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September 18, 2015 at 09:44AM Harley Quiin - A próxima ilustração a ganhar forma, estampando capas de cadernos e outros produtos! :D
Exposition
Du 14/06/2017 au 10/09/2017
L’exposition Le Rêve des formes, présentée à l’occasion du vingtième anniversaire du Fresnoy – Studio national des arts contemporains, est conçue comme un paysage imaginaire, un jardin monstrueux où se cultivent des formes périssables et des surfaces en germination, des organismes protubérants et de plates silhouettes.
Les artistes et chercheurs rassemblés dans Le Rêve des formes témoignent de leur rencontre avec de nouvelles possibilités de représentation, issues de découvertes scientifiques et techniques récentes, qui bouleversent notre façon de voir et de montrer. En renouvelant grâce à cela le champ du perceptible – nanotechnologies, imagerie de synthèse, scan 3D, stéréolithographie… –, ces nouvelles visualisations nous laissent présumer de géométries encore inconnues.
Des images, des transcriptions, des modélisations, des formes spéculatives produites par les inventeurs et savants des sciences prospectives, issues des mathématiques, de la physique, de la biologie, de l’optique ou de la chimie par exemple, rejoignent ou inspirent des œuvres qui résultent des greffes opérées entre art et science, entre spéculation et invention, par une vingtaine d’artistes contemporains.
Avec : Francis Alÿs, Hicham Berrada & Sylvain Courrech du Pont & Simon de Dreuille, Michel Blazy, Juliette Bonneviot, Dora Budor, Damien Cadio, Julian Charrière, Sylvie Chartrand, Clément Cogitore, Hugo Deverchère, Bertrand Dezoteux, Mimosa Echard, Alain Fleischer, Fabien Giraud & Raphaël Siboni, Bruno Gironcoli, Spiros Hadjidjanos, Patrick Jouin, Ryoichi Kurokawa, Annick Lesne & Julien Mozziconacci, Adrien Missika, Jean-Luc Moulène, Marie-Jeanne Musiol, Katja Novitskova, Jonathan Pêpe & Thibaut Rostagnat & David Chavalarias, Olivier Perriquet & Jean-Paul Delahaye, Arnaud Petit, Jean-François Peyret & Alain Prochiantz, Gaëtan Robillard, Gwendal Sartre, SMITH & Antonin-Tri Hoang, Anicka Yi
Forms of Nature #8
digital collage
by Kenneth Rougeau
The eighth image in the new "Forms of Nature" series of digital collages I'm currently constructing. Prints are available in my Etsy store (artfamilia). At present, I'm planning several individual pieces and at least one triptych for the set. More to come soon!
Plate-forme supérieure du monument aux 2 plates-formes des Abattois, avec sa niche. Vue de face. Photo Jacques RENOUX - Dijon
Registration FL14GWE
Make MG
Model 3 FORM PLUS SPORT VTI-TEC
Date of Liability 01 03 2015
Date of First Registration 13 03 2014
Year of Manufacture 2014
Cylinder Capacity 1498cc PETROL
Export Marker NO
Vehicle Status Licence Not Due
Vehicle Colour BLUE
Phnom Bakheng (Khmer: ប្រាសាទភ្នំបាខែង) at Angkor, Cambodia, is a Hindu temple in the form of a temple mountain. Dedicated to Shiva, it was built at the end of the 9th century, during the reign of King Yasovarman (889-910). Located atop a hill, it is nowadays a popular tourist spot for sunset views of the much bigger temple Angkor Wat, which lies amid the jungle about 1.5 km to the southeast. The large number of visitors makes Phnom Bakheng one of the most threatened monuments of Angkor. [1] Since 2004, World Monuments Fund has been working to conserve the temple in partnership with APSARA.
Constructed more than two centuries before Angkor Wat, Phnom Bakheng was in its day the principal temple of the Angkor region, historians believe. It was the architectural centerpiece of a new capital, Yasodharapura, that Yasovarman built when he moved the court from the capital Hariharalaya in the Roluos area located to the southeast.
An inscription dated 1052 AD and found at the Sdok Kak Thom temple in present-day Thailand states in Sanskrit: "When Sri Yasovardhana became king under the name of Yasovarman, the able Vamasiva continued as his guru. By the king's order, he set up a linga on Sri Yasodharagiri, a mountain equal in beauty to the king of mountains."[1] Scholars believe that this passage refers to the consecration of the Phnom Bakheng temple approximately a century and a half earlier.
Surrounding the mount and temple, labor teams built an outer moat. Avenues radiated out in the four cardinal directions from the mount. A causeway ran in a northwest-southeast orientation from the old capital area to the east section of the new capital's outer moat and then, turning to an east-west orientation, connected directly to the east entrance of the temple.[2]
Phnom Bakheng is a symbolic representation of Mount Meru, home of the Hindu gods, a status emphasized by the temple’s location atop a steep hill. The temple faces east, measures 76 meters square at its base and is built in a pyramid form of six tiers. At the top level, five sandstone sanctuaries, in various states of repair, stand in a quincunx pattern—one in the center and one at each corner of the level’s square. Originally, 108 small towers were arrayed around the temple at ground level and on various of its tiers; most of them have collapsed.[3]
Jean Filliozat of the Ecole Francaise, a leading authority on Indian cosmology and astronomy, interpreted the symbolism of the temple. The temple sits on a rectangular base and rises in five levels and is crowned by five main towers. One hundred four smaller towers are distributed over the lower four levels, placed so symmetrically that only 33 can be seen from the center of any side. Thirty-three is the number of gods who dwelt on Mount Meru. Phnom Bakheng's total number of towers is also significant. The center one represents the axis of the world and the 108 smaller ones represent the four lunar phases, each with 27 days. The seven levels of the monument represent the seven heavens and each terrace contains 12 towers which represent the 12-year cycle of Jupiter. According to University of Chicago scholar Paul Wheatley, it is "an astronomical calendar in stone." [4]
Phnom Bakheng is one of three hilltop temples in the Angkor region that are attributed to Yasovarman's reign. The other two are Phnom Krom to the south near the Tonle Sap lake, and Phnom Bok, northeast of the East Baray reservoir.
Following Angkor's rediscovery by the outside world in the mid-19th century, decades passed before archeologists grasped Phnom Bakheng's historical significance. For many years, scholars' consensus view was that the Bayon, the temple located at the center of Angkor Thom city, was the edifice to which the Sdok Kak Thom inscription referred. Later work identified the Bayon as a Buddhist site, built almost three centuries later than originally thought, in the late 12th century, and Phnom Bakheng as King Yasovarman's state temple.
Arsenal (Vienna)
The Vienna Arsenal, object 1
(Pictures you can see by clicking on the link at the end of page!)
The Arsenal in Vienna is a former military complex in the southeast of the city, located in the 3rd district of Vienna. The mighty, consisting of several brick buildings facility is located on a rectangular plan on a hill south of the Country Road Belt (Landstraßer Gürtel).
Meaning
The Arsenal is the most important secular assembly of Romantic Historicism in Vienna and was conducted in Italian-Medieval and Byzantine-Moorish forms. Essentially the complex is preserved in its original forms; only the former workshop buildings within the bounding, from the the outside visible wings were replaced by new constructions.
History to 1945
Bird's eye view of the complex, arsenal, lithography Alexander Kaiser, 1855
Vienna Arsenal (Museum of Military History)
Arsenal, with HGM (Heeresgeschichtliches Museum) from the East
The complex, with a total of 31 "objects" (buildings) was built from 1849 to 1856 on the occasion of the March Revolution of 1848 and was the first building of the fortress triangle, replacing the old Vienna's city walls, with the Rossauer Barracks and the now-defunct Franz Joseph barracks at Stubenring. These buildings should not serve to deter foreign enemies from the city, but to secure state power in the event of revolutionary upheavals in Vienna. The decision to build the Arsenal, it came from the 19-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph I who on 2 December 1848 had come to the throne.
The design for the Imperial Artillery Arsenal came from General Artillery Director Vincenz Freiherr von Augustin, to which, subsequently, the site management had been transferred. Under his leadership, the buildings under assignment of sectors have been planned of the architects Carl Roesner, Antonius Pius de Riegel, August Sicard von Sicardsburg, Eduard van der Nüll, Theophil von Hansen and Ludwig Förster and built by the company of the architect Leopold Mayr.
From 1853 to 1856, Arsenal church was built by the architect Carl Roesner. The K.K. Court Weapon Museum, later K.K. Army Museum, now Museum of Military History, housed in a separate representative free-standing wing, was completed structurally in 1856, but was only in 1869 for the first time accessible.
For the construction of the Arsenal 177 million bricks were used. Construction costs totaled $ 8.5 million guilders. In the following years, there have been extensions. During the two world wars, the complex served as a weapons factory and arsenal, especially as barracks.
The record number of employees in Arsenal was reached in the First World War, with around 20,000 staffers. After 1918, the military-industrial operation with own steel mill was transformed into a public service institution with the name "Austrian Factories Arsenal". However, there were almost insoluble conversion problems in the transition to peacetime production, the product range was too great and the mismanagement considerable. The number of employees declined steadily, and the company became one of the great economic scandals of the First Republic.
By the fall of 1938, the area belonged to the 10th District Favoriten. However, as was established during the "Third Reich" the Reich District of Greater Vienna, became the arsenal complex and the south-east of it lying areas in the wake of district boundary changes parts of the 3rd District.
During the Second World War, in the Arsenal tank repair workshops of the Waffen-SS were set up. In the last two years of the war several buildings were severely damaged by bombing. During the Battle of Vienna, in the days of 7 to 9 April 1945, was the arsenal, defended by the 3rd SS Panzer Division "Totenkopf", focus of the fighting, the Red Army before its victory facing heavy losses.
History since 1945
Ruins of the object 15 after the air raids 1944
Deposits at the Arsenal Street
After heavy bomb damages during the Second World War, the buildings of the Arsenal were largely restored to their original forms.
In the southern part and in the former courtyard of the arsenal several new buildings were added, among them 1959-1963 the decoration workshops of the Federal Theatre designed by the architects Erich Boltenstern and Robert Weinlich. From 1961 to 1963, the telecommunications central office was built by the architect Fritz Pfeffer. From 1973 to 1975 were built operation and office building of the Post and Telephone Head Office for Vienna, Lower Austria and Burgenland (now Technology Centre Arsenal of Telekom Austria) with the 150-meter high radio tower in Vienna Arsenal according to the plans of architect Kurt Eckel. In the 1990s, a rehearsal stage of the Castle Theater (Burgtheater) was built according to plans by Gustav Peichl.
Also the Austrian Research and Testing Centre Arsenal, now Arsenal Research, which has made itself wordwide a celebrity by one of the largest air chambers (now moved to Floridsdorf - 21st District), was housed in the complex. A smaller part of the complex is still used by the Austrian army as a barracks. Furthermore, the Central Institute for Disinfection of the City of Vienna and the Central Chemical Laboratory of the Federal Monuments Office are housed in the arsenal. The Military History Museum uses multiple objects as depots.
In one part of the area residential buildings were erected. The Arsenal is forming an own, two census tracts encompassing census district, which according to the census in 2001 had 2.058 inhabitants.
End of 2003, the arsenal in connection with other properties of the Federal Property Society (BIG - Bundesimmobiliengesellschaft) was sold to a private investor group. Since early 2006, the lawyer of Baden (Lower Austria, not far away from Vienna) Rudolf Fries and industrialist Walter Scherb are majority owners of the 72,000 m2 historic site that they want to refurbish and according to possibility rent new. Fries also plans to enlarge the existing living space by more than a half (about 40,000 m2).
An architectural design competition, whose jury on 28 and 29 in June 2007 met, provided proposals amounting to substantial structural changes in the complex. Such designed competition winner Hohensinn a futuristic clouds clip modeled after El Lissitzky's cloud bracket, a multi-level horizontal structure on slender stilts over the old stock on the outskirts of the Swiss Garden. The realization of these plans is considered unlikely.
Some objects are since 2013 adapted for use by the Technical University of Vienna: Object 227, the so-called "Panzerhalle" will house laboratories of the Institute for Powertrains and Automotive Technology. In object 221, the "Siemens hall", laboratories of the Institute for Energy Technology and Thermodynamics as well as of the Institute for Manufacturing Technology and High Power Laser Technology are built. In object 214 is besides the Technical Testing and Research Institute (TVFA) also the second expansion stage of the "Vienna Scientific Cluster" housed, of a supercomputer, which was built jointly by the Vienna University of Technology, the University of Vienna and the University of Agricultural Sciences.
Accessibility
The arsenal was historically especially over the Landstraßer Gürtel developed. Today passes southeast in the immediate proximity the Südosttangente called motorway A23 with it connection Gürtel/Landstraßer Hauptstrasse. Southwest of the site runs the Eastern Railway, the new Vienna Central Station closes to the west of the arsenal. Two new bridges over the Eastern Railway, the Arsenal Stay Bridge and the Southern Railway bridge and an underpass as part of Ghegastraße and Alfred- Adler-Straße establish a connection to the on the other side of the railway facilities located Sonnwendviertel in the 10th District, which is being built on the former site of the freight train station Vienna South Station.
On the center side is between Arsenal and Landstraßer Gürtel the former Maria Josefa Park located, now known as Swiss Garden. Here stands at the Arsenal street the 21er Haus, a branch of the Austrian Gallery Belvedere, on the center-side edge of the Swiss Garden has the busy suburban main railway route the stop Vienna Quartier Belvedere, next to it the Wiener Linien D (tram) and 69A (bus) run.
The fortifications of Famagusta are a series of defensive walls and other fortifications which surround the city of Famagusta in Northern Cyprus. The walls were built by the Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus in the 14th century, and redesigned by Republic of Venice in 15th and 16th centuries before the siege of Ottoman Empire in 1571. The fortifications of Famagusta withstood an 11-month siege before the city capitulated to the Ottoman Empire in August 1571.
In the 13th century, Famagusta's harbour was defended by a tower, and it is possible that some form of fortification existed earlier. In the 14th century, the Lusignans built the Othello Castle to defend both the harbour and the town. Famagusta fell to the Genoese in 1373, and in 1489 it was taken over by the Republic of Venice along with the rest of Cyprus.
While Famagusta was under Venetian rule, the city was essentially a military base. The Othello Castle was modernized, and fortifications surrounding the entire city began to be built. The fortifications were designed by a number of military engineers, including Michele Sanmicheli and his nephew Giovanni Girolamo Sammichele. The latter arrived in Famagusta in around 1550, and he designed the Martinengo Bastion, which served as a prototype for various other fortifications in Europe and America. He died in Famagusta in 1559, while the fortifications were still under construction.
The Fourth Ottoman–Venetian War broke out in 1570, when an Ottoman force invaded Cyprus and took control of most of the island including Nicosia within a few months. On 15 September, Ottomans surrounded Famagusta, which was the last Venetian stronghold on the island, and began the Siege of Famagusta. The city held out until August 1571, when the Venetians asked for terms of surrender. Although terms were agreed and the inhabitants began to evacuate the city, at the surrender ceremony Lala Mustafa Pasha learned that some Muslim prisoners had been killed and he had the Venetian commander Marco Antonio Bragadin mutilated and flayed alive, and the remaining Christians in the city were massacred.
The Ottomans repaired the damaged parts of the walls, but did not make any major alterations. The city began to expand outside its walls in the late Ottoman period, and this increased after Cyprus fell under British rule.
Although many buildings within the old city of Famagusta is in a state of disrepair, the fortifications are still in relatively good condition.
The fortifications of Famagusta consist of an enceinte which is surrounded by a rock-hewn ditch on the landward side, and the harbour on the seaward side. Like the fortifications of Rhodes, which were built by the Knights Hospitaller between the 14th and 16th centuries, the walls of Famagusta show the transition between medieval fortification and the bastioned fortifications of the early modern period.
Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.
The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.
By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".
In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.
The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.
The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.
The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.
Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.
The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.
In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.
In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.
With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.
In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.
With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.
New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.
The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.
From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.
In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.
There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.
During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.
Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.
UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.
Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.
Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:
The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque
The Othello Castle
Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace
St. Francis' Church
Sinan Pasha Mosque
Church of St. George of the Greeks
Church of St. George of the Latins
Twin Churches
Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)
Namık Kemal Dungeon
Agios Ioannis Church
Venetian House
Akkule Masjid
Mustafa Pasha Mosque
Ganchvor monastery
In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.
Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.
Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.
The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.
Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.
The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.
Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.
A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.
Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.
Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.
Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.
Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.
Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.
The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.
The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.
Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.
Personalities
Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta
Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who
Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position
Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.
Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.
Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus
Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)
Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter
Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots
Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)
Harry Luke British diplomat
Angelos Misos, former international footballer
Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.
Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)
Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.
Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta
Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.
Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.
George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus
Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry
Derviş Zaim, film director
Famagusta is twinned with:
İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)
Corfu, Greece (since 1994)
Patras, Greece (since 1994)
Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)
Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)
Struga, North Macedonia
Athens, Greece (since 2005)
Mersin, Turkey
Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.
A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.
Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.
Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.
Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.
Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.
The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.
Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.
Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.
By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.
EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.
However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.
On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.
In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.
By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.
In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.
The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.
After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".
As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.
Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.
The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.
Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.
The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.
Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.
Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria
An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."
In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.
Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.
In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.
Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.
Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.
Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:
UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.
The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.
By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."
After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.
On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.
The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.
During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.
In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.
Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.
A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.
Today's VIS image shows part of Angustus Labyrinthus. Angustus Labyrinthus is a unique region near the south polar cap. In the center of this image squares formed by intersecting ridges are visible. The feature earned the informal name of the Inca City when it was discovered in Mariner 9 images in 1972.The linear ridges are believed to have formed by volcanic and tectonic forces, where magma filled fractures in the subsurface and then erosion revealed the magmatic material.
This martian scene spans 16 x 242 kilometers (11 x 161 miles). To see where on Mars this area lies, and to download high-resolution versions of the image go to themis.asu.edu/zoom-20210723a
See the Red Planet Report at redplanet.asu.edu for updates on Mars research and exploration. For more about Mars geology, check out the Mars-ePedia: marsed.asu.edu/marsepedia
For the latest THEMIS Mars images as received by mission scientists, see themis.asu.edu/livefrommars. To learn more about the THEMIS camera and its Mars images, see themis.asu.edu
This image is in the public domain and may be republished free of charge. If used, please credit it as NASA/JPL-Caltech/Arizona State University.
The forms are in place and concrete is poured at the brand-new CCS-agriKomp on-farm reference plant in Millbrook, Ontario.
More info here:
info.octaform.com/blog/bid/38924/Canadians-Bring-German-B...
Exercise in Form and Perception 12 angles (Freestanding and balanced plywood construction, 62cm x 52cm x 28cm, Dirk Marwig 2016)
*This pic shows 12 angles of the object, turning it on the axis. This object stands on any solid and level surface.
* Haut de maillot de bain
Forme bandeau torsadé
Bonnet ampliforme avec armatures
sur les côtés - Bretelle amovible
Lien à nouer au dos
Motifs à pois contrastants
Couleur : Petits pois Kaki/blanc
Composition :
86% polyamide, 14% élasthanne
Lavage à la main recommandé
Réf : IMPERATRIZ
* Bas de maillot
Forme culotte
Taille élastiquée
Fronces sur les côtés
Echancré aux cuisses
Motifs à pois contrastants
Fond doublé
Couleur : Petits pois Kaki/blanc
Composition :
86% polyamide, 14% élasthanne
Lavage à la main recommandé
Réf : ARACAJU
Zwei Tonlampen in Form von Gladiatorenhelmen.
Links ein Murmillo oder Thraex Helm des zweiten bis dritten Jahrhunderts.
Das Punktmuster entspricht der Fischschuppenähnlichen Verzinnung des echten Helmes:
www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/galleries/721576229692...
Rechts ein Secutor Helm.
Die Verstärkung um die Augenlöcher ist aufwendig verziert.
Two lamps formed like Gladiator helmets.
The left one is a 2nd-3rd AD Murmillo or Thraex helmet.
The dotet surface resembles the tinned "fishscales" of the real helmet:
www.flickr.com/photos/40060535@N05/galleries/721576229692...
Right a Secutor helmet.
The reinforcement around the eyeholes is elaborately ornamented
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Nikon D810 with the Nikon MB-D12 Multi Battery Power Pack / Grip for D800 and D810 Digital Cameras allows one to shoot at a high to catch the action FPS! Ballerina Dance Goddess Photos! Pretty, Tall Ballet Swimsuit Bikini Model Ballerina Goddess! Captured with the 50mm F1.4 Art Lens and the Nikon 70-200mm f/2.8G ED VR II AF-S Nikkor Zoom Lens! Ballerina dancer dancing ballet in pointe shoes! Jete! Arabesque!
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Ballerina dancing ballet! Pretty ballerina girl with dark brown hair and black eyes!
A pretty goddess straight out of Homer's Iliad & Odyssey!
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New facebook: www.facebook.com/45surfAchillesOdysseyMythology
Pretty, Tall Bikini Swimsuit Model Goddess!
New blog!
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She was a beauty--a gold 45 goddess for sure! A Gold 45 Goddess exalts the archetypal form of Athena--the Greek Goddess of wisdom, warfare, strategy, heroic endeavour, handicrafts and reason. A Gold 45 Goddess guards the beauty of dx4/dt=ic and embodies 45SURF's motto "Virtus, Honoris, et Actio Pro Veritas, Amor, et Bellus, (Strength, Honor, and Action for Truth, Love, and Beauty," and she stands ready to inspire and guide you along your epic, heroic odyssey into art and mythology. It is Athena who descends to call Telemachus to Adventure in the first book of Homer's Odyssey--to man up, find news of his true father Odysseus, and rid his home of the false suitors, and too, it is Athena who descends in the first book of Homer's Iliad, to calm the Rage of Achilles who is about to draw his sword so as to slay his commander who just seized Achilles' prize, thusly robbing Achilles of his Honor--the higher prize Achilles fought for. And now Athena descends once again, assuming the form of a Gold 45 Goddess, to inspire you along your epic journey of heroic endeavour.
ALL THE BEST on your Epic Hero's Odyssey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Been busy traveling and shooting landscapes and working on my books The Golden Hero's Odyssey about the golden rectangle and divine proportion I use in a lot of my compositions! Also working on my physics book on Dynamic Dimensions Theory! The equation d4/dt=ic is on a lot of the 45surf swimsuit and shirts and all! :)
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AVILA-PINTURA-ESPAÑA-MONUMENTOS-SANTA TERESA-PUERTA--ALCAZAR-MURALLAS-PLAZA-FOTOS-PINTOR-ERNEST DESCALS-
Mis deseoa formaban parte del objetivo artístico e histórico de poder Pintar uno de los Monumentos que la ciudad de AVILA mantienen con el recuerdo de la Santa y Mística Teresa de Avila, pero inmerso en la planice de la Palza Del Grande también creí oportuno el recoger en el Cuadro la Puerta del Alcázar que se mantiene a lo largo de los años como uno de los recuerdos físicos de las Murallas que tanta fama han dado a esta ciudad de Castilla y León en España y en todo el mundo. A los Pintores, por lo menos a mí, les siguen gustando más las imágenes antiguas que nos muestran el tipismo de estas ciudades, ahora existe un duro y rectilíneo edificio de lineas rectas que delimitan con su fantasmal presencia uno de los lados de la Plaza del Mercado Grande, son los tributos de la Modernidad y su culto a los conocidos arquitectos actuales, creo que he podio integrarlo con plasticidad en la Pintura, Este Centro urbano abulense aún es capaz de emocionar a los visitantes por su grandiosidad paisajista y arquitectónica, pese a los cambios que el Tiempo ha dispuesto. Para mí sentir y pensar la Plaza de El Grande resume los valores de lo antiguo con todo esplendor. fotos del artista Pintor ERNEST DESCALS pintando el Monumento junto al total de la escenografía urbana que nos motiva por su Historia y Arquitectura. Son Pinturas que captan el Alma de los habitantes de Avila., Cuadros con Pintura al óleo que forman las Postales Castellanas y Españolas a través del embrujo y la Magia del arte que los Artistas gozan de elaborar al Pintar al Aire Libre.
www.facebook.com/pages/ERNEST-DESCALS-ARTISTA-PINTOR/8132...
cuadrosernestdescals.blogspot.com/
Old Paramus Reformed Church has a rich past. The congregation was formed in the year 1725. During the American Revolution, the Paramus Church was the site of a Continental Army military post for four years during which clashes between American and British forces took place. It was also in the original church building that General George Washington held a session of the court-martial of General Charles Lee who disobeyed orders at the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. Washington had his headquarters here at the church a total of ten times during various days from 1778-1780.
Other noted Revolutionary War figures such as Alexander Hamilton, the Marquis de Lafayette, Anthony Wayne, Richard Henry Lee, and Aaron Burr also were here from time to time during the war. From early colonial times, slaves were members of the church congregation, the upper galleries on both sides being designated for their use during services.
Old Paramus Reformed Church has a rich past. The congregation was formed in the year 1725. During the American Revolution, the Paramus Church was the site of a Continental Army military post for four years during which clashes between American and British forces took place. It was also in the original church building that General George Washington held a session of the court-martial of General Charles Lee who disobeyed orders at the Battle of Monmouth in 1778. Washington had his headquarters here at the church a total of ten times during various days from 1778-1780.
Other noted Revolutionary War figures such as Alexander Hamilton, the Marquis de Lafayette, Anthony Wayne, Richard Henry Lee, and Aaron Burr also were here from time to time during the war. From early colonial times, slaves were members of the church congregation, the upper galleries on both sides being designated for their use during services.
The present church building was built in 1800. An interesting feature is that the pews are numbered. The members of earlier days rented them on an annual basis. The most expensive were numbers 50 to 57 at $52.00 per year while the least expensive were numbers 38 to 100 at $4.00 per year. Needless to say, the less expensive pews are at the rear of the sanctuary.
On each side of the pulpit, there are three pews placed at right angles to the rest of the pews in the church. These were reserved for the Elders and Deacons (on the left and right respectively). These persons collectively are known as the Consistory, which is the governing board of the church. It was their duty to sit in these pews each Sabbath with their Bibles and copies of the day's sermon to check on the "Domine" as to his conduct of the service as well as sticking to his sermon! That tradition (as to seating) was kept alive for many years in Old Paramus by members of the Consistory who sat in the first pew facing the pulpit each Sunday. The only similar practice in use today is that the Elders serving Communion sit in the first rows on either side of the center aisle.
The decorated organ pipes in the rear of the chancel (choir loft) behind the pulpit date back to 1892. In that year they were installed when the church received the gift of a new organ from a congregation member.
At the top of the arch over the pulpit, there is a Dove of Peace. The dove is made of wood and is hand-carved. The exact date of origin of the dove is unknown. One authority claims that, "The bird is an eagle and was a donation by Dr. Garret D. Banta in 1800." Records from the Consistory minutes read: 1874, Aug. 3rd: Resolved that the Consistory thankfully recognize the kindness of Mrs. Catherine Wessella for repairing and regilding the Dove, which has been a part of the decoration of the old church."
There are three flags on the pulpit - the American flag, the Christian flag and the flag of The Netherlands, the last representing our Dutch heritage. In a similar vein, for many years the Dutch flag was flown under the American flag on the staff in front of the church. Today only the American flag is flown on that flag pole.
There are several plaques on the inside walls of the church. Some honor the ministers, and others honor the various Consistories since 1725. Another just inside the front door notes that this Church has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In display cases you will find various bits of memorabilia concerning our history.
When attending Old Paramus Reformed Church, you will have come to a warm and comfortable historic church, but the service is up to date, alive, and nourishing to your whole being.
On the church campus, you will find the modern Educational Building which houses the church offices and facilities needed for Christian nurture. Another building is the one-room, church-like schoolhouse. This building houses the Ridgewood Historical and Preservation Society and is known as The Schoolhouse Museum. It was built in 1872 and was used as a school until 1905. It contains many items of historical note to this area. Make it a point to visit this museum during visiting hours. You should find it to be a very interesting and rewarding visit.
So, what kind of a church is Old Paramus Reformed Church? It is affiliated with the Reformed Church in America, the oldest Protestant denomination with a continuous ministry in America. The first church was established in New York City, then known as Nieuw Amsterdam, in 1628. The Collegiate Churches presently represent the origins of that original congregation. The best known is Marble Collegiate Church, which is where Dr. Norman Vincent Peale was the minister for fifty-two years. The Reformed Church in America (RCA) is an historic denomination coming out of the Reformation when the Church was "re-formed" and re-organized according to the teachings of the Word of God, the Bible. The Reformed Church is Biblical in doctrine, semi-liturgical in worship. Presbyterian in government, and evangelical in practice.
This year, Old Paramus Reformed Church celebrates 290 Years of God's Loving Spirit. Come join us next Sunday at 10 AM. We would be most happy to see you, and you will surely feel rewarded for the experience.
un ragazzo e la sua macchina con pellicola a grande formato nel procinto di fotografare la baia di Mont Saint-Michel al tramonto. Un momento di calma nella frenesia turistica
Viola trinervata forma semialba, rocky hillsides adjacent to WA Hwy. 821 (Canyon Rd.), Yakima River Canyon, north of Roza, Kittitas Co., WA, 13 Apr 2021.
Raymond Jonson's Cloud Forms and Mesas No. 1, an oil paint on canvas, was executed in 1926. When Jonson first visited New Mexico in 1922, he found that the landscape fit his increasingly abstract approach. Although modern styles like cubism were not popularly accepted at the time, Jonson pushed the envelope with painitings like this one, which simplified the lanscape into flat, geometric forms.
The Denver Art Museum, a private, non-profit museum, is known for its collection of American Indian art. Its impressive collection of more than 68,000 works includes pieces from around the world including modern and contemporary art, European and American painting and sculpture, and pre-Columbian and Spanish Colonial art. The museum was originally founded in 1893 as the Denver Artists Club. In 1918, it moved into galleries in the Denver City and County Building, and became the Denver Art Museum.
In 1971, the museum opened what is now known as the North Building, designed by Italian architect Gio Ponti and Denver-based James Sudler Associates. The seven-story structure, 210,000-square-foot building allowed the museum to display its collections under one roof for the first time. The Frederic C. Hamilton Building, designed by Studio Daniel Libeskind and Denver firm Davis Partnership Architects, opened on October 7, 2006 to accommodate the Denver Art Museum's growing collections and programs.
Petites formes dansées, Cie Gilles Verièpe ( www.compagnie-gilles-veriepe.com/site/ ) @ Rafales d'art, Le Bateau Feu ( www.lebateaufeu.com/fr/liste-des-spectacles-rafales-d-art... ). Dunkerque, vendre 21 septembre 2012
Title: Requsition form for the 20th Regiment, South Carolina Volunteers,
signed by States Rights Gist
Date Original: 1862-02-15
Description: Requisition for ordnance (muskets, bayonets,
cartridges, cap pouches, belts) for the use of the 20th Regiment, South Carolina
Volunteers.
Creator: Gist, States Rights, 1831-
Keith, L.M.
Subject: Charleston (S.C.)
Gist, States Rights, 1831-
Keitt, Lawrence M.
Confederate States of America -- Appropriations and expenditures
Confederate States of America -- History -- Sources
Confederate States of America--Armed forces--History--Sources
South Carolina -- History -- Civil War, 1861-1865
United States -- History -- Civil War, 1861-1865 -- Sources
Confederate States of America. Army--Ordnance and ordnance
stores.
Confederate States of America. Army. South Carolina Infantry
Regiment, 20th
Alternative Title: 070425-95
Publisher: Wofford College
Contributor: Keith, L.M.
Date Digital: 2008-09-03
Type: Text
Format [medium]: Manuscript
Format [IMT]: image/jpeg
Digitization Specifications: 800ppi 24-bit depth color; Scanned with
an Epson 15000 Photo scanner with Epson Scan software; Archival master is a
TIFF; Original converted to JPEG with Irfan View software.
Resource Identifier: 070425-95
Source: The original, accession number 070425-95, from which
this digital representation is taken is housed in The
Littlejohn Collection at Wofford College,
located in the Sandor Teszler Library.
Language: En-us English
Relation [is part of]:The
Littlejohn Collection
Rights Management: This digital representation has been
licensed under an Attribution
- Noncommercial- No Derivatives Creative Commons license.
Contributing Institution: Wofford College
Web Site: http://www.wofford.edu/library/littlejohn-home.aspx
Geometric Forms, Alexandra Wejchert. Polished stainless steel and consists of six identical elements connected at the centre. Each of the semi-crescent elements is cut from a 6mm flat plate with the edges stiffened by 200 x 100mm plates welded to it. 7.0m x 4.5m - Located in front of the Robert Schuman Building
3D printed models created with the generous support of Makerbot Industries, as part of my Makerbit artist-in-residence project.
Thanks especially to Colin Butgereit who ran some of these models for me very last-minute.
Fig. 1. Häufigste Form des Nordlichts in Deutschland und dem südlichen Skandinavien.
Fig. 2. Nordlicht, beobachtet von Hayes zu Port Foulke in Grönland, 6. Januar 1861.
Fig. 3. Nordlicht, beobachtet von Capron zu Guildford in England, 24. Oktober 1870.
Fig. 4. Nordlicht, beobachtet von Capron auf der Hebrideninsel Skye, 11. September 1874.
Polarlicht (hierzu Tafel "Polarlicht"), eine Lichterscheinung des Himmels, welche sich in ihrer vollsten Pracht in den Polarländern zeigt, aber auch zuweilen in unsern Breiten gesehen wird, wie z. B. in den glanzvollen Erscheinungen des 7. Jan. 1831, 18. Okt. 1836, 24. u. 25. Okt. 1870, 4. Febr. 1872, 2. Okt. 1882 u. a. Je nachdem die Lichterscheinung in den Nordpolar- oder in den Südpolarländern auftritt, pflegt man sie mit dem Namen Nordlicht (Aurora borealis) oder Südlicht (Aurora australis, Australlicht) zu bezeichnen, wofür jetzt der gemeinschaftliche Name P. üblich geworden ist. Die Polarlichter treten, je nach Zeit und Ort, unter sehr verschiedenen Formen auf; am häufigsten (Fig. 1 u. 4 der Tafel) bilden sie einen leuchtenden Bogen am Horizont, dessen unterer Rand schärfer begrenzt zu sein pflegt als der mehr verschwommene obere. Unter dem Lichtbogen sieht der Himmel schwärzer aus als gewöhnlich, wie eine dunkle Wolke oder Nebelwand in der Gestalt eines kreisförmigen, vom Horizont begrenzten Segments. Der höchste Punkt des Lichtbogens liegt ziemlich nahe in der Richtung, nach welcher die Kompaßnadel hinweist, also im magnetischen Meridian. Der Polarlichtbogen ist häufig aus einzelnen Strahlen zusammengesetzt, welche von seinem untern Rand nach oben hin gerichtet und von verschiedener Länge sind und oft über den ganzen Bogen hinzuwandern scheinen. Der Polarlichtbogen steht nicht selten ziemlich hoch am Himmel, und seine Erhebung ist über dem Horizont von dem Standort des Beobachters abhängig. Manchmal zeigen sich gleichzeitig mehrere Polarlichtbogen übereinander, welche ihre Form und Stellung am Himmelsgewölbe ziemlich rasch ändern. Zuweilen ist das P. auch ohne Zusammenhang über einen größern Teil des Himmels zerstreut. Diese Art der Polarlichter und nicht minder das Licht der Polarlichtbogen zeigt häufig eine stark flackernde oder flammende Bewegung, indem verschieden gefärbte Strahlen bald hier, bald dort am Himmel aufleuchten. Zuweilen erscheinen diese Strahlen wie ein vom Wind bewegtes leuchtendes Band oder eine Lichtwelle (Fig. 2), zuweilen erfüllt sich der ganze Himmel oder wenigstens ein Teil desselben mit solchen flammenden Polarlichtstrahlen, welche in einem Punkte des Himmelsgewölbes zusammenzulaufen scheinen, der nach neuern Untersuchungen in der Richtung der magnetischen Inklinations-(Neigungs-) Nadel liegt, da, wo das obere Ende derselben hinweist. Dieser Punkt heißt die Krone des Polarlichts. Man kann daher der Hauptsache nach fünf verschiedene Formen beim P. unterscheiden, je nachdem dasselbe 1) als heller Bogen 2) in Form eines wogenden Bandes, 3) als Strahlen, 4) als Krone erscheint oder 5) als heller Schein über den Himmel verbreitet ist. Die Farbe des Polarlichts ist gewöhnlich weißlich oder gelblich; es gibt aber auch rote Polarlichter, die sehr glänzend werden können, wie z. B. das vom 24. u. 25. Okt. 1870 (Fig. 3). Weyprecht, der sich auf der österreichisch-ungarischen arktischen Expedition zwei Jahre lang (1872-74) unter dem Gürtel größter Häufigkeit der Nordlichter befand, teilt über die Farben des Polarlichts mit, daß ihre Reihenfolge die einzige gesetzmäßige Eigenschaft der Polarlichter war, von welcher niemals eine Ausnahme beobachtet wurde. Nach seiner Beschreibung ist die normale Farbe weiß mit leichter grünlicher Betonung, bei trübem Wetter schmutzig gelb. Bei größerer Intensität des Polarlichts tritt Grün und Rot auf, und zwar bildet bei der häufigsten Form, dem breiten Lichtband, das Rot den untern Saum, dem dann das viel breitere Weiß der Mitte und dann das Grün des obern Saums in ungefähr gleicher Breite wie das untere Rot folgt. Violett tritt häufig bei den nur geringe Lichtintensität besitzenden Erscheinungen auf, welche formlosen, schwach leuchtenden Nebeln gleichen. Das Spektrum des leuchtenden Bogens des Polarlichts besteht nach Angström aus einer einzigen, dem P. charakteristischen hellen Linie zwischen den Fraunhoferschen Linien D und E. Außerdem beobachtete Angström noch drei schwache Streifen nach der Fraunhoferschen Linie F zu. Bei dem prachtvollen P. vom 25. Okt. 1870 beobachtete Zöllner außer der charakteristischen Linie zwischen D und E eine rote Linie, doch erschien diese nur an solchen Stellen des Himmels, die auch dem unbewaffneten Auge stark gerötet erschienen. Im blauen Teil des Spektrums traten nur zuweilen bandartige Streifen auf. Die Linien im Spektrum des Polarlichts stimmen nicht mit dem Spektrum eines verdünnten Gases in den Geißlerschen Röhren überein, während sich nach Angström die charakteristische Polarlichtlinie im Spektrum des Zodiakallichts (s. d.) wiederfindet. Ist das P. überhaupt elektrischer Natur wie die Lichtentwickelung der verdünnten Gase in den Geißlerschen Röhren, so muß es einer so niedrigen Temperatur angehören, wie sie bei diesen nicht gut hergestellt werden kann. Über die Höhe der Polarlichter sind die Ansichten der Naturforscher sehr geteilt. Nach Plücker fängt das elektrische Licht im luftverdünnten Raum an zu verschwinden bei einem Druck von 0,3 mm und ist bei 0,1 mm Druck vollständig fort. Daraus würde folgen, daß das P. bis 9 Meilen hoch sein könnte. Nach Waltenhofen tritt das elektrische Licht noch bei 20,000maliger Verdünnung der Luft auf und könnte deshalb das P. weit über 10 Meilen oberhalb der Erde vorhanden sein. Eine direkte Messung der Höhe des Polarlichts ist in der Art ausgeführt, daß man an verschiedenen Punkten der Erdoberfläche, die womöglich auf demselben Meridian lagen, die Erhebung einzelner charakteristischer Stellen des Polarlichts, wie unteres oder oberes Ende eines bestimmten Lichtstrahls etc., über den Horizont beobachtete und aus der so gefundenen Parallaxe seine Höhe berechnete. Auf diese Weise wurde aus den Beobachtungen über das P. vom 25. Okt. 1870 von Heis in Münster und Flögel in Schleswig abgeleitet, daß die Basis der Strahlen 20-35 Meilen und die Spitzen derselben 70, wahrscheinlich bis über 100 Meilen hoch waren. Zu ähnlichen Resultaten kamen auch Galle und Reimann in Breslau. Nach andern Beobachtungen tritt das P. auch in den untern Luftschichten auf, und namentlich ist dieses in den Polargegenden der Fall, wo z. B. Lemström u. a. das P. unterhalb von Berggipfeln und Wolken sowie von Nebeln und leuchtenden Wolken ausgehend beobachtet haben und es deshalb weniger als 4000 Fuß hoch gewesen sein muß. Aber auch im hohen Norden tritt das P. in größerer Höhe auf, wie z. B. in Wester-Norrland am 19. Febr. 1876 ein prachtvolles P. mit der Corona borealis nach 11 Uhr abends oberhalb der Cirruswolken, also in sehr großer Höhe, gesehen wurde. Daß das P. einen Einfluß auf den Zustand der untern Luftschichten ausübt, geht daraus hervor, daß der Himmel beim Auftreten eines starken Polarlichts, zumal wenn die Krone sich zeigt, in ungewöhnlich schneller Wechselfolge sich bewölkt und wieder aufklärt. Das Verhalten des Polarlichts zu den großen Bewegungen der Atmosphäre, zu den Winden, den Temperatur- und Luftdruckerscheinungen ist noch nicht genauer untersucht und noch nicht genügend festgestellt.
Bei starken Polarlichtern wollen einzelne Beobachter bisweilen ein eigentümliches knisterndes Geräusch, wie das Rascheln eines Seidenstoffs, gehört haben, während von andern die Existenz eines Geräusches ausdrücklich geleugnet wird. In neuester Zeit ist darauf hingewiesen, daß die Entdeckungen von Bleuler und Lehmann in Zürich über "zwangsmäßige Lichtempfindungen durch Schall und verwandte Erscheinungen" (Leipz. 1881) zur Erklärung des von einzelnen Beobachtern gehörten Geräusches dienen können. In ähnlicher Weise, wie solche Photismen oder Farbenvorstellungen durch Schall entstehen, werden nämlich auch bei gewissen Personen zwangsmäßige Schallempfindungen, Phonismen, durch Licht hervorgerufen, und da gleichzeitig mit jedem Aufflackern des Polarlichts ein Ton gehört werden soll, so deutet diese Gleichzeitigkeit ebenso wie die Beschränkung der Empfindung auf gewisse Personen darauf hin, daß die Schallempfindungen als Phonismen aufzufassen sind. Manche Polarlichter werden nur auf verhältnismäßig kleinen Strecken beobachtet, während andre eine außerordentlich große Verbreitung haben. So war z. B. das schöne P. vom 7. Jun. 1831 im ganzen nördlichen und mittlern Europa sowie auch am Eriesee in Nordamerika sichtbar. In diesem Fall können nicht überall dieselben leuchtenden Strahlen gesehen sein, sondern am Eriesee wird man einen andern Teil des Phänomens wahrgenommen haben als in Europa. Wahrscheinlich hatte sich damals ein großer Strahlenkamm gebildet, welcher, ungefähr der Richtung eines magnetischen Parallelkreises folgend, vom Eriesee über den Atlantischen Ozean bis nach Norwegen und Schweden reichte. Eine bedeutsame Thatsache ist es, daß die Polarlichter am Nord- und Südpol sehr oft gleichzeitig erscheinen. Aus den vergleichenden Zusammenstellungen der Polarlichtserscheinungen durch Fritz und Loomis ergibt sich, daß das P. im allgemeinen zwar in den nördlichen Ländern der kalten und nördlichen gemäßigten Zone am häufigsten vorkommt, seltener in der südlichen oder wärmern gemäßigten Zone (von 45°-23½° nördl. Br.) und noch seltener in den tropischen Gegenden; aber keineswegs sind die Zonen gleich großer Häufigkeit der Nordlichter parallel dem Äquator, und noch viel weniger findet die größte Häufigkeit in der größern Nähe des geographischen Nordpols statt. Vielmehr liegen die Orte, wo man das P. am häufigsten und in seiner intensivsten Entfaltung sieht, in einer Zone von ovaler Form, welche sich von der Barrowspitze in Nordamerika über den Großen Bärensee nach der Hudsonbai hinzieht, diese unter 60° nördl. Br. schneidet und dann über Labrador, südlich vom Kap Farewell zwischen Island und den Färöern in die Nähe des Nordkaps nach dem Nördlichen Eismeer geht. Nach den weiter zu Gebote stehenden Beobachtungen soll die Linie um Nowaja Semlja und um das Kap Tscheljuskin gehen, sich im östlichen Sibirien der Küste nähern und von da zur Barrowspitze zurückkehren. Nördlich und südlich von dieser Zone nimmt die Häufigkeit und Intensität des Polarlichts ab, und zwar nach N. zu in stärkerm Grad als nach S. (s. Isochasmen). Südlich von dieser Zone sieht man das P. in der Regel im Norden (daher der Name Nordlicht); aber nördlich von ihr erscheint das P. gewöhnlich am südlichen Teil des Himmels. Innerhalb der jährlichen Periode ist das P. zur Zeit der Äquinoktien (s. d.) am häufigsten und zur Zeit der Solstitien (s. d.) am seltensten. Außerdem hat das P. eine Periode von ca. 11 Jahren, in welcher seine Häufigkeit gleichzeitig mit der Häufigkeit der Sonnenflecke zu- und abnimmt, so daß P.- und Sonnenflecken-Maxima und -Minima gleichzeitig eintreffen. Dabei drückt sich der periodische Wechsel in den Nordlichtern viel energischer aus als in den Sonnenflecken. Neben dieser einjährigen Periode zeigt sich noch eine Periode von 55½ Jahren und wahrscheinlich eine noch größere von 222 Jahren, die man in den Nordlichtsverzeichnungen verfolgen kann (vgl. H. Fritz, Verzeichnis beobachteter Polarlichter, Wien 1873, und Loomis in Sillimans "American Journal"). Die bisher vorliegenden Beobachtungen der Südlichter (1841-48 zu Hobarttown u. 1857-62 zu Melbourne) sprechen dafür, daß bei ihnen dieselbe Periodizität vorhanden ist wie bei den Nordlichtern.
Die Beziehungen, welche zwischen dem P. und dem Erdmagnetismus bestehen, zeigen sich zunächst darin, daß während eines Polarlichts die Deklinationsnadel sehr starke und unregelmäßig Schwankungen zeigt, weshalb A. v. Humboldt die Nordlichter sehr bezeichnend magnetische Gewitter genannt hat. Diese magnetischen Störungen treten an den verschiedenen Orten gleichzeitig auf, wie die Polarlichter selbst, und sind um so stärker, je intensiver und je weiter verbreitet am Himmel das P. ist; sie zeigen sich auch an Orten, wo das P. selbst nicht sichtbar ist, so daß man aus einer solchen unruhigen Bewegung der Magnetnadel mit Sicherheit auf ein in entfernten Gegenden sichtbares P. schließen kann. Am unzweifelhaftesten aber ergibt sich die Beziehung des Polarlichts zum Erdmagnetismus aus der Bildung der Polarlichtkrone an dem Punkte des Himmels, nach welchem die magnetische Inklinations- (Neigungs-) Nadel hinweist. Der gewöhnliche Polarlichtbogen rührt nach der Ansicht Nordenskjölds von einem leuchtenden Ring her, der um den magnetischen Pol in beträchtlicher Höhe über der Erde schwebt, und welcher von einem zweiten größern konzentrisch umgeben ist, von dem die großen und prächtigen Polarlichter ausgehen. Je nach der Stellung des Beobachters zu diesen leuchtenden Ringen wird das P. eine verschiedene Form annehmen. An einem Punkte der Erdoberfläche, der weit südlich liegt, wird nur der äußere Ring sichtbar sein, von dem das prachtvolle Draperienlicht mit lebhaften Strahlen ausgeht. Befindet sich der Beobachter weiter nördlich, so wird der Polarlichtbogen die gewöhnliche Erscheinung sein, bei welcher man unter dem hellen Bogen den dunkeln Himmel oder das sogen. dunkle Segment erblickt. Unter den leuchtenden Ringen werden die meisten für den Beobachter sichtbaren Strahlen die Richtung der magnetischen Kraft am Beobachtungsort haben, d. h. einander parallel sein, und werden deshalb nach den Gesetzen der Perspektive in einem Punkte des Himmelsgewölbes zusammenzulaufen scheinen und die Polarlichtkrone an dem Punkte des Himmels bilden, nach welchem die magnetische Inklinationsnadel gerichtet ist. Ein Beobachter im Norden des Polarlichtrings sieht das P. selten, und da nach innen fast gar keine Strahlen ausgesendet werden, wird es hier meist nur als lichter Nebel am Horizont beobachtet werden. Nachdem schon früher die Ansicht ausgesprochen war, daß das P. elektrischer Natur sei, ging de la Rive davon aus, daß das Meerwasser beständig mit positiver Elektrizität geladen sei, daß diese positive Elektrizität durch die aufsteigenden Dämpfe in die höhern Schichten der Atmosphäre getragen und durch den obern Passat (s. d.) den Polen zugeführt werde, so daß sie eine positiv elektrische Hülle für die Erde bildet, welche selbst mit negativer Elektrizität geladen bleibt. Da sowohl die Erde als auch die verdünnte Luft in den höhern Regionen der Atmosphäre gute Leiter sind, so werden sich die verschiedenen Elektrizitäten besonders da verdichten, wo die positive Luftschicht und die negative Erde einander am nächsten sind, d. h. in der Nähe der Pole. Ein Ausgleich der entgegengesetzten Elektrizitäten wird wegen der schlechten Leistungsfähigkeit der untern Luftschichten, durch welche sie erfolgen muß, nur allmählich in successiven, mehr oder weniger kontinuierlichen Entladungen von veränderlicher Intensität stattfinden, und während einer solchen Entladung wird die negative Elektrizität auf der Erde vom Äquator nach den Polen und die positive umgekehrt von den Polen nach dem Äquator strömen. Durch diese Ströme wird die Deklinationsnadel nach W. abgelenkt und ein Strom in den Telegraphendrähten hervorgerufen, der sich in der That auch als eine Störung kenntlich macht. 1878 hat Edlund in Stockholm die Erklärung der Polarlichter sowie die Erklärung aller elektrischen Erscheinungen im Luftkreis auf die von Faraday entdeckte sogen. unipolare Induktion und zwar in folgender (auf die Erde angewandter) Weise reduziert. Läßt man einen Magnet (Erde) mit einer gut leitenden Umhüllung (Erdkruste) rotieren, und verbindet man dabei einen dem Pol benachbarten Punkt dieser Umhüllung (also in der Polarzone) durch einen Leiter (Atmosphäre) mit einem andern Punkte der Umhüllung in der Nähe der Mitte zwischen beiden Polen (in der Äquatorialzone), so entsteht während der Rotation ein elektrischer Strom zwischen den beiden Zonen, dessen Richtung und Intensität von Richtung und Geschwindigkeit der Rotation abhängen. Da nun die Atmosphäre in ihren untern Schichten im allgemeinen ein schlechter, in ihren obern aber ein guter Leiter ist, welcher den elektrischen Kreislauf zwischen der Äquatorialzone und den beiden Polarzonen schließt, so ist nun der elektrische Stromverlauf auf der Erde folgender. In allen Zonen zwischen dem Äquator und den beiden Polarzonen findet ein Aufsteigen der positiven Elektrizität statt, welches am Äquator am stärksten ist, aber immer schwächer wird, je mehr man sich den Polen nähert, und in deren Nähe ganz aufhört. Die in die Höhe getriebenen Mengen von positiver Elektrizität sind noch einer Tangentialkraft unterworfen, welche am Äquator und an den Polen gleich Null ist und zwischen beiden ihren größten Wert erreicht. Auf der nördlichen Halbkugel ist die Tangentialkraft nach Norden, auf der südlichen Halbkugel nach Süden gerichtet, und deshalb wird die in die Höhe gestiegene positive Elektrizität in den obern Luftschichten nach den Polen zu abfließen. Die geringe Leitungsfähigkeit der Luft setzt der Ausgleichung dieser positiven Elektrizität mit der durch Influenz auf der Erdoberfläche hervorgerufenen negativen Elektrizität einen Widerstand entgegen, so daß die Ausgleichung nur dann erfolgen kann, wenn eine gewisse elektrische Spannung erreicht ist, und zwar entweder durch Entladungsschläge, d. h. Gewitter, oder durch kontinuierliche Ströme, d. h. Polarlichter. Das Erglühen der Luft durch die elektrischen Rückströmungen aus den höhern Luftschichten nach der Erdoberfläche erfolgt nach dieser Theorie (analog wie in den Geißlerschen Röhren) in der Regel nur in den höhern dünnern Luftschichten, während der Durchgang durch die untern Schichten im allgemeinen lichtlos stattzufinden scheint. 1885 hat Unterweger das P. durch die Bewegung des Sonnensystems im Weltraum zu erklären versucht, indem durch Kompressen des Weltäthers an der Stirnseite der Weltkörper und durch Verdünnung desselben an der Rückenseite Differenzen der elektrischen Spannung in den Atmosphären entstehen, welche die uns wahrnehmbaren elektrischen Erscheinungen, zu denen auch das P. gehört, hervorrufen. 1882 ist es Lemström aus Helsingfors gelungen, durch geeignete elektrische Armierung von Berggipfeln Lichtsäulen bis zu ansehnlicher Höhe über diesen Gipfeln hervorzurufen, welche sowohl ihrem äußern Anschein nach als auch in Bezug auf die charakteristischen Eigenschaften mit den Polarlichtern übereinstimmten. Diese Versuche wurden im nördlichen Finnland auf zwei Bergen von 800 und 1100 m Höhe ausgeführt und bestanden darin, daß die betreffenden Hochflächen mit einem Netz von Kupferdrähten, die mit nach oben gerichteten Spitzen versehen und gegen den Erdboden isoliert waren, überzogen wurden. Das Drahtnetz wurde durch einen gegen die Erde isolierten Draht am Fuß des Bergs mittels einer Zinkplatte mit einer tiefern, Wasser führenden Erdschicht verbunden. Sobald die Verbindung hergestellt war, wurden unaufhörlich elektrische Ströme von schwankender Intensität in der Drahtleitung beobachtet, der positive Strom war von der Atmosphäre nach der Erde zu gerichtet. Gleichzeitig erhob sich über den Spitzen des Drahtnetzes ein gelblichweißes Leuchten, welches die charakteristische Polarlichtlinie im Spektroskop zeigte, und über einer der beiden Bergspitzen wurde sogar ein Polarlichtstrahl von 120 m Länge beobachtet. Vgl. Capron, Aurorae, their characters and spectra (Lond. 1879); Fritz, Das P. (Leipz. 1881).
Parallel Pleat Forms Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shelter
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Tutorial 6 Hyperbolic Paraboloid Shelter.
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Hyperbolic-Paraboloid Shelter
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Hyperbolic-Paraboloid Doubly-Ruled Shelter