshem was regarded simply as “a man of God.” He was allowed to pursue his course undisturbed by persecution of the serious character which his more aggressive successors provoked. Such of the Rabbis as were aware of his existence despised him and his ways, but the Rabbinical world was at that time too much occupied in the controversy between Eybeschütz and Emden to concern itself with the vagaries of an obscure and apparently “unlearned” eccentric. Baalshem also took part in the disputes which were held in Lemberg, the capital of Galicia (1757?), between the Rabbis and the Frankists,6 who denounced the Talmud to the Polish Government and wanted to have all the Rabbinical books destroyed. Baalshem suffered from this excitement in a most terrible way. The abrogation of the Oral Law meant for him the ruin of Judaism.
Baalshem, in forming the little band of devoted followers who were destined to spread a knowledge of his creed, travelled considerably about Wallachia. He at one time decided to make a pilgrimage to Palestine, but when he reached Constantinople he felt himself inspired [pg 011] to return and continue his work at home. He died at Miedziboz on the eve of Pentecost, 1761.
After his death his disciples, of whom one Beer of Mizriez was the most prominent, undertook the proselytising mission for which Baalshem had prepared them, but from which he himself appears to have abstained. They preached and taught in all the provinces of Russia where Jews may reside, and in Roumania, and Galicia. The number of the sect at the present day is probably about half a million.
Returning now to Baalshem the founder, it may be noted that his appearance as a teacher and reformer was accompanied and justified by a customary and adequate number of miracles. To one disciple he revealed secrets which could have become known to him only by divine revelation; to another he appeared with a nimbus round his head. On the evidence of the Chassidim we learn that Baalshem performed all the recognised signs and marvels which have ever been the customary minor characteristics of men of similar type in similar environment. When Baalshem desired to cross a stream, he spread forth his mantle upon the waters, and standing thereupon passed safely to the other side. Ghosts evacuated haunted houses at the mere mention of his name. Was he alone in the forest on a wintry night, he had but to touch a tree with his finger tips and flames burst forth. When his spirit wandered through the angelic spheres, as was frequently the case, he obtained access to Paradise for millions of pining souls who had vainly waited without through long thousands of mournful years. These and other miracles need not be examined. Here, as in the case of other such blissful seasons of grace, they were the [pg 012] ephemeral though important accessories in establishing the inspired character of his utterances and the authority of his injunctions. It is not as a worker of miracles, but as a religious teacher and reformer, that Baalshem is interesting.
Properly to understand the nature and special direction of his teaching, it is necessary in some measure to realise the character of the field in which he worked; to consider, in other words, the moral and religious condition of the Jews in those districts where Chassidism first took root.
In a Hebrew Hymn, written about 1000 a.c., and still recited in the synagogue on the Day of Atonement, the poet expresses the strange and bitter fortunes of his race in touching words of mingled sorrow and exultation.
Destroyed lies Zion and profaned,
Of splendour and renown bereft,
Her ancient glories wholly waned,
One deathless treasure only left;
Still ours, O Lord,
Thy Holy Word.
And this Divine Word it was, which a persecuted religion has sought to preserve intact through so many centuries of persecution, and for the sake of which no labour seemed too severe, no sacrifice too large. “Bethink Thee, O God,” exclaimed one of our Jewish sages who flourished about the same period, “bethink Thee of Thy faithful children who, amid their poverty and want, are busy in the study of Thy Law. Bethink Thee of the poor in Israel who are willing to suffer hunger and destitution if only they can secure for their children the knowledge of Thy Law.” And so indeed it was. Old and [pg 013] young, weak and strong, rich and poor, all pursued that single study, the Torah. The product of this prolonged study is that gigantic literature which, as a long unbroken chain of spiritual activity, connects together the various periods of the Jews' chequered and eventful history. All ages and all lands have contributed to the development of this supreme study. For under the word Torah was comprised not only the Law, but also the contributions of later times expressing either the thoughts or the emotions of holy and sincere men; and even their honest scepticism was not entirely excluded. As in the canon of the Bible, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon found place in the same volume that contains the Law and the Prophets, so at a later time people did not object to put the philosophical works of Maimonides and the songs of Judah Hallevi on the same level with the Code of the Law compiled by R. Isaac Alfasi, and the commentaries on the Bible by R. Solomon b. Isaac.7 None of them was declared infallible, but also to none of them, as soon as people were convinced of the author's sincerity, was denied the homage due to seekers after truth. Almost every author was called Rabbi (“my master”) or Rabbenu (“our master”),8 and nearly every book was regarded more or less as a contribution to the great bulk of the Torah. It was called Writ,9 and was treated with a certain kind of piety. But, by a series of accidents too long to be related here, sincerity ceased and sport took its place. I refer to the casuistic schools commonly known by the name of Pilpulists10 (the “seasoned” or the “sharp” ones), who flourished in the last two centuries preceding ours. To the authors of this unhappy period, a few glorious exceptions always allowed, the preceding [pg 014] Jewish literature did not mean a “fountain of living waters,” supplying men with truth and religious inspiration, but rather a kind of armoury providing them with juristic cases over which to fight, and to out-do each other in sophistry and subtlety. As a consequence they cared little or nothing for that part of the Jewish literature that appeals less to the intellect than to the feelings of men. In short, religion consisted only of complicated cases and innumerable ordinances, in which the wit of these men found delight. But the emotional part of it, whose root is the Faith and Love of men, was almost entirely neglected.
The design of the Merewether Memorial employs the form of an Eleanor Cross and is in the English Medieval style. There are spires which could have served as a basis for the design of this memorial; for example, St. Mary at Bloxham, St. Peter at Kettering, St. Peter at Raunds and Meven St. Mary at Oxford. In fact, each one may have provided an ingredient or two for the design of this fine memorial tower.
Building designers of the time had become increasingly aware of the capabilities of Indian craftsmen, thus the skill and craftsmanship which has been available to medieval builders was also at Strachan's disposal. Strachan was no doubt aware of the intricate carving executed by native craftsmen for the baserellets designed by Kipling for the Crawford Markets and the then under construction Victoria Terminus. The Memorial shows a heightened sensitivity to detailing and an emphasis on carving and decoration, more then my other building designed by Strachan. Whereas the Empress Market's tower is a little squat, the Merewether Tower is elegant and tall, evoking memories of medieval England.
It was named for Merewether, who served as 'Commissioner-in-Sindh' from 1868 to 1877. Richard Burton, on his last visit to Karachi, paid a tribute to his friend while describing the Government House: " It is at present occupied by General Sir William L. Merewether, K.C.S.I. etc.etc.etc. an officer who, by entire devotion to the interests of his province, the scene of his distinguished career during the last thirty-three years, has made epoch' and history" (Burton 1877:1.76) Burton's opinion of Merewether's services were no doubt shared by others. Initially, a pier had been named in memory of the former 'Commissioner-in-Sindh'. Constructed by the Karachi Harbour Board, which had been formed in 1880, the Merewether Pier had cost three lakh rupees (1882). However, it was later decided that a worthy and visible memorial was in order - a memorial tower of such "prominence as to dominate the skyline of the city" to be built by public subscription. The Tower was placed at the confluence of McLeod and Bunder Road, at the extreme western end of the Serai Quarter, an area which was developed into a thriving commercial center concurrently with the rising fortunes of the city. The Memorial took eight years to complete, and was handed over to the Municipality in 1892 by 'Commissioner-in-Sindh' Evan James. The total cost of the structure and its clock was merely Rs. 37,178 compared to the Rs. 180,000 lavished on the much bigger memorial to Bartle Frere, Frere Hall.
The Memorial Tower stands on a platform 44 feet square and rises to a height of 102 feet. It prominently displays the clock placed at the base of the spire, 70 feet from the ground. Each of the clock's four faces is seven feet in diameter. The large bell installed at the time weighed three hundred weight and struck at every hour, while the smaller bells weighed one hundred weight each and marked every quarter of an hour.
La iglesia de Saint Pierre forma parte del Patrimonio de la Humanidad de la UNESCO al ser parte de las iglesias del Camino de Santiago francés. Fue construida en el siglo XII en estilo románico del que destacan sus portadas y su capillas absidiales, posteriormente se construyo la torre en el siglo XIII, ya en estilo gótico.
La portada sur esta construida por cuatro arquivoltas ricamente decoradas que carecen de tímpano. La representación de las figuras obedece a un patrón repetitivo de las mismas figuras donde se presentan las imágenes: humano-animal. La primera, esta decorada con seis animales entre filigranas que representan los viñedos; la segunda, esta esculpida con 24 figuras en distintas posiciones que representan a los Apóstoles y los Profetas, estos, se identifican por los halos sobre las cabezas; la tercera, tiene 31 figuras de frente que representan los Ancianos de la Apocalipsis, aunque eran 24 pero para completar la estética se llena con 7 más que completan la escena; la cuarta, se representan las figuras míticas de la época compuesta de bestias y criatura híbridas. Entre las imágenes que podemos contemplar: un búho, un burro tocando un arpa, una sirena, una esfinge.
El portal oeste es de estilo románico pero de la magnifica decoración con que estuvo decorada no ha sobrevivido a la historia y en el siglo XV fue eliminado.
La fachada principal, los dos portales laterales sufrieron un estrechamiento y se integraron tres arquivoltas apuntadas. El tímpano del portal izquierdo se representa la crucifixión de San Pedro. En el derecho, se interpreta a Cristo entre dos santos, donde aún se puede contemplar parte de la antigua policromía. El portal central tiene cuatro arquivoltas y tres grandes capiteles, carece de tímpano. La primera, se presenta un medallón del Cordero de Dios con ángeles; la segunda, se interpretan las figuras de las virtudes (damas elegantes) y los vicios (demonios vencidos); la tercera, se representan las figuras del zodiaco y los trabajos durante el año en la zona.
El interior es puramente románico, la planta de tres naves desembocan en los ábsides, los enormes pilares destacan sus magníficos capiteles donde se personifican figuras que nada tiene que ver con escenas bíblicas usuales, se representan una colección de mascaras humanas, criaturas medievales, elefantes y follaje.
Cattle (Bos taurus) are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are referred to as cows and mature male cattle are referred to as bulls. Colloquially, young female cattle (heifers), young male cattle (bullocks), and castrated male cattle (steers) are also referred to as "cows".
Cattle are commonly raised as livestock for meat (beef or veal, see beef cattle), for milk and dairy products (see dairy cattle), and for hides, which are used to make leather. They are used as riding animals and draft animals (oxen or bullocks, which pull carts, plows and other implements). Another product of cattle is their dung, which can be used to create manure or fuel. In some regions, such as parts of India, cattle is considered as a sacred animal. Cattle, mostly small breeds such as the Miniature Zebu, are also kept as pets.
Different types of cattle are common to different geographic areas. Taurine cattle are found primarily in Europe and temperate areas of Asia, the Americas, and Australia. Zebus (also called indicine cattle) are found primarily in India and tropical areas of Asia, America, and Australia. Sanga cattle are found primarily in sub-Saharan Africa. These types (which are sometimes classified as separate species or subspecies) are further divided into over 1,000 recognized breeds.
Around 10,500 years ago, taurine cattle were domesticated from as few as 80 wild aurochs progenitors in central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran. A separate domestication event occurred in the Indian subcontinent, which gave rise to zebu. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), there are approximately 1.5 billion cattle in the world as of 2018. Cattle are the main source of greenhouse gas emissions from livestock, and are responsible for around 10% of global greenhouse gas emissions. In 2009, cattle became one of the first livestock animals to have a fully mapped genome.
Taxonomy
See also: Bos and Bovinae
Cattle were originally identified as three separate species: Bos taurus, the European or "taurine" cattle (including similar types from Africa and Asia); Bos indicus, the Indicine or "zebu"; and the extinct Bos primigenius, the aurochs. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and taurine cattle. They were later reclassified as one species, Bos taurus, with the aurochs (B. t. primigenius), zebu (B. t. indicus), and taurine (B. t. taurus) cattle as subspecies. However, this taxonomy is contentious and some sources prefer the separate species classification, such as the American Society of Mammalogists' Mammal Diversity Database.
Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between taurine cattle and zebu (such as the sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus x Bos indicus), but also between one or both of these and some other members of the genus Bos – yaks (the dzo or yattle[10]), banteng, and gaur. Hybrids such as the beefalo breed can even occur between taurine cattle and either species of bison, leading some authors to consider them part of the genus Bos, as well. The hybrid origin of some types may not be obvious – for example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only taurine-type cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of taurine cattle, zebu, and yak. However, cattle cannot be successfully hybridized with more distantly related bovines such as water buffalo or African buffalo.
The aurochs originally ranged throughout Europe, North Africa, and much of Asia. In historical times, its range became restricted to Europe, and the last known individual died in Mazovia, Poland, in about 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate cattle of similar appearance to aurochs by crossing traditional types of domesticated cattle, creating the Heck cattle breed.
A group of taurine-type cattles exist in Africa. It is hotly debated whether they represent an independent domestication event or were the result of crossing taurines domesticated elsewhere with local aurochs, but it's clear that they are genetically quite distinct; some authors choose to name them as a separate subspecies, Bos taurus africanus. The only pure African taurine breeds remaining are the N'Dama, Kuri and some varieties of the West African Shorthorn.
Etymology
Cattle did not originate as the term for bovine animals. It was borrowed from Anglo-Norman catel, itself from medieval Latin capitale 'principal sum of money, capital', itself derived in turn from Latin caput 'head'. Cattle originally meant movable personal property, especially livestock of any kind, as opposed to real property (the land, which also included wild or small free-roaming animals such as chickens—they were sold as part of the land). The word is a variant of chattel (a unit of personal property) and closely related to capital in the economic sense. The term replaced earlier Old English feoh 'cattle, property', which survives today as fee (cf. German: Vieh, Dutch: vee, Gothic: faihu).
The word cow came via Anglo-Saxon cū (plural cȳ), from Common Indo-European gʷōus (genitive gʷowés) 'a bovine animal', cf. Persian: gâv, Sanskrit: go-, Welsh: buwch. The plural cȳ became ki or kie in Middle English, and an additional plural ending was often added, giving kine, kien, but also kies, kuin and others. This is the origin of the now archaic English plural, kine. The Scots language singular is coo or cou, and the plural is kye.
In older English sources such as the King James Version of the Bible, cattle refers to livestock, as opposed to deer which refers to wildlife. Wild cattle may refer to feral cattle or to undomesticated species of the genus Bos. Today, when used without any other qualifier, the modern meaning of cattle is usually restricted to domesticated bovines.
Terminology
In general, the same words are used in different parts of the world, but with minor differences in the definitions. The terminology described here contrasts the differences in definition between the United Kingdom and other British-influenced parts of the world such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the United States.
An "intact" (i.e., not castrated) adult male is called a bull.
A father bull is called a sire with reference to his offspring.
An adult female that has had a calf (or two, depending on regional usage) is a cow. Steers and heifers are also colloquially referred to as cows.
A mother cow is called a dam with reference to her offspring. Often, mentions of dams imply cows kept in the herd for repeated breeding (as opposed to heifers or cows sold off sooner).
A young female before she has had a calf of her own and who is under three years of age is called a heifer. A young female that has had only one calf is occasionally called a first-calf heifer. Heiferettes are either first-calf heifers or a subset thereof without potential to become lineage dams, depending on whose definition is operative.
Young cattle (regardless of sex) are called calves until they are weaned, then weaners until they are a year old in some areas; in other areas, particularly with male beef cattle, they may be known as feeder calves or feeders. After that, they are referred to as yearlings or stirks if between one and two years of age.
Feeder cattle or store cattle are young cattle soon to be either backgrounded or sent to fattening, most especially those intended to be sold to someone else for finishing. In some regions, a distinction between stockers and feeders (by those names) is the distinction of backgrounding versus immediate sale to a finisher.
A castrated male is called a steer in the United States; older steers are often called bullocks in other parts of the world, but in North America this term refers to a young bull. Piker bullocks are micky bulls (uncastrated young male bulls) that were caught, castrated and then later lost. In Australia, the term Japanese ox is used for grain-fed steers in the weight range of 500 to 650 kg that are destined for the Japanese meat trade. In North America, draft cattle under four years old are called working steers. Improper or late castration on a bull results in it becoming a coarse steer known as a stag in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. In some countries, an incompletely castrated male is known also as a rig.
A castrated male (occasionally a female or in some areas a bull) kept for draft or riding purposes is called an ox (plural oxen); ox may also be used to refer to some carcass products from any adult cattle, such as ox-hide, ox-blood, oxtail, or ox-liver.
A springer is a cow or heifer close to calving.
In all cattle species, a female twin of a bull usually becomes an infertile partial intersex, and is called a freemartin.
A wild, young, unmarked bull is known as a micky in Australia.
An unbranded bovine of either sex is called a maverick in the US and Canada.
Neat (horned oxen, from which neatsfoot oil is derived), beef (young ox) and beefing (young animal fit for slaughtering) are obsolete terms, although poll, pollard and polled cattle are still terms in use for naturally hornless animals, or in some areas also for those that have been disbudded or dehorned.
Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the American beef cattle industry, the older term beef (plural beeves) is still used to refer to an animal of either sex. Some Australian, Canadian, New Zealand and British people use the term beast.
Cattle bred specifically for milk production are called milking or dairy cattle; a cow kept to provide milk for one family may be called a house cow or milker. A fresh cow is a dairy term for a cow or first-calf heifer who has recently given birth, or "freshened."
The adjective applying to cattle in general is usually bovine. The terms bull, cow and calf are also used by extension to denote the sex or age of other large animals, including whales, hippopotamuses, camels, elk and elephants.
Various other terms for cattle or types thereof are historical; these include nowt, nolt, mart, and others.
Singular terminology issue
"Cattle" can only be used in the plural and not in the singular: it is a plurale tantum. Thus one may refer to "three cattle" or "some cattle", but not "one cattle". "One head of cattle" is a valid though periphrastic way to refer to one animal of indeterminate or unknown age and sex; otherwise no universally used single-word singular form of cattle exists in modern English, other than the sex- and age-specific terms such as cow, bull, steer and heifer. Historically, "ox" was not a sex-specific term for adult cattle, but generally this is now used only for working cattle, especially adult castrated males. The term is also incorporated into the names of other species, such as the musk ox and "grunting ox" (yak), and is used in some areas to describe certain cattle products such as ox-hide and oxtail.
Cow is in general use as a singular for the collective cattle. The word cow is easy to use when a singular is needed and the sex is unknown or irrelevant—when "there is a cow in the road", for example. Further, any herd of fully mature cattle in or near a pasture is statistically likely to consist mostly of cows, so the term is probably accurate even in the restrictive sense. Other than the few bulls needed for breeding, the vast majority of male cattle are castrated as calves and are used as oxen or slaughtered for meat before the age of three years. Thus, in a pastured herd, any calves or herd bulls usually are clearly distinguishable from the cows due to distinctively different sizes and clear anatomical differences. Merriam-Webster and Oxford Living Dictionaries recognize the sex-nonspecific use of cow as an alternate definition, whereas Collins and the OED do not.
Colloquially, more general nonspecific terms may denote cattle when a singular form is needed. Head of cattle is usually used only after a numeral. Australian, New Zealand and British farmers use the term beast or cattle beast. Bovine is also used in Britain. The term critter is common in the western United States and Canada, particularly when referring to young cattle. In some areas of the American South (particularly the Appalachian region), where both dairy and beef cattle are present, an individual animal was once called a "beef critter", though that term is becoming archaic.
Other terminology
Cattle raised for human consumption are called beef cattle. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the term beef (plural beeves) is still used in its archaic sense to refer to an animal of either sex. Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called dairy cows or milking cows (formerly milch cows). Most young male offspring of dairy cows are sold for veal, and may be referred to as veal calves.
The term dogies is used to describe orphaned calves in the context of ranch work in the American West, as in "Keep them dogies moving". In some places, a cow kept to provide milk for one family is called a "house cow". Other obsolete terms for cattle include "neat" (this use survives in "neatsfoot oil", extracted from the feet and legs of cattle), and "beefing" (young animal fit for slaughter).
An onomatopoeic term for one of the most common sounds made by cattle is moo (also called lowing). There are a number of other sounds made by cattle, including calves bawling, and bulls bellowing. Bawling is most common for cows after weaning of a calf. The bullroarer makes a sound similar to a bull's territorial call.
Characteristics
Anatomy
Cattle are large quadrupedal ungulate mammals with cloven hooves. Most breeds have horns, which can be as large as the Texas Longhorn or small like a scur. Careful genetic selection has allowed polled (hornless) cattle to become widespread.
Digestive system
Further information: Digestive system of ruminants
Cattle are ruminants, meaning their digestive system is highly specialized to allow the consumption of difficult to digest plants as food. Cattle have one stomach with four compartments, the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum, with the rumen being the largest compartment. The reticulum, the smallest compartment, is known as the "honeycomb". The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed. The omasum is known as the "many plies". The abomasum is like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the "true stomach".
Cattle are known for regurgitating and re-chewing their food, known as cud chewing, like most ruminants. While the animal is feeding, the food is swallowed without being chewed and goes into the rumen for storage until the animal can find a quiet place to continue the digestion process. The food is regurgitated, a mouthful at a time, back up to the mouth, where the food, now called the cud, is chewed by the molars, grinding down the coarse vegetation to small particles. The cud is then swallowed again and further digested by specialized microorganisms in the rumen. These microbes are primarily responsible for decomposing cellulose and other carbohydrates into volatile fatty acids cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel. The microbes inside the rumen also synthesize amino acids from non-protein nitrogenous sources, such as urea and ammonia. As these microbes reproduce in the rumen, older generations die and their cells continue on through the digestive tract. These cells are then partially digested in the small intestines, allowing cattle to gain a high-quality protein source. These features allow cattle to thrive on grasses and other tough vegetation.
Reproduction
Further information: Bull § Reproductive anatomy
On farms it is very common to use artificial insemination (AI), a medically assisted reproduction technique consisting of the artificial deposition of semen in the female's genital tract. It is used in cases where the spermatozoa can not reach the fallopian tubes or by choice of the owner of the animal. It consists of transferring, to the uterine cavity, spermatozoa previously collected and processed, with the selection of morphologically more normal and mobile spermatozoa. Synchronization of cattle ovulation to benefit dairy farming may be accomplished via induced ovulation techniques.
Bulls become fertile at about seven months of age. Their fertility is closely related to the size of their testicles, and one simple test of fertility is to measure the circumference of the scrotum: a young bull is likely to be fertile once this reaches 28 centimetres (11 in); that of a fully adult bull may be over 40 centimetres (16 in).
A bull has a fibro-elastic penis. Given the small amount of erectile tissue, there is little enlargement after erection. The penis is quite rigid when non-erect, and becomes even more rigid during erection. Protrusion is not affected much by erection, but more by relaxation of the retractor penis muscle and straightening of the sigmoid flexure.
The gestation period for a cow is about nine months long. The secondary sex ratio – the ratio of male to female offspring at birth – is approximately 52:48, although it may be influenced by environmental and other factors. A cow's udder contains two pairs of mammary glands, (commonly referred to as teats) creating four "quarters". The front ones are referred to as fore quarters and the rear ones rear quarters.
Weight and lifespan
The weight of adult cattle varies, depending on the breed. Smaller kinds, such as Dexter and Jersey adults, range between 300 and 500 kg (600 and 1,000 lb). Large Continental breeds, such as Charolais, Marchigiana, Belgian Blue and Chianina adults range from 640 to 1,100 kg (1,400 to 2,500 lb). British breeds, such as Hereford, Angus, and Shorthorn, mature at 500 to 900 kg (1,000 to 2,000 lb), occasionally higher, particularly with Angus and Hereford. Bulls are larger than cows of the same breed by up to a few hundred kilograms. British Hereford cows weigh 600–800 kg (1,300–1,800 lb); the bulls weigh 1,000–1,200 kg (2,200–2,600 lb). Chianina bulls can weigh up to 1,500 kg (3,300 lb); British bulls, such as Angus and Hereford, can weigh as little as 900 kg (2,000 lb) and as much as 1,400 kg (3,000 lb).
The world record for the heaviest bull was 1,740 kg (3,840 lb), a Chianina named Donetto, when he was exhibited at the Arezzo show in 1955. The heaviest steer was eight-year-old 'Old Ben', a Shorthorn/Hereford cross weighing in at 2,140 kg (4,720 lb) in 1910.
In the United States, the average weight of beef cattle has steadily increased, especially since the 1970s, requiring the building of new slaughterhouses able to handle larger carcasses. New packing plants in the 1980s stimulated a large increase in cattle weights. Before 1790 beef cattle averaged only 160 kg (350 lb) net; and thereafter weights climbed steadily.
A newborn calf's size can vary among breeds, but a typical calf weighs 25 to 45 kg (55 to 99 lb). Adult size and weight vary significantly among breeds and sex. Steers are generally slaughtered before reaching 750 kg (1,650 lb). Breeding stock may be allowed a longer lifespan, occasionally living as long as 25 years. The oldest recorded cow, Big Bertha, died at the age of 48 in 1993.
Cognition
In laboratory studies, young cattle are able to memorize the locations of several food sources and retain this memory for at least 8 hours, although this declined after 12 hours. Fifteen-month-old heifers learn more quickly than adult cows which have had either one or two calvings, but their longer-term memory is less stable. Mature cattle perform well in spatial learning tasks and have a good long-term memory in these tests. Cattle tested in a radial arm maze are able to remember the locations of high-quality food for at least 30 days. Although they initially learn to avoid low-quality food, this memory diminishes over the same duration. Under less artificial testing conditions, young cattle showed they were able to remember the location of feed for at least 48 days. Cattle can make an association between a visual stimulus and food within 1 day—memory of this association can be retained for 1 year, despite a slight decay.
Calves are capable of discrimination learning and adult cattle compare favourably with small mammals in their learning ability in the closed-field test.
They are also able to discriminate between familiar individuals, and among humans. Cattle can tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar animals of the same species (conspecifics). Studies show they behave less aggressively toward familiar individuals when they are forming a new group. Calves can also discriminate between humans based on previous experience, as shown by approaching those who handled them positively and avoiding those who handled them aversively. Although cattle can discriminate between humans by their faces alone, they also use other cues such as the color of clothes when these are available.
In audio play-back studies, calves prefer their own mother's vocalizations compared to the vocalizations of an unfamiliar mother.
In laboratory studies using images, cattle can discriminate between images of the heads of cattle and other animal species. They are also able to distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. Furthermore, they are able to categorize images as familiar and unfamiliar individuals.
When mixed with other individuals, cloned calves from the same donor form subgroups, indicating that kin discrimination occurs and may be a basis of grouping behaviour. It has also been shown using images of cattle that both artificially inseminated and cloned calves have similar cognitive capacities of kin and non-kin discrimination.
Cattle can recognize familiar individuals. Visual individual recognition is a more complex mental process than visual discrimination. It requires the recollection of the learned idiosyncratic identity of an individual that has been previously encountered and the formation of a mental representation. By using two-dimensional images of the heads of one cow (face, profiles, 3⁄4 views), all the tested heifers showed individual recognition of familiar and unfamiliar individuals from their own breed. Furthermore, almost all the heifers recognized unknown individuals from different breeds, although this was achieved with greater difficulty. Individual recognition was most difficult when the visual features of the breed being tested were quite different from the breed in the image, for example, the breed being tested had no spots whereas the image was of a spotted breed.
Cattle use visual/brain lateralisation in their visual scanning of novel and familiar stimuli. Domestic cattle prefer to view novel stimuli with the left eye, i.e. using the right brain hemisphere (similar to horses, Australian magpies, chicks, toads and fish) but use the right eye, i.e. using the left hemisphere, for viewing familiar stimuli.
Senses
Cattle use all of the five widely recognized sensory modalities. These can assist in some complex behavioural patterns, for example, in grazing behaviour. Cattle eat mixed diets, but when given the opportunity, show a partial preference of approximately 70% clover and 30% grass. This preference has a diurnal pattern, with a stronger preference for clover in the morning, and the proportion of grass increasing towards the evening.
Vision
Vision is the dominant sense in cattle and they obtain almost 50% of their information visually.
Cattle are a prey animal and to assist predator detection, their eyes are located on the sides of their head rather than the front. This gives them a wide field of view of 330° but limits binocular vision (and therefore stereopsis) to 30° to 50° compared to 140° in humans. This means they have a blind spot directly behind them. Cattle have good visual acuity, but compared to humans, their visual accommodation is poor.
Cattle have two kinds of color receptors in the cone cells of their retinas. This means that cattle are dichromatic, as are most other non-primate land mammals. There are two to three rods per cone in the fovea centralis but five to six near the optic papilla. Cattle can distinguish long wavelength colors (yellow, orange and red) much better than the shorter wavelengths (blue, grey and green). Calves are able to discriminate between long (red) and short (blue) or medium (green) wavelengths, but have limited ability to discriminate between the short and medium. They also approach handlers more quickly under red light. Whilst having good color sensitivity, it is not as good as humans or sheep.
A common misconception about cattle (particularly bulls) is that they are enraged by the color red (something provocative is often said to be "like a red flag to a bull"). This is a myth. In bullfighting, it is the movement of the red flag or cape that irritates the bull and incites it to charge.
Taste
Cattle have a well-developed sense of taste and can distinguish the four primary tastes (sweet, salty, bitter and sour). They possess around 20,000 taste buds. The strength of taste perception depends on the individual's current food requirements. They avoid bitter-tasting foods (potentially toxic) and have a marked preference for sweet (high calorific value) and salty foods (electrolyte balance). Their sensitivity to sour-tasting foods helps them to maintain optimal ruminal pH.
Plants have low levels of sodium and cattle have developed the capacity of seeking salt by taste and smell. If cattle become depleted of sodium salts, they show increased locomotion directed to searching for these. To assist in their search, the olfactory and gustatory receptors able to detect minute amounts of sodium salts increase their sensitivity as biochemical disruption develops with sodium salt depletion.
Hearing
Cattle hearing ranges from 23 Hz to 35 kHz. Their frequency of best sensitivity is 8 kHz and they have a lowest threshold of −21 db (re 20 μN/m−2), which means their hearing is more acute than horses (lowest threshold of 7 db). Sound localization acuity thresholds are an average of 30°. This means that cattle are less able to localise sounds compared to goats (18°), dogs (8°) and humans (0.8°). Because cattle have a broad foveal fields of view covering almost the entire horizon, they may not need very accurate locus information from their auditory systems to direct their gaze to a sound source.
Vocalizations are an important mode of communication amongst cattle and can provide information on the age, sex, dominance status and reproductive status of the caller. Calves can recognize their mothers using vocalizations; vocal behaviour may play a role by indicating estrus and competitive display by bulls.
Olfaction and gustation
Cattle have a range of odoriferous glands over their body including interdigital, infraorbital, inguinal and sebaceous glands, indicating that olfaction probably plays a large role in their social life. Both the primary olfactory system using the olfactory bulbs, and the secondary olfactory system using the vomeronasal organ are used. This latter olfactory system is used in the flehmen response. There is evidence that when cattle are stressed, this can be recognised by other cattle and this is communicated by alarm substances in the urine. The odour of dog faeces induces behavioural changes prior to cattle feeding, whereas the odours of urine from either stressed or non-stressed conspecifics and blood have no effect.
In the laboratory, cattle can be trained to recognise conspecific individuals using olfaction only.
In general, cattle use their sense of smell to "expand" on information detected by other sensory modalities. However, in the case of social and reproductive behaviours, olfaction is a key source of information.
Touch
Cattle have tactile sensations detected mainly by mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors and nociceptors in the skin and muscles. These are used most frequently when cattle explore their environment.
Magnetoreception
There is conflicting evidence for magnetoreception in cattle. One study reported that resting and grazing cattle tend to align their body axes in the geomagnetic north–south direction. In a follow-up study, cattle exposed to various magnetic fields directly beneath or in the vicinity of power lines trending in various magnetic directions exhibited distinct patterns of alignment. However, in 2011, a group of Czech researchers reported their failed attempt to replicate the finding using Google Earth images.
Behavior
Under natural conditions, calves stay with their mother until weaning at 8 to 11 months. Heifer and bull calves are equally attached to their mothers in the first few months of life. Cattle are considered to be "hider" type animals, utilizing secluded areas more in the hours before calving and continued to use it more for the hour after calving. Cows that gave birth for the first time show a higher incidence of abnormal maternal behavior.
In one study, beef-calves reared on the range were observed to suckle an average of 5.0 times every 24 hours with an average total time of 46 min spent suckling. There was a diurnal rhythm in suckling activity with peaks between 05:00–07:00, 10:00–13:00 and 17:00–21:00.
Reproductive behavior
Semi-wild Highland cattle heifers first give birth at 2 or 3 years of age, and the timing of birth is synchronized with increases in natural food quality. Average calving interval is 391 days, and calving mortality within the first year of life is 5%.
Dominance and leadership
One study showed that over a 4-year period, dominance relationships within a herd of semi-wild highland cattle were very firm. There were few overt aggressive conflicts and the majority of disputes were settled by agonistic (non-aggressive, competitive) behaviors that involved no physical contact between opponents (e.g. threatening and spontaneous withdrawing). Such agonistic behavior reduces the risk of injury. Dominance status depended on age and sex, with older animals generally being dominant to young ones and males dominant to females. Young bulls gained superior dominance status over adult cows when they reached about 2 years of age.
As with many animal dominance hierarchies, dominance-associated aggressiveness does not correlate with rank position, but is closely related to rank distance between individuals.
Dominance is maintained in several ways. Cattle often engage in mock fights where they test each other's strength in a non-aggressive way. Licking is primarily performed by subordinates and received by dominant animals. Mounting is a playful behavior shown by calves of both sexes and by bulls and sometimes by cows in estrus, however, this is not a dominance related behavior as has been found in other species.
The horns of cattle are "honest signals" used in mate selection. Furthermore, horned cattle attempt to keep greater distances between themselves and have fewer physical interactions than hornless cattle. This leads to more stable social relationships.
In calves, the frequency of agonistic behavior decreases as space allowance increases, but this does not occur for changes in group size. However, in adult cattle, the number of agonistic encounters increases as the group size increases.
Grazing behavior
When grazing, cattle vary several aspects of their bite, i.e. tongue and jaw movements, depending on characteristics of the plant they are eating. Bite area decreases with the density of the plants but increases with their height. Bite area is determined by the sweep of the tongue; in one study observing 750-kilogram (1,650 lb) steers, bite area reached a maximum of approximately 170 cm2 (30 sq in). Bite depth increases with the height of the plants. By adjusting their behavior, cattle obtain heavier bites in swards that are tall and sparse compared with short, dense swards of equal mass/area. Cattle adjust other aspects of their grazing behavior in relation to the available food; foraging velocity decreases and intake rate increases in areas of abundant palatable forage.
Cattle avoid grazing areas contaminated by the faeces of other cattle more strongly than they avoid areas contaminated by sheep, but they do not avoid pasture contaminated by rabbit faeces.
Temperament and emotions
In cattle, temperament can affect production traits such as carcass and meat quality or milk yield as well as affecting the animal's overall health and reproduction. Cattle temperament is defined as "the consistent behavioral and physiological difference observed between individuals in response to a stressor or environmental challenge and is used to describe the relatively stable difference in the behavioral predisposition of an animal, which can be related to psychobiological mechanisms". Generally, cattle temperament is assumed to be multidimensional. Five underlying categories of temperament traits have been proposed:
shyness–boldness
exploration–avoidance
activity
aggressiveness
sociability
In a study on Holstein–Friesian heifers learning to press a panel to open a gate for access to a food reward, the researchers also recorded the heart rate and behavior of the heifers when moving along the race towards the food. When the heifers made clear improvements in learning, they had higher heart rates and tended to move more vigorously along the race. The researchers concluded this was an indication that cattle may react emotionally to their own learning improvement.
Negative emotional states are associated with a bias toward negative responses towards ambiguous cues in judgement tasks. After separation from their mothers, Holstein calves showed such a cognitive bias indicative of low mood. A similar study showed that after hot-iron disbudding (dehorning), calves had a similar negative bias indicating that post-operative pain following this routine procedure results in a negative change in emotional state.
In studies of visual discrimination, the position of the ears has been used as an indicator of emotional state. When cattle are stressed other cattle can tell by the chemicals released in their urine.
Cattle are very gregarious and even short-term isolation is considered to cause severe psychological stress. When Aubrac and Friesian heifers are isolated, they increase their vocalizations and experience increased heart rate and plasma cortisol concentrations. These physiological changes are greater in Aubracs. When visual contact is re-instated, vocalizations rapidly decline, regardless of the familiarity of the returning cattle, however, heart rate decreases are greater if the returning cattle are familiar to the previously isolated individual. Mirrors have been used to reduce stress in isolated cattle.
Sleep
Further information: Sleep in non-human animals and Cow tipping
The average sleep time of a domestic cow is about 4 hours a day. Cattle do have a stay apparatus, but do not sleep standing up; they lie down to sleep deeply. In spite of the urban legend, cows cannot be tipped over by people pushing on them.
Genetics
Further information: Bovine genome
On 24 April 2009, edition of the journal Science, a team of researchers led by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Agriculture reported having mapped the bovine genome. The scientists found cattle have about 22,000 genes, and 80% of their genes are shared with humans, and they share about 1000 genes with dogs and rodents, but are not found in humans. Using this bovine "HapMap", researchers can track the differences between the breeds that affect the quality of meat and milk yields.
Behavioral traits of cattle can be as heritable as some production traits, and often, the two can be related. The heritability of fear varies markedly in cattle from low (0.1) to high (0.53); such high variation is also found in pigs and sheep, probably due to differences in the methods used. The heritability of temperament (response to isolation during handling) has been calculated as 0.36 and 0.46 for habituation to handling. Rangeland assessments show that the heritability of aggressiveness in cattle is around 0.36.
Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) have been found for a range of production and behavioral characteristics for both dairy and beef cattle.
Domestication and husbandry
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history, having been domesticated since at least the early neolithic age.
Archaeozoological and genetic data indicate that cattle were first domesticated from wild aurochs (Bos primigenius) approximately 10,500 years ago. There were two major areas of domestication: one in the Near East (specifically central Anatolia, the Levant and Western Iran), giving rise to the taurine line, and a second in the area that is now Pakistan, resulting in the indicine line. Modern mitochondrial DNA variation indicates the taurine line may have arisen from as few as 80 aurochs tamed in the upper reaches of Mesopotamia near the villages of Çayönü Tepesi in what is now southeastern Turkey and Dja'de el-Mughara in what is now northern Syria.
Although European cattle are largely descended from the taurine lineage, gene flow from African cattle (partially of indicine origin) contributed substantial genomic components to both southern European cattle breeds and their New World descendants. A study on 134 breeds showed that modern taurine cattle originated from Africa, Asia, North and South America, Australia, and Europe. Some researchers have suggested that African taurine cattle are derived from a third independent domestication from North African aurochsen.
Usage as money
As early as 9000 BC both grain and cattle were used as money or as barter (the first grain remains found, considered to be evidence of pre-agricultural practice date to 17,000 BC). Some evidence also exists to suggest that other animals, such as camels and goats, may have been used as currency in some parts of the world. One of the advantages of using cattle as currency is that it allows the seller to set a fixed price. It even created the standard pricing. For example, two chickens were traded for one cow as cows were deemed to be more valuable than chickens.
Modern husbandry
Further information: Animal husbandry
Cattle are often raised by allowing herds to graze on the grasses of large tracts of rangeland. Raising cattle in this manner allows the use of land that might be unsuitable for growing crops. The most common interactions with cattle involve daily feeding, cleaning and milking. Many routine husbandry practices involve ear tagging, dehorning, loading, medical operations, artificial insemination, vaccinations and hoof care, as well as training for agricultural shows and preparations. Also, some cultural differences occur in working with cattle; the cattle husbandry of Fulani men rests on behavioural techniques, whereas in Europe, cattle are controlled primarily by physical means, such as fences. Breeders use cattle husbandry to reduce M. bovis infection susceptibility by selective breeding and maintaining herd health to avoid concurrent disease.
Cattle are farmed for beef, veal, dairy, and leather. They are less commonly used for conservation grazing, or to maintain grassland for wildlife, such as in Epping Forest, England. They are often used in some of the most wild places for livestock. Depending on the breed, cattle can survive on hill grazing, heaths, marshes, moors and semidesert. Modern cattle are more commercial than older breeds and, having become more specialized, are less versatile. For this reason, many smaller farmers still favor old breeds, such as the Jersey dairy breed. In Portugal, Spain, southern France and some Latin American countries, bulls are used in the activity of bullfighting; In many other countries bullfighting is illegal. Other activities such as bull riding are seen as part of a rodeo, especially in North America. Bull-leaping, a central ritual in Bronze Age Minoan culture, still exists in southwestern France. In modern times, cattle are also entered into agricultural competitions. These competitions can involve live cattle or cattle carcases in hoof and hook events.
In terms of food intake by humans, consumption of cattle is less efficient than of grain or vegetables with regard to land use, and hence cattle grazing consumes more area than such other agricultural production when raised on grains. Nonetheless, cattle and other forms of domesticated animals can sometimes help to use plant resources in areas not easily amenable to other forms of agriculture.
Feral cattle
Feral cattle are defined as being 'cattle that are not domesticated or cultivated'. Populations of feral cattle are known to come from and exist in: Australia, United States of America, Colombia, Argentina, Spain, France and many islands, including New Guinea, Hawaii (see Hawaiian wild cattle), Galapagos, Juan Fernández Islands, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti), Tristan da Cunha and Île Amsterdam (see Amsterdam Island cattle), two islands of Kuchinoshima and Kazura Island next to Naru Island in Japan. Chillingham cattle is sometimes regarded as a feral breed. Aleutian wild cattles can be found on the Aleutian Islands. The "Kinmen cattle" which are predominantly found on Kinmen Island, Taiwan is mostly domesticated while smaller portion of the population is believed to live in the wild due to accidental releases.
Other notable examples include cattle in the vicinity of Hong Kong (in the Shing Mun Country Park, among Sai Kung District and Lantau Island and on Grass Island), and semi-feral animals in Yangmingshan, Taiwan.
Economy
The meat of adult cattle is known as beef, and that of calves is veal. Other animal parts are also used as food products, including blood, liver, kidney, heart and oxtail. Cattle also produce milk, and dairy cattle are specifically bred to produce the large quantities of milk processed and sold for human consumption. Cattle today are the basis of a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. The international trade in beef for 2000 was over $30 billion and represented only 23% of world beef production. Approximately 300 million cattle, including dairy cattle, are slaughtered each year for food. The production of milk, which is also made into cheese, butter, yogurt, and other dairy products, is comparable in economic size to beef production, and provides an important part of the food supply for many of the world's people. Cattle hides, used for leather to make shoes, couches and clothing, are another widespread product. Cattle remain broadly used as draft animals in many developing countries, such as India. Cattle are also used in some sporting games, including rodeo and bullfighting.
Meat production
Cattle meat production (kt)
Country2008200920102011
Argentina3132337826302497
Australia2132212426302420
Brazil9024939591159030
China5841606062446182
Germany1199119012051170
Japan520517515500
US12163118911204611988
Source: Helgi Library, World Bank, FAOSTAT
About a quarter of the world's meat comes from cattle.
Dairy
Main articles: Dairy cattle, Dairy farming, and Dairy
Certain breeds of cattle, such as the Holstein-Friesian, are used to produce milk, which can be processed into dairy products such as milk, cheese or yogurt. Dairy cattle are usually kept on specialized dairy farms designed for milk production. Most cows are milked twice per day, with milk processed at a dairy, which may be onsite at the farm or the milk may be shipped to a dairy plant for eventual sale of a dairy product. Lactation is induced in heifers and spayed cows by a combination of physical and psychological stimulation, by drugs, or by a combination of those methods. For mother cows to continue producing milk, they give birth to one calf per year. If the calf is male, it generally is slaughtered at a young age to produce veal. They will continue to produce milk until three weeks before birth. Over the last fifty years, dairy farming has become more intensive to increase the yield of milk produced by each cow. The Holstein-Friesian is the breed of dairy cow most common in the UK, Europe and the United States. It has been bred selectively to produce the highest yields of milk of any cow. Around 22 litres per day is average in the UK.
Hides
Most cattle are not kept solely for hides, which are usually a by-product of beef production. Hides are most commonly used for leather, which can be made into a variety of products, including shoes. In 2012 India was the world's largest producer of cattle hides.
Oxen
Main article: Ox
Oxen (singular ox) are cattle trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, castrated males of larger breeds, although females and bulls are also used in some areas. Usually, an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and to allow it to grow to full size. Oxen are used for plowing, transport, hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, irrigation by powering pumps, and wagon drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs in forests, and sometimes still are, in low-impact, select-cut logging. Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as carting, with additional pairs added when more power is required, sometimes up to a total of 20 or more. Oxen can be trained to respond to a teamster's signals. These signals are given by verbal commands or by noise (whip cracks). Verbal commands vary according to dialect and local tradition. Oxen can pull harder and longer than horses. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed.
Many oxen are used worldwide, especially in developing countries. About 11.3 million draft oxen are used in sub-Saharan Africa. In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head. About half the world's crop production is thought to depend on land preparation (such as plowing) made possible by animal traction.
Climate change and economics of cattle rearing
See also: Economic impacts of climate change
Climate change increases heat stress, and even mild heat stress can reduce the yield of cow milk. Some researchers suggest that the already recorded stagnation of dairy production in both China and West Africa can attributed to persistent increases in heat stress.: 747 In China, daily milk production per cow is already lower than the average by between 0.7 and 4 kg in July (the hottest month of the year), and by 2070, it may decline by up to 50% (or 7.2 kg) due to climate change. In male cattle, severe heat can affect both spermatogenesis and the stored spermatozoa, and it may take up to eight weeks for sperm to become viable again. In females, heat stress negatively affects conception rates as it impairs corpus luteum and thus ovarian function and oocyte quality. Even after conception, a pregnancy is less likely to be carried to term due to reduced endometrial function and uterine blood flow, leading to increased embryonic mortality and early fetal loss. Calves born to heat-stressed cows typically have a below-average weight, and their weight and height remains below average even by the time they reach their first year, due to permanent changes in their metabolism. Heat stress can also be outright lethal, which is already seen during some heatwaves: in July 1995, over 4000 cattle perished in the mid-central United States heatwave, and in 1999, over 5000 cattle died during a heatwave in northeastern Nebraska.
By 2017, it was already reported that farmers in Nepal kept fewer cattle due to the losses imposed by a longer hot season.: 747 As of 2022, it has been suggested that every additional millimeter of annual precipitation increases beef production by 2.1% in the tropical countries and reduces it by 1.9% in temperate ones, yet the effects of warming are much larger. Under SSP3-7.0, a scenario of significant warming and very low adaptation, every additional 1 °C (1.8 °F) would decrease global beef production by 9.7%, mainly because of its impact on tropical and poor countries. In the countries which can afford adaptation measures, production would fall by around 4%, but by 27% in those which can't. Only a few exceptions have been identified to date: for instance, east and south of Argentina may become more suitable to cattle ranching due to climate-driven shifts in rainfall, but a shift to Zebu breeds would likely be needed to minimize the impact of warming. Other studies suggest that Brahman cattle and its cross-breeds are more resistant to heat stress than the regular bos taurus breeds, but on a global scale, it is considered unlikely that even more heat-resistant cattle can be bred at a sufficient rate to keep up with the expected warming.
Population
The cattle population of Britain rose from 9.8 million in 1878 to 11.7 million in 1908, but beef consumption rose much faster. Britain became the "stud farm of the world" exporting livestock to countries where there were no indigenous cattle. In 1929 80% of the meat trade of the world was products of what were originally English breeds. There were nearly 70 million cattle in the US by the early 1930s.
For 2013, the FAO estimated global cattle numbers at 1.47 billion. Regionally, the FAO estimate for 2013 includes: Asia 497 million; South America 350 million; Africa 307 million; Europe 122 million; North America 102 million; Central America 47 million; Oceania 40 million; and Caribbean 9 million.
As per FAS/USDA 2021 data, India had the largest cattle population in the world in 2021 followed by Brazil and China
India's cattle's population was reported at 305.5 million head in 2021, accounting for roughly 30% of the world's population. India, Brazil and China accounted for roughly 65% of the world's cattle population in 2021.
It has been estimated that out of all animal species on Earth, Bos taurus has the largest biomass at roughly 400 million tonnes, followed closely by Euphausia superba (Antarctic krill) at 379 million tonnes, and Homo sapiens (humans) at 373 million tonnes.
Cattle population
Environmental impact
See also: Environmental effects of meat production, Milk § Environmental impact, Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest, Beef § Environmental impact, and Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture § Livestock
Meat from cattle has the highest emissions intensity of any agricultural commodity.
Gut flora in cattle include methanogens that produce methane as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle belch out. The same volume of atmospheric methane has a 72x higher (over 20 years) global warming potential than atmospheric carbon dioxide. Methane belching from cattle can be reduced with genetic selection, immunization against the many methanogens, rumen defaunation (killing the bacteria-killing protozoa), diet modification (e.g. seaweed fortification), decreased antibiotic use, and grazing management, among others.
A 2013 report from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) based on 2005 data states that the livestock sector is responsible for 14.5% of greenhouse gas emissions, 65% of which is due to cattle. The IPCC estimates that cattle and other livestock emit about 80 to 93 Megatonnes of methane per year, accounting for an estimated 37% of anthropogenic methane emissions, and additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of manure in manure lagoons and other manure storage structures. Another estimate is 12% of global GHG. While cattle fed forage actually produce more methane than grain-fed cattle, the increase may be offset by the increased carbon recapture of pastures, which recapture three times the CO2 of cropland used for grain.
Mean greenhouse gas emissions for different food types.
Food TypesGreenhouse Gas Emissions (g CO2-Ceq per gram protein)
Ruminant Meat
62
Recirculating Aquaculture
30
Trawling Fishery
26
Non-recirculating Aquaculture
12
Pork
10
Poultry
10
Dairy
9.1
Non-trawling Fishery
8.6
Eggs
6.8
Starchy Roots
1.7
Wheat
1.2
Maize
1.2
Legumes
0.25
Mean land use of different foods
Food TypesLand Use (m2·year per 100 g protein)
Lamb and Mutton
185
Beef
164
Cheese
41
Pork
11
Poultry
7.1
Eggs
5.7
Farmed Fish
3.7
Peanuts
3.5
Peas
3.4
Tofu
2.2
One of the cited changes suggested to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is intensification of the livestock industry, since intensification leads to less land for a given level of production. This assertion is supported by studies of the US beef production system, suggesting practices prevailing in 2007 involved 8.6% less fossil fuel use, 16.3% less greenhouse gas emissions, 12.1% less water use, and 33.0% less land use, per unit mass of beef produced, than those used in 1977. The analysis took into account not only practices in feedlots, but also feed production (with less feed needed in more intensive production systems), forage-based cow-calf operations and back-grounding before cattle enter a feedlot (with more beef produced per head of cattle from those sources, in more intensive systems), and beef from animals derived from the dairy industry. A more controversial suggestion, advocated by George Monbiot in the documentary "Apocalypse Cow", is to stop farming cattle completely, however farmers often have political power so might be able to resist such a big change.
Estimated virtual water requirements for various foods (m³ water/ton
Hoekstra & Hung
(2003)
Chapagain & Hoekstra (2003)Zimmer & Renault
(2003)
Oki et al. (2003)Average
Beef15,97713,50020,70016,730
Pork5,9064,6005,9005,470
Cheese5,2885,290
Poultry2,8284,1004,5003,810
Eggs4,6572,7003,2003,520
Rice2,6561,4003,6002,550
Soybeans2,3002,7502,5002,520
Wheat1,1501,1602,0001,440
Maize4507101,9001,020
Milk865790560740
Potatoes160105130
Significant numbers of dairy, as well as beef cattle, are confined in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), defined as "new and existing operations which stable or confine and feed or maintain for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period more than the number of animals specified" where "[c]rops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season over any portion of the lot or facility." They may be designated as small, medium and large. Such designation of cattle CAFOs is according to cattle type (mature dairy cows, veal calves or other) and cattle numbers, but medium CAFOs are so designated only if they meet certain discharge criteria, and small CAFOs are designated only on a case-by-case basis.
Mean eutrophying emissions (water pollution) of different foods per 100 g of protein
Food TypesEutrophying Emissions (g PO43-eq per 100 g protein)
Beef
365.3
Farmed Fish
235.1
Farmed Crustaceans
227.2
Cheese
98.4
Lamb and Mutton
97.1
Pork
76.4
Poultry
48.7
Eggs
21.8
Peanuts
14.1
Peas
7.5
Tofu
6.2
Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100 g of protein
Food TypesAcidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100 g protein)
Beef
343.6
Cheese
165.5
Pork
142.7
Lamb and Mutton
139.0
Farmed Crustaceans
133.1
Poultry
102.4
Farmed Fish
65.9
Eggs
53.7
Peanuts
22.6
Peas
8.5
Tofu
6.7
A CAFO that discharges pollutants is required to obtain a permit, which requires a plan to manage nutrient runoff, manure, chemicals, contaminants, and other wastewater pursuant to the US Clean Water Act. The regulations involving CAFO permitting have been extensively litigated.
Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions . Concerns raised by opponents of CAFOs have included risks of contaminated water due to feedlot runoff, soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination. While research suggests some of these impacts can be mitigated by developing wastewater treatment systems and planting cover crops in larger setback zones, the Union of Concerned Scientists released a report in 2008 concluding that CAFOs are generally unsustainable and externalize costs.
Another concern is manure, which if not well-managed, can lead to adverse environmental consequences. However, manure also is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter when used as a fertilizer. Manure was used as a fertilizer on about 6,400,000 hectares (15.8 million acres) of US cropland in 2006, with manure from cattle accounting for nearly 70% of manure applications to soybeans and about 80% or more of manure applications to corn, wheat, barley, oats and sorghum. Substitution of manure for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 megajoules of fossil fuel energy would be used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.
Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native herbs and forbs by mimicking the native grazers who they displaced; in many world regions, though, cattle are reducing biodiversity due to overgrazing. A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying. Proper management of pastures, notably managed intensive rotational grazing and grazing at low intensities can lead to less use of fossil fuel energy, increased recapture of carbon dioxide, fewer ammonia emissions into the atmosphere, reduced soil erosion, better air quality, and less water pollution.
Health
The veterinary discipline dealing with cattle and cattle diseases (bovine veterinary) is called buiatrics. Veterinarians and professionals working on cattle health issues are pooled in the World Association for Buiatrics, founded in 1960. National associations and affiliates also exist.
Digital dermatitis is caused by the bacteria from the genus Treponema. It differs from foot rot and can appear under unsanitary conditions such as poor hygiene or inadequate hoof trimming, among other causes. It primarily affects dairy cattle and has been known to lower the quantity of milk produced, however the milk quality remains unaffected. Cattle are also susceptible to ringworm caused by the fungus, Trichophyton verrucosum, a contagious skin disease which may be transferred to humans exposed to infected cows.
Public health
Cattle diseases were in the center of attention in the 1980s and 1990s when the Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), also known as mad cow disease, was of concern. Cattle might catch and develop various other diseases, like blackleg, bluetongue, foot rot too.
In most states, as cattle health is not only a veterinarian issue, but also a public health issue, public health and food safety standards and farming regulations directly affect the daily work of farmers who keep cattle. However, said rules change frequently and are often debated. For instance, in the UK, it was proposed in 2011 that milk from tuberculosis-infected cattle should be allowed to enter the food chain. Internal food safety regulations might affect a country's trade policy as well. For example, the United States has just reviewed its beef import rules according to the "mad cow standards"; while Mexico forbids the entry of cattle who are older than 30 months.
Medicinal uses
Cow urine is commonly used in India for internal medical purposes. It is distilled and then consumed by patients seeking treatment for a wide variety of illnesses. At present, no conclusive medical evidence shows this has any effect. However, an Indian medicine containing cow urine has already obtained U.S. patents.
Effect of high stocking density
Stocking density refers to the number of animals within a specified area. When stocking density reaches high levels, the behavioural needs of the animals may not be met. This can negatively influence health, welfare and production performance.
The effect of overstocking in cows can have a negative effect on milk production and reproduction rates which are two very important traits for dairy farmers. Overcrowding of cows in barns has been found to reduced feeding, resting and rumination. Although they consume the same amount of dry matter within the span of a day, they consume the food at a much more rapid rate, and this behaviour in cows can lead to further complications. The feeding behaviour of cows during their post-milking period is very important as it has been proven that the longer animals can eat after milking, the longer they will be standing up and therefore causing less contamination to the teat ends. This is necessary to reduce the risk of mastitis as infection has been shown to increase the chances of embryonic loss. Sufficient rest is important for dairy cows because it is during this period that their resting blood flow increases up to 50%, this is directly proportionate to milk production. Each additional hour of rest can be seen to translate to 2 to 3.5 more pounds of milk per cow daily. Stocking densities of anything over 120% have been shown to decrease the amount of time cows spend lying down.
Cortisol is an important stress hormone; its plasma concentrations increase greatly when subjected to high levels of stress. Increased concentration levels of cortisol have been associated with significant increases in gonadotrophin levels and lowered progestin levels. Reduction of stress is important in the reproductive state of cows as an increase in gonadotrophin and lowered progesterone levels may impinge on the ovulatory and lutenization process and to reduce the chances of successful implantation. A high cortisol level will also stimulate the degradation of fats and proteins which may make it difficult for the animal to sustain
African Ambassadors & Diaspora Interactive Form AAIF Awards Gala Dinner United Nations buildings International Maritime Organization HQ IMO London. Photo Opportunity Portraits with Her Excellency Dr Justina Mutale and Epi Mabika
Lithic breccia from the Quaternary of Ohio, USA.
Sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of loose sediments. Loose sediments become hard rocks by the processes of deposition, burial, compaction, dewatering, and cementation.
There are three categories of sedimentary rocks:
1) Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments produced by weathering & erosion of any previously existing rocks.
2) Biogenic sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments that were once-living organisms (plants, animals, micro-organisms).
3) Chemical sedimentary rocks form by the solidification of sediments formed by inorganic chemical reactions. Most sedimentary rocks have a clastic texture, but some are crystalline.
Breccia is an uncommon, coarse-grained, siliciclastic sedimentary rock. Breccias form in many ways (sedimentary breccias, volcanic breccias, tectonic breccias/fault breccias, collapse breccias, boiling breccias, hydrothermal breccias, xenolith breccias, seismite breccias, injectite breccias, etc.), but they all have the same general appearance. Sedimentary breccias contain a mix of large & small grains. The large grains (gravel - pebbles or cobbles or boulders) are angular to subangular in shape, and they are surrounded by a finer-grained matrix, usually sand or mud.
The juvenile breccia shown above is principally composed of clasts eroded from Illinoian-aged glacial till (= Middle Pleistocene). The blackish-colored rock is flint (= chert). The clasts have become cemented without subsequent significant burial.
Age: Late Pleistocene or Holocene
Locality: Taft Reserve, western Flint Ridge, southeastern Licking County, east-central Ohio, USA
yellow morph or leucistic form of black collared barbet
Lake Niassa, Mozambique
Latin: Lybius Torquatus
One of a kind short hand-sculpted linen dress. It has an asymmetric floppy collar, detailed pintuck seams and darts, sexy draping around one hip, full pleated back. Made with a mix of exposed (but flattened) and traditional stitching.
There will never be another dress exactly like this.
We do hope this stretches a smile on your face...
KOXBOX Live (Twisted Records/ Ibiza/Denemark)
Formed in Copenhagen early in the '90s, Koxbox made some of the first moves toward
the psychedelic trance sound that became a standard later in the decade. The duo
was formed by Frank E (aka Frank Madsen) and Peter Candy, who first met back in 1980
while playing in rock bands around Copenhagen. Even though the KoxBox evolution has
taken many twists and turns, one thing stayed constant: the music is of unimaginable
quality and they can surely be called legends in our scene. We are very excited to
host one of the only artists that have constantely elevated their music to be on top
of the psychedelic trance scene.
OCELOT Live (Vertigo Records/ Portugal)
oCeLoT aka Aaron Peacock is based in Portugal after many years in San Fran. Aaron produces
high-impact psychedelic trance, sometimes deviating into fresh morning goa style creating
music for your nonstop dancing, listening pleasure. While producing since 1993, the oCeLoT
project began in the year 2000 and has been heard on 5 continents in forests, on beaches,
on mountains, in clubs, warehouses, in fields, and just about anywhere a trance party has
been held.
Frank'E DJ Set (Twisted Records/ Ibiza/Denemark)
By the words of the DJ, get ready for a "KILLER" DJ set by the mastermind of KoxBox.
Ocelot chill set (Vertigo Records/ Portugal)
We are treated by this multi talented artist to a couple of hours of on the chill stage
that will surely have you levitating..
Progress Live (YogiBogeyBox/ NYC)
Yuriy Vaskevich is a discoverer of musical dreamscapes. His immense musical background
is not to be missed. He pushes the limits of psychedelic experimental music and reached
sounds that are progressively unique. By popular demand we bring back Yuriy. We assure
you that if you have not heard Yuriy before you will go back to your computers to have
another listen.
DJ K E N (Dreamcatcher / Psychollective, NYC / JP)
K e N's Psytrance style can be described as Full-On that is neither too bright or too dark.
Yet, powerful with a message, his infectious sounds make you smile & dance He plays for
the love of the music and the people. Always evolving, and trying to further define that
special moment, to make the crowd feel special on the dance floor.
We do hope this stretches a smile on your face...
KOXBOX Live (Twisted Records/ Ibiza/Denemark)
Formed in Copenhagen early in the '90s, Koxbox made some of the first moves toward
the psychedelic trance sound that became a standard later in the decade. The duo
was formed by Frank E (aka Frank Madsen) and Peter Candy, who first met back in 1980
while playing in rock bands around Copenhagen. Even though the KoxBox evolution has
taken many twists and turns, one thing stayed constant: the music is of unimaginable
quality and they can surely be called legends in our scene. We are very excited to
host one of the only artists that have constantely elevated their music to be on top
of the psychedelic trance scene.
OCELOT Live (Vertigo Records/ Portugal)
oCeLoT aka Aaron Peacock is based in Portugal after many years in San Fran. Aaron produces
high-impact psychedelic trance, sometimes deviating into fresh morning goa style creating
music for your nonstop dancing, listening pleasure. While producing since 1993, the oCeLoT
project began in the year 2000 and has been heard on 5 continents in forests, on beaches,
on mountains, in clubs, warehouses, in fields, and just about anywhere a trance party has
been held.
Frank'E DJ Set (Twisted Records/ Ibiza/Denemark)
By the words of the DJ, get ready for a "KILLER" DJ set by the mastermind of KoxBox.
Ocelot chill set (Vertigo Records/ Portugal)
We are treated by this multi talented artist to a couple of hours of on the chill stage
that will surely have you levitating..
Progress Live (YogiBogeyBox/ NYC)
Yuriy Vaskevich is a discoverer of musical dreamscapes. His immense musical background
is not to be missed. He pushes the limits of psychedelic experimental music and reached
sounds that are progressively unique. By popular demand we bring back Yuriy. We assure
you that if you have not heard Yuriy before you will go back to your computers to have
another listen.
DJ K E N (Dreamcatcher / Psychollective, NYC / JP)
K e N's Psytrance style can be described as Full-On that is neither too bright or too dark.
Yet, powerful with a message, his infectious sounds make you smile & dance He plays for
the love of the music and the people. Always evolving, and trying to further define that
special moment, to make the crowd feel special on the dance floor.