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Limit of Shunt ground signal at Warrington Bank Quay, Cheshire.
selective colour
© 2024 Keith Jones. All Rights Reserved
"Limit of Shunt. A limit of shunt signal. consists of two permanently lit red lights in a horizontal arrangement, meaning 'Stop'. No train is allowed to pass this signal as the direction will be against the normal direction of travel. A limit of shunt signal is permanently lit and cannot display any other aspect; there is no lens fitted in the proceed position on these signals."
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UK railway signalling;
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_railway_signalling
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When I rule the Earth, this is the kind of crap you're going to have to put up with, "math anxiety" be dammed.
Ospite su NO LIMITS Radio Ulisse "La storia artistica"
Appuntamento domani su NO LIMITS Radio con Ulisse "La storia artistica" condotto da Alessandro Salvioli alle 7:00 e in replica alle 10:00 e sabato con Ulisse "News e curiosità" alle 8:30 e in replica alle 11:30! Storie di arte, emozioni e vita vissuta!
STEFANIA VISCONTI attrice, modella, actress, model, performer, trasformista, disponibile per collaborazioni artistiche di vario genere, teatro, cinema, tv, cortometraggi, shooting fotografici, esibizioni dal vivo. Disponibilità di spostamento in tutta Italia e all'Estero.
Per qualsiasi informazione ulteriore e collaborazione potete scrivere a viscontistefy@libero.it
STEFANIA VISCONTI is an Italian transgendered actress, model, chameleon-like performer, and activist. She is available for a variety of arts and entertainment projects, including theatrical performances, long and short films, TV programs, photo shootings, live performances. She is willing to travel anywhere in Italy and abroad. For further information, write to viscontistefy@libero.it. You will find other links to some of her personal pages below
Standing on a breakwater, watching the water lapping ever closer to my Nikes. I know the intended target is on the way, the interweb says so.
What I didn't know was that the train would fit the photograph...
Getting this to work was actually quite a challenge, the indifferent evening sky after a bloody rotten day lacked any feel to it, but that wasn't the problem.
The problem was balance. And I'm not talking foot slip slump splash. Although now I think of it, waffle soles and a mix of barnacles and green slime don't go so well. No, follow the line of the breakwater up to the viaduct. It's off centre. Way off. Without the train, it looks lop-sided, so lop-sided I was in two minds about it. But add the train and hey presto, it works!
Stretching the limits or just lucky? Either way...
66554 at Old Colwyn, 11 June 2016.
The No Limits exhibit by Alexandre Arrechea on Park Avenue -- Each sculpture is patterned after an iconic building in New York City and takes on a life of its own. This is the Met Life Building, coiled like a giant firehouse.
Thanks, as always, for your visit and all of your support. Have a great Thursday!
All rights reserved. Please respect my copyright and do not copy, modify or download this image to blogs or other websites without obtaining my explicit written permission.
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin [nb 1] (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet Air Forces pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space, achieving a major milestone in the Space Race; his capsule Vostok 1 completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour.
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Gagarin later served as the deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was subsequently named after him. He was elected as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with his flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Soviet Air Force service
3 Soviet space program
3.1 Selection and training
3.2 Vostok 1
4 After the Vostok 1 flight
5 Personal life
6 Death
7 Awards and honours
7.1 Medals and orders of merit
7.2 Tributes
7.3 Statues and monuments
7.4 50th anniversary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Early life and education
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino,[1] near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death).[2] His parents worked on a collective farm:[3] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer.[nb 2][4] Yuri was the third of four children: his siblings were brothers Valentin (1924) and Boris (1936), and sister Zoya (1927).[5][6]
Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi occupation of Russia during World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow and a German officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family were allowed to build a mud hut approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside on the land behind their house, where they spent twenty-one months until the end of the occupation.[7] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943 and did not return until after the war in 1945.[5][8] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[7]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy steel plant near Moscow,[5][8] and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes.[9] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work,[9] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[5][8][10] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yak-18.[8][10] He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River.[7]
Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the 1st Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School, a flight school in Orenburg.[11][12] He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956.[11] Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft,[13] Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.[5]
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari airbase close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet.[14] On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class.[15] After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space program was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin.[14][16] By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time.[14] Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959,[15] three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space program.[14]
Soviet space program
Selection and training
See also: Vostok programme
Vostok I capsule on display at the RKK Energiya museum
Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.[17]
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet Government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.[18] Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regiment involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympics Games.[19] In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, and over land and water.[20]
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers. When they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[21] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[22] On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six,[23][nb 3] from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoliy Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, German Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigoriy Nelyubov.[25]
As several of the candidates selected for the program including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course program at Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the program in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968.[26][27] Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge.[28][25] Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on July 26 – August 5.[29][20] In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[21]
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961[25] and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, tasked with ranking of the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January 1961, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from commission.[22] On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations.[22] Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April 1961. Historian Asif Siddiqi writes of the final selection:[30]
In the end, at the State Commission meeting on April 8, Kamanin stood up and formally nominated Gagarin as the primary pilot and Titov as his backup. Without much discussion, the commission approved the proposal and moved on to other last-minute logistical issues. It was assumed that in the event Gagarin developed health problems prior to liftoff, Titov would take his place, with Nelyubov acting as his backup.
Vostok 1
Main article: Vostok 1
Poyekhali!
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Gagarin's voice
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On 12 April 1961, 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[31] The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: Preliminary stage ... intermediate... main... LIFT-OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything's all right.
Gagarin: Off we go! Goodbye, until [we meet] soon, dear friends.[32][33]
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! (Russian: Поехали!)[nb 4] later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age.[35][36] The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan.[37] Gagarin became the first to orbit the Earth.[31]
File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogvPlay media
An April 1961 newsreel of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev.
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report.[38] He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает") during re-entry.[39] Gagarin was qualified a Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight.[15][39]
At about 23,000 feet (7,000 m), Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft.[40] Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft,[41] an omission which became apparent after Titov's subsequent flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and again reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised it rules, and acknowledge that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin continues to be internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.[42]
After the Vostok 1 flight
Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to World War II Victory Parades.[43]
Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova (seated to his right) sign autographs in 1964
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile.[44][45][46] On 15 April 1961, accompanied by official from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters.[47] Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[48][44] While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him.[44][49] Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries.[50] In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland.[51]
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[52] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[15] On 20 December 1963, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[53] Soviet officials, including cosmonaut overseerer Nikolai Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight".[54] Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.[5][10]
Gagarin with U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou and the Gemini 4 astronauts at the 1965 Paris Air Show
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature.[52] The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot[55] and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3.[56]
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures[57] and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[58] Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft.[59] Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly.[60] After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.[61] He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training.[62] On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.[27][63][62]
Personal life
Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin was a keen sportsman and fond of ice hockey as a goal keeper.[64] He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[65]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow.[66] She was a medical technician who graduated from Orenburg Medical School.[8][10] They were married on 7 November 1957,[8] the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they had two daughters.[67][68] Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959,[68] is an art historian who has worked as the director-general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001;[69][70] and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961,[68] is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[69][71] Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[5][10]
Death
Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27
Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the Kremlin Wall
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin.[72] Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories.[73][74] At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB.[75][76] According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."[75]
The KGB's report declassified in March 2003 dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[76] Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[73] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[74]
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[77] In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvered sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".[78]
A Russian MiG-15UTI, the same type as Gagarin was flying
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[79] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said a report on the incident confirmed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. However, as a condition of being allowed to discuss the declassified report, Leonov was barred from disclosing the name of the Su-15 pilot who was 80 years old and in poor health as of 2013.[80]
Awards and honours
Medals and orders of merit
Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil, decorated Gagarin in 1961.
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a 12-mile (19 km) parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union,[81][82] Order of Lenin,[81] Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union[83] and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.[82] On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics.[84] Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career.[15]
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor (Czechoslovakia) on 29 April 1961,[85][86] and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) on 24 May.[15][chronology citation needed] On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal.[87]
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland.[88] He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam,[15] the Italian Columbus Day Medal,[89] and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society.[90][91] President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade.[92] During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile[93] and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo.[50] On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic.[94]
Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day.[95] Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration.[96] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[97]
Yuri Gagarin statue at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, was named on 30 April 1968.[98] The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol, Ukraine, was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.[99] A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street.[100] The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961.[101]
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space program's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Moon's surface.[102][103] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others.[104][105] In 1970, a 262 km (163 mi)-wide crater on the far side after him.[106] Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico.[107]
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[108] The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand".[35][108] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.[109]
Russian ten-ruble commemorating Gagarin in 2001
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971[110] and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011.[111]
Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver.[112] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[113]
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[114] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional James T. Kirk.[115] A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.[116]
Statues and monuments
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in Gagarin (Smolensk Oblast), Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened.[117] The monument is mounted to a 38 m (125 ft) tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.[118]
Bust of Gagarin at Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India
In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[119] In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[120]
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by artist and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[121][122] The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012.[123]
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin.[124][125] Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.[126]
50th anniversary
50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[127] The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[128]
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary.[129] The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
Boa noite meninas !
Bom, como estou de férias da faculdade , estou com tempo para usar meus esmaltes , tem vários na fila , e como eu estou com pressa , hoje eu troquei o L'amore pelo Hits 205 , um azul lindo ,na foto não dá ver a cor real , pois já sabem , tá noite ..
Foi usado :
03 camadas do Hits 205
01 camada do Roxinho da colorama
e para finalizar eu carimbei uma Florzinha com a plaquinha Konad M54 !
e AÍ Gostaram ?
obs. Passei em frente da lojinha de cosméticos hj na hora do almoço, me controlei para não comprar mais esmaltes ...rss
Beijosss
Maybe most of the containers were empty but the SD70 and BCOL C44-9WL were working hard getting this monster moving up from the bridge over the Grand.
Javier Crespo y Raquel Llamas se imponen en la XXXVII Edición de Cross Costa Esmeralda de Laredo.
El Club Atlético Laredo rindió un caluroso homenaje al soriano Fermín Cacho por su envidiable currículum deportivo
Un circuito muy técnico por el abultado número de curvas, pero en una privilegiada situación, en el centro de Laredo, en la Alameda José Antonio, proporciona algo que a los atletas les satisface enormemente y de la mucho ánimo, como es el público.
Ayer en Laredo la lluvia no impidió que cientos de personas bordearan los límites del circuito y animaran y dieran calor a los corredores durante todas las pruebas. Precisamente, la ubicación del cross dio también mucha animación a toda la hostelería de la localidad y Laredo vibró con el deporte.
La prueba, organizada de manera impecable por el Club Atlético Laredo en el 40 aniversario de su fundación, comenzó a las 10:15 horas con las categorías inferiores hasta sumar más de 600 atletas que corrieron sobre un espectacular trazado, lleno de curvas y embarrado lo que hizo mas espectacular y meritoria la prueba.
Antes de la carrera estrella senior masculina, el alcalde de Laredo, Santos Fernández Revolvo, presidió un homenaje del Club Atlético Laredo-Camping Laredo al mejor atleta español de todos los tiempos, el soriano Fermín Cacho, quien recibió de la organización pejina una placa, extensiva del reconocimiento de todo el atletismo cántabro. Junto al alcalde pejino se encontraba el responsable del área de deportes del Consistorio, José Miguel Bringas, y el cabeza visible de la organización y presidente del club, Raúl Fuica. Durante la entrega de los trofeos se cedió a Cacho el honor de entregar la mayor parte de ellos a los podios. El día anterior, el sábado, Cacho ofreció una conferencia sobre la práctica de este deporte, salpicada de anécdotas personales durante sus años de corredor por todos los circuitos del mundo.
Participaron en la carrera de ayer atletas de las tres provincias vascas, vallisoletanos, palentinos, burgaleses, leoneses, zamoranos, riojanos, asturianos, madrileños y andaluces, estos últimos llegados de la mano de Fermín Cacho desde su actual residencia en Andujar (Jaén).
Senior Masculina:
Resulto espectacular desde la primeras zancada, un valiente Pedro muñoz comandaba los primeros compases de la prueba, las hostilidades comenzaron rápido y los primeros “hachazos” hacían variar los puestos pero no los protagonistas, Javier Crespo, Pepin Fuentes-Pila y Pedro Muños con un expectante Dhame Lhoussane.
Hacia la mitad de la prueba se produce un cambio de ritmo de Pepin que pone al grupo en fila, solo le acompaña Pedro, mientras que Javier Crespo parecía querer controlar la prueba desde la distancia, sabedor del excelente estado de forma en que se encuentra, ya en el ultimo tercio de la prueba el ritmo se fue incrementando y las posiciones fueron variando en función de las fuerzas que tenia cada corredor y no dando lugar a sorpresas en la línea de meta, el Podium que quedo compuesto por: 1- Javier Crespo (Aserfican – Piélagos), 2- Pepin Fuentes-Pila (A.D. Metavi) y 3- Lhossaine Dhame ( Salgar J. de Herrera). 4- Pedro Muñoz (AT. Laredo) 5- Enedino Garcia (Oriente Atletismo), 6- Yassine Abatourab (Salgar J. de Herrera), 7- José López Soladana (Auresa ), 8- Eduardo Zorrilla (C.D. Sapporo), 9- Fernando Sainz Ruiz (Atletismo Villa de Cabezón), 10- Antonio Vallejo Gutiérrez (C.D. Sapporo).
Senior Femenino:
La carrera fue muy diferente a la masculina, desde el principio se vio una prueba muy táctica donde las primeras clasificadas se marcaban entre si y donde ninguna se decidía a iniciar la selección, pero poco a poco y a medida que avanzada la prueba se comenzaban a perfilar las primeras posiciones y el podium, el problema era que el primer y segundo puesto del cajón seguían en el aire y la prueba finaliza lo que nos llevaba irremediable a la “muerte súbita” esto es un cerrado sprint que se decidió sobre la línea de meta y en el que Raquel Llamas se impuso a Sonia Saiz eso si, picando ambas el mismo tiempo en linea de meta: 12:21 la tercera en discordia fue una soberbia Pilar Sisniega, de tal manera que la clasificación quedo compuesta por: 1- Raquel Llamas (Santutxu), 2- Sonia Saiz (Asefican Piélagos), 3- Pilar Sisniega (AT. Selaya), 4- Noelia San Emeterio (AT. Laredo), 5- Marisol Hevia (AT. Villa de Cabezón).
Los Locales
A un extraordinario podemos decir que estuvieron nuestros atletas locales con nutrida participación. Y para ello a los datos nos remitimos.
Desde los más pequeños con Marcos González tercero en Alevín y las primeras plazas de Marisol Salcines en Infantiles y Marina Clemente en Benjamines, ya recuperada de sus nervios iniciales en la carrera de Ajo, pasando por Agustín Santisteban que ganó también en Juveniles, y que se muestra ya como una alternativa generacional que después de los tiempos de Toñi Negrete, Pedro Muñoz o el mismo Collera ha quedado durante años vacante.
En la categoría de veteranos una auténtica gozada ver de nuevo correr a Toñi Negrete que con su indudable clase nos hizo rememorar tiempos pasados; si le respetan las lesiones esperamos contar con el en la Popular Bajo Asón como en otras ediciones. También Miguel Hontalvilla, Oscar Negrete, Ángel Saiz, Juanillo Borrajo y Miguel Aguilar se batieron el cobre, que maravilla ver correr a estos chavales con más de 35 años y padres de familia, que nos muestran como para el atletismo no hay edades.
Finalmente en la prueba senior nuestro Pedro Muñoz corriendo bajo la enseña del club atlético Laredo fue el auténtico animador de la carrera tirando en todo momento, hecho que luego le pasaría factura aunque no le impidió ser cuarto.
Ya estamos con ganas de ver lo que pasa el próximo domingo en el cross de Belén en la Albericia.
Resumen Clasificaciones
INFANTIL MASCULINO
1 RUIZ PARDO, IVAN (E.D.M. CAYON-NORQUIMIA) 7' 35''
2 CELIS GUTIERREZ, LORENZO (LUPA SAN JOSE – A.T. REINOSA) 7' 37''
3 GONZALEZ GONZALEZ, MARCOS (NETTO - AT. COLINDRES) 7' 44''
INFANTIL FEMENINO
1 SALCINES RUIZ, MARISOL (NETTO - AT. COLINDRES) 5' 09''
2 MONTE GONZALEZ, LUCIA (A.D. METAVI) 5' 19''
3 PARDO GONZALEZ, ALBA (AT.CASTRO-CAJA CANTABRIA) 5' 20''
ALEVIN MASCULINO
1 ORTIZ CABELLO, ANATOLI (T.H. MTNZ. ALONSO - C.A. ESPAÑA CUETO) 5' 11''
2 SECO DE CASTRO, DAVID (LUPA SAN JOSE AT. REINOSA) 5' 12''
3 GARCIA DUQUE, JORGE (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO) 5' 26''
ALEVIN FEMENINO
1 EGHOSA, OSASERE ( AT.CASTRO-CAJA CANTABRIA) 5' 26''
2 GARCIA DIAZ, IRENE (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 5' 27''
3 MILLARES SAMPERIO, MARIA (T.H. MTNZ. ALONSO - C.A. ESPANA CUETO) 5' 33''
BENJAMIN MASCULINO
1 COBO CAYON, IVAN (ASTILLERO GUARNIZO) 2' 47''
2 MANTILLA PEREZ, ALVARO (C.A. CAMARGO - SALGAR J. DE HERRERA) 2' 48''
3 GONZALEZ DE DIEGO, SERGIO (ATMO. TORRELAVEGA) 2' 51''
BENJAMIN FEMENINO
1 CLEMENTE ZUBIETA, MARINA (NETTO - AT. COLINDRES) 2' 55''
2 CEBALLOS LIANO, MARINA (E.D.M. CAYON – NORQUIMIA) 2' 56''
3 RAMOS CALVO, ANA (AT. ANTORCHA SANTONA) 2' 56''
CADETE MASCULINO
1 NORIEGA GOMEZ, DIEGO (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 11' 32''
2 TEZANOS BLANCO, JORGE (LUPA SAN JOSE AT. REINOSA) 11' 42''
3 DIAZ CASTILLA, ALFONSO (ANTORCHA ANDUJAR) 11' 58''
CADETE FEMENINO
1 CARRAL GARCIA, MARTA (E.D.M. CAYON – NORQUIMIA) 7' 49''
2 FUENTES GARMENDIA, BEATRIZ (AT. CORRALES - JOSE PENA LASTRA) 7' 58''
3 FDEZ. Ga DE LOS SALMONES, ANDREA (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 8' 02''
PITUFOS
1 ORTIZ, CRISTIAN (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO)
2 SANTOVENIA MANTECON, IVAN (ATCO. POLANCO)
3 VALLEJO CASTRO, MARCO (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO)
PITUFAS
1 RIVERO ARENZANA, ALBA (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON)
2 LOPEZ SAEZ, LUCIA (LUPA SAN JOSE ATCO. REINOSA)
3 MARTINEZ LARRANAGA, REBECA (AT. ANTORCHA SANTONA)
JUVENIL MASCULINO
1 SANTISTEBAN DIAZ, AGUSTIN (AURESA - AMIGOS DEL DEPORTE) 13' 42''
2 PERALES CALI, SERGIO (CAJA JAEN) 13' 49''
3 GUTIERREZ SANCHEZ, JESUS (E.D.M. CAYON – NORQUIMIA) 13' 55''
JUNIOR MASCULINO
1 SAINZ RUIZ, IVAN (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 12' 45''
2 CUADRADO PIGUEIRAS, DIEGO (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 12' 57''
3 GONZALEZ SIERRA, FRANCISCO (C.D. SAPPORO – RICELEC) 13' 13''
JUVENIL FEMENINO
1 MARTIN LARRAIN, LEIRE (ASEFICAN – PIELAGOS) 13' 31''
2 UBIETA LOPEZ, AMAIA (C.A. VALLE DE MENA) 13' 53''
3 SORIA PALOMERA, ROCIO (ASEFICAN – PIELAGOS) 13' 59''
JUNIOR FEMENINO
1 IBANEZ GONZALEZ, LUCIA (LUPA SAN JOSE AT. REINOSA) 13' 43''
2 ITURBE ARGUIZONIZ, ONDIZ (C.A. LAUDIO) 13' 56''
3 AGNIESZKA SEDLAK, JOANNA (CAYON – NORQUIMIA) 14' 33''
VETERANOS
1 FRAGA RIOS, VICTOR (AURESA - AMIGOS DEL DEPORTE) 13' 06''
2 DIEZ SOLARES, CARLOS (C.A. POLANCO – SOLVAY) 13' 16''
3 SERNA LANZA, HIGINIO (LUPA SAN JOSE AT. REINOSA) 13' 21''
VETERANAS
1 CACHO BUSTAMANTE, CARMEN (ASEFICAN – PIELAGOS) 12' 29''
2 BLANCO JUBETE, BLANCA (ELECTRONICA RATO AVILES ATLETISMO) 13' 07''
3 ALCALDE ALCALDE, JUANA (T.H. MTNZ. ALONSO - C.A. ESPANA CUETO) 14' 06''
SENIOR MASCULINO
1 CRESPO GUTIERREZ, JAVIER (ASEFICAN – PIELAGOS) 22' 52''
2 FUENTES-PILA ORTIZ, JOSE (A.D. METAVI) 22' 54''
3 DHAME, LHOUSSAINE (C.A. CAMARGO - SALGAR J. DE HERRERA) 23' 03''
4 MUNOZ CORRERO, PEDRO (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO) 23' 08''
5 GARCIA RODRIGUEZ, ENEDINO (ORIENTE ATLETISMO) 23' 29''
6 ABATOURAB, YASSINE (C.A. CAMARGO - SALGAR J. DE HERRERA) 23' 42''
7 LOPEZ SOLADANA, JOSE (AURESA - AMIGOS DEL DEPORTE) 23' 59''
8 ZORRILLA ANTON, EDUARDO (C.D. SAPPORO – RICELEC) 24' 09''
9 VALLEJO GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (C.D. SAPPORO – RICELEC) 24' 56''
10 BECI MARTIN, DAVID (AURESA - AMIGOS DEL DEPORTE) 25' 02''
SENIOR FEMENINO
1 LLAMAS GAGO, RAQUEL (SANTUTXU) 12' 21''
2 SAIZ GONZALEZ, SONIA (ASEFICAN – PIELAGOS) 12' 21''
3 SISNIEGA REVUELTA, PILAR (ATLETISMO SELAYA – CRIANAJOL) 12' 25''
4 SAN EMETERIO REVUELTA, NOELIA (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO) 13' 41''
5 HEVIA SANUDO, MARISOL (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 13' 52''
6 ETXEBARRIA URRUTIA, EZTIZEN (C.A. LAUDIO) 14' 05''
7 TORRE FERNANDEZ, MARIA VICTORIA (AT. LAREDO - CAMPING LAREDO) 15' 25''
8 BECERRA SAN MARTIN, VANESA (C.A. POLANCO – SOLVAY) 15' 45''
PROMESAS MASCULINO
1 SAINZ RUIZ, FERNANDO (A.D. ATMO. VILLA DE CABEZON) 24' 31''
2 ALONSO LANZA, TOMAS (A.T. LAREDO – CAMPING LAREDO) 27' 41''
3 JIMENO CAMPO, GILLERMO (C.A. CAMARGO-SALGAR J. DE HERRERA) 30' 54''
4 GOMEZ FRANCO, JUAN JOSE (UNIVERSIDAD DE CANTABRIA) 31' 48''
Titulo: Personajes (1985)
Exposición “Los personajes de Antonio García Ponce”(1938-2009)
del 26 de agosto al 25 de octubre de 2009
homenaje póstumo a uno de los grandes maestros del arte salvadoreño contemporáneo
Haz click aquí para ver el video
Antonio García Ponce: el poder de la ficción
Vivía la ficción al límite y la realidad parecía en sus manos plastilina. Hombre fuerte, pero sensible, auténtico, su obra lo afirma. En los relojeros, vendedores, prostitutas, meseras, personajes que transitan día a día la ciudad, buscaba sus dramas, angustias y los visibilizaba en sus trabajos. Antonio García Ponce (1938- 2009), un referente del arte salvadoreño.
En las mañanas salía a caminar alrededor de media hora, luego pintaba un poco en su estudio, un apartamento en la colonia IVU; después se iba casi todos los días a dibujar al Centro Histórico. A veces, por las tardes, con su hija Vesna visitaban el Café la “T”, donde también expuso. Ahí se encontraba con los pintores Antonio Bonilla y Julio Reyes. «Tenía mucha presencia. Siempre expresaba intensamente sus opiniones. Si uno no le paraba la carreta, él no paraba de hablar. Podíamos enfrascarnos en una discusión sobre el color, la pincelada, la composición, el estilo, la historia del arte», recuerda Reyes de esas reuniones.
Le gustaba sentarse en la banca de un chalet, en la silla de un comedor, un café, el mercado y tomarse unas cervezas, platicar y acercarse a la prostituta, la mesera, bucear en sus dramas, en esas turbulentas aguas desconocidas para muchos. Les decía que era un artista, un pintor; el acento, la postura, su cuerpo fornido y su cabello largo y despeinado y su sonrisa muy sincera mostraban ese algo distinto. Invitaba a uno de los personajes a sentarse a la mesa y servir de modelo y lo dibujaba.
Ponce descongelaba las conversaciones. Giovanni Gil, grabador y compañero en el Centro Nacional de Artes (CENAR), comenta: «En las reuniones de los docentes de artes visuales era muy especial, porque él siempre rompía el hielo. Siempre hacía algo que molestaba a alguien, y entonces se armaba un desorden tremendo alrededor de todo eso. Todo mundo salía de ahí y decía: “Puta, el Ponce nos hizo pedazos la reunión”».
Ponce, cierta vez hablaba con un grupo de muchachas en el CENAR, Gil pasó y le saludó: «hola Ponce», y él le llamó y le dijo: «la próxima vez que me hablés decime maestro». Gil se enfureció que alguien le dijera así y no sabe qué diablos le mencionó allí que terminó ese “together” que Ponce tenía en una confrontación verbal, en amenazas de golpes en la calle. Al día siguiente otra vez se estaban hablando. Ese trato se volvió común en la relación.
Como maestro muy dedicado, preparaba las clases al detalle, con guión y todo. Es más, su la labor se extendió a los niños. Llegó a tener noventa alumnos, chiquillos, entre ellos sus hijos Vesna y Osvaldo. Ella todavía conserva el afiche que salió (1979), con motivo del Primer Salón de Arte Infantil, en la Galería Forma. En éste se lee: «Para nuestros niños, el arte puede ser la válvula reguladora entre su intelecto y sus emociones... Siempre que a los niños les permitamos “expresarse” espontáneamente se revelarán a sí mismos».
En el CENAR, lugar que dejó hasta su jubilación, todavía lo recuerdan, en especial sus compañeros del taller de dibujo y pintura. Era muy abierto a dar consejos, cátedras gratuitas a los jóvenes.
Llegaba, por lo general, en la tarde, andaba uno o dos libros y los tomaba como referencia en sus intervenciones. Se reunía con los profesores del taller y terminaba concluyendo con una frase fulminante. Luego pasaba al salón y les leía a sus estudiantes un texto, para introducirlos. Podría ser el tema de ese día la composición de una obra, pero si andaba leyendo un artista en especial, les abría las puertas de la biografía, resolución técnica, composición.
Siempre recalcaba en la línea y la mancha. «Mis compañeros en el bachillerato, ya no se referían a Ponce, sino que a la mancha, porque él siempre hablaba de la mancha, que la mancha aquí, que la mancha allá, que era un gesto que desarrollaba muchas ideas», dice Gil al recordar esos años cuando estudiaba el Bachillerato en Artes en el CENAR, en los primeros años de los noventa, y conoció al artista.
Edwin Ayala, compañero de trabajo y amigo de Ponce, recuerda una anécdota. Él le pidió un día que diera una charla a sus alumnos de dibujo, principiantes. Quería que los motivara. Ponce le preguntó cuánto quería que les hablara. Pues unos quince o veinte minutos respondió Ayala. Bueno, Ponce comenzó diciéndoles: «La vida del artista es despiadada. Yo crecí en el campo, habían vacas, cabras, los animales del entorno rural, el cerro, y no sé cómo me vine a meter en esto». La pequeña charla se convirtió en dos horas.
Siempre regresó a la naturaleza, allá en Guazapa, a palpar su tierra y dibujar. Ponce nace un 18 de agosto de 1938. A los siete años recibe un regalo de su madre, María Evangelina García, que le fijó el rumbo: una caja de colores. “Es una deuda inmensa que tengo con ella. Me estimuló en un arte que llena toda mi vida”, le dice en 1987 al escritor Eugenio Martínez Orantes.
Ella, como una mujer muy entregada a la educación de su hijo, le mostró a los monstruos del dibujo universal detenidos en la biblioteca familiar.
Sus primeros bocetos quedaron en cuadernos y libretas escolares. Ejercicios de estilo expresionista, le comenta a Martínez Orantes.
Más tarde, ya en la explosión de su carrera (1978), habla de qué significa dibujar para él. «Una sensación tibia. Pequeños estados de éxtasis. Es un estado maravilloso. No es que yo viva arrebatado de emoción, pero sí es sin duda un estado maravilloso donde uno llega a no darse cuenta de cuánto tiempo ha pasado. Dibujo todos los días, aún sábados y domingos, no me importa: mi vida es eso, el dibujo es mi vida».
Cuando Ponce tenía trece años conoce a la poeta Claudia Lars, que al detectar su talento publica sus dibujos en la “Página del niño”. A la casa llegaban Salarrué, quien era amigo de su abuelo, y el pintor y dibujante mexicano León Plancarte Silva (se convierte en su profesor privado).
La primera estancia en la Academia del pintor español Valero Lecha es de 1951 a 1954, después regresa en 1963 a 1966. Es de notar que su trabajo se separa de la Academia, al darle una manufactura muy personal.
Su primera exposición: 1957, dibujos a la sanguine, en la Escuela Normal Superior, El Salvador. Eran prostitutas del Paseo Independencia. Desde ya se vislumbra lo que será la obsesión de García Ponce: visibilizar los seres marginados, cabalgar por esos territorios de la desolación, descender los pozos del dolor y el abandono.
García Ponce siempre tuvo un espíritu aventurero, deseoso de asir el mundo y llevarlo al lienzo, al papel. Es así como, en su estadía en México, conoce al artista José Luis Cuevas, a quien, al parecer, le había corregido la línea; reconoce que él es quien más le ha ayudado.
Después de finalizar sus estudios en la Escuela Normal “Alberto Masferrer” (1959), parte a Nicaragua y expone en la Alianza Francesa de Managua, pero toma maleta nuevamente y llega a Panamá. Tiene una exposición en el Instituto Panameño del Arte(1960). Logra contactar con una compañía naviera, le dan trabajo en el barco “Pandory”. Así pudo conocer todos los puertos de América del Sur. «En Arica y Valparaíso, Chile, cargamos cobre para Europa, y en Perú, guano para los Estados Unidos», le dice a Martínez Orantes.
García Ponce visitaba la Editorial Universitaria de la Universidad de El Salvador allá por 1965- 1966, en ese entonces, cerca del parque Centenario. Allí laboraban los escritores Manlio Argueta y Alfonso Kijadurías. «Él nos enseñaba sus trabajos, y vimos nosotros que era un trabajo medio loco, por lo imaginativo, y le vimos una personalidad como muy abierta, dispuesto a recibir como ciertas bromas de tipo creativo», manifiesta Argueta. Para ese momento, aún se le conocía como Ponce García, entonces, Argueta le dijo por qué no se cambiaba nombre: había un escritor famoso en México que se llamaba Antonio García Ponce y entonces él dijo que le parecía la idea. Ahora se le conoce así.
Tiene el primer encuentro con la crítica de arte argentina Marta Traba, en 1967, quien diez años más tarde se expresaría así: «La obra de Antonio García Ponce, me parece muy excepcional por su condición expresiva muy definida».
En el certamen “Alberto Masferrer”, en conmemoración al nacimiento del pensador, y que tuvo como jurado a Salarrué, César Sermeño y Enrique Aberle, gana el premio único, una medalla de oro, en 1968, con la pintura “Suprema elegía a Masferrer”, que hoy puede apreciarse en el Museo de Arte de El Salvador (Marte), en la exhibición permanente “Revisiones. Encuentros con el arte salvadoreño”. El estudio del lenguaje abstracto tiene expresión en este cuadro.
En 1971 expone la serie de dibujos “Ahora Hoy”, en Dutra Gallery, Nueva York. Allí también estudió litografía y grabado en metal, en el Instituto Pratt y Lenguaje Visual con Richard Claudé Ziermann, en School Visual. Este mismo año expuso en el Café Literario de Carlos Zipfel, Guatemala, con la serie “ La Casa de los Buhoneros”, compuesta por cuarenta trabajos. De él, Zipfel afirmó “es un creador asentado , firme, devoto, colmado de rebeldías supremas, de amor por la humanidad y —por ello mismo— de una proyección más allá de sus propias fronteras: es decir, universal”.
El brasileño Marinho de Azevedo dice (1975): «García Ponce es uno de los dibujantes y grabadores más hábiles e inteligentes del momento gráfico. Su obra influye grandemente en los jóvenes latinoamericanos que se inclinan por el nuevo realismo. Es un creador auténtico que logra crear verdaderas operaciones conceptual- realistas».
Ya para 1968 en la Facultad de Derecho de la Universidad de El Salvador expone lo que se conoce como la nueva figuración, y de ahí no abandona esta corriente. Este nuevo realismo lo explica así Carlo Carrà en el ensayo “A propósito de la realidad” (1935): «... no tiene nada que ver con la reproducción camaleónica de lo verdadero... afirmamos que éste es la condensación espiritual de los aspectos naturales, que nacen y se resuelven realizándose como unidad artística».
Participa en la XIII Bienal Internacional de Sao Paulo, Brasil (1975). Esta experiencia y la de Venecia le marcaron: conoció el arte conceptual. Como trotamundo pudo comprobar que este arte había entrado en países como Colombia, México, Argentina, Uruguay.
Desde entonces, se convirtió en un afluente del arte conceptual. Para él, en este arte, «el verbo constituye parte importante de la situación estética. Sus finalidades son epistemológicas: plantean el problema de los límites y del mecanismo de la percepción, de la comunicación visual. Pero también tiene el arte conceptual un sentido ontológico: revisar, cuestionar y subvertir las ideas fundamentales del arte, porque el arte conceptual nos hace pensar en el arte mismo».
Es en 1985 cuando en la Sala Nacional de Exposiciones vuelca el arte conceptual en una exposición propia.
Haberse sumergido en las aguas de este arte le trajo de sus colegas salvadoreños muchas incomprensiones. Armando Solís, en su libro Oficio de Pintor, dice: “Ha dejado mucho de trabajar, perdiendo su ritmo técnico, manteniéndose en una defensa teórica que hace de corrientes artísticas norteamericanas como el llamado arte conceptual y sus variantes”.
Ponce hasta en los últimos tiempos habló de este arte que lo fascinó. Gil recuerda que miraba curioso que los estudiantes huyeran cuando García Ponce se acercaba con su maleta. Y se debía al arte conceptual y otro montón de cosas que les hablaba. Pasaba más de una hora, a veces dos, en esa cátedra espontánea. A eso le huían los estudiantes.
Ponce dominaba la técnica, pero también tenía esa preocupación teórica que no quedaba solo en sus conferencias, las llevaba a sus diarias discusiones. De ahí que en los periódicos aparecieran muchos artículos, comentarios suyos sobre artistas.
«Con Antonio no se podía entablar una conversación frívola, superflua o de crítica o de ridiculizar a la gente o de burla. Él hablaba de la teoría del arte, para todo tenía una referencia teórica», comenta su colega y amiga Elisa Archer.
En el país se homenajeó a la pintura latinoamericana en la Sala Nacional de Exposiciones (1977). Esta Sala se llenó de cuadros de artistas reconocidos como el chileno Roberto Matta, el mexicano Rufino Tamayo, el mexicano-guatemalteco Carlos Mérida, el cubano Wilfredo Lam. Ponce también participó junto a los demás artistas salvadoreños.
Vuelve a exponer en Nueva York (1983) con la serie de dibujos y grabados “Historias de Raquel” en Loranger Gallery.
Llega su trabajo a Barcelona(1986); el título de la exposición de dibujos y grabados es “La casa del portón rojo”. El mismo título de su novela. Sí, al parecer, Ponce muchos años además de su trabajo visual también se dedicó a escribir. Los más cercanos escucharon fragmentos y algunos vieron manuscritos. Al parecer esta novela, muy plástica, muy descriptiva, muy lírica, voluminosa, era sobre un prostíbulo. Vesna, su hija, dice que varias veces le pidió que se la diera para tenerla en formato digital, pero nunca pudo ser posible.
Ponce leía mucha literatura. Le encantaba entrar a la habitación de Gregor Samsa, protagonista de “La metamorfosis”, de Franz Kafka, y acompañarlo. La descriptiva de Ernesto Sábato en su novela “El túnel” le atraía, al igual que los cuentos de Edgar Allan Poe.
Con “La casa de la señora Laura Salinas II” obtiene el primer premio en el II Certamen de Pintura Benjamín Cañas (1990). Los jurados: la nicaragüense Mercedes Gordillo de Aróstegui, el peruano- mexicano Juan Acha y la Dra. Bélgica Rodríguez, directora del Museo Latinoamericano de Arte Moderno de la OEA en Washington.
La Dra. Rodríguez, precisamente, se expresó así: «Es un artista figurativo expresionista que favorece los temas que tratan una angustia humana. Su interés principal ha sido la figura humana tratada plásticamente con sus deformaciones físicas y subjetivamente con sus angustias interiores».
En su vida siempre fue recurrente las incursiones al Centro Histórico. Con Elisa Archer se llevaban los caballetes desmontables y se ponían a dibujar. La gente les hacían rueda y, luego, los dibujos, los retratos, terminaban en sus manos. En la casa de ella, el maestro trabajó muchos cuadros, grandes formatos como “La paciente” (2001), que sufrió dos cambios significativos. Ponce si algo no le gustaba, un personaje por ejemplo, lo fulminaba por completo de su cuadro.
Archer aún tiene el afiche de una exposición efímera (2001). Ponce llevaba sus cuadros, los montaba, inauguraba la exposición y a las cinco horas ya todo terminaba. Los visitantes volvían y ya no había nada.
Las exposiciones efímeras llegaron hasta los cementerios. Monstruos, rostros macabros terminaron en las lápidas, para ver la reacción del público. A veces, con sus alumnos pegaba sus dibujos sin firma, en los buses o microbuses; otras, en los chalets colgaba sus cuadros con el consentimiento de la dueña, la doña. La duración de la exposición: el tiempo que estuviera bebiendo sus cervezas y compartiendo con sus amigos. Hablaba sobre un tema y hacía un paréntesis: contaba la anécdota de un personaje. En cada cuadro había una historia, y él aprovechaba a sacarla en ese momento.
El pintor Isaías Mata, quien conoció a Ponce en 1974 por ser vecinos, recuerda los días cuando salían a hacer apuntes. “Toño”, así muchos le llamaban a Ponce, se los corregía. Iban a los parques, a las plazas, a Quezaltepeque, Nejapa. Comían en las calles, en los mercados.
Un día la municipal los iba a llevar preso, porque los acusaban de estar cometiendo un acto ilícito. Ellos tan sólo estaban en una acera dibujando y la gente los había rodeado. La policía llegó con las intenciones de arrestarlos. “Toño” dijo: «No, no. Nosotros somos artistas. Mire lo que estamos haciendo. Enseñale — y señaló a Mata— lo que estamos haciendo. Enseñale lo que estás haciendo, dibujalo a él». Ahí hicieron un garabato para zafarse. Se pudieron salvar.
En el Café Bella Nápoles se reunían, tomaban un café, y de ahí salían para el Parque Libertad, la Plaza Gerardo Barrios, el parque San José. En ese entonces, García Ponce trabajaba en las mañanas en Guazapa.
Mata todavía recuerda la última cerveza que tomaron. Estaba trabajando un mural en el Mercado San Miguelito junto a sus compañeros de la Asociación Salvadoreña de Trabajadores/as del Arte y la Cultura (ASTAC). García Ponce lo invitó a una cerveza. Mata dudó: sabía que Ponce tomaba una y era de continuar. En efecto, él le dijo que se tomaran la tercera, a lo cual Mata respondió que no, que mejor que se fuera a descansar. Después llegó Vesna a buscarlo. Mata le informó que él se había marchado, que ya andaba ebrio.
Vesna al morir su hermano, Osvaldo, de 28 años, se convirtió en el único ángel de García Ponce. Ella recuerda como su padre le cantaba caballito blanco, le compraba discos, cuentos y ciruelas. Ella, al final de sus días, lo tuvo en su apartamento. Se imagina cuánto debió haber sufrido al ya no poder salir: sus piernas no le respondía.
El año pasado, en el Museo Nacional de Antropología de El Salvador (MUNA), la Asociación de Artistas Plásticos de El Salvador (ADAPES) homenajeó a Ponce. Cincuenta y un año después de su primera exposición. Tanto se retardaron pensó. Fue en una retrospectiva del dibujo. Estuvieron presentes los trabajos de Carlos Cañas, Rosa Mena Valenzuela. Ponce llegó en saco y siempre con su cabello suelto. Su hija le acompañó y le tomó las fotos.
Luego, este año, en la Sala Nacional se le dedica el sexto Salón de Dibujo “Transito y Permanencia 2009”, «por su larga y constante dedicación a esta difícil disciplina”. Pero el homenajeado no pudo llegar a la inauguración, faltó el personaje creador. Las gotas de vida escaseaban, poco a poco desaparecían de lo que un día fue una cascada, donde convergían sus personajes, sus fantasmas, sus amores; el sábado 20 de junio la última desapareció para siempre.
Nota escrita por: Miroslava Rosales
Tomado del Diario Digital CONTRA PUNTO
Jueves, 27 Agosto 2009
Sala Nacional de Exposiciones Salarrué
Costado norte del Parque Cuscatlán, San Salvador El Salvador, Centroamérica.
Teléfono:(503) 2222-4959
Abierto de martes a domingo
9.00 a.m a 12 m - 2.00 p.m A 5 p.m
Lunes cerrado al público
Salanacionaldeexposiciones.sv@gmail.com
Entrada gratuita.
A great ride to the top of the mountain with an excellent view of Valle de Bravo, Mexico, a small little and amazing town near Mexico City.
It was rather late (around 8pm) and my 7-year-old reached her limit of doing homework. She did great - at least 45 minutes of math and reading.
Fuji X100S
322/365
Ghallis tower.
Għallis Tower, originally known as Torre delle Saline, is a small watchtower in Salina, limits of Naxxar, Malta. It was completed in 1658 as the second of the De Redin towers. Today, the tower is in good condition.
Għallis Tower was built in 1658 on the eastern shore of Għallis Point (Maltese: Ras l-Għallis), commanding the entrance to Salina Bay along with Qawra Tower, one of the Lascaris towers. The tower was built on or near the site of a medieval watch post. It follows the standard design of the De Redin towers, having a square plan with two floors and a turret on the roof. The external wall is made of upper coralline limestone which is weather resistant while the inner wall is made of the softer globogerina limestone. It originally had a garrison consisting of a bombardier and three gunners, who manned a three-pounder iron cannon.
During the British period, Għallis Tower was modified by opening a doorway at ground level and the insertion of roof slabs.
On 16 July 1955 Toninu Aquilina, 35, was found dead in the well of the tower. It was a case of a murder.
By the 1990s, Għallis Tower was in a state of disrepair, with parts of its exterior being covered with plaster and cement, and many weeds growing around it. The interior was also damaged due to soot from the many fires lit inside the tower.
Din l-Art Ħelwa restored the tower between 1995 and 1996, and many stonework had to be replaced. Today, it is still under the control of Din l-Art Ħelwa and is in good condition. It is open to the public by appointment.
In 2015, an LED lighting system was installed at Għallis Tower. Since the tower is off Malta's electricity grid, the energy was provided by solar panels installed on the tower's roof.
Temperature; 20 degrees.
Nizza
Nice (/niːs/ NEESS; French pronunciation: [nis]) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one million on an area of 744 km2 (287 sq mi). Located on the French Riviera, the southeastern coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the French Alps, Nice is the second-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast and second-largest city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region after Marseille. Nice is approximately 13 kilometres (8 mi) from the principality of Monaco and 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the French–Italian border. Nice's airport serves as a gateway to the region.
The city is nicknamed Nice la Belle (Nissa La Bella in Niçard), meaning 'Nice the Beautiful', which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of today's Nice contains Terra Amata, an archaeological site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire 380,000 years ago. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Nikaia, after Nike, the goddess of victory. Through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength. From 1388, it was a dominion of Savoy, then became part of the French First Republic between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, until its annexation by France in 1860.
The natural environment of the Nice area and its mild Mediterranean climate came to the attention of the English upper classes in the second half of the 18th century, when an increasing number of aristocratic families began spending their winters there. In 1931, following its refurbishment, the city's main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English"), was inaugurated by Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught; it owes its name to visitors to the resort. These included Queen Victoria along with her son Edward VII who spent winters there, as well as Henry Cavendish, born in Nice, who discovered hydrogen.
The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to notable painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle, and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the city's museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse and Musée des Beaux-Arts. International writers have also been attracted and inspired by the city. Frank Harris wrote several books including his autobiography My Life and Loves in Nice. Friedrich Nietzsche spent six consecutive winters in Nice, and wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra there. Additionally, Russian writer Anton Chekhov completed his play Three Sisters while living in Nice.
Nice's appeal extended to the Russian upper classes. Prince Nicholas Alexandrovich, heir apparent to Imperial Russia, died in Nice and was a patron of the Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice where Princess Catherine Dolgorukova, morganatic wife of the Tsar Alexander II of Russia, is buried. Also buried there are General Dmitry Shcherbachev and General Nikolai Yudenich, leaders of the anti-Communist White Movement.
Those interred at the Cimetière du Château include celebrated jeweler Alfred Van Cleef, Emil Jellinek-Mercedes, founder of the Mercedes car company, film director Louis Feuillade, poet Agathe-Sophie Sasserno, dancer Carolina Otero, Asterix comics creator René Goscinny, The Phantom of the Opera author Gaston Leroux, French prime minister Léon Gambetta, and the first president of the International Court of Justice José Gustavo Guerrero.
Because of its historical importance as a winter resort town for the European aristocracy and the resulting mix of cultures found in the city, UNESCO proclaimed Nice a World Heritage Site in 2021. The city has the second largest hotel capacity in the country, and it is the second most visited metropolis in Metropolitan France, receiving four million tourists every year. It also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the historical capital city of the County of Nice (French: Comté de Nice, Niçard: Countèa de Nissa).
History
Foundation
The first known hominid settlements in the Nice area date back about 400,000 years (homo erectus); the Terra Amata archeological site shows one of the earliest uses of fire, construction of houses, as well as flint findings dated to around 230,000 years ago. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by colonists from the Greek city of Phocaea in western Anatolia. It was given the name of Níkaia (Νίκαια) in honour of a victory over the neighbouring Ligurians (people from the northwest of Italy, probably the Vediantii kingdom); Nike (Νίκη) was the Greek goddess of victory. The city soon became one of the busiest trading ports on the Ligurian coast; but it had an important rival in the Roman town of Cemenelum, which continued to exist as a separate city until the time of the Lombard invasions. The ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice.
Early development
In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens; but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, and for most of the 10th century remained masters of the surrounding country.
During the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, and both the King of France and the Holy Roman Emperor endeavoured to subjugate it; despite this, it maintained its municipal liberties. During the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa.
The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town. The landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill. Another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the port area was also defended by walls. Under Monoprix in Place de Garibaldi are excavated remains of a well-defended city gate on the main road from Turin.
Duchy of Savoy
In 1388, the commune placed itself under the protection of the Counts of Savoy. Nice participated – directly or indirectly – in the history of Savoy until 1860.
The maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased until it was able to cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely extended and the roads to the city improved. In 1561 Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy abolished the use of Latin as an administrative language and established the Italian language as the official language of government affairs in Nice.
During the struggle between Francis I and Charles V great damage was caused by the passage of the armies invading Provence; pestilence and famine raged in the city for several years. In 1538, in the nearby town of Villeneuve-Loubet, through the mediation of Pope Paul III, the two monarchs concluded a ten years' truce.
In 1543, Nice was attacked by the united Franco-Ottoman forces of Francis I and Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, in the Siege of Nice; though the inhabitants repulsed the assault which followed the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage the city and to carry off 2,500 captives. Pestilence appeared again in 1550 and 1580.
In 1600, Nice was briefly taken by the Duke of Guise. By opening the ports of the county to all nations, and proclaiming full freedom of trade (1626), the commerce of the city was given great stimulus, the noble families taking part in its mercantile enterprises.
Captured by Nicolas Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was again besieged by the French in 1705, and in the following year its citadel and ramparts were demolished.
Kingdom of Sardinia
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) once more gave the city back to the Duke of Savoy, who was on that same occasion recognised as King of Sicily. In the peaceful years which followed, the "new town" was built. From 1744 until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French and Spaniards were again in possession.
In 1775 the king, who in 1718 had swapped his sovereignty of Sicily for the Kingdom of Sardinia, destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of the commune. Conquered in 1792 by the armies of the First French Republic, the County of Nice continued to be part of France until 1814; but after that date it reverted to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.
French annexation
After the Treaty of Turin was signed in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III as a consequence of the Plombières Agreement, the county was again and definitively ceded to France as a territorial reward for French assistance in the Second Italian War of Independence against Austria, which saw Lombardy united with Piedmont-Sardinia. King Victor-Emmanuel II, on 1 April 1860, solemnly asked the population to accept the change of sovereignty, in the name of Italian unity, and the cession was ratified by a regional referendum. Italophile manifestations and the acclamation of an "Italian Nice" by the crowd are reported on this occasion. A plebiscite was voted on 15 and 16 April 1860. The opponents of annexation called for abstention, hence the very high abstention rate. The "yes" vote won 83% of registered voters throughout the county of Nice and 86% in Nice, partly thanks to pressure from the authorities. This is the result of a masterful operation of information control by the French and Piedmontese governments, in order to influence the outcome of the vote in relation to the decisions already taken. The irregularities in the plebiscite voting operations were evident. The case of Levens is emblematic: the same official sources recorded, faced with only 407 voters, 481 votes cast, naturally almost all in favor of joining France.
The Italian language, which was the official language of the County, used by the Church, at the town hall, taught in schools, used in theaters and at the Opera, was immediately abolished and replaced by French. Discontent over annexation to France led to the emigration of a large part of the Italophile population, also accelerated by Italian unification after 1861. A quarter of the population of Nice, around 11,000 people from Nice, decided to voluntarily exile to Italy. The emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy took the name of Niçard exodus. Many Italians from Nizza then moved to the Ligurian towns of Ventimiglia, Bordighera and Ospedaletti, giving rise to a local branch of the movement of the Italian irredentists which considered the re-acquisition of Nice to be one of their nationalist goals. Giuseppe Garibaldi, born in Nice, strongly opposed the cession to France, arguing that the ballot was rigged by the French. Furthermore, for the niçard general his hometown was unquestionably Italian. Politically, the liberals of Nice and the partisans of Garibaldi also appreciated very little Napoleonic authoritarianism. Elements on the right (aristocrats) as on the left (Garibaldians) therefore wanted Nice to return to Italy. Savoy was also transferred to the French crown by similar means.
In 1871, during the first free elections in the County, the pro-Italian lists obtained almost all the votes in the legislative elections (26,534 votes out of 29,428 votes cast), and Garibaldi was elected deputy at the National Assembly. Pro-Italians took to the streets cheering "Viva Nizza! Viva Garibaldi!". The French government sent 10,000 soldiers to Nice, closed the Italian newspaper Il Diritto di Nizza and imprisoned several demonstrators. The population of Nice rose up from 8 to 10 February and the three days of demonstration took the name of "Niçard Vespers". The revolt was suppressed by French troops. On 13 February, Garibaldi was not allowed to speak at the French parliament meeting in Bordeaux to ask for the reunification of Nice to the newborn Italian unitary state, and he resigned from his post as deputy. The failure of Vespers led to the expulsion of the last pro-Italian intellectuals from Nice, such as Luciano Mereu or Giuseppe Bres, who were expelled or deported.
The pro-Italian irredentist movement persisted throughout the period 1860–1914, despite the repression carried out since the annexation. The French government implemented a policy of Francization of society, language and culture. The toponyms of the communes of the ancient County were francized, with the obligation to use French in Nice, as well as certain surnames (for example the Italian surname "Bianchi" was francized into "Leblanc", and the Italian surname "Del Ponte" was francized into "Dupont").
Italian-language newspapers in Nice were banned. In 1861, La Voce di Nizza was closed (temporarily reopened during the Niçard Vespers), followed by Il Diritto di Nizza, closed in 1871. In 1895 it was the turn of Il Pensiero di Nizza, accused of irredentism. Many journalists and writers from Nice wrote in these newspapers in Italian. Among these are Enrico Sappia, Giuseppe André, Giuseppe Bres, Eugenio Cais di Pierlas and others.
During the repression of January and February 1894, the police conducted raids targeting the Italian anarchists living there, without much success.
20th century
In 1900, the Tramway de Nice electrified its horse-drawn streetcars and spread its network to the entire département from Menton to Cagnes-sur-Mer. By the 1930s more bus connections were added in the area. In the 1930s, Nice hosted international car racing in the Formula Libre (predecessor to Formula One) on the so-called Circuit Nice. The circuit started along the waterfront just south of the Jardin Albert I, then headed westward along the Promenade des Anglais followed by a hairpin turn at the Hotel Negresco to come back eastward and around the Jardin Albert I before heading again east along the beach on the Quai des Etats-Unis.
As war broke out in September 1939, Nice became a city of refuge for many displaced foreigners, notably Jews fleeing the Nazi progression into Eastern Europe. From Nice many sought further shelter in the French colonies, Morocco and North and South America. After July 1940 and the establishment of the Vichy Regime, antisemitic aggressions accelerated the exodus, starting in July 1941 and continuing through 1942. On 26 August 1942, 655 Jews of foreign origin were rounded up by the Laval government and interned in the Auvare barracks. Of these, 560 were deported to Drancy internment camp on 31 August 1942. Due to the activity of the Jewish banker Angelo Donati and of the Capuchin friar Père Marie-Benoît the local authorities hindered the application of anti-Jewish Vichy laws.
The first résistants to the new regime were a group of high school seniors of the Lycée de Nice, now Lycée Masséna , in September 1940, later arrested and executed in 1944 near Castellane. The first public demonstrations occurred on 14 July 1942 when several hundred protesters took to the streets along the Avenue de la Victoire and in the Place Masséna. In November 1942 German troops moved into most of unoccupied France, but Italian troops moved into a smaller zone including Nice. A certain ambivalence remained among the population, many of whom were recent immigrants of Italian ancestry. However, the resistance gained momentum after the Italian surrender in 1943 when the German army occupied the former Italian zone. Reprisals intensified between December 1943 and July 1944, when many partisans were tortured and executed by the local Gestapo. American paratroopers entered the city on 30 August 1944 and Nice was finally liberated. The consequences of the war were heavy: the population decreased by 15% and economic life was totally disrupted.
In the second half of the 20th century, Nice enjoyed an economic boom primarily driven by tourism and construction. Two men dominated this period: Jean Médecin, mayor for 33 years from 1928 to 1943 and from 1947 to 1965, and his son Jacques, mayor for 24 years from 1966 to 1990. Under their leadership, there was extensive urban renewal, including many new constructions. These included the convention centre, theatres, new thoroughfares and expressways. The arrival of the Pieds-Noirs, refugees from Algeria after 1962 independence, also gave the city a boost and somewhat changed the make-up of its population and traditional views. By the late 1980s, rumors of political corruption in the city government surfaced; and eventually formal accusations against Jacques Médecin forced him to flee France in 1990. Later arrested in Uruguay in 1993, he was extradited back to France in 1994, convicted of several counts of corruption and associated crimes and sentenced to imprisonment.
On 16 October 1979, a landslide and an undersea slide caused two tsunamis that hit the western coast of Nice; these events killed between 8 and 23 people.
21st century
In February 2001, European leaders met in Nice to negotiate and sign what is now the Treaty of Nice, amending the institutions of the European Union.
In 2003, local Chief Prosecutor Éric de Montgolfier alleged that some judicial cases involving local personalities had been suspiciously derailed by the local judiciary, which he suspected of having unhealthy contacts through Masonic lodges with the defendants. A controversial official report stated later that Montgolfier had made unwarranted accusations.
On 14 July 2016, a truck was deliberately driven into a crowd of people by Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel on the Promenade des Anglais. The crowd was watching a fireworks display in celebration of Bastille Day. A total of 87 people were killed, including the perpetrator, who was shot dead by police. Another 434 were injured, with 52 in critical care and 25 in intensive care, according to the Paris prosecutor. On 29 October 2020, a stabbing attack killed three people at the local Notre-Dame de Nice. One of the victims, a woman, was beheaded by the attacker. Several additional victims were injured. The attacker, who was shot by the police, was taken into custody. The Islamic state claimed responsibility for both attacks.
In 2021, the city was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as "Nice, Winter Resort Town of the Riviera".
On 18 July 2024, seve people from the same family, including three young children, three adults and a teenager were killed in an arson attack. The fire also critically injured one other person and caused thirty other people to suffer from smoke inhalation.
Architecture
The Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English") is a promenade along the Baie des Anges ("Bay of the Angels"), which is a bay of the Mediterranean in Nice. Before Nice was urbanised, the coastline at Nice was just bordered by a deserted stretch of shingle beach (covered with large pebbles). The first houses were located on higher ground well away from the sea, as wealthy tourists visiting Nice in the 18th century did not come for the beach, but for the gentle winter weather. The areas close to the water were home to Nice's dockworkers and fishermen.
In the second half of the 18th century, many wealthy English people took to spending the winter in Nice, enjoying the panorama along the coast. This early aristocratic English colony conceived the building of a promenade with the leadership and financial support of Rev. Lewis Way. With the initial promenade completed, the city of Nice, intrigued by the prospect, greatly increased the scope of the work. The Promenade was first called the Camin dei Anglès (the English Way) by the Niçois in their native dialect Nissart. In 1823, the promenade was named La Promenade des Anglais by the French, a name that would stick after the annexation of Nice by France in 1860.
The Hotel Negresco on the Promenade des Anglais was named after Henri Negresco who had the palatial hotel constructed in 1912. In keeping with the conventions of the time, when the Negresco first opened in 1913 its front opened on the side opposite the Mediterranean.
Beginning at Place Masséna, heading east and parallel to the Promenade des Anglais, there is a "Zone Piétonne", or "Pedestrian Zone". Cars are not allowed (with exception to delivery trucks), making this avenue a popular walkway.
Old Nice is also home to the Opéra de Nice. It was constructed at the end of the 19th century under the design of François Aune, to replace King Charles Félix's Maccarani Theater. Today, it is open to the public and provides a regular program of performances.
Climate
Nice has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa), enjoying mild winters with moderate rainfall. It is one of the warmest Mediterranean climates for its latitude. Summers are warm to hot, dry, and sunny. Rainfall is rare in this season, and a typical July month only records one or two days with measurable rainfall. The temperature is typically above 26 °C (79 °F) but rarely above 32 °C (90 °F). The climate data is recorded from the airport, located just metres from the sea. Summer temperatures, therefore, are often higher in the city. The average maximum temperature in the warmest months of July and August is about 27 °C (81 °F). The highest recorded temperature was 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) on 1 August 2006. Autumn generally starts sunny in September and becomes more cloudy and rainy towards October, while temperatures usually remain above 20 °C (68 °F) until November where days start to cool down to around 17 °C (63 °F).
Winters are characterised by mild days (11 to 17 °C (52 to 63 °F)), cool nights (4 to 9 °C (39 to 48 °F)), and variable weather. Days can be either sunny and dry or damp and rainy. The average minimum temperature in January is around 5 °C (41 °F). Frost is unusual and snowfalls are rare. The most recent snowfall in Nice was on 26 February 2018.[46] Nice also received a dusting of snow in 2005, 2009 and 2010. Spring starts cool and rainy in late March, and Nice becomes increasingly warm and sunny around June.
Economy and tourism
Nice is the seat of the Chambre de commerce et d'industrie Nice Côte d'Azur, which manages the Port of Nice. Investors from France and abroad can benefit from the assistance of the Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency Team Côte d'Azur.
Nice has one conference centre: the Palais des Congrès Acropolis. The city also has several business parks, including l'Arenas, Nice the Plain, Nice Méridia, Saint Isidore, and the Northern Forum.
In addition, the city features several shopping centres such as Nicetoile on Avenue Jean Médecin, Cap3000 in Saint-Laurent-du-Var (the 5th-biggest mall in France by surface area), Nice TNL, Nice Lingostière, Northern Forum, St-Isidore, the Trinity (around the Auchan hypermarket) and Polygone Riviera in Cagnes-sur-Mer.
Sophia Antipolis is a technology park northwest of Antibes. Much of the park is within the commune of Valbonne. Established between 1970 and 1984, it primarily houses companies in the fields of computing, electronics, pharmacology and biotechnology. Several institutions of higher learning are also located here, along with the European headquarters of W3C. It is known as "Europe's first science and technology hub" and is valued at more than 5 billion euros.
The Nice metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $47.7 billion, and $34,480 per capita, slightly lower than the French average.
Culture
Terra-Amata, an archaeological site dating from the Lower Palaeolithic age, is situated near Nice. Nice itself was established by the ancient Greeks. There was also an independent Roman city, Cemenelum, near Nice, where the hill of Cimiez is located.
Since the 2nd century AD, the light of the city has attracted painters and sculptors such as Chagall, Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Klein, Arman and Sosno. Nice inspired many composers and intellectuals in different countries e.g. Berlioz, Rossini, Nietzsche, etc.
Nice also has numerous museums of all kinds: Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Musée international d'Art naïf Anatole Jakovsky, Musée Terra-Amata, Museum of Asian Art, Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain (which devotes much space to the well-known École of Nice "), Museum of Natural History, Musée Masséna, Naval Museum and Galerie des Ponchettes.
Being a vacation resort, Nice hosts many festivals throughout the year, such as the Nice Carnival and the Nice Jazz Festival.
Nice has a distinct culture due to its unique history. The local language Niçard (Nissart) is an Occitan dialect (but some Italian scholars argue that it is a Ligurian dialect).[citation needed] It is still spoken by a substantial minority. Strong Italian and (to a lesser extent) Corsican influences make it more intelligible to speakers of Italian than other extant Provençal dialects.
In the past, Nice has welcomed many immigrants from Italy (who continue to make up a large proportion of the population), as well as Spaniards and Portuguese. In the past few decades immigration has been opened to include immigrants from all over the world, particularly those from former Northern and Western African colonies, as well as Southeast Asia.[citation needed] Traditions are still alive, especially in folk music and dances, including the farandole – an open-chain community dance.
Since 1860 a cannon (based at the Château east of Old Nice) is shot at twelve o'clock sharp. The detonation can be heard almost all over the city. This tradition goes back to Sir Thomas Coventry, who intended to remind the citizens of having lunch on time.
Hôtel du Couvent: A 17th-century monastery in Nice was transformed into a five-star hotel, opening its doors in June 2024. This project blends historical architecture with modern luxury, contributing to the city's hospitality offerings. LE MONDE.
Cuisine
The cuisine of Nice is especially close to those of Provence but also Liguria and Piedmont and uses local ingredients (olive oil, anchovies, fruit and vegetables) but also those from more remote regions, in particular from Northern Europe, because ships which came to pick up olive oil arrived full of food products, such as dried haddock.
The local cuisine is rich in around 200 recipes. Most famous include the local tart made with onions and anchovies (or anchovy paste), named "Pissaladière" and derived from the ligurian pissalandrea, a sort of pizza. Socca is a type of pancake made from chickpea flour. Farcis niçois is a dish made from vegetables stuffed with a mixture of breadcrumbs, meat (generally sausage and ground beef), and herbs; and salade niçoise is a tomato salad with baked eggs, tuna or anchovies, olives and often lettuce. Green peppers, vinaigrette, and other raw green vegetables may be included. Potatoes and green beans are not traditional components.
Local meat comes from neighbouring valleys, such as the sheep of Sisteron. Local fish, such as mullets, bream, sea urchins, anchovies and poutine/gianchetti are used to a great extent, so much so that it has given birth to a proverb: "fish are born in the sea and die in oil".
(Wikipedia)
Nizza (französisch Nice [nis], nissart Niça/Nissa) ist eine französische Großstadt mit 353.701 Einwohnern an der Mittelmeerküste (Côte d’Azur) im Département Alpes-Maritimes in der Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Seit Juli 2021 ist Nizza als „Winterurlaubsstadt an der Riviera“ Teil des UNESCO-Weltkulturerbes.
Nizza ist bevölkerungsmäßig die fünftgrößte Stadt Frankreichs und nach Marseille die zweitgrößte Stadt der provenzalischen Region Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur. Nizza ist Sitz der Präfektur des Départements Alpes-Maritimes. Sie liegt zwischen Cannes und dem Fürstentum Monaco, etwa 23 Kilometer (Luftlinie) von der Grenze zu Italien entfernt. Zusammen mit 48 weiteren Gemeinden bildet Nizza den Gemeindeverband Métropole Nice Côte d’Azur. Die Bevölkerungszahl im Ballungsraum beträgt über 944.000, die Aire urbaine hat 1,1 Millionen Einwohner.
Geographie
Nizza liegt im Südosten Frankreichs und in der direkten Verlängerung des Mercantour-Massivs (Seealpen), im Westen vom Var-Tal und im Osten vom Mont Boron begrenzt. Die Entfernung zum Fürstentum Monaco beträgt etwa zehn Kilometer, die Entfernung zur italienischen Grenze 30 Kilometer.
Sprache und Bevölkerung
Die Einwohner Nizzas werden im Französischen Niçois bezeichnet, im Deutschen als Nizzaer. Im nizzardischen Land wird noch teilweise ein okzitanischer bzw. provenzalischer Dialekt gesprochen, das sogenannte Nissart oder Niçard, standardsprachlich Niçois, das zuletzt wohl auf eine Vermischung des einheimischen ligurischen Dialekts mit dem Latein der römischen Eroberer zurückging.
Klima und Lokalgeographie
Durch die geschützte Lage ist Nizza auch im Winter einer der wärmsten Orte an der französischen Côte d’Azur. Die angenehmsten Reisemonate sind der Mai und Mitte September bis Mitte Oktober. Im Allgemeinen liegen die Temperaturen in Nizza einige Grad über den Temperaturen in Deutschland. Die Monate Juni bis August können sehr heiß werden. Die Winter sind mild, es gibt in Nizza kaum Frost. Deshalb war diese Stadt im 19. Jahrhundert ein beliebtes Winterquartier für Briten und Russen, darunter auch die Zarenfamilie. Noch heute zeugen die großen Hotels und Gärten sowie die orthodoxe Kirche von diesem Umstand. Nizza hat keinen Sand-, sondern einen Steinstrand. Das milde Mittelmeerklima begünstigt den Weinbau, das Weinbaugebiet um Nizza trägt den Namen Bellet.
Geschichte
Die Gegend des heutigen Nizza war bereits vor 400.000 Jahren vom Homo erectus besiedelt. 1965 stieß man bei Ausschachtungsarbeiten auf zahlreiche Artefakte, die heute im Museum Terra Amata ausgestellt sind. Vor 190.000 bis 130.000 Jahren lebten hier Neandertaler, deren Überreste in der Grotte du Lazaret ausgegraben wurden.
Wahrscheinlich um 350 v. Chr. besiegten die Phokäer aus der Gegend um Marseille die Ligurer und gründeten Νίκαια Níkaia („die Siegreiche“, nach der Siegesgöttin Nike). Im Jahre 154 v. Chr. setzten sich die Römer in der Gegend fest, nachdem die griechischen Siedlungen Nikaia und Antipolis, das heutige Antibes, von Ligurern aus der Gegend von Biot und Cannes angegriffen worden waren. Zur Sicherung der Region wurde daraufhin von den Römern neben Nikaia eine zweite Siedlung, Cemenelum, auf den Bergen des heutigen Cimiez errichtet. Die erhaltenen Ruinen deuten für Cemenelum (der heutige Stadtteil Cimiez) eine Bevölkerungszahl von 15.000 bis 20.000 Einwohnern an. Der Ort war damit ein regionaler Verwaltungsmittelpunkt und erlebte insbesondere durch den Bau der Via Julia Augusta (7 v. Chr.) einen Aufschwung, sodass etwa zu dieser Zeit der Stützpunkt zur Stadt anwuchs.
Im fünften Jahrhundert wurde Cemenelum zugunsten von Nikaia aufgegeben. Die Provence fiel 508 an die Ostgoten, 536 an das Frankenreich. 813, 859 und 880 wurde Nizza von sarazenischen Angreifern geplündert, die vom Meer her kamen. Auch in der Folgezeit (z. B. im Jahr 943) war die Stadt den Angriffen der Muslime ausgeliefert. Diese hatten sich von 888 bis um 975 im nahen Fraxinetum festgesetzt, ehe Graf Wilhelm von der Provence sie vertreiben konnte.
1144 wird ein Stadtrat („Consulat“) erwähnt, 1176 eine erste Stadtverfassung. Nizza blieb allerdings weiter der Grafschaft Provence unterstellt, sodass die Stadt im zwölften Jahrhundert aragonesisch war und ab 1246 zum Haus Anjou gehörte. Im 13. Jahrhundert machte sich zunehmend die Konkurrenz zu Genua bemerkbar, das um 1215 kurzzeitig die Oberhoheit über die Stadt erlangte. Als Reaktion ließ der Graf der Provence um 1250 in Nizza eine Flotte stationieren. 1295 erfolgte die Gründung der Stadt Villefranche (so viel wie Freie Stadt) nahe bei Nizza mit einem Stützpunkt zur Bekämpfung der Piraterie. 1385 kam es nach dem Tod der Landesherrin Johanna I. zu Erbfolgewirren, als Karl von Anjou und dessen Vetter Karl von Durazzo die Grafschaft Provence für sich beanspruchten. In dieser Situation wandte sich Nizza auf Anstiften des Herrn Jean Grimaldi gegen die Anjous, woraufhin im Jahre 1388 Graf Amadeus VII. von Savoyen den östlichen Teil der Provence als Terre Neuve de Provence seiner Grafschaft einverleibte und somit einen Zugang zum Meer erlangte. Später wurde dieser Teil Savoyens seinerseits zur Grafschaft Nizza (Comté de Nice) erhoben. Aufgrund ihrer strategischen Lage wurde die Stadt stark befestigt und war in der Folge immer wieder umkämpft.
1524 durchquerte Franz I. von Valois-Angoulême die Grafschaft Nizza, um die französischen Ansprüche in der Lombardei gegen die Habsburger zu erkämpfen. Er geriet in der Schlacht von Pavia jedoch in die Gefangenschaft Karls V., der ihn 1525 von Villefranche mit dem Schiff nach Spanien bringen ließ. 1536 zog sich der Herzog von Savoyen vor dem König von Frankreich in die Grafschaft Nizza zurück. Zwei Jahre später wurde in Nizza unter Vermittlung von Papst Paul III. ein Waffenstillstand zwischen Franz I. und Karl V. ausgehandelt. 1543 erfolgte die Belagerung und Plünderung von Nizza durch die französischen Truppen und die Flotte von Khair ad-Din Barbarossa; die Zitadelle konnte gehalten werden. Der lokalen Überlieferung nach war es eine Wäscherin, Catherine Ségourane, die als eine „Jeanne d’Arc von Nizza“ den Abzug osmanischer Truppen erzwungen haben soll.
Im Jahre 1600 ließ Heinrich IV. die Stadt belagern. Anlässlich des Friedens von Lyon von 1601 verblieb Nizza beim Herzogtum Savoyen, das hier 1614 einen der drei Gerichtshöfe des Landes errichtete. 1631 wurde Nizza von einer Pestepidemie heimgesucht. 1642 wurden die Spanier aus Nizza vertrieben. 1691 nahm Ludwig XIV. Nizza und die Region ein, zugleich übernahm er den Titel eines Grafen von Nizza. 1693 besichtigte der Militärarchitekt Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban die Region um Nizza zur Organisation der Instandsetzung der Festungsanlagen. Zwei Jahre später erlangte der Herzog von Savoyen die Grafschaft Nizza durch die Heirat seiner Tochter mit einem Enkel Ludwigs XIV. zurück. Im Spanischen Erbfolgekrieg kam es erneut zu Kämpfen in der Region, da sich Savoyen auf die Seite der Habsburger gegen Frankreich stellte. Ein französischer Angriff unter General Catinat führte allerdings zur weitgehenden Zerstörung der Festung.
1744, im Rahmen des Österreichischen Erbfolgekriegs, eroberten französisch-spanische Truppen die Grafschaft, die allerdings im Aachener Frieden von 1748 erneut Savoyen zugesprochen wurde. 1749 wurde das Bassin Lympia, der heutige Hafen, angelegt. Nach einer Volksabstimmung wurde 1793 die Grafschaft an Frankreich angegliedert und zum 85. Département mit dem Namen Alpes-Maritimes erhoben.
Von hier aus begann Napoleon Bonaparte 1796 seinen Italienfeldzug, der zur Besetzung des Piemont führte. 1800 wurde die Region kurzfristig durch österreichische Truppen besetzt, jedoch nach dem Sieg Napoleons in der Schlacht bei Marengo wieder der französischen Herrschaft unterstellt. 1804 erkannte Nizza das Empire mit 3.488 zu 2 Stimmen an. Im Jahre 1814 fiel im Ersten Pariser Frieden die Grafschaft Nizza an Piemont zurück, das mittlerweile Teil des Königreichs Sardinien geworden war. Die Grenzen von 1760 wurden damit wiederhergestellt. 1859 unterstützte Frankreich die gegen die Habsburger errungene nationale Einigung Italiens unter der Herrschaft des Königs von Sardinien-Piemont, der Napoleon III. dafür im Vertrag von Turin die endgültige Angliederung Savoyens und Nizzas an Frankreich zugestehen musste. Das wurde von der Bevölkerung Nizzas in einem Plebiszit 1860 gebilligt, 6810 der 7912 Wahlberechtigten unterstützten das Vorhaben. Die Eisenbahn (PLM – Chemins de fer de Paris à Lyon et à la Méditerranée) erreichte 1864[4] die Stadt. Da der Bahnhof weit außerhalb der Stadt auf freiem Feld gebaut wurde, verlagerte sich die Bautätigkeit auf das Gebiet jenseits des Flusses Paillon. Die Altstadt blieb dadurch gut erhalten. 1882 erbaute der französische Architekt Charles Garnier das Observatorium von Nizza.
Mittlerweile war die Stadt als Sommerfrische der Briten so sehr etabliert, dass Alexandre Dumas 1851 erklärte, Nizza sei im Grunde eine englische Stadt, in der man hin und wieder auch einen Einheimischen treffen könne. Zunehmend logierte hier auch der europäische Hochadel, so der russische Zar und Victoria von Großbritannien. Verbrachten um 1890 hier etwa 22.000 Gäste den Winter, so waren es um 1910 bereits 150.000, bei 140.000[4] Einwohnern um 1911.
Der Aufschwung des Tourismus wurde von einer Industrialisierung begleitet, die im 20. Jahrhundert zunehmend italienische Gastarbeiter anzog, die sich überwiegend in den Vierteln Riquier und Madeleine niederließen. Weiße Russen und andere Russlandflüchtlinge nach den Russischen Revolutionen gründeten in Nizza das Comité d’assistance aux réfugiés de Russie, die Arbeitsvermittlung Société de secours par le travail pour les émigrés russes de la Côte d’Azur und das Altersheim Villa Konak des russischen roten Kreuzes. In Nizza erschien die italienischsprachige faschistische Zeitung Il Pensiero latino.
Im Zweiten Weltkrieg blieb die Stadt, die zunächst italienisch und später deutsch besetzt war, weitgehend unbeschädigt; in den Bergen oberhalb der Stadt befanden sich Widerstandszentren der Résistance. Bei einem amerikanischen Luftangriff am 27. Mai 1944 starben 316 Menschen. Am 30. August 1944 wurde Nizza befreit, nachdem am 15. August bei Cannes die alliierte Flotte in der Operation Dragoon gelandet war. Am 13. Mai 1945 gewann die sozialistische SFIO den zweiten Wahlgang für die Stadtregierung.
Während in der Nachkriegszeit der Anteil der Briten in der Stadt nach und nach zurückging, stieg der von italienischen Immigranten, finanziell gutgestellten Rentnern aus anderen Teilen Frankreichs und „repatriierten“ Algerienfranzosen (Pied-noir) und Harki-Familien aus den früheren französischen Kolonien besonders nach dem Ende des Algerienkriegs an. 1974 initiierte der über enge Kontakte zur extremen Rechten verfügende Bürgermeister Jacques Médecin eine Städtepartnerschaft mit Kapstadt im damals wegen der Apartheid international geächteten Südafrika. Im Jahr 1979 wurde Nizza von zwei Tsunamis heimgesucht.
Im Jahr 2000 wurde in der Stadt der Vertrag von Nizza verabschiedet. Nizza hat eine im nationalen Vergleich überdurchschnittlich hohe Arbeitslosigkeit und Armut mit überdurchschnittlich vielen Sozialwohnungen (Habitation à loyer modéré, HLM) und zählt überdurchschnittlich viele Wähler der extremen Rechten (FN, Les Identitaires/Nissa Rebela). Aus Sicherheitsgründen wurden rund 1700 Überwachungskameras installiert. Die Stadt, die als ein Zentrum der Kleinkriminalität gilt, beschäftigte 2017 rund 400 Polizisten. Besonders schwierig für die Bewohner ist die Lage im Randquartier L’Ariane, im äußersten Nordosten der Stadt, einst eine Mülldeponie, das vom Innenministerium als Zone de sécurité prioritaire (ZSP) eingestuft wurde. Der Stadtteil hat eine zu 80 Prozent muslimische Bevölkerung.
Während der Feierlichkeiten zum Nationalfeiertag am Abend des 14. Juli 2016 fuhr ein Lastkraftwagen rund zwei Kilometer lang durch eine Menschenmenge auf der Promenade des Anglais. Bei dem Anschlag in Nizza wurden 86 Menschen getötet und mehr als 200 Personen zum Teil schwer verletzt. Der Fahrer, ein 31-jähriger Einwohner Nizzas mit tunesischer Staatsbürgerschaft, wurde bei einem Schusswechsel von der Polizei getötet.
Die Stadt arbeitet mit zahlreichen kulturellen und sozialen Projekten an der Verbesserung des sozialen Zusammenhalts und der Lebensqualität.
Kultur und Sehenswürdigkeiten
Architektur
Infolge ihrer wechselhaften Vergangenheit entstand in der Stadt Nizza ein reiches architektonisches Erbe. Durch die Konzentration der Bautätigkeit auf die Stadterweiterung im Zweiten Kaiserreich blieb der Altstadtkern im Wesentlichen intakt. Auch viele Villen, Paläste und Barockkirchen wurden schon zur Zeit der Savoyer errichtet und blieben erhalten. Eine Besonderheit stellt die in mehreren historischen Etappen ab 1868 durchgeführte Einwölbung des Flusses Paillon dar. Sie ermöglichte es, im heutigen Zentralbereich der Stadt bedeutende Grünflächen zu schaffen und ein Teil der so gewonnenen Flächen diente auch als Bauplatz großer öffentlicher Gebäude. Die Belle Époque vor 1914 hinterließ in Nizza ebenfalls deutliche Spuren.
Bauwerke
In der gut erhaltenen Altstadt finden sich zahlreiche Barockbauten. Zu den Kirchen zählen die Kathedrale Sainte-Réparate aus dem 17. Jahrhundert, deren Fassade allerdings aus dem Jahr 1825 stammt, die Verkündigungskirche (Sainte-Rita), die Église du Gésu, die Kirche Saint-Martin-Saint-Augustin, die Grabtuchkirche St-Suaire oder die Église la Miséricorde.
Des Weiteren heben sich Profanbauten wie die Präfektur, einst Sitz der Herzoge von Savoyen oder das Palais communal als ehemaliges Rathaus hervor. Dieses wurde 1580 erbaut und im 17. Jahrhundert von Marc’Antonio Grigho um ein monumentales Portal erweitert. Oberhalb der Altstadt liegt der Schlosshügel (Colline du Château) mit Ruinen der 1706 geschleiften Zitadelle.
Die Place Garibaldi und die Place Masséna, beide einheitlich gestaltete Platzanlagen nach Turiner Vorbildern, bilden den Übergang zur Neustadt. Sie ist charakterisiert durch zahlreiche Luxushotels, Appartementhäuser und Villen aus der Belle Époque. Das berühmteste Hotel ist das Negresco. An der Südseite der Neustadt befindet sich die Promenade des Anglais, eine zwischen 1822 und 1824 angelegte Prachtstraße.
Das Anwachsen der russischen Gemeinschaft seit der zweiten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts zog den Bau orthodoxer Kirchen nach sich. Die erste russische Kirche Saint-Nicolas-et-Sainte-Alexandra wurde ab 1858 vom Architekten Antoine-François Barraya erbaut und war damit die erste in Westeuropa. In den 1860er Jahren folgten eine Gedenkkapelle (1867–1868) für den Zarewitsch Nikolai Alexandrowitsch Romanow, der hier 1865 verstarb, und der Russische Friedhof, der älteste und zweitgrößte russische Friedhof Frankreichs, mit der Kapelle Saint-Nicolas (1867–1868). Im Jahr 1912 schuf schließlich der Architekt Preobrajensky im Auftrag des Zaren Nikolaus II. die russisch-orthodoxe Kathedrale Saint-Nicolas, die größte außerhalb Russlands.
Am Berg Cimiez sind die Ausgrabungen der römischen Stadt zu besichtigen. Dort befindet sich außerdem ein Franziskanerkloster mit Gemälden von Jacques Bréa und der Friedhof, auf dem Henri Matisse begraben ist. Die Deutsche Kirche Nizza besteht seit italienischer Zeit.
Veranstaltungen
Jährlich im Februar findet anlässlich des Karnevals auf Nizzas Renommierstraße der Promenade des Anglais der auch im übrigen Europa bekannt gewordene Blumenkorso mit festlich geschmückten Motivwagen und unzähligen Blütenarrangements statt.
Wirtschaft
Die Wirtschaft wird durch den Tourismus und die Spitzentechnologie dominiert. Das Technologiezentrum Sophia Antipolis befindet sich etwa 20 Kilometer westlich der Stadt.
Nizza war bis zum Beginn der COVID-19-Pandemie und des russischen Überfalls auf die Ukraine ein beliebtes Reiseziel vieler Russen einschließlich russischer Oligarchen.
Wissenswertes
Seit 1860 wird jeden Tag um Punkt 12 Uhr eine Kanone vom Château östlich der Altstadt in voller Lautstärke abgefeuert. Diese Tradition geht auf Sir Thomas Coventry zurück, der mit Unterstützung des Bürgermeisters hierdurch ein pünktliches Mittagessen der Bewohner fördern wollte.
Der deutsche Nutzfahrzeughersteller Magirus-Deutz benannte anno 1960 einen Luxus-Omnibus nach der Stadt Nizza. Das Modell „Nizza“ bekam seinen Namen, nachdem es auf der Internationalen Omnibuswoche, die in Nizza stattfand, den ersten Preis im Karosseriewettbewerb und bei den technischen Prüfungen gewonnen hatte.
(Wikipedia)
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Junagarh Fort (Rajasthani: जुनाग्द क़िला) is a fort in the city of Bikaner, Rajasthan, India. The fort was originally called Chintamani and was renamed Junagarh or "Old Fort" in the early 20th century when the ruling family moved to Lalgarh Palace outside the fort limits. It is one of the few major forts in Rajasthan which is not built on a hilltop. The modern city of Bikaner has developed around the fort.
The fort complex was built under the supervision of Karan Chand, the Prime Minister of Raja Rai Singh, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611 AD. Construction of the walls and associated moat commenced in 1589 and was completed in 1594. It was built outside the original fort of the city, about 1.5 kilometres from the city centre. Some remnants of the old fort are preserved near the Lakshmi Narayan temple.
Historical records reveal that despite the repeated attacks by enemies to capture the fort, it was not taken, except for a lone one-day occupation by Kamran Mirza. Kamran was the second son of the Mughal Emperor Babur who attacked Bikaner in 1534, which was then ruled by Rao Jait Singh. In the battle, the Mughals were defeated by Rathors. Kamran then returned to Lahore.
The 5.28 hectares large fort precinct is studded with palaces, temples and pavilions. These buildings depict a composite culture, manifest in the mix of architectural styles.
GEOGRAPHY
Junagarh fort is located in the arid region of the Thar desert of Rajasthan bordered on the northwest by the Aravalli range, a range of mountains in western India. Part of the desert area is in Bikaner city, which is one of the three desert triangle cities; the other two cities are Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. The name of the place where Bikaner city with its forts was established was then known as Jungladesh.
HISTORY
Before the present Junagarh Fort was built, an old stone fort existed in the city. This fort was built in 1478 by Rao Bika who established the city of Bikaner in 1472. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur city. He conquered the large arid lands to the northern region of Rajasthan to set up his domain. As the second son of Jodha he had no chance of inheriting his father’s territory of Jodhpur or to the title of Maharaja. He, therefore, reconciled and decided to build his own kingdom at Bikaner at the place then called "Jungladesh". Bikaner, though a partly of the Thar Desert, was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast since it had adequate spring water sources. Bika’s name was thus tagged to the Bikaner city as well as to the then state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. The history of Bikaner and the fort within it thus start with Bika. It was only about 100 years later that Bikaner’s fortunes flourished under Raja Rai Singhji, the sixth ruler of Bikaner, who ruled from 1571 to 1611. During the Mughal Empire’s rule in the country, he accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals and held a high position of an army general in the court of Emperor Akbar and his son Emperor Jahangir. His successful war exploits by way of winning half of Mewar kingdom won him accolades and rewards from the Mughal emperors. He was gifted the jagirs (lands) of Gujarat and Burhanpur. With the large revenue earned from these jagirs, he built the Junagarh fort on a plain land, which has an average elevation of 230 m. The formal foundation ceremony for the fort was held on 17 February 1589 and the fort was completed on 17 January 1594. Raja Rai Singhji, was an expert in arts and architecture and the knowledge that he acquired during his several sojourns to several countries are amply reflected in the numerous monuments he built in the Junagarh fort. Thus the fort, a composite structure, became an outstanding example of architecture and a unique centre of art, amidst the Thar desert.
Karan Singh who ruled from 1631 to 1639, under the suzerainty of the Mughals, built the Karan Mahal palace. Later rulers added more floors and decorations to this Mahal. Anup Singh, who ruled from 1669–98, made substantial additions to the fort complex, with new palaces and the Zenana quarter (royal dwelling for females). He refurbished the Karan Mahal with a Diwan-i-Am (public audience hall) and called it the Anup Mahal. Gaj Singh who ruled from 1746 to 1787 refurbished the Chandra Mahal (the Moon palace). Following him, Surat Singh ruled from 1787 to 1828 and he lavishly decorated the audience hall (see picture in info box) with glass and lively paintwork. Dungar Singh who reigned from 1872 to 1887 built the Badal Mahal (the weather palace) named so in view of a painting of falling rain and clouds (a rare event in arid Bikaner). Ganga Singh who ruled from 1887 to 1943 built the Ganga Niwas Palace, which has towers at the entrance patio. This palace was designed by Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob.[10] Ganga Singh’s son Sadul Singh succeeded his father in 1943 but acceded to the Union of India in 1949. He died in 1950.
Bikaner came under the suzerainty of the British Raj under a treaty of paramountcy signed in 1818, where after the Maharajas of Bikaner invested heavily on refurbishing their Junagarh fort. However, during the 18th century, before this treaty was signed, there was internecine war between rulers of Bikaner and Jodhpur and also amongst other Thakur, which was put down by the British troops. It is reported that during the attack by Jodhpur army, of the two entrances to the fort (one in the east and the other in the west), the eastern entrance and the southern rampart were damaged; marks of cannonballs fired are seen on the southern façade of the fort.
Ganga Singh was the best-known king among the Rajasthan princes. A favourite of the British Raj, he earned the title of Knight Commander of the Star of India. He served as a member of the Imperial War Cabinet, represented the country at the Imperial First World War Conferences and the British Empire at the Versailles Peace Conference and was aware of the shift of fortunes in the World War II but died in 1943, before the war was won by the allies. His contribution to the building activity in Junagarh involved separate halls for public and private audience in the Ganga Mahal and a durbar hall for formal functions. The hall where he held his Golden Jubilee as a ruler of Bikaner is now a museum. He also got a new palace - north of Junagarh fort - designed and built by Swinton, the third of the new palaces built in Bikaner and named it Lalgarh Palace in the name of his father and shifted his residence from Junagarh fort to this palace in 1902. The royal family still lives in a special suite in the Lalbagh palace, which they have converted into a heritage hotel.
STRUCTURES
The structures built within the Junagarh fort are the palaces and temples, which are made of red sandstone (Dulmera) and marble. The palaces are described as picturesque with their assortment of courtyards, balconies, kiosks and windows. The fort, the temples and the palaces are preserved as museums and provide insight into the grandiose living style of the past Maharanas of Rajasthan. The fort is called “a paradox between medieval military architecture and beautiful interior decoration”.
OVERVIEW
The massive fort built in the plains of Bikaner has a rectangular (quadrangular) layout with a peripheral length of 986 m. The fort walls are 4.4 m wide and 12 m in height. It encompasses an area of 5.28 ha. It was surrounded by a moat which was 6.1–7.6 m deep with a base width of 4.6 m and top width of 9.1 m. However, the moat no longer exists. The fort is well fortified with 37 bastions (‘burj’ in local language) and seven gates (two are main gates) to counter enemy attacks. The fort was built as a “new stronghold” outside of the ruins of an old fort built by Rao Bika and on the periphery of the Bikaner city walls (1.5 kilometres from the city centre); the old fort was demolished a century after it was built.
The fort with seven gates contains several palaces, pavilions and many temples of Hindu and Jain religions - the earliest dated to the 16th century. A major feature of the fort is the stone carving done in red and gold coloured sandstones. The interiors of the palaces are decorated and painted in traditional Rajasthani style. The Junagarh palaces have a large number of rooms, as every king built his own separate set of rooms, not wanting to live in his predecessors’ rooms. These structures were considered as “at par with those of Louis’s France or of Imperial Russia”. Several types of architectural style are discerned in the fort complex and hence it is called a true depiction of composite culture. The earliest style is of Rajput architecture, defined by Gujarati and Mughal architectural influence reflecting the association with Mughal rulers, the second type is of semi-western architecture reflecting British influence, and finally the revivalists Rajput architecture that evolved particularly during the rule of Maharaja Ganga Singh. Only the most representative of all these architectural styles are on display for visitors. Thus, the unique monuments on display in the Junagarh Fort represent sixteen successive generations of the rulers of Bikaner, starting from the end of the 16th century.
GATES
While the main entry gate was Karan Pol or Parole, facing east, the current gate of entry is called Suraj Pol (meaning the Sun gate), 'pol' also colloquially spelt prol, built in gold coloured or yellow sandstone, unlike the other gates and buildings built in red sandstone. It is the east facing gate permitting the rising Sun’s rays to fall on the gate, which is considered a good omen. The doors of this gate are strengthened with iron spikes and studs to prevent ramming by elephants during an attack. At the entrance to the gate, two red stone statues of elephants with mahouts stand as sentinels. The gate was also the location for announcing the arrival and departure of royalty by musicians playing the trumpet from a gallery in the gate. The other gates are Karan Pol, Daulat Pol, Chand Pol (a double gate) and Fateh Pol; these provided access to various monuments in the fort. The Karan Pol gate is also braced with iron spikes to prevent battering of the gate by elephants. To the right of this gate is Daulat Pol. Forty-one hand imprints are seen on the Daulat Pol gate wall, in red colour, of the wives of the Maharajas of Bikaner, who committed sati (self immolation) on the funeral pyres of their husbands who died in battle.
Between the main gate and the palace, there is a quadrangle, and then another gate called the Tripolia gate (triple gateway) before accessing the royal chambers. Next to this gate is a small temple called the Har Mandir, where the Royal family used to offer worship. In the quadrangle, which houses a large pavilion with a water pool built in Carrara Italian marble. The Karan Mahal, where public audience was held in the Diwan-i-Am by Karan Singh (1631–39) and his successors till the 20th century, can also be seen in the same quadrangle.
TEMPLES
Har Mandir temple was the royal chapel - private temple of the royal family. The royal family celebrated the Hindu festival of Dussera and Gangaur here, apart from celebrating other family functions such as birthdays and marriages. In the Dussera celebrations, weapons and horses were worshipped here. The main deities worshipped in this temple are the Hindu deities Lakshmi Narayan, a combined representation of god Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi.
The Ratan Behari temple located near the Junagarh Fort, was built in 1846 by the 18th ruler of Bikaner. It was built in Indo-Mughal architectural style using white marble. The Hindu god Krishna is deified in this temple.
PALACES
Karan mahal (Public Audience Hall) was built by Karan Singh in c.1680 to mark his victory over the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. It is considered as one of the most exquisite palaces built with gardens, which displays the aesthetic sensibilities of the royalty of Rajasthan. It has stained glass windows and intricately carved balconies built in stone and wood fluted columns. Later Rajas, Anup Singh and Surat Singh, also added lot of glitter to this palace with inlaid polychrome glass, intricate mirror patterns, and red and gold paint. In the coronation chamber, there is a shored up alcove, which was used as a throne.
Phool Mahal ("Flower Palace") is the oldest part of the palace and was built by king Raja Rai Singh of Bikaner, who ruled between 1571-1668.
Anup Mahal is a multi-storey structure, which functioned as the administrative headquarters of the kingdom. It has ornate wooden ceilings with inlaid mirrors, Italian tiles, and fine lattice windows and balconies. It has some gold leaf paintings. It is considered as one of the “grandest construction”.
Chandra Mahal has the most luxurious room in the palace, which houses gold plated deities and paintings inlaid with precious stones. In the royal bedroom, mirrors have been strategically placed so that the Maharaja could see from his bed, any intruder entering his room.
Ganga Mahal was built in the 20th century by Ganga Singh who reigned for 56 years from 1887 to 1943, has a large durbar hall known as the Ganga Singh Hall that houses the Museum. The museum has exhibits of war weaponry and also a World War I aeroplane (biplane), which is stated to be well maintained.
Badal Mahal (The weather palace) is part of the Anup Mahal extensions. It has paintings of Shekhawati Dundlod chiefs paying respects to the Maharaja of Bikaner in different types of turbans. Photos of people standing on nails, wood, swords and saws are also depicted here – a display of faith and endurance. The walls in this palace depict fresco paintings of the Hindu god Krishna and his consort Radha amidst the rain clouds.
Bikaneri Havelies located both within and outside the fort in the Bikaner city’s by lanes are also of unique architectural style in home architecture. Aldous Huxley who visited these havelis reportedly said “They are the pride of Bikaner.”
FORT MUSEUM
The museum within the fort called the Junagarh Fort Museum was established in 1961 by Maharaja Dr.Karni Singhji under the control of "Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust". The Museum exhibits Sanskrit and Persian manuscripts, miniature paintings, jewels, royal costumes, farmans (royal orders), portrait galleries, costumes, headgear and dresses of gods’ idols, enamelware, silver, palanquins, howdahs and war drums. The museum also displays armoury that consists of one of the assorted collection of post medieval arms.
MAHARAJA RAI SINGHJI TRUST
Maharaja Rai Singhji Trust has been set up by the 'Royal family of Bikaner' with the basic objective to showcase the fort with professional inputs in various areas and to improve the experience for visitors. Another objective is to promote education and research scholarships, cultural activities, setting up of libraries and integration with other such trusts.
WIKIPEDIA
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