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At a young age, without even asking much detail about the location, I knew exactly where our parents were taking us on Sunday mornings whenever it was said that we were going out for breakfast. There was no opposition from my brother and I mainly because we were already acutely aware of how delicious the food was regardless of what anyone of us ordered and perhaps the best part about the morning outing was that it was merely a couple blocks away from our home. For an impatient kid like me at the time, the combination equaled bliss.
Needless to say that my family and I have been frequenting Lucille's Diner for years and the waitress that took care of us on each of our visits has been the proud owner of the place for the pass 4 years. The original owner sold it to her.
Diners around New York are growing increasingly scarce and there seem to be more IHOPs opening but as a loyal customer at a very young age, I'm truly hoping Lucille's Diner is around for many more years.
height is half beauty.
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All of my images are under copyright.
Please don't use any of my pictures without my written permission.
© Copyright 2011 Barbara Geraci & AlterErgo Studio
All Rights Reserved - if you're interested in one to blog, printing etc. contact me: barbara@alterergo.it
Without a doubt, rarest camera I own.
First of its era, it has a battery-powered film advance & rewind. In 1965!!!
Its also aperture priority with reportedly up to 30s exposure time!
And of course it’s also a half-frame!
The exploitation rights for this text are the property of the Vienna Tourist Board. This text may be reprinted free of charge until further notice, even partially and in edited form. Forward sample copy to: Vienna Tourist Board, Media Management, Invalidenstraße 6, 1030 Vienna; media.rel@wien.info. All information in this text without guarantee.
Author: Andreas Nierhaus, Curator of Architecture/Wien Museum
Last updated January 2014
Architecture in Vienna
Vienna's 2,000-year history is present in a unique density in the cityscape. The layout of the center dates back to the Roman city and medieval road network. Romanesque and Gothic churches characterize the streets and squares as well as palaces and mansions of the baroque city of residence. The ring road is an expression of the modern city of the 19th century, in the 20th century extensive housing developments set accents in the outer districts. Currently, large-scale urban development measures are implemented; distinctive buildings of international star architects complement the silhouette of the city.
Due to its function as residence of the emperor and European power center, Vienna for centuries stood in the focus of international attention, but it was well aware of that too. As a result, developed an outstanding building culture, and still today on a worldwide scale only a few cities can come up with a comparable density of high-quality architecture. For several years now, Vienna has increased its efforts to connect with its historical highlights and is drawing attention to itself with some spectacular new buildings. The fastest growing city in the German-speaking world today most of all in residential construction is setting standards. Constants of the Viennese architecture are respect for existing structures, the palpability of historical layers and the dialogue between old and new.
Culmination of medieval architecture: the Stephansdom
The oldest architectural landmark of the city is St. Stephen's Cathedral. Under the rule of the Habsburgs, defining the face of the city from the late 13th century until 1918 in a decisive way, the cathedral was upgraded into the sacral monument of the political ambitions of the ruling house. The 1433 completed, 137 meters high southern tower, by the Viennese people affectionately named "Steffl", is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture in Europe. For decades he was the tallest stone structure in Europe, until today he is the undisputed center of the city.
The baroque residence
Vienna's ascension into the ranks of the great European capitals began in Baroque. Among the most important architects are Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt. Outside the city walls arose a chain of summer palaces, including the garden Palais Schwarzenberg (1697-1704) as well as the Upper and Lower Belvedere of Prince Eugene of Savoy (1714-22). Among the most important city palaces are the Winter Palace of Prince Eugene (1695-1724, now a branch of the Belvedere) and the Palais Daun-Kinsky (auction house in Kinsky 1713-19). The emperor himself the Hofburg had complemented by buildings such as the Imperial Library (1722-26) and the Winter Riding School (1729-34). More important, however, for the Habsburgs was the foundation of churches and monasteries. Thus arose before the city walls Fischer von Erlach's Karlskirche (1714-39), which with its formal and thematic complex show façade belongs to the major works of European Baroque. In colored interior rooms like that of St. Peter's Church (1701-22), the contemporary efforts for the synthesis of architecture, painting and sculpture becomes visible.
Upgrading into metropolis: the ring road time (Ringstraßenzeit)
Since the Baroque, reflections on extension of the hopelessly overcrowed city were made, but only Emperor Franz Joseph ordered in 1857 the demolition of the fortifications and the connection of the inner city with the suburbs. 1865, the Ring Road was opened. It is as the most important boulevard of Europe an architectural and in terms of urban development achievement of the highest rank. The original building structure is almost completely preserved and thus conveys the authentic image of a metropolis of the 19th century. The public representational buildings speak, reflecting accurately the historicism, by their style: The Greek Antique forms of Theophil Hansen's Parliament (1871-83) stood for democracy, the Renaissance of the by Heinrich Ferstel built University (1873-84) for the flourishing of humanism, the Gothic of the Town Hall (1872-83) by Friedrich Schmidt for the medieval civic pride.
Dominating remained the buildings of the imperial family: Eduard van der Nüll's and August Sicardsburg's Opera House (1863-69), Gottfried Semper's and Carl Hasenauer's Burgtheater (1874-88), their Museum of Art History and Museum of Natural History (1871-91) and the Neue (New) Hofburg (1881-1918 ). At the same time the ring road was the preferred residential area of mostly Jewish haute bourgeoisie. With luxurious palaces the families Ephrussi, Epstein or Todesco made it clear that they had taken over the cultural leadership role in Viennese society. In the framework of the World Exhibition of 1873, the new Vienna presented itself an international audience. At the ring road many hotels were opened, among them the Hotel Imperial and today's Palais Hansen Kempinski.
Laboratory of modernity: Vienna around 1900
Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06) was one of the last buildings in the Ring road area Otto Wagner's Postal Savings Bank (1903-06), which with it façade, liberated of ornament, and only decorated with "functional" aluminum buttons and the glass banking hall now is one of the icons of modern architecture. Like no other stood Otto Wagner for the dawn into the 20th century: His Metropolitan Railway buildings made the public transport of the city a topic of architecture, the church of the Psychiatric hospital at Steinhofgründe (1904-07) is considered the first modern church.
With his consistent focus on the function of a building ("Something impractical can not be beautiful"), Wagner marked a whole generation of architects and made Vienna the laboratory of modernity: in addition to Joseph Maria Olbrich, the builder of the Secession (1897-98) and Josef Hoffmann, the architect of the at the western outskirts located Purkersdorf Sanatorium (1904) and founder of the Vienna Workshop (Wiener Werkstätte, 1903) is mainly to mention Adolf Loos, with the Loos House at the square Michaelerplatz (1909-11) making architectural history. The extravagant marble cladding of the business zone stands in maximal contrast, derived from the building function, to the unadorned facade above, whereby its "nudity" became even more obvious - a provocation, as well as his culture-critical texts ("Ornament and Crime"), with which he had greatest impact on the architecture of the 20th century. Public contracts Loos remained denied. His major works therefore include villas, apartment facilities and premises as the still in original state preserved Tailor salon Knize at Graben (1910-13) and the restored Loos Bar (1908-09) near the Kärntner Straße (passageway Kärntner Durchgang).
Between the Wars: International Modern Age and social housing
After the collapse of the monarchy in 1918, Vienna became capital of the newly formed small country of Austria. In the heart of the city, the architects Theiss & Jaksch built 1931-32 the first skyscraper in Vienna as an exclusive residential address (Herrengasse - alley 6-8). To combat the housing shortage for the general population, the social democratic city government in a globally unique building program within a few years 60,000 apartments in hundreds of apartment buildings throughout the city area had built, including the famous Karl Marx-Hof by Karl Ehn (1925-30). An alternative to the multi-storey buildings with the 1932 opened International Werkbundsiedlung was presented, which was attended by 31 architects from Austria, Germany, France, Holland and the USA and showed models for affordable housing in greenfield areas. With buildings of Adolf Loos, André Lurçat, Richard Neutra, Gerrit Rietveld, the Werkbundsiedlung, which currently is being restored at great expense, is one of the most important documents of modern architecture in Austria.
Modernism was also expressed in significant Villa buildings: The House Beer (1929-31) by Josef Frank exemplifies the refined Wiener living culture of the interwar period, while the house Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1926-28, today Bulgarian Cultural Institute), built by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein together with the architect Paul Engelmann for his sister Margarete, by its aesthetic radicalism and mathematical rigor represents a special case within contemporary architecture.
Expulsion, war and reconstruction
After the "Anschluss (Annexation)" to the German Reich in 1938, numerous Jewish builders, architects (female and male ones), who had been largely responsible for the high level of Viennese architecture, have been expelled from Austria. During the Nazi era, Vienna remained largely unaffected by structural transformations, apart from the six flak towers built for air defense of Friedrich Tamms (1942-45), made of solid reinforced concrete which today are present as memorials in the cityscape.
The years after the end of World War II were characterized by the reconstruction of the by bombs heavily damaged city. The architecture of those times was marked by aesthetic pragmatism, but also by the attempt to connect with the period before 1938 and pick up on current international trends. Among the most important buildings of the 1950s are Roland Rainer's City Hall (1952-58), the by Oswald Haerdtl erected Wien Museum at Karlsplatz (1954-59) and the 21er Haus of Karl Schwanzer (1958-62).
The youngsters come
Since the 1960s, a young generation was looking for alternatives to the moderate modernism of the reconstruction years. With visionary designs, conceptual, experimental and above all temporary architectures, interventions and installations, Raimund Abraham, Günther Domenig, Eilfried Huth, Hans Hollein, Walter Pichler and the groups Coop Himmelb(l)au, Haus-Rucker-Co and Missing Link rapidly got international attention. Although for the time being it was more designed than built, was the influence on the postmodern and deconstructivist trends of the 1970s and 1980s also outside Austria great. Hollein's futuristic "Retti" candle shop at Charcoal Market/Kohlmarkt (1964-65) and Domenig's biomorphic building of the Central Savings Bank in Favoriten (10th district of Vienna - 1975-79) are among the earliest examples, later Hollein's Haas-Haus (1985-90), the loft conversion Falkestraße (1987/88) by Coop Himmelb(l)au or Domenig's T Center (2002-04) were added. Especially Domenig, Hollein, Coop Himmelb(l)au and the architects Ortner & Ortner (ancient members of Haus-Rucker-Co) by orders from abroad the new Austrian and Viennese architecture made a fixed international concept.
MuseumQuarter and Gasometer
Since the 1980s, the focus of building in Vienna lies on the compaction of the historic urban fabric that now as urban habitat of high quality no longer is put in question. Among the internationally best known projects is the by Ortner & Ortner planned MuseumsQuartier in the former imperial stables (competition 1987, 1998-2001), which with institutions such as the MUMOK - Museum of Modern Art Foundation Ludwig, the Leopold Museum, the Kunsthalle Wien, the Architecture Center Vienna and the Zoom Children's Museum on a wordwide scale is under the largest cultural complexes. After controversies in the planning phase, here an architectural compromise between old and new has been achieved at the end, whose success as an urban stage with four million visitors (2012) is overwhelming.
The dialogue between old and new, which has to stand on the agenda of building culture of a city that is so strongly influenced by history, also features the reconstruction of the Gasometer in Simmering by Coop Himmelb(l)au, Wilhelm Holzbauer, Jean Nouvel and Manfred Wehdorn (1999-2001). Here was not only created new housing, but also a historical industrial monument reinterpreted into a signal in the urban development area.
New Neighborhood
In recent years, the major railway stations and their surroundings moved into the focus of planning. Here not only necessary infrastructural measures were taken, but at the same time opened up spacious inner-city residential areas and business districts. Among the prestigious projects are included the construction of the new Vienna Central Station, started in 2010 with the surrounding office towers of the Quartier Belvedere and the residential and school buildings of the Midsummer quarter (Sonnwendviertel). Europe's largest wooden tower invites here for a spectacular view to the construction site and the entire city. On the site of the former North Station are currently being built 10,000 homes and 20,000 jobs, on that of the Aspangbahn station is being built at Europe's greatest Passive House settlement "Euro Gate", the area of the North Western Railway Station is expected to be developed from 2020 for living and working. The largest currently under construction residential project but can be found in the north-eastern outskirts, where in Seaside Town Aspern till 2028 living and working space for 40,000 people will be created.
In one of the "green lungs" of Vienna, the Prater, 2013, the WU campus was opened for the largest University of Economics of Europe. Around the central square spectacular buildings of an international architect team from Great Britain, Japan, Spain and Austria are gathered that seem to lead a sometimes very loud conversation about the status quo of contemporary architecture (Hitoshi Abe, BUSarchitektur, Peter Cook, Zaha Hadid, NO MAD Arquitectos, Carme Pinós).
Flying high
International is also the number of architects who have inscribed themselves in the last few years with high-rise buildings in the skyline of Vienna and make St. Stephen's a not always unproblematic competition. Visible from afar is Massimiliano Fuksas' 138 and 127 meters high elegant Twin Tower at Wienerberg (1999-2001). The monolithic, 75-meter-high tower of the Hotel Sofitel at the Danube Canal by Jean Nouvel (2007-10), on the other hand, reacts to the particular urban situation and stages in its top floor new perspectives to the historical center on the other side.
Also at the water stands Dominique Perrault's DC Tower (2010-13) in the Danube City - those high-rise city, in which since the start of construction in 1996, the expansion of the city north of the Danube is condensed symbolically. Even in this environment, the slim and at the same time striking vertically folded tower of Perrault is beyond all known dimensions; from its Sky Bar, from spring 2014 on you are able to enjoy the highest view of Vienna. With 250 meters, the tower is the tallest building of Austria and almost twice as high as the St. Stephen's Cathedral. Vienna, thus, has acquired a new architectural landmark which cannot be overlooked - whether it also has the potential to become a landmark of the new Vienna, only time will tell. The architectural history of Vienna, where European history is presence and new buildings enter into an exciting and not always conflict-free dialogue with a great and outstanding architectural heritage, in any case has yet to offer exciting chapters.
Info: The folder "Architecture: From Art Nouveau to the Presence" is available at the Vienna Tourist Board and can be downloaded on www.wien.info/media/files/guide-architecture-in-wien.pdf.
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Francisco Aragão © 2013. All Rights Reserved.
Use without permission is illegal.
Attention please !
If you are interested in my photos, they are available for sale. Please contact me by email: aragaofrancisco@gmail.com. Do not use without permission.
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Portuguese
A lenda do Galo de Barcelos narra a intervenção milagrosa de um galo morto na prova da inocência de um homem erradamente acusado. Está associada ao cruzeiro seiscentista que faz parte do espólio do Museu Arqueológico, situado no Paço dos Condes de Barcelos.
Segundo a lenda, os habitantes de Barcelos andavam alarmados com um crime, do qual ainda não se tinha descoberto o criminoso que o cometera. Certo dia, apareceu um galego que se tornou suspeito. As autoridades resolveram prendê-lo, apesar dos seus juramentos de inocência, que estava apenas de passagem em peregrinação a Santiago de Compostela, em cumprimento duma promessa.
Condenado à forca, o homem pediu que o levassem à presença do juiz que o condenara. Concedida a autorização, levaram-no à residência do magistrado, que nesse momento se banqueteava com alguns amigos. O galego voltou a afirmar a sua inocência e, perante a incredulidade dos presentes, apontou para um galo assado que estava sobre a mesa e exclamou: "É tão certo eu estar inocente, como certo é esse galo cantar quando me enforcarem."
O juiz empurrou o prato para o lado e ignorou o apelo, mas quando o peregrino estava a ser enforcado, o galo assado ergueu-se na mesa e cantou. Compreendendo o seu erro, o juiz correu para a forca e descobriu que o galego se salvara graças a um nó mal feito. O homem foi imediatamente solto e mandado em paz.
Alguns anos mais tarde, o galego teria voltado a Barcelos para esculpir o Cruzeiro do Senhor do Galo em louvor à Virgem Maria e a São Tiago, monumento que se encontra no Museu Arqueológico de Barcelos. Este também é representado pelo artesanato minhoto, geralmente de barro, conhecida por galo de Barcelos e é um símbolo de Portugal e foi adotado pelo Gil Vicente como sua mascote.
English
The Rooster of Barcelos (Portuguese, "Galo de Barcelos") is one of the most common emblems of Portugal.
The legend of the Rooster of Barcelos tells the story of a dead rooster's miraculous intervention in proving the innocence of a man who had been falsely accused and sentenced to death. The story is associated with the 17th-century calvary that is part of the collection of the Archeological Museum located in Paço dos Condes, a gothic-style palace in Barcelos, a city in the Braga District of northwest Portugal.
According to the legend, silver had been stolen from a landowner in Barcelos, and the inhabitants of that city were looking for the criminal who had committed the crime. One day, a man from neighboring Galicia turned up and became suspect, despite his pleas of innocence. The Galician swore that he was merely passing through Barcelos on a Pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela to complete a promise.
Nevertheless, the authorities arrested the Galician and condemned him to hang. The man asked them to take him in front of the judge who had condemned him. The authorities honored his request and took him to the house of the magistrate, who was holding a banquet with some friends. Affirming his innocence, the Galician pointed to a roasted cock on top of the banquet table and exclaimed, "It is as certain that I am innocent as it is certain that this rooster will crow when they hang me." The judge pushed aside his plate because he decided to not eat the rooster. But still, the judge ignored the Galician's appeal.
However, while the pilgrim was being hanged, the roasted rooster stood up on the table and crowed as the Galician predicted. Understanding his error, the judge ran to the gallows, only to discover that the Galician had been saved from hanging thanks to a poorly made knot in the rope. The man was immediately freed and sent off in peace.
Some years later, the Galician returned to Barcelos to sculpt the Calvary (or Crucifix) to the Lord of the Rooster (Portuguese, "Cruzeiro do Senhor do Galo") in praise to the Virgin Mary and to Saint James. The monument is located in the Archeological Museum of Barcelos.
Wikipedia
Without a doubt the best sunset sor far for 2017.
Sans aucun doute le plus beau coucher de soleil à date pour l'année 2017.
One Day Without Shoes is a worldwide day to bring global awareness to children's health and education by going without shoes. Initiated by TOMS shoes.Copyright: Lindsey Drury
Without any digital camera.
Sans appareil photo numérique.
Ohne Digitalkamera.
kwerfeldein.de/2015/03/21/namibia-entschleunigt-ein-reise...
VWH2336 LK17DAA seen standing at Heathrow Central about to prepare a service on route 105 towards Greenford.
This bus is loaned from Willesden, as you can see the AC code on the bus. It's not fitted with the safety system that is used on Oxford Street.
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Francisco Aragão © 2014. All Rights Reserved.
Use without permission is illegal.
Attention please !
If you are interested in my photos, they are available for sale. Please contact me by email: aragaofrancisco@gmail.com. Do not use without permission.
Many images are available for license on Getty Images
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Aragonês
O Parque Gran José Antonio Labordeta (oficialment y en castellán Parque Grande José Antonio Labordeta) ye un parque d'una superficie d'alto u baixo 40 hectarias d'a ciudat de Zaragoza (Aragón), situato en o districto Universidat. Durant quasi un sieglo estió o parque más gran d'a ciudat, dica a construcción en 2008 d'o Parque de l'Augua Luis Buñuel con motivo d'a Expo Zaragoza 2008.
Dica setiembre de 2010 o parque se clamó oficialment de Primo de Rivera y popularment como Parque Gran (Parque Grande en castellán), pero a clamor popular a la muerte de José Antonio Labordeta provocó o cambeyo d'o suyo nombre.
Spanish
El Parque Grande José Antonio Labordeta es un parque de 40 hectáreas de la ciudad de Zaragoza (Aragón), situado en el distrito Universidad. Durante casi un siglo fue el parque más grande de la ciudad, hasta la construcción en el año 2008 del Parque del Agua Luis Buñuel con motivo de la Expo Zaragoza 2008.
Hasta septiembre de 2010 el parque oficialmente se denominó de Primo de Rivera y popularmente como Parque Grande, pero el clamor popular tras el fallecimiento del cantautor y político José Antonio Labordeta provocó el cambio de nombre.
El Parque se inauguró el día 17 de mayo de 1929, en el periodo de la dictadura de Miguel Primo de Rivera, estando entonces situado a las afueras del núcleo urbano de Zaragoza, ciudad que entonces apenas superaba los 160.000 habitantes.
Debido al crecimiento de la ciudad, el parque se encuentra ahora dentro del núcleo urbano de la ciudad, enclavado en el distrito de Universidad y junto a edificios como el Hospital Miguel Servet, el Estadio de La Romareda y la Cámara de Comercio.
Dentro del Parque se puede disfrutar de gran cantidad de espacios naturales y de monumentos entre los que cabe destacar:
El acceso principal se lleva a cabo a través del Puente Trece de Septiembre, en conmemoración del día en que el general Miguel Primo de Rivera se pronunció desde la Capitanía de Barcelona, y que da paso al Paseo de San Sebastián que cuenta con jardines y fuentes de inspiración versallesca.
Un lugar destacado es El Batallador que es un gran monumento al rey Alfonso I El Batallador, inaugurado en 1925 como conmemoración del octavo centenario de la reconquista de la ciudad por su parte.
También destacan grandes avenidas (como el paseo de los Bearneses o el de Isabel Zapata) al igual que el Jardín Botánico, el Museo Etnológico, el Rincón de Goya, el Jardín de Invierno, el Quiosco de la Música, etc.
Wikipedia
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Francisco Aragão © 2012. All Rights Reserved.
Use without permission is illegal.
Attention please !
If you are interested in my photos, they are available for sale. Please contact me by email: aragaofrancisco@gmail.com. Do not use without permission.
Many images are available for license on Getty Images
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Portuguese
Crucificação ou crucifixão foi um método de execução cruel utilizado na Antiguidade e comum tanto em Roma quanto em Cartago. Abolido no século IV, por Constantino, consistia em torturar o condenado e obrigá-lo a levar até o local do suplício a barra horizontal da cruz, onde já se encontrava a parte vertical cravada no chão. De braços abertos, o condenado era pregado na madeira pelos pulsos e pelos pés e morria, depois de horas de exaustão, por asfixia e parada cardíaca (a cabeça pendida sobre o peito dificultava sobremodo a respiração).
Crê-se que foi criado na Pérsia, sendo trazido no tempo de Alexandre para o Ocidente, sendo então copiado dos cartagineses pelos itálicos. Neste ato combinavam-se os elementos de vergonha e tortura, e por isso o processo de crucificação era olhado com profundo horror. O castigo da crucificação começava com flagelação, depois do criminoso ter sido despojado de suas vestes. No azorrague os soldados fixavam os pregos, pedaços de ossos, e coisas semelhantes, podendo a tortura do açoitamento ser tão forte que às vezes o flagelado morria em consequência do açoite.O flagelo era cometido ao réu estando este preso a uma coluna.
No ato de crucificação a vítima era pendurada de braços abertos em uma cruz de madeira, amarrada ou, raramente, presa a ela por pregos perfurantes nos punhos e pés. O peso das pernas sobrecarregava a musculatura abdominal que, cansada, tornava-se incapaz de manter a respiração, levando à morte por asfixia. Para abreviar a morte os torturadores às vezes fraturavam as pernas do condenado, removendo totalmente sua capacidade de sustentação, acelerando o processo que levava à morte. Mas era mais comum a colocação de "bancos" no crucifixo, que foi erroneamente interpretado como um pedestal. Essa prática fazia com que a vítima vivesse por mais tempo. Nos momentos que precedem a morte, falar ou gritar exigia um enorme esforço.
O termo vem do Latim crucifixio ("fixar a uma cruz", do prefixo cruci-, de crux ("cruz"), + verbo figere, "fixar ou prender".)
A crucificação de Jesus de Nazaré
O método da crucificação adquiriu grande importância para o Cristianismo, já que de acordo com os cristãos Jesus de Nazaré havia sido entregue pelos judeus aos romanos para crucificação.
No caso de Jesus parece ter sido esse castigo feito de modo severo, antes da sentença final, considerando os castigos impetrados pelo sinédrio e posteriormente pela corte romana local na pessoa de Pôncio Pilatos. Segundo a bíblia, nesse ato foi colocado um pedaço de madeira sobre a cabeça do réu (Mt 27.37; Mc 15.26; Lc 23.38; Jo 19.19), com uma inscrição de poucas palavras que exprimiam o crime: INRI, ou Iesus Nazarenus Rex Ioderum, ou Jesus de Nazaré, Rei dos Judeus. Jesus carregou a cruz até o lugar da execução e este trajeto público e penoso é chamado de Via Crucis.
Jesus Cristo foi pregado na cruz, mas por vezes o condenado era apenas atado a esse instrumento de suplício, visto que o tempo de agonia do criminoso era extraordinariamente prolongado. Entre os judeus, algumas vezes o corpo de criminosos era pendurado numa árvore; mas não podia ficar ali durante a noite porque era "maldito de Deus" e contaminaria a terra.
Diversos outros cristãos também foram crucificados, entre eles Pedro, que segundo registros históricos, teria sido crucificado de cabeça para baixo.
De acordo com a tradição judaica, Jesus de Nazaré não teria sido crucificado pelos romanos, mas sim teria sido um religioso anterior chamado Jesus Ben Pantera declarado herege pelo Sinédrio, apedrejado e pendurado em uma árvore na véspera da Pessach de 88 a.C. de cuja história teria originado posteriormente o Cristianismo. Já de acordo com o Islão, a crucificação de Jesus teria sido aparente, já que Deus não permitiria um sofrimento demasiado para um justo.
São Dimas
Penitente (O Bom Ladrão)
Nascimento5 em ?
Morte33 em Jerusalém
Veneração porIgreja Católica
Festa litúrgica25 de março
"Nem ao menos temes a Deus, estando na mesma condenação? E nós, na verdade, com justiça; porque recebemos o que os nossos feitos merecem; mas este nenhum mal fez. Então disse: Jesus, lembra-te de mim, quando entrares no teu reino."
São Dimas (São Lucas 23. 39)
Portal dos Santos
O bom ladrão é um personagem sem nome, no Evangelho de Lucas. Nas tradições mais tarde, ele é chamado Dimas, Tito, ou Rakh.
No Novo Testamento
Na Bíblia o nome do bom ladrão não aparece. Ele expressa a crença de que Jesus "virá no reino de Deus", e ele pede que, nesse dia, Jesus vai se lembrar dele:
“«Então um dos malfeitores que estavam pendurados, blasfemava dele, dizendo: Não és tu o Cristo? salva-te a ti mesmo e a nós. 40 Respondendo, porém, o outro, repreendia-o, dizendo: Nem ao menos temes a Deus, estando na mesma condenação? 41 E nós, na verdade, com justiça; porque recebemos o que os nossos feitos merecem; mas este nenhum mal fez. 42 Então disse: Jesus, lembra-te de mim, quando entrares no teu reino. 43 Respondeu-lhe Jesus: Em verdade te digo que hoje estarás comigo no paraíso.» (Lucas 23:39)”
A pontuação e tradução de manuscritos antigos variam no versículo 43. A maioria dos manuscritos tem "...te digo; hoje...".
Nos evangelhos apócrifos
Na versão grega do pseudo-epígrafo Evangelho de Nicodemos (apócrifo, do século IV), o nome aparece pela primeira vez. Na versão latina do Evangelho de Nicodemos, também conhecida como Atos de Pilatos, o nome do segundo ladrão também é dado - Gestas. No Evangelho Árabe da Infância de Jesus (apócrifo, do século VI), o bebê Jesus encontra os dois ladrões, Tito e Dumachus, e prevê que, depois de trinta anos eles serão crucificados com ele. Na tradição da Igreja Ortodoxa Russa o nome do bom ladrão é Rakh.
Na tradição católica
A igreja fala pouco de Dimas ou São Dimas, considerado o Bom Ladrão do estado.
Pela tradição cristã, São Dimas é o protetor dos pobres agonizantes, sobretudo daqueles cuja conversão na última hora parece mais difícil. Entregam a São Dimas a proteção das casas e propriedades contra os ladrões. Invocam-no nas causas difíceis, sobretudo nos negócios financeiros, para a conversão e emenda dos bêbados, dos jogadores e ladrões. É protetor dos presos e das penitenciárias, dos carroceiros e condutores de veículos. A Igreja Católica celebra dia 25 de março como dia de São Dimas.
Na cultura popular
Racionais MC's: Dimas é mencionado com freqüência pelo grupo de rap paulista Racionais MC's, como sendo o primeiro "vida loka" da História. Sua figura é reverenciada como a de um fora-da-lei arrependido. Na música Vida Loka II, do álbum Nada Como Um Dia Após O Outro Dia, Dimas é citado na seguinte passagem:
Aos 45 do segundo arrependido/ salvo e perdoado/ é Dimas, o bandido
É loco o bagulho/ Arrepia na hora/ DIMAS, primeiro vida loka da história
English
Crucifixion is an ancient method of deliberately painful execution in which the condemned person is tied or nailed to a large wooden cross and left to hang until dead.
Crucifixion was in use at a comparatively high rate among the Seleucids, Carthaginians, and Romans from about the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD. In the year 337, Emperor Constantine I abolished it in the Roman Empire out of veneration for Jesus Christ, the most famous victim of crucifixion. It was also used as a form of execution in Japan for criminals, inflicted also on some Christians.
A crucifix (an image of Christ crucified on a cross) is the main religious symbol for Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox, but most Protestant Christians prefer to use a cross without the figure (the "corpus": Latin for "body") of Christ. Most crucifixes portray Jesus on a Latin cross, rather than any other shape, such as a Tau cross or a Greek cross.
Ancient Greek has two verbs for crucify: ana-stauro (ἀνασταυρόω), from stauros, "stake", and apo-tumpanizo (ἀποτυμπανίζω) "crucify on a plank." together with anaskolopizo (ἀνασκολοπίζω "impale"). In earlier pre-Roman Greek texts anastauro usually means "impale." The word xylon "piece of wood" was also used, but for a gallows, not a stake, as in the Aristophanes comedy The Frogs; "if you stumble, at least you'll hang from a respectable tree."
The Latin term crux may mean a gallowsor a stake.
The English term crucifix derives from the Latin crucifixus or cruci fixus, past participle passive of crucifigere or cruci figere, meaning "to crucify" or "to fix to a cross".
Crucifixion was often performed to terrorize and dissuade its witnesses from perpetrating particularly heinous crimes. Victims were left on display after death as warnings to others who might attempt dissent. Crucifixion was usually intended to provide a death that was particularly slow, painful (hence the term excruciating, literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome, humiliating, and public, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period.
The Greek and Latin words corresponding to "crucifixion" applied to many different forms of painful execution, from impaling on a stake to affixing to a tree, to an upright pole (a crux simplex) or to a combination of an upright (in Latin, stipes) and a crossbeam (in Latin, patibulum).
In some cases, the condemned was forced to carry the crossbeam on his shoulders to the place of execution. A whole cross would weigh well over 300 pounds (135 kg), but the crossbeam would not be quite as burdensome, weighing around 75–125 pounds (35–60 kg).[citation needed] The Roman historian Tacitus records that the city of Rome had a specific place for carrying out executions, situated outside the Esquiline Gate, and had a specific area reserved for the execution of slaves by crucifixion. Upright posts would presumably be fixed permanently in that place, and the crossbeam, with the condemned person perhaps already nailed to it, would then be attached to the post.
The person executed may have been attached to the cross by rope, though nails are mentioned in a passage by the Judean historian Josephus, where he states that at the Siege of Jerusalem (70), "the soldiers out of rage and hatred, nailed those they caught, one after one way, and another after another, to the crosses, by way of jest." Objects used in the crucifixion of criminals, such as nails, were sought as amulets with perceived medicinal qualities.
While a crucifixion was an execution, it was also a humiliation, by making the condemned as vulnerable as possible. Although artists have depicted the figure on a cross with a loin cloth or a covering of the genitals, writings by Seneca the Younger suggest that victims were crucified completely nude. When the victim had to urinate or defecate, they had to do so in the open, in view of passers-by, resulting in discomfort and the attraction of insects. Despite its frequent use by the Romans, the horrors of crucifixion did not escape mention by some of their eminent orators. Cicero for example, described crucifixion as "a most cruel and disgusting punishment", and suggested that "the very mention of the cross should be far removed not only from a Roman citizen’s body, but from his mind, his eyes, his ears."
Frequently, the legs of the person executed were broken or shattered with an iron club, an act called crurifragium, which was also frequently applied without crucifixion to slaves. This act hastened the death of the person but was also meant to deter those who observed the crucifixion from committing offenses.
Wikipedia
I stopped in at the city-owned seniors housing building in my neighborhood to drop off a print I’d made of a man without internet who had participated in my Human Family project a couple of weeks ago. I was let into the lobby by this woman who was in her wheelchair in the lobby with a couple of other residents. She directed my inquiry to another man, Ambrose. “He knows everyone.” Ambrose told me he would ensure that Calvin got his photo. Turning back to exit after thanking him, I noticed this woman’s distinctive features and the beautiful light coming in through the front windows. I asked if she would be my next project subject. She waved off the invitation with the commonly-heard excuses of not being photogenic and likely to break my camera lens. I sensed it was worth pursuing and explained that photogenic does not have to be 25 year old movie star but it is often someone with character whose face tells a story. After offering to delete photos if she gave it a try and didn’t like them, I also told her I would not press the point if she was dead-set against it. I find that giving potential subjects control often helps. Ambrose urged her to say yes and pointed out that she would get a good portrait for free and she gave in. Meet Leonora.
The light was beautiful but the background was uninspiring. With Leonora in a wheelchair and no better options than to work with the situation as it was, I kneeled down and got out my camera. I explained that my only request was that she look into the lens and I asked permission to tip her hat back a tiny bit so that her eyes would show. I tried two slightly different angles and could see that I had covered the options available so I showed her the photos and then we talked.
Leonora exercised the woman’s prerogative and declined to tell me her age. I told her that was her right and explained she could decline answering any of my questions if she wished but that they were intended to help me build a story about her to go along with the project portrait.
Leonora was born and raised in Trinidad. “Oh, so you’re a Trinnie” I said. I find that this opens doors with Trinidadians. Leonora came to Canada a year after I did (1974) and I told her so. Another connection was established. She came here to “get away from some things back home.” I invited her to say more if she could and after a pause she said “Let’s say it was marital in nature.” She has four adult children, all of whom followed her to Canada. “I came here to get away and then they all followed me” she joked. She touched on the fact that it was an unhappy marital situation she was leaving behind, not her children. “Sometimes things just don’t work out the way we want them to.”
When I asked about her work history Leonora’s face brightened. “I was a chef at a downtown college for many years.” It seems there was a dining facility for faculty and administration and that’s where she did her cooking. She mentioned this with pride. When asked to describe herself she said “I used to love partying and dancing. She said her friends would probably say she is a generous person. Her message to the project? “Tolerance. I want young people to love their parents and learn to respect their elders. Also, we really need peace in the world.” I agreed with both messages and told her so.
She grew reflective and said when talking about the past, “Sometimes I wonder - if I’d stayed in Trinidad would things with my husband have improved? I doubt it, but one wonders. He died a couple of years ago and it may seem surprising but I felt quite sad.” I said that didn’t surprise me at all. It’s common to grieve even people we had problems with.
Leonora expressed concern for my knees as I was still kneeling on the tile floor chatting with her. I said my knees wouldn’t complain until I tried to stand up again. We shared a laugh. It was only then that I noticed one of her feet had no shoe but a sock instead and it looked like part of her foot was missing. I commented that she had a bad foot and she agreed and said “I’ve already lost a leg.” This surprised me as I hadn’t noticed. She rapped the other leg with her knuckles and I heard the solid knock of her prosthesis. “Circulation problems” she said. I responded “It seems you’ve been through a lot lately. It must have been hard to adjust to.” Leonora said “Yes, it really was at first, but you have to learn to accept the things you can’t change.” I agreed and thanked her for participating in my project, commenting that her medical challenges have not made her bitter.
All in all, it was a totally unexpected encounter, but a rewarding one. Hearing that I’m 70 and live in the area, Leonora and her friends who were watching the interaction said “Why don’t you go ahead and apply for a place here? The office is open (across the hall) and you’re old enough.” I said “I’m certainly old enough but I’m not ready yet. Thank you for the suggestion, though. It’s good to know one’s options.”
Thank you Leonora for letting me into the lobby and for being such a friendly and interesting subject for my Human Family project on Flickr. I hope I proved you wrong about not being photogenic.
This is my 262nd submission to The Human Family Group on Flickr.
You can view more street portraits and stories by visiting The Human Family.
Test D750 high ISO value without flash without tripod "90% of subjects are behind a windows" The representation of the animal in ancient Egipte Temporary Expostion New Louvre in Lens "France Nord pas de Calais"
Taken with my husband's little compact.
Please also look @ the rest of my Photostream and my galleries- Thank you www.flickr.com/photos/dcwhite/
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No Group Invites/ Graphics or adverts Please, Invita a ningún Grupo / Gráficos Por favor, No gruppo invito / Grafica per favore, No Group Invite / Graphics S'il vous plaît, "Bitte keine Gruppeneinladungen/ keine Grafiken", they will be deleted.
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a contemplative All Saints Day with a tender embrace !!
listen °°°°°°
ein besinnliches Allerheiligen mit zärtlicher Umarmung!!
Ich kann nicht ohne dich leben !
I can't live
If living is without you
I can't live
I can't give anymore
I can't live
If living is without you
I can't give
I can't give anymore
The kids at Vythiri resort, Wayanad.
More pics and account here - chitra-aiyer . com
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St Margaret, Sotterley, Suffolk
That poor Simon Jenkins. Not a day can go past without someone questioning the choices in his book England's Thousand Best Churches. But then, if you make such a claim and then miss out some which are plainly among the best, I suppose you leave yourself wide open to criticism. Here in Suffolk, he missed many peoples' favourites, but particularly three that are, for me, clearly county top twenty material: the amazing St Andrew at Westhall, grand St Mary at Redgrave, and here, St Margaret at Sotterley. Westhall has been described as Suffolk's best-kept secret, but in many ways Sotterley is more secretive, and is certainly less well-known. Indeed, some people would be surprised to learn that it has more figure brasses than any other church in Suffolk, not to mention much else of interest.
But first, you must get there. Sotterley is easily found on an Ordnance Survey map because it looks so darned curious. The roads between Beccles and Southwold swerve widely to avoid it, and it is marked as a large, round private park, about three miles in circumference. Houses scattered around the perimeter form the village, but the parkland itself is all open fields, lawns and a long ornamental lake. Near the centre of the parkland is the great house, and beside it the church of St Margaret. A private driveway reaches the house from near the turn off to Willingham, but it doesn't give access to the church except for services, and no public footpath crosses the park.
In addition, you cannot see the church from any public road, so unless you have the map or inside information, you won't even know it is there. However, just to the north of the private drive entrance, there is a gap in the hedgerow and a wooden stile. This is the start of a 'permitted access' path, a walk which is almost a mile long; it will take you across the fields and to the church.
You climb the stile, and set off across the fields. In summer and autumn you will find yourself walking through cows, but they are harmless enough. The way is marked by OS church symbols attached to trees, but they can get hidden by growth in springtime. After about a third of a mile, the path diverges rightwards down to a rickety wooden bridge across the infant River Blyth, and then into the field beyond. The path then skirts the righthand edge of a field for about a third of a mile and takes you round to another wooden bridge with sheep gates. Here, you can see the church for the first time, and across the next field, you enter the churchyard in its north-west corner.
St Margaret is a long, low building, with a tower that is at once simple and elegant. The lower stage is probably Norman, and the great rebuilding here happened unusually early for Suffolk, certainly before the Black Death.
The 18th century Hall sits immediately to the south, separated from the graveyard only by a low wall. St Margaret is a classic example of an estate church, one of few in Suffolk that retains its relationship with the Big House. The estate was the home of the Playters family until the middle of the 18th century, and it is their name you'll find all over the inside of the church. Earlier, it had been the seat of the Soterleys, and later it became the home of the Barne family, who we have already met at Dunwich. The families have been good guardians, because the building not only retains eight figure brasses and numerous other inscriptions, but some fascinating medieval glass, wonderful roof corbels, a good roodscreen (albeit completely repainted) and Suffolk's loveliest monument. All in all, it is a shame that Simon Jenkins missed it.
Although much of the fabric of the building is original, there was a substantial late 19th century restoration here, which filled the nave with middle-brow furnishings. The font is a good example of the typical 15th century East Anglian design, and there are four hatchments above the war memorial. This end of the church is little more dramatic than many other local churches, but don't miss the banner stave locker set in the wall to the west of the south door. These tall alcoves were supposedly designed for holding processional crosses and the like; there are about a dozen of them, but they are only found in the churches of the north-east of the county. Why here? Perhaps it was just a Lowestoft area thing, a need to tidy things up. What did people do elsewhere?
As you walk east, the building becomes more interesting, and once you are in the chancel it is fascinating. Here, the Soterleys and the Playters remembered themselves in brass and stone. Some of the brasses are set in the sanctuary, others in the centre of the chancel floor. There are six figure brasses, as well as numerous inscriptions. All the brasses except that on the tomb chest are covered by removable matting, but it would be easy to miss them if you did not know that they were there and did not think to investigate.
The same cannot be said for the grand 17th century monument to Sir Thomas Playters to the north of the sanctuary. It is probably the most famous in Suffolk, and I think it is the best. It was actually installed during the Commonwealth in 1658, and Mortlock says that the sculptor was Edward Marshall, who would become sculptor to the crown at the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.
Thomas Playters had died in 1638, and a brass inscription in the chancel floor remembers him. Here on the wall he is shown in the middle, with his two wives on either side, both conveniently called Anne. By Anne I he had two sons and two daughters, but Anne II bore him a jaw-dropping eighteen children. What makes the memorial so remarkable, though, is the way the 22 children are shown as weepers on the panel beneath. Instead of the usual uniform kneeling figures united in sorrow, each child is given its individual character - in short, they all look like different people, and are doing different things. Some kneel in formal prayer, but others are distracted; one turns round to chat to her sister, while others gaze out at the viewer. One poor little mite is wrapped in a blanket right near the middle of the panorama, to show that she died in infancy.
It has to be said that Sir Thomas's first family look more equal to the task of formal mourning than the second. The monument is rather hard to photograph, because the altar screen stands in front of part of it.
Stepping back through the screen, the nave is lighter than the chancel because of the two large windows either side. Presumably, they were intended to light the rood, but the one to the north is set in the closed entrance to a now-vanished transept chapel. Panels of medieval and continental glass have been set in them, surrounded by clear lozenges. Among them are a Lamb of God, Christ in Majesty, a pilgrim who may be St James, and a later Flemish Holy Trinity; God the Father sits on a throne with the crucified Christ on his lap, while a dove perches on his shoulder. It looks very unfamiliar in an English church.
There is some other good glass in the west window beneath the tower; a king with a sword walks towards a beckoning bishop, rather as if they were on their way to a chess match. I wondered if the person who set them there had imagined them to be St Paul and St Peter. Perhaps the best medieval glass in the church is behind the altar screen in the east window, so you may have missed it. Beneath the restrained Victorian saints is a reset 1470s portrait of Sir William Playters, with his sons grouped behind him, looking as if he is on holiday from the north aisle at Long Melford.
The screen, then. It is elegant and pretty in that way that only smaller screens are, but it has been heavily restored and repainted. This incurs the wrath of the likes of Cautley, but we have no way of knowing what was lost and in an case it is done here rather well. The original doors are in place, which is very unusual in this part of the county, and the cusping at the top was thought original by Mortlock. The Saints are in an early 20th century style, and are mostly easily identifiable from their symbols.
Looking through the screen, Sir Charles Nicholson's reredos is at once imposing and seemly, in that Anglican triumphalist style of between the two world wars. All that is missing is a font cover at the west end to balance it.
Three nights without sleep, three miserable hot days, trying to catch some sleep -- if there was one positive from a trip to Death Valley, it was the photos !
Seen here is a star circle taken at Racetrack Playa, Death Valley.
Racetrack Playa is a dry, ancient lake bed, deep inside Death Valley National Park. The specialty of this place are the moving rocks, which mysteriously move across the dry lake bed, creating trails. The place is pretty remote. The easiest way in is via a rough, unpaved route from Ubehebe crater, which is notorious for causing tire punctures. Its totally worth the trip though!
Camera - Nikon D300
Lens - Tokina 11-16mm f2.8
Copyright © 2010 Ruggero Poggianella. All rights reserved.
Please, do not use my photos without my written permission.
La Cattedrale di Palermo, dedicata alla Vergine Maria Santissima Assunta in cielo, è un grandioso complesso architettonico composto in diversi stili, dovuti alle varie fasi di costruzione.
Eretta nel 1185 dall'arcivescovo Gualtiero Offamilio sull'area della prima basilica che i Saraceni avevano trasformato in moschea, ha subito nel corso dei secoli vari rimaneggiamenti; l'ultimo è stato alla fine del Settecento, quando, in occasione del consolidamento strutturale, si rifece radicalmente l'interno su progetto di Ferdinando Fuga.
Nel 1767 infatti, l'arcivescovo Filangieri aveva commissionato a Ferdinando Fuga un restauro conservativo dell'edificio, teso solamente a consolidarne la struttura. I lavori ebbero inizio solo dal 1781, eseguiti non dal Fuga ma dal palermitano Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia e durarono fino al XIX secolo inoltrato. I rifacimenti del Marvuglia furono in realtà molto più invasivi e radicali dei progetti dell'architetto fiorentino, che pensava invece di conservare, almeno in parte, il complesso longitudinale delle navate e l'originario soffitto ligneo. Il restauro intervenne a cambiare l'aspetto originario del complesso, dotando la chiesa della caratteristica ma discordante cupola, eseguita secondo i disegni del Fuga. Fu in quest'occasione che si distrusse la preziosa tribuna che Antonello Gagini aveva innalzato all'inizio del XVI secolo e che era ornata di statue, fregi e rilievi. Anche le pittoresche cupolette maiolicate destinate alla copertura delle navate laterali risalgono al rifacimento del 1781.
In questa cattedrale, sintesi di storia e di arte dell'ultimo millennio, oltre ai sovrani normanni, furono anche incoronati Vittorio Amedeo II di Savoia e Carlo III di Borbone, figure importanti della storia siciliana.
La cattedrale è fiancheggiata da quattro torri d'epoca normanna ed è sovrastata da una cupola. A sud è collegata al Palazzo Arcivescovile con due grandi arcate ogivali si cui s'innalza la torre campanaria con l’orologio.
La facciata principale sulla via Bonello presenta decorazioni dovute a maestri lapicidi trecenteschi e quattrocenteschi. L'aspetto goticheggiante deriva dalla presenza delle torri a bifore e colonnine e dalle merlature ad archetti che corrono lungo tutto il fianco destro della costruzione.
Il fianco destro della costruzione, con le caratteristiche torrette avanzate e l'ampio portico in stile gotico-catalano (l'attuale accesso), eretto intorno al 1465, si affaccia sulla piazza. Il portale di questo ingresso è opera di Antonio Gambara, eseguita nel 1426, mentre i battenti lignei sono del Miranda (1432). La Madonna a mosaico è del XIII secolo; i due monumenti alle pareti, opere del primo Settecento, rappresentano Carlo III di Borbone a destra e Vittorio Amedeo II di Savoia a sinistra.
La parte absidale stretta fra le torricelle è quella più originale del XII secolo, mentre la parte più manomessa è il fianco sinistro. La facciata sud-occidentale, che guarda l'arcivescovado, va riferita ai secoli XIV-XV.
L'interno, che ha subito profonde trasformazioni tra la fine del Settecento e i primi dell’Ottocento, è a croce latina con tre navate divise da pilastri (gruppi tetrastili con 4 colonne incastonate provenienti dalla antica costruzione rogeriana) con statue di santi che facevano parte della decorazione della tribuna del Gagini.
Nella navata destra, la prima e la seconda cappella, comunicanti fra di loro, custodiscono le tombe imperiali e reali dei normanni, intorno alle quali ruota una storia romanzesca e ricca d'interesse. Ruggero II, re dal 1130, aveva stabilito già nel 1145 che il Duomo di Cefalù da lui fondato diventasse il mausoleo della famiglia reale. In tal senso aveva predisposto la sistemazione di due sarcofagi in porfido, un granito molto prezioso e di notevole durezza, originario dell'Egitto, dal colore rosso cupo che, nell'antichità, era usato esclusivamente per le commissioni imperiali. Alla sua morte nel 1154, però, egli venne sepolto nella cattedrale di Palermo in un avello di porfido dalla forma molto più semplice. Nel 1215 Federico II fece trasportare i due sarcofagi da Cefalù alla cattedrale di Palermo destinandoli a sé e al padre Enrico VI. Il sarcofago di Federico II è sormontato da un baldacchino con colonne in porfido e l'urna è sorretta da due coppie di leoni; insieme a quelli di Federico II sono stati conservati anche i resti di Pietro II d’Aragona. Le altre tombe sono quelle di Costanza d'Aragona (1183-1222), sorella del re d'Aragona e moglie di Federico II, di Gugliemo, duca d'Atene figlio di Federico III d'Aragona, e dell’imperatrice Costanza d'Altavilla, figlia di Ruggero II e madre di Federico II.
Sul pavimento della navata centrale è stata realizzata, durante i rifacimenti moderni, una meridiana in marmo con tarsie colorate che rappresentano i segni zodiacali, (opera di Giovan Battista Piazzi astronono qui collocata nell'anno 1801). Il ricco altare del Sacramento, in bronzo, lapislazzulo e marmi colorati, è stato realizzata su disegno di Cosimo Fanzago(XVII secolo). Nel presbiterio si dispone il bellissimo coro ligneo tardo-quattrocentesco in stile gotico-catalano e il trono episcopale, ricomposto in parte con frammenti d'antichi mosaici del XII secolo. Durante la fase dei restauri della fine del XVIII secolo, fu incaricato il pittore di Sciacca Mariano Rossi di decorare la Cattedrale. Gli affreschi, secondo il disegno originale, dovevano ricoprire il catino dell'abside, la volta del coro, la cupola e la navata centrale, e dovevamo rappresentare idealmente il ristabilimento della religione cristiana in Sicilia ad opera dei Normanni. Mariano Rossi iniziò nel 1802 e non terminò tutto il lavoro, ma ancora oggi si possono ammirare gli affreschi nel catino dell'abside, dove sono rappresentati Roberto il Guiscardo e il conte Ruggero che restituiscono la chiesa al vescovo Nicodemo e nella volta del coro, dove è dipinta l'Assunzione di Maria Vergine.
A destra del presbiterio si trova la cappella di Santa Rosalia, patrona di Palermo, con le reliquie e l'urna d'argento, opera seicentesca di Matteo Lo Castro, Francesco Ruvolo e Giancola Viviano, portata in processione durante la festa patronale il 15 luglio. I due altorilievi di Valerio Villareale, rappresentano: Santa Rosalia invoca Cristo per la liberazione della peste e l'Ingresso delle gloriose reliquie di Santa Rosalia a Palermo. Oltre al coro ligneo in stile gotico-catalano del 1466 e ai resti marmorei della tribuna gaginiana riadattati, di alto interesse artistico sono la statua marmorea della Madonna con Bambino di Francesco Laurana, eseguita insieme ad altri aiuti nel 1469, la pregiata acquasantiera (posta al quarto pilastro) opera incerta di Domenico Gagini e la Madonna della Scala eseguita nel 1503 da Antonello Gagini e posta sull'altare della sacrestia nuova.
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karma is complex and difficult to define. It is a concept whose meaning, importance and scope varies between Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and other traditions that originated in India, and various schools in each of these traditions.
Now as a man is like this or like that,
according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be;
a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad;
he becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds;
And here they say that a person consists of desires,
and as is his desire, so is his will;
and as is his will, so is his deed;
and whatever deed he does, that he will reap.
—Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 7th Century BC
You are welcome to pin, re-post, embed and share this image, but please do not reproduce for your personal gain or profit without my permission.
© All Rights Reserved
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This is a scanned image from a batch of vintage snapshots, cdvs, tintypes and real photo postcards purchased from auction.
I did some small, cosmetic clean-up retouches in photoshop.
Any comments or observations are much appreciated!
This was the best I could do without trespassing and was taken through a distant fence.
And be sure to check by my other acount: www.flickr.com/photos_user.gne?path=&nsid=77145939%40..., to see what else I saw last week!!
Yes I'm back again.
However due to my main computer on which I edit my work being struck down with a big bad virus, this picture and all the others I am uploading, were Unedited but have now been replaced with Edited versions. So enjoy and Thanks for your patience and understanding.
I do still hate everything about this shit that is new Flickr and always will, but an inability to find another outlet for my work that is as easy for me to use as the Old BETTER Flickr was, has forced me back to Flickr, even though it goes against everything I believe in.
I don't generally have an opinion on my own work, I prefer to leave that to other people and so based on the positive responses to my work from the various friends I had made on Flickr prior to the changes I have decided to upload some more of my work as an experiment and to see what happens.
So make the most of me before they delete my acount: www.flickr.com/photos/69558134@N05/?details=1, to stop me complaining!!
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
++++++++ from wikipedia.org ++++++++
The Alishan National Scenic Area is a mountain resort and natural preserve located in the mountains of Chiayi County in Taiwan.[citation needed]
Contents
1 Geography
2 Climate
3 Topography
4 Vegetation and wildlife
5 History
6 Attractions and landmarks
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Geography
Alishan Forest Park.
Dawn view from Alishan.
Alishan is 415 square kilometres (41,500 ha) in area. Notable characteristics include mountain wilderness, four villages, waterfalls, high altitude tea plantations, the Alishan Forest Railway, and a number of hiking trails. The area is popular with tourists and mountain climbers. Alishan, or Mount Ali, itself has become one of the major landmarks associated with Taiwan. The area is famous for its production of high mountain tea and wasabi.[citation needed]
Alishan is well known for its sunrises, and on a suitable morning one can observe the sun come up on a sea of clouds in the area between Alishan and Yüshan. Alishan and Sun Moon Lake are two of the best known scenic spots in Asia. The indigenous people of the area, the Thao people, have only recently been recognized as a discrete ethnic group. They have long been confused with the Tsou people.
Climate
Alishan National Scenic Area spans a broad range in altitude. Lower elevations, such as in Leye Township, share the same subtropical and tropical climate as the rest of southern Taiwan, while the climate changes to temperate and alpine as the elevation increases. Snow sometimes falls at higher elevations in the winter.[citation needed]
Alishan National Scenic Area covers most, but not all, of Alishan Rural Township in Chiayi County, as well as parts of neighboring townships in Taiwan.[citation needed]
Average temperatures are moderate:[citation needed]
Low elevations: 24 °C in the summer, 16 °C in the winter.
Medium elevations: 19 °C in the summer, 12 °C in the winter.
High elevations: 14 °C in the summer, 5 °C in the winter.
Topography
Alishan is mountainous:[citation needed]
Number of peaks above 2000 meters: 25
Highest point: Da Ta Shan (大塔山), 2,663 meters.
Average height of Alishan Mountain Range: 2,500 meters.
Vegetation and wildlife
Important trees in the area include:[citation needed]
Taiwania cryptomerioides, a large coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae (the same family as the next three species)
Chamaecyparis formosensis, or Formosan Cypress
Chamaecyparis taiwanensis
Cunninghamia konishii
Pinus taiwanensis, or Taiwan Red Pine
Picea morrisonicola, or Yüshan Spruce
Pseudotsuga sinensis var. wilsoniana, or Taiwan Douglas-fir
Abies kawakamii, a species of conifer in the Pinaceae family, only found in Taiwan
Tsuga chinensis var. formosana, Taiwan or Chinese Hemlock
Ulmus uyematsui, a species of elm only found in the Alishan region
History
Longyin Temple of Chukou Village in Alishan National Scenic Area.
Boardwalk at Alishan National Scenic Area.
The Alishan area was originally settled by the Tsou tribe of the Taiwanese aborigines; the name derives from the aboriginal word Jarissang. Ethnic Han Chinese settlers first settled on the plains near modern-day Chiayi as early as the late Ming Dynasty (around the mid-17th century), but did not move into the mountains until the late 18th century, establishing the towns of Ruili (瑞里), Ruifeng (瑞峰), Xiding (隙頂), and Fenqihu (奮起湖). The resulting armed clashes between the settlers and the aborigines pushed the aborigines even further into the mountains.[citation needed]
Following the cession of Taiwan to Japan at the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, Japanese expeditions to the area found large quantities of cypress (檜木, or hinoki in Japanese). This led to the development of the logging industry in the area and the export of local cypress and Taiwania wood. A series of narrow-gauge railways were built in the area during this time to facilitate the transportation of lumber from the mountains to the plains below, part of which continues to operate as the Alishan Forest Railway. Several new villages also began to sprout up along the railway lines. It was also during this time that the first tourists began to visit the area. Plans were even drawn up to incorporate the area into the new Niitaka (New Highest) Arisan National Park (新高阿里山国立公園).[citation needed]
With the exhaustion of forest resources by the 1970s, domestic and international tourism overtook logging to become the primary economic activity in the area. The tourism industry continued to expand with the completion of the Alisan highway in the 1980s, displacing the railroad as the primary mode of transportation up the mountain. To combat the problems associated with the growing crowds of tourists and the expanding tea and wasabi plantations, the area was declared a national scenic area in 2001.[citation needed]
On 1 December 2014, fire broke out at Alishan spreading over more than 5 hectares of land. The area affected was located near Tapang No. 3 Bridge. The fire was believed to happen due to dry ground which was vulnerable to fire because of the absence of rain in the area for months.[1]
Attractions and landmarks
A Japanese-built train on the Alishan Forest Railway.
Fenqihu (奮起湖) is a small town of low wooden buildings built into the mountainside at 1,400 meters, midpoint of the Alishan Forest Railway. It is famous for natural rock formations, mountain streams, forests, and the ruins of a Shinto temple in the vicinity, as well as for its production of high altitude food products such as bamboo shoots and aiyu jelly (愛玉). The local box lunches (奮起湖便當, Fenqihu bento), which were once sold to passengers on the rail line, are also well known.[citation needed]
Taiwan (/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ (About this sound listen)), officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a state in East Asia. Its neighbors include China (officially the People's Republic of China, PRC) to the west, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations and the largest economy outside the UN.
The island of Taiwan, formerly known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century, when Dutch and Spanish colonies opened the island to mass Han immigration. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the last dynasty of China. The Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China (ROC) was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROC's loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. Although the ROC continued to claim to be the legitimate government of China, its effective jurisdiction has since the loss of Hainan in 1950 been limited to Taiwan and its surrounding islands, with the main island making up 99% of its de facto territory. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, when the PRC assumed China's seat, causing the ROC to lose its UN membership.
In the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with a semi-presidential system. Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, healthcare,[15] public education, economic freedom, and human development.[d][13][16] The country benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most highly educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.[17][18]
The PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC. Today 20 countries recognize the ROC as the sole legal representative of China,[19] but many other states maintain unofficial ties through representative offices and institutions that function as de facto embassies and consulates. Although Taiwan is fully self-governing, most international organizations in which the PRC participates either refuse to grant membership to Taiwan or allow it to participate only as a non-state actor. Internally, the major division in politics is between the aspirations of eventual Chinese unification or Taiwanese independence, though both sides have moderated their positions to broaden their appeal. The PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible.[20]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistoric Taiwan
2.2 Opening in the 17th century
2.3 Qing rule
2.4 Japanese rule
2.5 After World War II
2.6 Chinese Nationalist one-party rule
2.7 Democratization
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Geology
4 Political and legal status
4.1 Relations with the PRC
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Participation in international events and organizations
4.4 Opinions within Taiwan
5 Government and politics
5.1 Major camps
5.2 Current political issues
5.3 National identity
6 Military
7 Administrative divisions
8 Economy and industry
9 Transportation
10 Education, research, and academia
11 Demographics
11.1 Ethnic groups
11.2 Languages
11.3 Religion
11.4 Largest cities
12 Public health
13 Culture
13.1 Sports
13.2 Calendar
14 See also
15 Notes
16 References
16.1 Citations
16.2 Works cited
17 Further reading
18 External links
18.1 Overviews and data
18.2 Government agencies
Etymology
See also: Chinese Taipei, Formosa, and Names of China
Taiwan
Taiwan (Chinese characters).svg
"Taiwan" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 臺灣 or 台灣
Simplified Chinese 台湾
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Táiwān
Bopomofo ㄊㄞˊ ㄨㄢ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Tair'uan
Wade–Giles T'ai²-wan¹
Tongyong Pinyin Táiwan
IPA [tʰǎi.wán]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing تَاَىْوًا
Wu
Romanization The平-uae平
Xiang
IPA dwɛ13 ua44
Hakka
Romanization Thòi-vàn
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Tòiwāan
Jyutping Toi4waan1
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tâi-oân
Tâi-lô Tâi-uân
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dài-uăng
China
Traditional Chinese 中國
Simplified Chinese 中国
Literal meaning Middle or Central State[21]
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Zhōngguó
Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jong'gwo
Wade–Giles Chung1-kuo2
Tongyong Pinyin Jhongguó
MPS2 Jūng-guó
IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع
Sichuanese Pinyin Zong1 gwe2
Wu
Romanization Tson平-koh入
Gan
Romanization Tung-koe̍t
Xiang
IPA Tan33-kwɛ24/
Hakka
Romanization Dung24-gued2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Jūnggwok
Jyutping Zung1gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tiong-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dṳ̆ng-guók
Pu-Xian Min
Hinghwa BUC De̤ng-go̤h
Northern Min
Jian'ou Romanized Dô̤ng-gŏ
Republic of China
Traditional Chinese 中華民國
Simplified Chinese 中华民国
Postal Chunghwa Minkuo
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Zhōnghuá Mínguó
Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jonghwa Min'gwo
Wade–Giles Chung¹-hua² Min²-kuo²
Tongyong Pinyin Jhonghuá Mínguó
MPS2 Jūng-huá Mín-guó
IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋxwǎ mǐnkwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ مٍ ﻗُﻮَع
Wu
Romanization tson平 gho平 min平 koh入
Gan
Romanization tung1 fa4 min4 koet7
Hakka
Romanization Chûng-fà Mìn-koet
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Jūngwà màn'gwok
Jyutping Zung1waa4 man4gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok
Tâi-lô Tiong-hûa Bîn-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dṳ̆ng-huà Mìng-guók
Japanese name
Kanji 台湾
Kana たいわん
Kyūjitai 臺灣
Transcriptions
Romanization Taiwan
There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, derived from explorers or rulers by each particular period. The former name Formosa (福爾摩沙) dates from 1542,[verification needed] when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means "beautiful island".[22] The name "Formosa" eventually "replaced all others in European literature"[23] and was in common use in English in the early 20th century.[24]
In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a commercial post at Fort Zeelandia (modern-day Anping, Tainan) on a coastal sandbar called "Tayouan",[25] after their ethnonym for a nearby Taiwanese aboriginal tribe, written by the Dutch and Portuguese variously as Taiouwang, Tayowan, Teijoan, etc.[26] This name was also adopted into the Chinese vernacular (in particular, Hokkien, as Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tāi-oân/Tâi-oân) as the name of the sandbar and nearby area (Tainan). The modern word "Taiwan" is derived from this usage, which is seen in various forms (大員, 大圓, 大灣, 臺員, 臺圓 and 臺窩灣) in Chinese historical records. The area of modern-day Tainan was the first permanent settlement by Western colonists and Chinese immigrants, grew to be the most important trading centre, and served as the capital of the island until 1887. Use of the current Chinese name (臺灣) was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture. Through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as "Taiwan".[27][28][29][30]
In his Daoyi Zhilüe (1349), Wang Dayuan used "Liuqiu" as a name for the island of Taiwan, or the part of it near to Penghu.[31] Elsewhere, the name was used for the Ryukyu Islands in general or Okinawa, the largest of them; indeed the name Ryūkyū is the Japanese form of Liúqiú. The name also appears in the Book of Sui (636) and other early works, but scholars cannot agree on whether these references are to the Ryukyus, Taiwan or even Luzon.[32]
The official name of the state is the "Republic of China"; it has also been known under various names throughout its existence. Shortly after the ROC's establishment in 1912, while it was still located on the Chinese mainland, the government used the short form "China" Zhōngguó (中國), to refer to itself, which derives from zhōng ("central" or "middle") and guó ("state, nation-state"), [e] A term which also developed under the Zhou Dynasty in reference to its royal demesne[f] and the name was then applied to the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qingera .[34] During the 1950s and 1960s, after the government had fled to Taiwan due to losing the Chinese Civil War, it was commonly referred to as "Nationalist China" (or "Free China") to differentiate it from "Communist China" (or "Red China").[36] It was a member of the United Nations representing "China" until 1971, when it lost its seat to the People's Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become commonly known as "Taiwan", after the island that comprises 99% of the territory under its control. In some contexts, especially official ones from the ROC government, the name is written as "Republic of China (Taiwan)", "Republic of China/Taiwan", or sometimes "Taiwan (ROC)."[37] The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name "Chinese Taipei" due to diplomatic pressure from the People's Republic of China. For instance, it is the name under which it has competed at the Olympic Games since 1984, and its name as an observer at the World Health Organization.[38]
History
Main articles: History of Taiwan and History of the Republic of China
See the History of China article for historical information in the Chinese Mainland before 1949.
Prehistoric Taiwan
Main article: Prehistory of Taiwan
A young Tsou man
Taiwan was joined to the mainland in the Late Pleistocene, until sea levels rose about 10,000 years ago. Fragmentary human remains dated 20,000 to 30,000 years ago have been found on the island, as well as later artefacts of a Paleolithic culture.[39][40][41]
Around 6,000 years ago, Taiwan was settled by farmers, most likely from mainland China.[42] They are believed to be the ancestors of today's Taiwanese aborigines, whose languages belong to the Austronesian language family, but show much greater diversity than the rest of the family, which spans a huge area from Maritime Southeast Asia west to Madagascar and east as far as New Zealand, Hawaii and Easter Island. This has led linguists to propose Taiwan as the urheimat of the family, from which seafaring peoples dispersed across Southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans.[43][44]
Han Chinese fishermen began settling in the Penghu islands in the 13th century, but Taiwan's hostile tribes and its lack of valuable trade products meant that few outsiders visited the island until the 16th century, when visits to the coast by fishermen from Fujian and Chinese and Japanese pirates became more frequent.[45]
Opening in the 17th century
Main articles: Dutch Formosa, Spanish Formosa, and Kingdom of Tungning
Fort Zeelandia, the Governor's residence in Dutch Formosa
The Dutch East India Company attempted to establish a trading outpost on the Penghu Islands (Pescadores) in 1622, but were militarily defeated and driven off by the Ming authorities.[46]
In 1624, the company established a stronghold called Fort Zeelandia on the coastal islet of Tayouan, which is now part of the main island at Anping, Tainan.[30] David Wright, a Scottish agent of the company who lived on the island in the 1650s, described the lowland areas of the island as being divided among 11 chiefdoms ranging in size from two settlements to 72. Some of these fell under Dutch control, while others remained independent.[30][47] The Company began to import labourers from Fujian and Penghu (Pescadores), many of whom settled.[46]
In 1626, the Spanish Empire landed on and occupied northern Taiwan, at the ports of Keelung and Tamsui, as a base to extend their trading. This colonial period lasted 16 years until 1642, when the last Spanish fortress fell to Dutch forces.
Following the fall of the Ming dynasty, Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), a self-styled Ming loyalist, arrived on the island and captured Fort Zeelandia in 1662, expelling the Dutch Empire and military from the island. Koxinga established the Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683), with his capital at Tainan. He and his heirs, Zheng Jing, who ruled from 1662 to 1682, and Zheng Keshuang, who ruled less than a year, continued to launch raids on the southeast coast of mainland China well into the Qing dynasty era.[46]
Qing rule
Main article: Taiwan under Qing Dynasty rule
Hunting deer, painted in 1746
In 1683, following the defeat of Koxinga's grandson by an armada led by Admiral Shi Lang of southern Fujian, the Qing dynasty formally annexed Taiwan, placing it under the jurisdiction of Fujian province. The Qing imperial government tried to reduce piracy and vagrancy in the area, issuing a series of edicts to manage immigration and respect aboriginal land rights. Immigrants mostly from southern Fujian continued to enter Taiwan. The border between taxpaying lands and "savage" lands shifted eastward, with some aborigines becoming sinicized while others retreated into the mountains. During this time, there were a number of conflicts between groups of Han Chinese from different regions of southern Fujian, particularly between those from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, and between southern Fujian Chinese and aborigines.
Northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were the scene of subsidiary campaigns in the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885). The French occupied Keelung on 1 October 1884, but were repulsed from Tamsui a few days later. The French won some tactical victories but were unable to exploit them, and the Keelung Campaign ended in stalemate. The Pescadores Campaign, beginning on 31 March 1885, was a French victory, but had no long-term consequences. The French evacuated both Keelung and the Penghu archipelago after the end of the war.
In 1887, the Qing upgraded the island's administration from Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian to Fujian-Taiwan-Province (福建臺灣省), the twentieth in the empire, with its capital at Taipei. This was accompanied by a modernization drive that included building China's first railroad.[48]
Japanese rule
Main articles: Taiwan under Japanese rule and Republic of Formosa
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the Tapani Incident from the Tainan jail to court, 1915.
As the Qing dynasty was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), Taiwan, along with Penghu and Liaodong Peninsula, were ceded in full sovereignty to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Inhabitants on Taiwan and Penghu wishing to remain Qing subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and move to mainland China. Very few Taiwanese saw this as feasible.[49] On 25 May 1895, a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist impending Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on 21 October 1895.[50] Guerrilla fighting continued periodically until about 1902 and ultimately took the lives of 14,000 Taiwanese, or 0.5% of the population.[51] Several subsequent rebellions against the Japanese (the Beipu uprising of 1907, the Tapani incident of 1915, and the Musha incident of 1930) were all unsuccessful but demonstrated opposition to Japanese colonial rule.
Japanese colonial rule was instrumental in the industrialization of the island, extending the railroads and other transportation networks, building an extensive sanitation system, and establishing a formal education system.[52] Japanese rule ended the practice of headhunting.[53] During this period the human and natural resources of Taiwan were used to aid the development of Japan and the production of cash crops such as rice and sugar greatly increased. By 1939, Taiwan was the seventh greatest sugar producer in the world.[54] Still, the Taiwanese and aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens. After suppressing Chinese guerrillas in the first decade of their rule, Japanese authorities engaged in a series of bloody campaigns against the mountain aboriginals, culminating in the Musha Incident of 1930.[55] Also, those intellectual and labours who participated in left-wing movement of Taiwan were arrested and massacred (e.g. Tsiúnn Uī-Suí(蔣渭水), masanosuke watanabe(渡辺政之辅)).[56]
Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire and people were taught to see themselves as Japanese under the Kominka Movement, during which time Taiwanese culture and religion were outlawed and the citizens were encouraged to adopt Japanese surnames.[57] The "South Strike Group" was based at the Taihoku Imperial University in Taipei. During World War II, tens of thousands of Taiwanese served in the Japanese military.[58] For example, former ROC President Lee Teng-hui's elder brother served in the Japanese navy and was killed in action in the Philippines in February 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwanese ports. In October 1944, the Formosa Air Battle was fought between American carriers and Japanese forces based in Taiwan. Important Japanese military bases and industrial centres throughout Taiwan, like Kaohsiung, were targets of heavy American bombings.[59] Also during this time, over 2,000 women were forced into sexual slavery for Imperial Japanese troops, now euphemistically called "comfort women."[60]
In 1938, there were 309,000 Japanese settlers in Taiwan.[61] After World War II, most of the Japanese were expelled and sent to Japan.[62]
After World War II
Main article: Taiwan after World War II
General Chen Yi (right) accepting the receipt of General Order No. 1 from Rikichi Andō (left), the last Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan, in Taipei City Hall
On 25 October 1945, the US Navy ferried ROC troops to Taiwan in order to accept the formal surrender of Japanese military forces in Taipei on behalf of the Allied Powers, as part of General Order No. 1 for temporary military occupation. General Rikichi Andō, governor-general of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all Japanese forces on the island, signed the receipt and handed it over to General Chen Yi of the ROC military to complete the official turnover. Chen Yi proclaimed that day to be "Taiwan Retrocession Day", but the Allies considered Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to be under military occupation and still under Japanese sovereignty until 1952, when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect.[63][64] Although the 1943 Cairo Declaration had envisaged returning these territories to China, in the Treaty of San Francisco and Treaty of Taipei Japan has renounced all claim to them without specifying to what country they were to be surrendered. This introduced the problem of the legal status of Taiwan.
The ROC administration of Taiwan under Chen Yi was strained by increasing tensions between Taiwanese-born people and newly arrived mainlanders, which were compounded by economic woes, such as hyperinflation. Furthermore, cultural and linguistic conflicts between the two groups quickly led to the loss of popular support for the new government, while the mass movement led by the working committee of the communist also aimed to bring down the Kuomintang government.[65][66] The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered island-wide unrest, which was suppressed with military force in what is now called the February 28 Incident. Mainstream estimates of the number killed range from 18,000 to 30,000. Those killed were mainly members of the Taiwanese elite.[67][68]
Chinese Nationalist one-party rule
Main articles: Chinese Civil War, Chinese Communist Revolution, and History of the Republic of China § Republic of China on Taiwan (1949–present)
For the history of Republic of China before 1949, see Republic of China (1912–49).
The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing (Nanking) they next moved to Guangzhou (Canton), then to Chongqing (Chungking), Chengdu (Chengtu) and Xichang (Sichang) before arriving in Taipei.
After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong. Throughout the months of 1949, a series of Chinese Communist offensives led to the capture of its capital Nanjing on 23 April and the subsequent defeat of the Nationalist army on the mainland, and the Communists founded the People's Republic of China on 1 October.[69]
On 7 December 1949, after the loss of four capitals, Chiang evacuated his Nationalist government to Taiwan and made Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC (also called the "wartime capital" by Chiang Kai-shek).[70] Some 2 million people, consisting mainly of soldiers, members of the ruling Kuomintang and intellectual and business elites, were evacuated from mainland China to Taiwan at that time, adding to the earlier population of approximately six million. In addition, the ROC government took to Taipei many national treasures and much of China's gold reserves and foreign currency reserves.[71][72][73]
After losing most of the mainland, the Kuomintang held remaining control of Tibet, the portions of Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Yunnan provinces along with the Hainan Island until 1951 before the Communists subsequently captured both territories. From this point onwards, the Kuomintang's territory was reduced to Taiwan, Penghu, the portions of the Fujian province (Kinmen and Matsu Islands), and two major islands of Dongsha Islands and Nansha Islands. The Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over all "China", which it defined to include mainland China, Taiwan, Outer Mongolia and other areas. On mainland China, the victorious Communists claimed they ruled the sole and only China (which they claimed included Taiwan) and that the Republic of China no longer existed.[74]
A Chinese man in military uniform, smiling and looking towards the left. He holds a sword in his left hand and has a medal in shape of a sun on his chest.
Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang from 1925 until his death in 1975
Martial law, declared on Taiwan in May 1949,[75] continued to be in effect after the central government relocated to Taiwan. It was not repealed until 1987,[75] and was used as a way to suppress the political opposition in the intervening years.[76] During the White Terror, as the period is known, 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-Communist.[77] Many citizens were arrested, tortured, imprisoned and executed for their real or perceived link to the Communists. Since these people were mainly from the intellectual and social elite, an entire generation of political and social leaders was decimated. In 1998 law was passed to create the "Compensation Foundation for Improper Verdicts" which oversaw compensation to White Terror victims and families. President Ma Ying-jeou made an official apology in 2008, expressing hope that there will never be a tragedy similar to White Terror.[78]
Initially, the United States abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to the Communists. However, in 1950 the conflict between North Korea and South Korea, which had been ongoing since the Japanese withdrawal in 1945, escalated into full-blown war, and in the context of the Cold War, US President Harry S. Truman intervened again and dispatched the US Navy's 7th Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent hostilities between Taiwan and mainland China.[79] In the Treaty of San Francisco and the Treaty of Taipei, which came into force respectively on 28 April 1952 and 5 August 1952, Japan formally renounced all right, claim and title to Taiwan and Penghu, and renounced all treaties signed with China before 1942. Neither treaty specified to whom sovereignty over the islands should be transferred, because the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed on whether the ROC or the PRC was the legitimate government of China.[80] Continuing conflict of the Chinese Civil War through the 1950s, and intervention by the United States notably resulted in legislation such as the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty and the Formosa Resolution of 1955.
With President Chiang Kai-shek, the US President Dwight D. Eisenhower waved to crowds during his visit to Taipei in June 1960.
As the Chinese Civil War continued without truce, the government built up military fortifications throughout Taiwan. Within this effort, KMT veterans built the now famous Central Cross-Island Highway through the Taroko Gorge in the 1950s. The two sides would continue to engage in sporadic military clashes with seldom publicized details well into the 1960s on the China coastal islands with an unknown number of night raids. During the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in September 1958, Taiwan's landscape saw Nike-Hercules missile batteries added, with the formation of the 1st Missile Battalion Chinese Army that would not be deactivated until 1997. Newer generations of missile batteries have since replaced the Nike Hercules systems throughout the island.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the ROC maintained an authoritarian, single-party government while its economy became industrialized and technology oriented. This rapid economic growth, known as the Taiwan Miracle, was the result of a fiscal regime independent from mainland China and backed up, among others, by the support of US funds and demand for Taiwanese products.[81][82] In the 1970s, Taiwan was economically the second fastest growing state in Asia after Japan.[83] Taiwan, along with Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore, became known as one of the Four Asian Tigers. Because of the Cold War, most Western nations and the United Nations regarded the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China until the 1970s. Later, especially after the termination of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, most nations switched diplomatic recognition to the PRC (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758).
Up until the 1970s, the government was regarded by Western critics as undemocratic for upholding martial law, for severely repressing any political opposition and for controlling media. The KMT did not allow the creation of new parties and those that existed did not seriously compete with the KMT. Thus, competitive democratic elections did not exist.[84][85][86][87][88] From the late 1970s to the 1990s, however, Taiwan went through reforms and social changes that transformed it from an authoritarian state to a democracy. In 1979, a pro-democracy protest known as the Kaohsiung Incident took place in Kaohsiung to celebrate Human Rights Day. Although the protest was rapidly crushed by the authorities, it is today considered as the main event that united Taiwan's opposition.[89]
Democratization
Main articles: Democratic reforms of Taiwan and Elections in Taiwan
Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek's son and successor as the president, began to liberalize the political system in the mid-1980s. In 1984, the younger Chiang selected Lee Teng-hui, a Taiwanese-born, US-educated technocrat, to be his vice-president. In 1986, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was formed and inaugurated as the first opposition party in the ROC to counter the KMT. A year later, Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law on the main island of Taiwan (martial law was lifted on Penghu in 1979, Matsu island in 1992 and Kinmen island in 1993). With the advent of democratization, the issue of the political status of Taiwan gradually resurfaced as a controversial issue where, previously, the discussion of anything other than unification under the ROC was taboo.
After the death of Chiang Ching-kuo in January 1988, Lee Teng-hui succeeded him as president. Lee continued to democratize the government and decrease the concentration of government authority in the hands of mainland Chinese. Under Lee, Taiwan underwent a process of localization in which Taiwanese culture and history were promoted over a pan-China viewpoint in contrast to earlier KMT policies which had promoted a Chinese identity. Lee's reforms included printing banknotes from the Central Bank rather than the Provincial Bank of Taiwan, and streamlining the Taiwan Provincial Government with most of its functions transferred to the Executive Yuan. Under Lee, the original members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly(a former supreme legislative body defunct in 2005）,[90] elected in 1947 to represent mainland Chinese constituencies and having held the seats without re-election for more than four decades, were forced to resign in 1991. The previously nominal representation in the Legislative Yuan was brought to an end, reflecting the reality that the ROC had no jurisdiction over mainland China, and vice versa. Restrictions on the use of Taiwanese Hokkien in the broadcast media and in schools were also lifted.[citation needed]
US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Taiwan's special envoy to the APEC summit, Lien Chan, November 2011
Democratic reforms continued in the 1990s, with Lee Teng-hui re-elected in 1996, in the first direct presidential election in the history of the ROC.[91] During the later years of Lee's administration, he was involved in corruption controversies relating to government release of land and weapons purchase, although no legal proceedings commenced. In 1997,"To meet the requisites of the nation prior to national unification",[92] the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China was passed and then the former "constitution of five powers" turns to be more tripartite. In 2000, Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party was elected as the first non-Kuomintang (KMT) President and was re-elected to serve his second and last term since 2004. Polarized politics has emerged in Taiwan with the formation of the Pan-Blue Coalition of parties led by the KMT, favouring eventual Chinese reunification, and the Pan-Green Coalition of parties led by the DPP, favouring an eventual and official declaration of Taiwanese independence.[93][clarification needed] In early 2006, President Chen Shui-bian remarked: “The National Unification Council will cease to function. No budget will be ear-marked for it and its personnel must return to their original posts...The National Unification Guidelines will cease to apply."[94]
The ruling DPP has traditionally leaned in favour of Taiwan independence and rejects the so-called "One-China policy".
On 30 September 2007, the ruling DPP approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal country". It also called for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the Republic of China.[95] The Chen administration also pushed for referendums on national defence and UN entry in the 2004 and 2008 elections, which failed due to voter turnout below the required legal threshold of 50% of all registered voters.[96] The Chen administration was dogged by public concerns over reduced economic growth, legislative gridlock due to a pan-blue, opposition-controlled Legislative Yuan and corruption involving the First Family as well as government officials.[97][98]
The KMT increased its majority in the Legislative Yuan in the January 2008 legislative elections, while its nominee Ma Ying-jeou went on to win the presidency in March of the same year, campaigning on a platform of increased economic growth and better ties with the PRC under a policy of "mutual nondenial".[96] Ma took office on 20 May 2008, the same day that President Chen Shui-bian stepped down and was notified by prosecutors of possible corruption charges. Part of the rationale for campaigning for closer economic ties with the PRC stems from the strong economic growth China attained since joining the World Trade Organization. However, some analysts say that despite the election of Ma Ying-jeou, the diplomatic and military tensions with the PRC have not been reduced.[99]