A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya; disciple, student) or शिक्ष (śikṣa; instruction). A Sikh is a disciple of a guru. According to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), a Sikh is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru". "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhs often share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the U.K., recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".

 

Male Sikhs usually have "Singh" (Lion), and female Sikhs have "Kaur" (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the khanḍe-kī-pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: uncut hair (kesh); an iron or steel bracelet (kara); a kirpan (a sword tucked into a gatra strap); kachehra, a cotton undergarment, and kanga, a small wooden comb. Baptized male Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban, which is optional for baptized female Sikhs. The greater Punjab region is the historic homeland of the Sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.

 

HISTORY

Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer in the 15th-century Punjab. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Singh baptized five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. Sikhism has generally had amicable relations with other religions, except for the period of Mughal rule in India (1556–1707). Several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under Ranjit Singh was characterized by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The confederacy is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab.

 

The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi-speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.

 

Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

 

According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government", and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage". Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Khushwant Singh described the riots as a Sikh pogrom; he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany". Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right-wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus" disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.

 

In 1996, United Nations Commission on Human Rights Freedom of Religion or Belief Special Rapporteur Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004) visited India to report on religious discrimination. The following year Amor concluded, "In India it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment (sic) sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the military, and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi".

 

Although Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks of the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, they make up 1.87 percent of the Indian population.

 

During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.

 

DEFINITION

According to Guru Granth Sahib:

One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, the Sikh is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, the Sikh is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, the Sikh is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, the Sikh is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food – that Gursikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that Gursikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that Gursikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.

 

Simran of the Lord's name is a recurring theme of Guru Granth Sahib, and Sukhmani Sahib were composed to allow a devotee to recite Nam throughout the day. Rising at Amrit Velā (before sunrise) is a common Sikh practice. Sikhism considers the spiritual and secular lives to be intertwined: "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite and partakes of its characteristics." According to Guru Nanak, living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is superior to a purely contemplative life.

 

FIVE Ks

The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on God and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:

- Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a Dastar

- Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a Dastar

- Katchera: Cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti. Worn by both sexes, the katchera is a symbol of chastity.

- Kara: An iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity

- Kirpan: An iron dagger in different sizes. In the UK Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the Punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.

 

MUSIC & INSTRUMENTS

The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged in Guru Har Gobind. The rubab was first played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were designed by Guru Arjan. The taus was made by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was made by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabda in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as ragas. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.

 

When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.

 

DISTRIBUTION

Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two-thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs (more than 200,000) live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana (more than 1.1 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.

 

Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India and Pakistan after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia and Thailand.

 

Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom[ing] virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.

 

Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.

 

REPRESENTATION

Sikhs have been represented in Indian politics by former Indian prime minister Manmohan Singh and the deputy chairman of the Indian Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Punjab Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal is also a Sikh. Past Sikh politicians in India include former president Giani Zail Singh, Sardar Swaran Singh (India's first foreign minister), Speaker of Parliament Gurdial Singh Dhillon and former Chief Minister of Punjab Pratap Singh Kairon.

 

Politicians from the Sikh diaspora include the first Asian American member of the United States Congress, Dalip Singh Saund, British MPs Piara Khabra, Parmjit Dhanda and Paul Uppal, the first couple to sit together in a Commonwealth parliament (Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, who requested a Canadian government apology for the Komagata Maru incident), former Canadian Shadow Social Development Minister Ruby Dhalla, Canadian Minister of State for Sport Baljit Singh Gosal and Legislative Assembly of Ontario members Vic Dhillon and Jagmeet Singh. Ujjal Dosanjh was the New Democratic Party Premier of British Columbia from July 2004 to February 2005, and was later a Liberal frontbench MP in Ottawa. In Malaysia, two Sikhs were elected MPs in the 2008 general elections: Karpal Singh (Bukit Gelugor) and his son, Gobind Singh Deo (Puchong). Two Sikhs were elected assemblymen: Jagdeep Singh Deo (Datuk Keramat) and Keshvinder Singh (Malim Nawar).

 

Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, while making up 1.87 percent of the Indian population. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.

 

Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India"). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj-developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial". However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science [i.e. the green revolution] on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.

 

Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.

 

In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America, especially in California’s fertile Central Valley. American Sikh farmers such as Harbhajan Singh Samra and Didar Singh Bains dominate California agriculture, with Samra specialising in okra and Bains in peaches.

 

Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Bollywood actress Neetu Singh, Sunny Leone, actors Parminder Nagra, Neha Dhupia, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral, Archie Panjabi and director Gurinder Chadha.

 

Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sarera, Sikligar, Sunar, Sudh, Tarkhan and Zargar.

 

An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.

 

IN THE INDIAN & BRITISH ARMIES

Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.

 

During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.

 

In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. They all died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world, and during shell fire, with no other protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.

—General Sir Frank Messervy

 

British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice [in two world wars] and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.

—Sir Winston Churchill

 

IN THE WEST

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.

 

Since Sikhs (like Middle Eastern men) wear turbans, some in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim or Arabic men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al-Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.

 

Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The Kundalini Yoga-based activities of Harbhajan Singh Yogi in his 3HO (Happy, Healthy, Holy) organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ‘gora’ (ਗੋਰਾ) or ‘white’ Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.

 

In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations have begun. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada.

 

ART & CULTURE

Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India’s melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures (Greek, Mughal and Persian) from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".

 

During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.

 

The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.

 

Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts - except for the relics of the Gurus - have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.

 

Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins") is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.

Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").

 

PAINTING

Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.

 

The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.

 

WIKIPEDIA

A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya; disciple, student) or शिक्ष (śikṣa; instruction). A Sikh is a disciple of a guru. According to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), a Sikh is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru". "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhs often share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the U.K., recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".

 

Male Sikhs usually have "Singh" (Lion), and female Sikhs have "Kaur" (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the khanḍe-kī-pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: uncut hair (kesh); an iron or steel bracelet (kara); a kirpan (a sword tucked into a gatra strap); kachehra, a cotton undergarment, and kanga, a small wooden comb. Baptized male Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban, which is optional for baptized female Sikhs. The greater Punjab region is the historic homeland of the Sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.

 

HISTORY

Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer in the 15th-century Punjab. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Singh baptized five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. Sikhism has generally had amicable relations with other religions, except for the period of Mughal rule in India (1556–1707). Several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under Ranjit Singh was characterized by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The confederacy is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab.

 

The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi-speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.

 

Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

 

According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government", and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage". Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Khushwant Singh described the riots as a Sikh pogrom; he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany". Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right-wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus" disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.

 

In 1996, United Nations Commission on Human Rights Freedom of Religion or Belief Special Rapporteur Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004) visited India to report on religious discrimination. The following year Amor concluded, "In India it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment (sic) sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the military, and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi".

 

Although Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks of the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, they make up 1.87 percent of the Indian population.

 

During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.

 

DEFINITION

According to Guru Granth Sahib:

One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, the Sikh is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, the Sikh is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, the Sikh is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, the Sikh is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food – that Gursikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that Gursikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that Gursikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.

 

Simran of the Lord's name is a recurring theme of Guru Granth Sahib, and Sukhmani Sahib were composed to allow a devotee to recite Nam throughout the day. Rising at Amrit Velā (before sunrise) is a common Sikh practice. Sikhism considers the spiritual and secular lives to be intertwined: "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite and partakes of its characteristics." According to Guru Nanak, living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is superior to a purely contemplative life.

 

FIVE Ks

The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on God and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:

- Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a Dastar

- Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a Dastar

- Katchera: Cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti. Worn by both sexes, the katchera is a symbol of chastity.

- Kara: An iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity

- Kirpan: An iron dagger in different sizes. In the UK Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the Punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.

 

MUSIC & INSTRUMENTS

The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged in Guru Har Gobind. The rubab was first played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were designed by Guru Arjan. The taus was made by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was made by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabda in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as ragas. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.

 

When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.

 

DISTRIBUTION

Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two-thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs (more than 200,000) live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana (more than 1.1 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.

 

Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India and Pakistan after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia and Thailand.

 

Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom[ing] virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.

 

Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.

 

REPRESENTATION

Sikhs have been represented in Indian politics by former Indian prime minister Manmohan Singh and the deputy chairman of the Indian Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Punjab Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal is also a Sikh. Past Sikh politicians in India include former president Giani Zail Singh, Sardar Swaran Singh (India's first foreign minister), Speaker of Parliament Gurdial Singh Dhillon and former Chief Minister of Punjab Pratap Singh Kairon.

 

Politicians from the Sikh diaspora include the first Asian American member of the United States Congress, Dalip Singh Saund, British MPs Piara Khabra, Parmjit Dhanda and Paul Uppal, the first couple to sit together in a Commonwealth parliament (Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, who requested a Canadian government apology for the Komagata Maru incident), former Canadian Shadow Social Development Minister Ruby Dhalla, Canadian Minister of State for Sport Baljit Singh Gosal and Legislative Assembly of Ontario members Vic Dhillon and Jagmeet Singh. Ujjal Dosanjh was the New Democratic Party Premier of British Columbia from July 2004 to February 2005, and was later a Liberal frontbench MP in Ottawa. In Malaysia, two Sikhs were elected MPs in the 2008 general elections: Karpal Singh (Bukit Gelugor) and his son, Gobind Singh Deo (Puchong). Two Sikhs were elected assemblymen: Jagdeep Singh Deo (Datuk Keramat) and Keshvinder Singh (Malim Nawar).

 

Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, while making up 1.87 percent of the Indian population. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.

 

Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India"). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj-developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial". However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science [i.e. the green revolution] on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.

 

Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.

 

In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America, especially in California’s fertile Central Valley. American Sikh farmers such as Harbhajan Singh Samra and Didar Singh Bains dominate California agriculture, with Samra specialising in okra and Bains in peaches.

 

Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Bollywood actress Neetu Singh, Sunny Leone, actors Parminder Nagra, Neha Dhupia, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral, Archie Panjabi and director Gurinder Chadha.

 

Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sarera, Sikligar, Sunar, Sudh, Tarkhan and Zargar.

 

An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.

 

IN THE INDIAN & BRITISH ARMIES

Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.

 

During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.

 

In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. They all died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world, and during shell fire, with no other protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.

—General Sir Frank Messervy

 

British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice [in two world wars] and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.

—Sir Winston Churchill

 

IN THE WEST

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.

 

Since Sikhs (like Middle Eastern men) wear turbans, some in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim or Arabic men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al-Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.

 

Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The Kundalini Yoga-based activities of Harbhajan Singh Yogi in his 3HO (Happy, Healthy, Holy) organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ‘gora’ (ਗੋਰਾ) or ‘white’ Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.

 

In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations have begun. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada.

 

ART & CULTURE

Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India’s melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures (Greek, Mughal and Persian) from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".

 

During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.

 

The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.

 

Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts - except for the relics of the Gurus - have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.

 

Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins") is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.

Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").

 

PAINTING

Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.

 

The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The Truth is in Here!

 

I think that the structure of my self is rather like that of "The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo" (Trailer,Trailer #2). I think I contain a fantasy of a controlled, hollow, abused Lisbeth/Nikita woman who works as the medium, or intermediary for a man with super-sight, who is trying to be a detective. The most horrible thing about the structure is that since these roles take place inside me (no wonder Lisbeth looks pissed off), it is also auto-erotic transsexualism, and then some. For this reason I think that the super duo of Lisbeth and Cal Lighthouse in the above photo, are generally accompanied by a sex criminal in many of the detective series in which detectives and their intermediaries feature. [Why is it that about 10 million Americans watch sex criminals get their come-uppance a week on one series, Law and Order: Special Victims Unit, alone?]

 

First to recap, there are many US mystery series featuring men, and more frequently recently women, who are in contact with supernatural phenomena (The Dead Zone, The Listener, , The X-Files, Seeing Things, The Medium, Tru Calling, Ghost Whisperer), of women that act as intermediaries for men whose power of perception is almost supernatural (Lie to Me, Monk, The Mentalist, Millenium, The X-Files), and there are recently an increasing number of Nikita type violent, abused, hollow women controlled by men (Nikita, Nikita, Dark Angel, Alias, Dollhouse, etc). Many of these heroes kill or put greedy, especially sexually greedy, criminals behind bars.

 

In the USA there are many more types of television series. Here in Japan, these three genres stand out as being particularly well represented. I am of the opinion that these genres are well represented because they are the most popular in the US, rather than their being particularly popular in Japan.

 

The reason why I think that these television series may have something to do with the structure of myself is because I have seen them both. The structure of myself was far more horrifying and icky that even the nasties scenes in The Girl with a Dragon Tatoo, so I will try and be theoretical first.

 

The Self in Social Psychology

 

Factoring in William James, George Herbert Mead explains how the human self is formed, from three parts: the I or consciousness, the me, the idea we have of ourselves with whom we identify, and the internalised "generalised other" from which perspective we see the "me."

 

The first and second of these elements (consciousness, and my idea of me) are fairly easy to confirm. Mead's "generalised other" (Freud's "super ego", Bakhtin's "super adressee", Lacan's "Other," Adam Smith's "Invisible hand" and "impartial observer") is much more contraversial.

 

That there is consciousness, even if I can say nothing about it, seems pretty clear. When I am awake there is not nothing. When I dream, the lights come on as it were. I may be able to say very little about this "great blooming, buzzing confusion,” but I feel that I can not deny it. Generally speaking I am more inclined to think of consciousness as the world, or evidence of the world -- the lights, sounds, hot and cold -- but at the same time perhaps, especially but not only, as a child, "consciousness"may also be said to be who "I" really am.

 

And at the same time I have notions of who I am very separate from consciousness - a bald old Englishman living in Japan, which a certain age, family, house, and face. That is "me."

 

What is the "generalised other," and where is it hiding?

 

First of all Mead argues that in order to gain an idea who "me" is then I need to take an objective view point upon myself. Mead argues that unless we are carrying a mirror, or permanently in front of an audience, our ability to gain an objective idea of ourselves depends upon our ability to express who we are in language and understand our language from the point of view of other listeners.This ability to hear ones own self-referential, self addressed language, such as "I am bald" as said to myself, and to know when one has not said the truth, allows us to form a linguistic model of who we are. Language, Mead presumes, provides us with a mirror of internalised other. Mead argues, as do Hermans and Kempen (who base their analysis on the Bakhtin's linguistics), that we are always speaking to others in our heads. People talk to their friends, their family, their workmates, and all those that they are likely to meet, in their heads all the time. And we are able to judge when these our imaginary friends would not agree with what we are saying. In the complete absence of any audience, real or imagined, I could claim that "I have loads of hair", or anything, even that "I am Elvis Presley," and it would not matter because there would be no one there to disagree with me. But since we do speak to others even if they are imaginary others, we imagine our audience's understanding of our words, their reaction, and know when we are speaking bullshit.

 

But while many of us may accept that we often imagine that we are speaking to, or thinking to other people, what of the *generalised* other. As far as I am aware Mead only explains the need for a generalised as a cognitive requirement. If we see ourselves only from the viewpoints of our friends, then we will see ourselves as rather nicer than we are from the point of view of our enemies. If we see ourselves from the point of view of our enemies, we see ourselves rather more negatively than our friends see us, and rather more negatively than we in fact are, because presumably we are that person at the intersection of these various viewpoints rather than as understood from any one subjective position.

 

So far so good. We may be able to accept that we address ourselves to a variety of imaginary friends. And that unless we understand our self speech from the point of view of a view from an objective, generalised position then we will not have an ongoing objective understanding of ourselves. However this explanation would not prevent us from "generalising" after the fact, or "off line". In other words we might model the understanding of our friends and family, our detractors and various people in the street, and perform some sort of averaging only afterward. Is it clear that we need to model a generalised other, in real time?

 

Bakhtin argues that even as we are speaking to real or imaginary friends and all manner of second person addressees, we also imagine that there is another person listening to what we have to say, since otherwise our meaning would be limited by the understanding of our real or imagined listener. Being so limited to specific others (be they real or imagined) would be, he argues, hellish. We would be trapped in web of relationships unable to be anyone but that which our others understand us to be. To escape from this hell, which is other people, we continually model a super-addressee (Bakhtin, 1986. p126) which corresponds I believe to Mead's generalized other.

 

Bakhtin's "hell" starts to sound more persuasive but all the same, phenomenologically where is the generalized other in my head? I can feel myself simulating my friends. Why can't I feel myself simulating a generalised other?

 

I think that theists may find the answer to this question very easy. Theists typically feel that they are addressing a generalised other, who sees them from an objective viewpoint, in the form of their God. Of course for a theist it is not a question of simulating a generalised listener, but rather that there is one, and as such perhaps theists are always conscious of the meaning of their words, truthfully and honestly in the understanding of an ever present "impartial spectator." This latter term was that used by the economist (of Lutheran upbringing) Adam Smith. This is all very well for theists but, when I am not dabbling in theism, and even when I do, I do not find myself aware, or strikingly aware, of a God as generalised other, impartial spectator, or super-addressee. If this super-addressee was felt ever present, then for instance, would there be so many atheists and agnostics, and would they be so militant in their denial of God? If a super-addressee were clearly ever present in our psyche then the atheists among us would be more likely to say "Oh, yeah, that. (S)he is only my simulation of a generalised other, not any supernatural being." Calling that entity God or a mental simulation would become almost a question of nomenclature. It seems to me however that most atheists are not aware of any such "super-addressee," listening in on their thoughts, modelled by themselves, far less directly and supernaturally bugging their brain.

 

To Bakhtin's "hell", and Mead's need for objective self awareness, I think that there are a couple of other reasons why we need a generalised other and why it should be something that we are commonly unaware of it.

 

First of all applying Arimasa Mori's cultural theory, it may become clear that a generalised other is a requirement for my identification with my "me". That we should identify (and it is not clear what "identify" means) which any idea or conception that we have of ourselves is strange. Why would anyone identify with a self-concept if they are aware that it is a conceptualisation?

 

This kind of question has been asked for instance by philosophers and psychologists in the field of narrative psychology. It is clear that we do narrate ourselves, do think to and narrate ourselves, about who we are and what we are doing, but why should we, or do we, identify with that which is described in the narrative? Why does our self-cognition not remain on the level of self-hypothesis, a fiction about ourselves that may or not be correct. Why do we believe in that our self0narration, or the me therein described is ourselves? Or why do we believe that there is a underlying, ongoing entity that conforms to some static linguistic cognition of self?

 

Arimasa Mori argues the way in which first person pronouns and first person self-representations depend on the second person of Japanese speech - that there is no "third person" (Mori's word for the generalised other), results in an absence of self on ongoing and independent self among Japanese. IF being is to be understood, and self-understanding is dependent upon other understanding, then in the radical absence of others would, not our ability to identify with an ongoing independent self be switching on and off. Hence, if we believe in an ongoing self independent of social situation, then this may imply the presumed presence of a "third person perspective."

 

Here ends my attempt at theoretical analysis.

 

Finally, while the connection is somewhat tenuous, the structure of the television series outlined above remind me of my experience of the structure of my self, which fell apart and became visible about a quarter of a century ago when I felt (and I think I did) go mad. I have written this before, but I think that it is a good idea to write it again.

 

My experience was momentary and my memory is not as good as it used to be, but I still find it instructive. I think that I should have tried harder to share the experience with other people. The reason why I have not blogged or otherwise written about the experience is because I found the experience particularly disgusting. As I said above, and this is the first part of the analogy between "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" and the structure of myself, they both appeared to have very harrowing elements. The movie was stressful, but watching the movie was a walk in the park by comparison to my experience of the parts of myself. After that fleeting experience 25 years aog, I found myself traumatised for about 6 months afterwards, and indeed for the rest of my life. Here I am an old man, still talking about an experience I had when I was about 22. And at the same time, the reason why I am still talking about the experience was because it was, and to an extent remains, so difficult, so disgusting as to make it difficult to talk about.

 

Of course, my experience may have been of only the structure of my particular self, but as I see these often extremely violent, and sexually twisted television series and movies proliferate I wonder if, at last, my experience was more universalisable than I had initially thought. I thought I was just simply a mad **** at the time. But here lies, the most important thing about what I have to say: it is possible that the self appears to be a unity to most people, and its structure indivisible, and invisible, because that structure is, or would be, to most people, so utterly disgusting. Far more so than the worst scenes in "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo."

 

So here is my experience again. I find it easiest to explain my experience with the analogy of a ventriloquist since in retrospect it seems very similar. When my self fell apart, into its parts, I felt that I was experiencing a ventriloquism act with the following parts: (1) an enormous consciousness of proportion so vast as to be other-worldly (2) a listening persona (2) A speaking persona.

 

I felt the enormous consciousness, for a flash of an instant, to be my true self. It seemed that this enormous consciousness was engaging in something similar to a ventriloquism act in that he was throwing his voice and pretending to hear that voice from the perspective of a third person.

 

When looking at a ventriloquist's stage act we can forget that ventriloquists are pretending to be two people. ventriloquists fabulate two people. We notice that they are "throwing their voice" and giving their dummy a life of its own. We may forget however, even as we are watching a ventriloquist, that the real stage performer is usually pretending to be not only the dummy, but also pretending to be another persona by putting on feigned belief in the dummy, and fabulating or feigning a character that listens to and banters with the dummy's remarks.

 

The experience thus far can largely be understood by reference to one of Nina Conti's ventriloquism acts, where she makes it clear that one need not use a dummy to perform ventriloquism, and even suggests that the dummy-less-dummy or voice, is as real as the listener.

 

And so it was with my experience. It was *not* that I became aware of the "dummy". The "dummy" or rather just my interior narrative was myself, the self that I generally (these days and then) thought myself to be. I heard myself speak/think in much the same way as I always speak/think. The difference was that I suddenly realised who I was speaking to and why. I became aware of the act that the massive ventriloquists putting on, the listener that feigns interest. The worst part about it was the act that I was performing, for myself, "in my head", was auto-erotic, transsexual, and then some -- it was also incestuous.

 

"The Girl with a Dragon Tattoo," stopped short of portraying real incest and of course the incest that I discovered in my head (my soul/psyche/self) was not real. Lisbeth was a ward of the state and she was raped by her guardian. The Lisbeth-gardian parent-child relationship was in name only, but their sex was real. I found that I was chatting up a woman, not unlike a Listbeth or Nikita, that I was simulated in my head who was clearly based upon my own mother. I was cross-dressing as it were mentally and feigning a female listener to my self-narrative. While this listener never spoke, her (my) unspoken reaction to my self speak was clearly sympathetic, loving, in a mother-child and at the same time romantic way. I felt like the murderer in the famous Hitchcock movie, Psycho except that instead of dressing up as my mother, I was creating her in my brain.

 

The enormous consciousness that was witnessing the whole event was entirely aware of what was going on and he was disgusted, with me the speaker that I guess he was also inventing. Somehow, strangely, in that experience the blame fell on the narratival voice (me) despite the fact that, presumably, it was the consciousness that was pulling all the strings, and behind all the parts. Nonetheless that enormity was disgusted and angry with the nasty little voice and the hollow woman that he had in his mind.

 

That was most of my experience. Does my experience have anything other than one warped individual, or does it bear any similarity with the structure of the programs I am analysing, other than the fact that popular television series often have sexually twisted antagonists?

 

The greatest similarity for me between my experience and the television series is not the detectives but the women as mediums, intermediaries and Nikitas. The woman that I was fabulating, as my internal listener, was disgusting only because she turned out to be myself. I loved that fantasy with an expectant longing brighter and purer than the sun. It was only when she turned out to be myself that the passion and purity of my love, precisely because it was felt to be so passionate and pure, that the whole thing became so disgusting. My internal doll, my cranial perfect woman, had a distinct similarity to the characters portrayed in my previous blog posts -- to the Lisbeth's and Nikita's of modern fiction. It may help a little, perhaps, that I remembered my mother as a young woman as a rather spiky, depressive, and in some senses dark individual. The important point is not the reality but how I fabulated my mother. I think to a large extent I fabulated her as a Nikita, killa, wild, abused, fighting girl. In my experienced I realised that my listener was a fantasy and in that sense, hollow, programmed, a sort of doll, or robot, or alias, like many of the Nikita types that are seen on TV.

 

It seems to me that I have identified in my experience of 1/4 of a century ago, a sort of sex criminal and a hollow, programmed intermediary of a Nikita type figure.

 

Finally what of the super-sighed genius "Monk," or "Patrick Jane." To an extent the giant person that I discovered was a bit like that, the all seeing consciousness, the supernatural being (supernatural only in so far as he was not a voice-puppet) upon which Nikita was superimposed upon as a mask, that Nikita acted as a "Medium" for that entity which Nikita hid, just as she alone saw.

 

So I wonder if anyone else has a psyche as disgusting as mine, or whether I am just seeing coincidences where there aren't any.

 

Addendum

Having reread it seems to me that there is no way that I am going to persuade anyone that my self-structure is anything but an anomaly unless I give more reasons as to why it should be universal for theoretical reasons and or by seeking links between the genres of video that I am analysing.

 

There are several things that do not match up.

 

My female fantasy listened rather than spoke, but the female Medium or intermediary is often the spokesperson for the super or supernatural male.

 

The sex-criminal in my self-fantasy was felt to by speech (made human) or perhaps my giant consciousness self. The criminals in US television series do not necessarily speak, the Monk-like all seeing consciousness like detectives do not involve themselves in sex at all.

 

The other thing is, that my experience of the breakdown of myself was accompanied by my realisation that I was gay. I assumed therefore that non-gay persons would have different persona in their selves. I thought that heterosexual men might be modelling their father rather than their young, Nikita-like fantasy mother. The fact that I felt myself to be gay at the time I had my falling apart experience may reduce the applicability of the structure that I became aware of. I am not sure how.

 

The take-home conclusion of this post is, imho, we watch so many TV series about hollowed out abused girls, who are mediums and intermediaries for super savant males, that kill sex criminals because The Truth is in Here.

 

I have had another idea about why the woman is a murderer based upon Graham Swift's novel "The Light of Day," another book in this genre. Obvious really.

 

Images are copyright their respective copyright holders. Please please comment below or contact me via nihonbunka.com to have my remove any of these images.

Bakhtin, M. M. (1986). Speech Genres and Other Late Essays. (V. W. McGee, Trans., C. Emerson & M. Holquist, Eds.) (Second Printing.). University of Texas Press. pubpages.unh.edu/~jds/BAKHTINSG.htm

 

Addendum (Big Mistake)

"My head" is inside my narrative and field of view, not the other way around! This is a very important point and the danger of the scientific worldview. The scientific world is a product of our narration as even some scientists a vow (Wheeler, Mach). Our head is also something we see in our field of view in mirrors, or our nose and brow directly. Our perceptions (including of our whispers) are not inside "me" or my body. To think so would be double death.

The developmental patterns of Africa have long been strained by inefficiency, lack of sustainability, and the physical and mental heritage of oppressive postcolonialism. Yet today transformation toward a more innovative stewardship could surface, driven by a change in the underlying mindset by Africans themselves and also by growing opportunity for women by strategic self-conception. It could also become particularly important for future African-European relations

The figures investigates the histories of our inaccurate and stereotypical words and ideas and suggests alternatives. It talks about the whole of Africa as Africa because the issues discussed in the book are relevant for the whole. The zapped Africa focuses on white occidental myths about Africa—because they have been the most dominant, the most negative, and the most in need of change. Africa is, however, very much a part of the occidental subconscious. In the first part of the twentieth century, most peoples of the Western world believed that Africans could be subjugated because they were primitives, natives. During much of American history, a large majority of western governments considered racist beliefs and exploitation of Africa acceptable. Positive myths about Africa also serve Western self-definition. Those who are dissatisfied with modern globalization life might construct Africa to present viable alternatives.

 

The Mind of Africa

 

Dr. Abraham has brought to bear on the problems and prospects of the New Africa an approach which is the fruit of a thorough grounding in the philosophy of the Western world, combined with the natural commitment of a young African intellec- tual to the cause of African freedom. The result is an analysis of the complex processes of social and political change going on in Africa, which comhines (as Dr. Abraham justly claims in the Preface) “the externality of an outsider and the sensibility of one with an inward knowledge of things.” It is this factor, apart from the value of the factual material assembled, which makes his book one of the most significant contribu-

tions in recent years to an understanding of the forces at work in molding the social structure of the independent African states.

If one seeks a central theme, it is to be found in Dr. Abraham’s assertion of thc importance of ensuring that African culture is not destroyed by the impact of Western techniques and concepts. Notwithstanding their diversity, he maintains that all African communities present a number of ideas and attitudes which are common to African society as a whole. He identifies these and states crisply the issues that face AIrican leaders: what is there in African culture that may least disruptively be dis- carded? What is there that Western culture offers which may be taken over and inte- grated with African culture?

The first chapter is devoted to a discussion of the nature of culture. Dr. Abraham emphasizes the integrative function of culture by discussing its role in forging acommon bond among people both within and outside the sphere of activity subject to inter- vention by the state.

In the second chapter he undertakes a description and analysis of African culture, taking the Akan of Ghana as his paradigm. He starts with their religious beliefs, elaborating the central concept of a world which is shared by human beings, ancestral spirits, and gods. He then deals with the theory of government. Political power is shown to have been derived from popular consensus. The power of the traditional ruler was always subject to well recognized limitations: no important decision could he taken without discussion permitting all views to be put forward; a ruler acting con- trary to the opinion of his people-as indicated by the advice of his counsellors-or neglecting affairs of state, could be removed. On the other hand, once consensus had been achieved by full and free discussion, there was no toleration of a dissenting view- point. “Such luxuriesas minority reports were ...foreign to the political arrangements of the Akans.” A short description of the legal system brings out its important features, namely the absence of separation between the executive and the judicial power in the state, and the failure to draw a clear dividing line between civil and criminal offences. The remainder of the chapter describes Akan literature and discusses the interaction of Western culture with Akan culture through the influence of formal education, the

missionary, and commercial activity.

In the third chapter Dr. Abraham turns to the contemporary scene in Africa. After

a discussion of the effects of colonial rule, he applies himself to the problem of main- taining democracy in the new states. He examines the institutions and processes re- garded as essential in the Western conception of democratic government, and shows how accepted ideas on these matters fail to take into account the special circumstances of the independent states of Africa. While he agrees on the need for “a judiciary which

Book Reviews 911

is reasonably impartial,” he rejects the proposition that democracy is impossible with- out a plurality of parties.

The fourth and final chapter puts the case for African unity within the framework of a realistic assessment of the relevant factors. Economic resources, actual and poten- tial, are surveyed, and the importance of shared history and common culture stressed; but there are warnings against the dangers of tribalism, and the risk of a mass party being in fact controlled by a small elite not animated by the ideals which brought the party to power.

Dr. Abraham concludes his book by reminding his readers that while it has been said that it took the United States 170 years to achieve unity, there are pressures operating on Africa which justify the belief that Pan-African progress is likely to be faster. The establishment last year of the Organization of African Unity is an encourag- ing endorsement by African politicians of the judgment of a young African intellectual.

Copper Town: Changing Africa. The Human Situation on the Rhodesian Copperbelt. HORTENSPEOWDERMAKNEewR.York and Evanston: Harper & Row, Publishers 1962. xxiii, 391 pp., index, 1 map, notes, plates, references, 16 tables. $7.95.

Reviewed by C . FRANTPZo,rtland State College With one month’s notice, the author went to Luanshya, the urban development surrounding the Roan Antelope Mine, intending to explore the transmission of Euro- American culture via mass media. She postulated that leisure activities, being largely voluntary, might serve as an index of individual and social change. Africans were trained to administer a questionnaire to a “sample” of Copperbelt adults and to take notes during conversations and activities in homes, at public meetings, and during movies. Selective depth interviews, casual visits and participation, and the use of topical essays written by intermediate and adult students on their values, aspirations,

and images were also used to procure information.

The data gained about African attitudes and behavior contributed sufficient insights

that Powdermaker decided to expand her study and give primary attention to the general processes of individual and social change. In her view the direction of all change, whether organic, psychological, cultural, or social, is from differentiation toward convergence. But in analyzing her own and others’ data, she borrows heavily from psychoanalytic theory, especially Erickson’s work on ego-identity.

The study explores some of the general characteristics of tribal life in Northern Rhodesia before Europeans arrived. I t is said that family life, especially, unavoidably generated both conscious and unconscious hostility and anxiety; this in turn had to be channeled through witchcraft, quarreling, alcohol consumption, or other mechanisms. Breast-feeding established relationships of trust and stability between mother and child, but an unsatisfactory resolution of the weaning crisis provoked much insecurity. Still, the breast provided a symbolic model for many adult relationships, especially those involving authority. However, the social system did not encourage individuals to become autonomous by seeking spontaneous growth or self-awareness, as the chil- dren had a nearly complete role identification with adults. Since a “developed” identity and greater autonomy of the self was atypical, .4fricans have generally been “fixated” at the oral level.

Until Europeans arrived with new values and goals the Africans had no signifi- cantly differentadult models available to them. The foreigners’ presence produced both social and personal strain, yet their missionary and educational activities “may” have produced individuals who become “more successful’’ in adult socialization.

 

anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1...

We are happy to announce The 24 Photo Contest!

We want you to show us your creativity, your style, your imagination!

  

Rules

  

- Open to anyone.

- You can take snapshots and post them to out Flickr pool at www.flickr.com/groups/2277342@N21/?added=1

- Photo size might to be 1024x1024 pixels

- Max 3 photos per participant.

- By applying you allow us to use your photo in our sim/blog for promotional purposes

  

Dates

  

Aug 23rd - Open the Event

Aug 31st - Close Event

  

Winners

  

Winners will be selected by an impartial jury. Jurors will not know who the creator of the photo is.

  

Any questions please contact Lexie Jansma and Alon Alphaville

  

Siren Productions

can·did (adj). 1. Free from prejudice; impartial.

2. Characterized by openness and sincerity of expression; unreservedly straightforward.

3. Not posed or rehearsed: a candid snapshot.

can·did (n). An unposed informal photograph.

 

My entry for the candid theme compettion. I shot this from the hip as there were a few other people around, and I'm really uncomfortable with pointing the camera at complete strangers. I worry that they will get angry and try to beat me. Guess I should give up on any dreams of career as a photojourno.

Glen Innes School of Arts

On Thursday last an inaugural public meeting of subscribers and all interested was held in the new building, and was well attended. Mr Christopher Legh J P, chairman of the building committee, presided and stated that the principal business of the meeting was the enrolment of members, receiving the building committee’s report, adoption of rules, and the election of officers to the end of the current year.

 

Mr G Stevenson brought up the report of a special committee, which had made the necessary provision for the holding of that meeting and revising the old rules with the view of their adoption until the 31st December next.

 

The secretary of the building committee brought up the report and balance sheet of that body which was unanimously adopted. The report is as follows: — About 16 months ago a movement was set on foot, having for its object the establishment of a School of Arts in our town. A public meeting was convened by Mr C Legh and others, which was well attended, and it was resolved to canvass the district for contributions. Messrs Legh and Hutchison were appointed canvassers, and Messrs. Wrigley and Kenwood treasurer and secretary respectively for the fund. The manner in which the. public responded to the call was most gratifying, and in a very few weeks a sum of over £100 had been collected. Another general meeting was then called to report progress, and the secretary was instructed to apply to the Government for the usual £ for £ grant upon the amount at the time actually subscribed. It was further decided to lose no time in making arrangements for the erection of a building upon the site in Grey Street which had been given by the Government for this purpose, and Messrs Grover, Wright, and Hutchison kindly offered to prepare and submit plans. At a meeting held in the Council Chambers a few weeks later, the plans were presented for the consideration of subscribers, and after considerable discussion, the final selection was postponed for a week. The secretary was able to intimate at this meeting that a sum of £123 7s. had been paid into the bank by the treasury, in response to the application made for the grant before referred to. Reference to the financial statement will explain what was done with the monies received pending the construction of the building.

 

At the next general meeting a plan prepared by Mr Hutchison, as amended by Mr Grover, was approved of and adopted: and it may be, perhaps, as well here to make a few explanatory remarks with reference to the delay that occurred in the selection of plans.

When the committee state that at the time the drawings were under consideration there was a sum of about £240 only in the bank, it will readily be observed that strict economy had to be exercised in regard to the character of the building to be erected, and as any or either of the drawings submitted would have involved the expenditure of between £400 and £500, it was a matter of no small difficulty to ascertain which, was best capable of necessary modification. After very careful examination it was decided, as before stated, to adopt Mr Grover's plan, which, in its amended form, provided for the erection of a building, the cost of which should not largely exceed the amount standing to the credit of the fund. In adopting this course the committee venture to think that they will gain the approval of subscribers. It was held by them to be wiser to build a School of Arts capable of enlargement, and which could be paid for almost at once, than to have erected an expensive building which would have saddled the district with a heavy debt that would have taken years to remove. Tenders were accordingly invited in the local papers, and that of Mr Kendrick, at £310, was accepted.

A suitable contract was drawn up between the members of the building committee, who were appointed at a previous meeting, and the contractor, and the building was proceeded forthwith under the supervision of Mr Hutchison as clerk of works. In the course of about three months the work was completed, but in consequence of certain representations made by Mr Grover — the clerk of works who had succeeded Mr Hutchison — as to certain defects and omissions in the work, a sub-committee of three was appointed to make a close examination of the materials used, and to report to the building committee what amount, in their opinion, the contractor should allow as a set-off against any such defects or omissions that might be ascertained.

An inspection followed with the result as shown by the report of the sub-committee attached hereto. In conclusion the committee have to state that they have been obliged to arrange with the Bank of New South Wales for an overdraft of £50 to enable them to make the final payment to the contractor. A further sum of £30 or £40 will be required to provide the necessary fittings and suitable furniture for the rooms, so that nearly £100 is yet required before the institution is clear of debt.

The committee congratulate the subscribers and public of the district upon what has already been achieved, and trust that all will work with a will, and by their pecuniary aid speedily liquidate the present liability. As all are aware, the School of Arts was formally opened by Sir Henry Parkes, on the occasion of his recent visit to the town, and the committee now hand the building over to the subscribers with their best wishes for its future well-being and success.

 

The sub-committee (Messrs Grover, S G Smith, and P M'Cormack) recommended — "That the contractor be paid the sum of £305, the same to include all extra work, Mr Kendrick agreeing to accept the same as payment in full.

 

The balance sheet discloses a debit balance of £41 4s on the building, but this will be reduced to £29 13s when certain promised subscriptions are paid.

 

Twenty-five members were enrolled in the room on the payment of 5s subscription to 31st December next.

 

The old rules were adopted with some slight modifications, to remain in force until the end of the year, at which time, new rules will he framed.

The election of officers and committee was then proceeded with, and resulted as follows : — President, Mr C Legh J P, unopposed: Vice-presidents, Messrs E Grover JP, and M H Fitzhardinge: Treasurer, Mr Alderman Healey, unopposed: Secretary, Mr H S Vincent, unopposed: Committee, Messrs R A H Mitchell J P, G Stevenson, P M'Cormack, S G Smith, G E Marston, A Hutchison, D Anderson, C Brown, and Drs Tresidder and Wrigley, the Rev R Kay and Alderman Flanders.

 

It was decided to open the institution to subscribers on the following evening for which purpose a sub-committee was appointed. It was further arranged that for the present the building be open to the public from 7 to 10 pm (Sundays excepted) and that any member can obtain admission at any hour of the day on application to the secretary.

 

Very cordial votes of thanks were tendered to Mr Kenwood, secretary of the building committee and the other members of the building committee, and a special vote to Mr Alexander Hutchison for his great exertions in procuring subscriptions and other valuable labours in connection with the building.

 

It was announced that Mr Matheson M P, had contributed a guinea to the building fund and a cordial acknowledgment of his practical sympathy was recorded.

 

The proceedings closed at 10 pm with the usual acknowledgments to the chairman, on the motion of Mr P Walsh, of Ben Lomond, who cordially approved of the able and impartial manner in which Mr Legh had conducted the business of the evening.

Ref: Glen Innes Examiner and General Advertiser (NSW) Tuesday 20 September 1887.

   

OUR LADY OF GUADALUPE IN SUGBU

Rajah Tupas and Tetlaquatlaxopeuh

An Expeditionary Image. So we go to the question of whether a relationship can be established between the events at TEPEYÁC and TULPETLAC and the expedition of Legazpi and the Augustinian, de Urdaneta? If the Image of Guadalupe was installed on the flagship of the Christian Fleet during the Battle of Lepanto, did Legazpi and Urdaneta on their voyage to evangelize the Orient bring with them a pennant bearing the image of our Lady at Tepeyac to the Islas Felipinas?

The answer is Yes.

In the first edition of this book published in 1995 under the title “The Virgin of Mexico and the Philippines" the author reported that there was no such record. During the voyages of the galleons plying the Manila-Acapulco route, no mention is made of a devotion to the Guadalupana. Instead we have Virgin statues ‘tallado a mano‘ made at the start in the shops of Acapulco, such as is the popular Nuestra Señora de Paz y Buen Viaje of Antipolo, but it is not the Lady of Guadalupe. Or the Nuestra Señora de Guia of La Ermita. Much later the woodcarvers of Manila, Pampanga and Paete would take over the floourishing trade.

Thanks to a pilgrimage to the Shrine of Mexico in 1995, the negative conclusion tentatively arrived at in the First Edition gave way to a positive finding. In an article quoting D. Antonio Pompa y Pompa, the eminent Guadalupe historian, P. Lauro Lopez Beltrán recounts to us the historical antecedents of the advent of Christianity in the Islands, and the intervention of our Lady of Mexico that led to our giving a listening ear to the Spanish missionaries. (For the distinct flavor of the Spanish account, go to Appendix 22:Rajah Tupas and Tequatlaxopeuh: citing Patronatos Guadalupanos, Tomo VI. Obras Guadalupanas de Lauro Lopez Beltrán. Editorial Tradición, Mexico. 1982. pp. 86-94).

Sources. The provenance of this account of the Blessed Mother’s intervention in bringing the Faith to the Philippine islands is taken from two sources: a Document called “Balangay sa Guadalupe” and a Manuscript last seen in the Augustinian archives in Manila according to this tip from the Mexican historian and anthropologist, Dra. Ana Rita Valero de Garcia-Lazcurain:

“. . .segun el relato de D. Antonio Pompa y Pompa: fray Andres de Urdaneta y el capitan Miguel Lopez de Legaspi llevaron una Virgen de Guadalupe a las islas de los Ladrones y de las Filipinas. El dato esta tomado de “Balangay sa Guadalupe” y de un manuscrito encontrado en el Archivo Agustiniano de Manila. Bibliografia al respecto: Urdaneta y la Conquista de Filipinas: Estudio histórico, San Sebastian, 1907: “Relacion del viaje del comendador Loaysa y cartas al rey Felipe II con descripciones de los puertos de Acapulco y Navidad,” de fray Andres de Urdaneta en: Fermin de Uncilla y Arroitajauregui, O.A.; Monje y Marino. La vida y los tiempos de Fray Andres de Urdaneta: Mariano Cuevas S.J., Mexico, 1943; The Manila Galleon: W. L. Schurz, New York, 1059, 2a edicion; Urdaneta y el Tornaviaje: Enrique Cardenas de la Peña, Mexico, 1965” (Una carta al autor fechada 1997 de la Dra. Ana Rita V. de Garcia-Lazcurain, historiador y antropologo)

The Album del IV Centenario Guadalupano, obra publicada por la Insigne y Nacional Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe, Mexico, 1938 published in commemoration of the 4th centenary of the Apparitions has this on its pages 87 and 89:

“Muchos religiosos, gobernantes, marinos o soldados que habian residido en mexico al ser llevados a otras tierras se convertian en propagandores del culto a la Virgen del Tepeyac: y es asi como fray Andres de Urdaneta y el capitan Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, al conquistar las islas de los Ladrones y Filipinas en 1565, llevaron una Virgen de Guadalupe. (“Balangay sa Guadalupe” y MS. Arch. Agustiniano de Manila). citado en (Album del IV Centenario Guadalupano, obra publicada por la Insigne y Nacional Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe, Mexico, 1938, p. 87

“Ahora recordamos que muchos años antes, don Rodrigo de Vivero, pariente de don Luis de Velasco, segundo Virrey de Mexico, cuando fue enviado como Capital General de Filipinas, impulsó el culto guadalupano iniciado por Urdaneta y Lopez de Legazpi.” (citado en (Album del IV Centenario Guadalupano, obra publicada por la Insigne y Nacional Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe, Mexico, 1938, p. 89)

This rare narration is echoed by by Herbert F. Leies, S.M. in his book “Mother for a New World.” (Our Lady of Guadalupe: St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, Texas. The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 1954)

Search. Diligent search for our primary source, the “Balangay sa Guadalupe” and the Agustinian manuscript mentioned above has been largely negative.

The absence from Manila of these archives may be explained by two occurrences: 1. A decision was made in the 1930s by the Padres Agostinos in anticipation of concerns of a brewing Pacific war to make two copies of every document in the archives. This was done; 2. All the archives including the two copies were removed to Villadolid, Spain just before the Japanese invaasion of World War II. (Fray Francis Musni, OSA)

On the other hand, the renowned Padre Isacio Rodriguez, OSA, opines that Don Antonio Pompa, who reports this manuscript in his seminal 1938 Album del IV Centenario Guadalupano, may have been mistaken, or at worse, mislead. This is conjecture. Don Antonio was a consummate archivist himself, and of things Guadalupe, we must take his word that these documents were in Manila before the second world war. A perusal of the “Album of the 4th Centenary of Guadalupe,” published by the renowned National Basilica of Holy Mary of Guadalupe, Mexico, 1938, has this:

La conclusion de este Album trae la necesidad de dar a conocer que la fuerza historica del mismo, se apoyo en la documentacion referida en sus diferentes paginas. Nada hay de lo asentado en el, que historicamente no este apoyado en documento que haga fe el criterio historico. Nada hay de lo publicado, que pueda tenerse por apócrifo.

Translation: In conclusion this Album bases its historical justification on records referenced in its many pages. Every statement is supported by documentation that satisfy historical criteria. There is nothing published that may be viewed as aprophycal.

Han sido fuentes de ilustracion, los archivos, General y Publico de la Nacion, el de la Basilica de Santa Maria de Guadalupe, el de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores y del ex Ayuntamiento, en la ciudad de Mexico; ilustran estas paginas, documentos del Archivo General de Indias, en Sevilla, de la Universidad de Upsala, en Suecia, de la coleccion Goupil, de Paris; de la Universidad John Carter Brown, en Providence, Rhode Island; de la Biblioteca Publica de New York; del Archivo Historico de Madrid; del Archivo del Ayuntamiento de Guatemala; del Archivo de los RR. PP. Agustinos de Manila, I. F.; y de los archivos de la Compañia de Jesus en Roma y Bolonia; en este ultimo se encuentra el informe que en 1601 le enviaron al R. P. Claudio Aquaviva, General de la Compañia de Jesus, referente a ser venerada en Manila, I.F., la imagen de Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Mexico.

Translation: The sources for the illustrations and the documentation in the Album are listed below, among which may be noted the Archivo General de Indias in Sevilla, Spain; the Public Library of New York, the Archivo Historico de Madrid, the Archivo de los RR. PP. Agustinos de Manila, Islas Filipinas; the archives of the Society of Jesus in Rome and Bolognia; and in this last reference was found the information sent to the Rev. F. Claudio Aquaviva, then Father General of the Society, that in 1601 the image of Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe de Mexico was being venerated in Manila, I.F. (APPENDIX 24: Sources - Fuentes de Ilustración y de Información del Album del IV Centenario Guadalupano)

Military narratives. It appears that the history of the Spanish colonies is drawn up by military historians and therefore all take the form of a conquest. The predominance of the military point of view seems to be the common denominator in all these narratives of Spanish hegemony. Not to minimize or gainsay the importance of a combat force but in almost every account the story is to demonstrate the superiority of Spanish arms as the carrier of the conquest of the New World. The initial missionary aspect of Spanish entry into a new country has mainly been a footnote, if at all, to the supremacy of Spanish arms. The few instances of native success are put down as treachery or satanic cultism necessitating the use of violence to extinguish the local leadership structure and the extirpation of its concomitant culture. This is true also of the treatment by European colonizers of the original inhabitants of the north american continent.

See the widely differing accounts depending on the point of view or the point of reference: John of Austria vs. Gian Andrea Doria, Urdaneta vs. Goiti in the Cebu of Rajah Tupas.

So back to the finding on Legazpi’s expeditionary pennant. When the Vth Expedition left Mexico for the conquest of the Philippine Islands in September 7, 1564, it carried the first image of Our Lady TEQUATLAXOPEUH on the flagship the San Pedro.

It was a full-size hand-painted replica of the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe located in what was then just a Hermitage on the Hill of Tepeyac in Mexico. The reproduction, as was the custom of those days, was touched to the original image.

Installed as the expeditionary pennant or flag on board the “San Pedro," flagship of Legazpi, it arrived in Sugbo (present-day Cebu) on a Friday, the 27th of April 1565. The name Sugbo means “to walk in the water,” a reference to those who had to leave their boats in the deep waters of the trench and wade across the shallows to reach dry land.

During the impasse between Rajah Tupas, King of Sugbo, and the Spaniard Legazpi, the Image played a key role in bringing the Cebuano king to listen to the Agustinian missionaries.

Encounter at Togoan Hill. The historic meeting between Filipino and Our Lady TEQUATLAXOPEUH took place at the foot of the hill known as Togoan. According to the Spanish account, the forces of Rajah Tupas, the King of Cebu had been routed by superior Spanish arms and had fled to the forests of the Togoan.

This is typical put-down by invading troops confronting bellicose natives. Consider how the Spanish missionaries, no military men with overarching ambitions of hegemony, thought of the natives of the islands at that time:

“The Indians of this country are not simple or foolish, nor are they frightened by anything whatever. They can be dealt with only with the arquebus or by gifts of gold or silver. If they were like those of Nueva España, Peru. Tierra Templado, Tierra Fria, and in other places where the ships may enter, sound reasoning might have some effect. But these Indians first inquire if they must be Christians, pay money, forsake their wives, and other similar things. They kill the Spaniards so boldly...” (Francisco de Sande to Philip II. Relacion de las Condiciones hallados en las Islas Filipinas, 1527. op. cit. in The Colonization & Conquest of the Philippines by Spain, Vol. VIII, Filipiniana Book Guild)

A historical reconstruct. The Rajah was only 5 years old at the time Magellan came in 1521 to the court of his father in Sugbu. In an attempt to demonstrate Spanish superiority before his father who was having internal problems with the great datuk Lapulapu, Magellan and his crew came at dawn and burned down the homes of the people of Maktan in Lapu-Lapu’s village The people remembered this treachery and their satisfaction when Magellan met his death at the hands of Datuk Lapulapu who put them to flight.

And now they were at it again. Legazpi was apprehensive of their reception and fired his canons to display Spanish arms. This angered Rajah Tupas and determined his resolve to expel the Spaniards. He signalled his kinsfolk in the hinterlands, calling on the datus and panglimas in the other islands for thousands of reinforcements to come in force to repel once again these foreign invaders.

There was a standoff. Magellan’s miscalculation had put an end not only to conquistador ambitions, but to missionary efforts in the islands. Fearing that the new effort to bring Christ to the islands would again be dashed, Fray Andres de Urdaneta, decided to intervene between the two prideful men whose intransigence would derail the entry of the Faith into the Islas Felipinas - again. He removed the expedition’s pennant of Our Lady at Tepeyac from the prow of the San Pedro, and disembarked with his three Agustinian companions, and their interpreter. They crossed the shallows into the no-man’s land between the two forces holding aloft the banner of Our Lady. It was borne on a tall shaft upon which swung the upright cloth of the Lady of Mexico. It had been instrumental in the conversion of millions of Mexican Aztecs. Fray Andres was confident that She would do the same for the Sugboanon and rest of the peoples in the numerous islands.

The Rajah’s warriors informed Tupas of the approach of the black robed men. Recognizing the men in black as unarmed and peaceful, Rajah Tupas ordered them brought before him. The Spaniards in the lines to their rear feared an ambush. They saw a number of native warriors emerge from the covering forest, surround the friars, and escort into the hinterland. Legazpi thought he would rue the day he allowed the priest to out-talk him. But he owed him - he understood that Urdaneta never wanted to come to the Islands, but had been deceived by him upon orders of the King - now he wanted to do his own thing, and no one was going to stop him.

Fray Andres cast his eyes heavenwards, and walked with the group of belligerent Sugbuanos. When they were before the king, Rajah Tupas, who had never seen an image, asked who the beautiful Lady was. Fray Andres knew the moment had come. With the aid of the interpreter, he started to explain the apparition from heaven of the beautiful Lady to the natives of Mexico, how they abandoned their pagan religion, and joined Her and Her Son. He said that this Beloved Lady had made it known that She is the Mother of all peoples, the Spaniards, the Aztecs, the Sugbuanon, and all the races of the world.

He pressed home the point that She was his Mother, and Rajah Tupas’, too. That broke the ice -- and the wily King agreed to dialogue with the Spaniards -- and ordered the brewing counterattack to halt.

This was the real beginning not only of the church - but of the Philippines as a country (Fr David Clay, Columbian). This event firmly inserted Christianity into the Asian hemisphere.

The Interpreter Of Legazpi & Fray Andres. According to the historical record, the interpreter of Fray Andres during this encounter with the Sugboanon, was a Moluccan from the island of Mangola christened Geronimo Pacheco. He was brought to Spain via India by Pedro Pacheco, a crewmember of the Expedition of Ruy Lopez de Villolobos in 1542, and from there to Mexico. (Diccionario Biográfico Agustiniano, Privincia de Filipinas, por Isacio Rodriguez Rodriguez, OSA y Jesus Alvarez Fernandez, OSA, volumen primero (1565-1588), Estudio Agustiniano, Valladolid , 1992, p. 53)

The narrative of D. Antonio Pompa ends with the note that when Fray Andres departed for Manila (or returned to Mexico) he or Legazpi took the image with him, but left a statuette of the same image with the Rajah.

Indeed, it appears that in the mountains of Cebu there was a shrine to the Virgen Morena where an image of Her has been venerated since early Spanish times. The image was found in a cave, and a chapel was built for it in a nearby plateau. Generations of pilgrims have toiled up the mountain to pray before the Virgin. During the Philippine American war the shrine was destroyed and the image was tucked away in the Church of San Nicolás in Cebu City. The pilgrimages have moved there and She is honored on December 12 indicative of its connection with Our Lady at Tepeyac. Pilgrims still go up the hills to offer candles before the Cave of the Virgin (The Philippine Rites of Mary, A Votive Offering of Luz Mendoza Santos, Manila, 1982).

Interception at Togoan. As observed earlier there are strange coincidences indeed, but not for those who discern into the design of things. Take this occurrence at Togoan Hill in the island of Sugbo (present-day Cebu) in the year 1565.

In December 12, 1531 very early on the dawn of a Tuesday morning, Juandiego Cuauhtlatoatzin was to keep an appointment with the Blessed Virgin, his “NOTECUIYOÉ, CIHUAPILLÉ," at Tepeyac Hill. But he chose to lay it aside in favor of a secondary intention to bring succor to his dying uncle, more pressing in his estimation to get a priest to give the last rites and save his soul, than keeping his appointment with the Lady from Heaven.

In 1565 a nation across the seas from Tepeyac was likewise intent on a secondary motivation that would have drawn it away again from Her plan for that nation. She intercepted, stepped in so to speak, to dissuade Her sons from proceeding in their task of war, and from Her image held aloft by Her new messenger, She asks this nation ‘where are you going my sons’ and ‘ what is this that you are doing?’ 'do not worry I will take care of you, what else do you need?'

As reported above (Historical Context Of Apparitions - What They Say) one favorite explanation for the Tepeyac event was that the Blessed Mother came to prevent a war of extermination between the abusive conquistador Spaniards and the aroused Aztec nation.

And so it may likewise be said (in pro of a military explanation) that the reason for the intervention in the Philippines by the Blessed Mother was to avert a bloody finish to Spanish ambitions in the islands both secular or otherwise. For indeed the newy arrived forces of Legazpi were looked upon as no less a threat to the Sugboanos than those of the ill-fated Magellan expedition.

Her role in bringing her Castillian sons across the Pacific has been overlooked. It is high time we give her due importance. It was the right thing to do in pagan, even muslim Philippines. Psychologically the cross would have been shunned, but not the Mother.

4. Togoan Aftermath

Following the encounter at Togoan, the evangelization of the Philippine Islands was one of the most peaceful and rapid in the history of the missions. (see The Encounter, Fr. Jose Vicente Braganza SVD) Citing Edward G. Bourne, Fr. Clark quotes:

“In the light, then, of impartial history raised above racial prejudice and religious prepossessions, after a comparison of the early years of the Spanish conquest in America or with the first generation or two of the English settlements, the conversion and civilization of the Philippines in the forty years following Legazpi’s arrival must be pronounced an achievement without parallel in history.” (Bourne was not a Catholic. A Professor at Yale, he was an authority on Spanish colonization. (op. cit. Francis X. Clark S.J.: The Philippine Missions - The Story of the Apostolate in the Islands from King Philip of Spain to Pope Pius XII) (Historical Introduction, Blair & Robertson, vol. 1, p. 37)

Over the next 350 years, the Spaniards crushed 34 separate rebellions against their political rule, approximately one per decade. But the Faith spread.

It goes without saying that as far back as when these islands was known as the Lupa Sug by its seafaring inhabitants, Ma-Yi by the Chinese, later the Islas Felipinas (Islas Filipinas) by the Spaniards, the Philippine Islands by the Americans, and renamed the Republic of the Philippines, the first and the original devotion to Mary, the Blessed Mother of God, was Nuestra Señora TEQUATLAXOPEUH of Mexico, who came to Her pagan children and who in turn recognized and gave honor to Her singular beauty.

Spread of the Faith. Under the influence of Legazpi and the Augustinians, and later the Franciscans, the Jesuits, the Dominicans, and the Recollects who had the benefit of the Mexican experience in dealing with native peoples, the Catholic faith was readily accepted by the Bisayans, and subsequently by the Tagalogs and the rest of the races in the different islands. All this despite the presence, if not dominance, in the area of Muslim missionaries and the votaries of the Sultan of Sulu. In effect, through Spanish civil and ecclesiastical government, the spread of Islam was checked. Efforts of the imperial reign in Sulu to arrest the inward surge of european thought and institutions were fruitless. The so-called Moro Wars were nothing more than the legitimate defense of the Sulu heartland from alien trespassers, and the exaction of tribute, obedience and fealty from their far flung settlements. The phrase"no hay Moros en la costa" - The coast is clear, was the original all-clear call from the watch towers along the coasts. These had decided to turn their backs on the sultanate and cast their future with the newcomers. There is an exotic Philippine fruit which is used to depict a turn-coat - the BALIMBING which presents the same face whichever way you turn it.

But as a people the Muslim Taosug and Maranaon resisted the Spanish. The constant wars with the West, first the Spaniards, then the Americans, and lately the Republic whom they consider nothing more than surrogates of foreign powers, cost them in terms of development as a nation. As the Indian in the Americas, their socio-economics is at zero levels, and endlessly debate the hows and whys the Moro has become a stranger to the land they had nurtured for centuries (op. cit. "A Nation Under Endless Tyranny," 2nd Edition, By Salah Jubair) While the natives of the Visayas and Luzon succumbed to the propaganda of the Spaniards, the Muslim continued to defend their Bangsa, tau, iban, agama (nation, people, and religion) to this day. (op. cit. Cesar Adib Majul, “Muslims in the Philippines. ” ) It is a nation that cannot reconcile its past with its present and faces an uncertain future.

The historians now say that had the arrival of the Spaniards been delayed, all of the Islas Felipinas which were already effectively Muslim, would have been irretrievably lost to Islam. But as it turned out the same Spanish Nation that had reconquered altar and throne from the Muslims in the home country also effectively stopped its progress in the Far East. It is incredible that that Nation crossed two oceans to bring the Faith to the Islands. It would be interesting to surmise the turn of world history and the present balance of power if Mohamedanism had spread unchecked from the Philippines to China and then to Japan. (op cit. Edward Gaylor Bourne, Historical Introduction to the Philippine Islands, Blair and Robertson. Vol. I, pp 34-35; John Leddy Phelan, The Hispanization of the Philippines, p 8) It was, in the words of Fr. Braganza, “superb timing.”

Today there is a Shrine to Our Lady of Guadalupe in Togoan Hill. But when I visited it in 1995, indicative of the hispanization of the event, there was nothing at all among murals don its walls to connect it to Tepeyac. I hope they wake up to their history. And if I may make a suggestion, to correct what seemed to me inexcusable neglect, the apparition on the Tepeyac was her hint about how her Teocalli should be: precious stones, gold, silver, shimmering in light.

(Excerpted from “TEPEYAC - Our Lady of ‘Guadalupe’ revisited, Ramon A. Pedrosa, 2006)

 

Source: www.marianmessenger.ph/index.php/other-features/24

 

Anacortes.

"On September 7, 1899, Alfred Hamilton (1872-1902) shoots and kills prominent attorney David. M. Woodbury (1849-1899) without provocation. Hamilton, a notorious miscreant, has been wandering around Anacortes intoxicated, threatening the citizenry with a revolver, and efforts by the city marshal to arrest him without bloodshed have been unsuccessful. Woodbury lingers in great pain for three days before dying on September 10, 1899. A Skagit County jury will find Hamilton guilty of first-degree murder with the mandatory sentence of death. On appeal the Washington State Supreme Court will grant him a new trial based on judicial error. To assure a fair and impartial jury, Hamilton's retrial will be held at the Whatcom County Courthouse in Bellingham. Once again, he will be found guilty of first-degree murder and sentenced to hang. Hamilton's attorneys will appeal the subsequent conviction to the state Supreme Court, where the judgment of the lower court will be affirmed. On May 23, 1902, Hamilton will be hanged in the courtyard outside the Whatcom County Courthouse. This will be the last legal execution to occur in Washington outside the confines of the state penitentiary at Walla Walla."

www.historylink.org/File/10004

www.starnow.co.uk/christopherw33618

 

The British Transport Police (BTP) (Welsh: Heddlu Trafnidiaeth Prydeinig) is a special police force[4] that polices railways and light-rail systems in Great Britain, for which it has entered into an agreement to provide such services.[5] 95% of the Force's funding comes from Britain's privatised train companies. British Transport Police officers do not have jurisdiction in Northern Ireland unless working under mutual aid arrangements for the Police Service of Northern Ireland in which case any duties performed on a railway will be merely incidental to working as a constable in Northern Ireland.

 

Contents

 

1 Jurisdiction

2 Structure

2.1 Divisions

2.1.1 B Division

2.1.2 C Division

2.1.3 D Division

2.2 Former divisions

3 History

3.1 Foundation

3.1.1 "Policeman" v. "Constable"

3.2 Navigators

3.3 Historical crime

3.4 Reorganisation

3.5 Inter-war years

3.6 World War II

3.7 Post war

4 How the BTP is funded

5 Attestation

5.1 in England and Wales

5.2 in Scotland

6 Communications and Control rooms

7 Powers and status of officers

7.1 General powers

7.2 Outside natural jurisdiction

7.2.1 On the request of constable

7.2.2 On the request of a Chief Constable (Mutual Aid)

7.2.3 Spontaneous requirement outside natural jurisdiction

7.2.4 Channel Tunnel

7.2.5 Cross-border powers

7.3 Status

8 Accident investigation

9 Crime on the railway

9.1 Route crime

9.2 Performance

10 Special Constabulary

11 Police Community Support Officers (PCSO)

12 Proposed merger

13 See also

14 References

15 External links

 

Jurisdiction

 

As well as having jurisdiction of the system operated by Network Rail consequential to being a former part of British Railways, the BTP are also responsible for policing:

 

The London Underground system

The Docklands Light Railway

High Speed 1

The Sunderland line of the Tyne and Wear Metro (between Fellgate and South Hylton)

The Midland Metro

Croydon Tramlink

The Glasgow Subway (since early 2007)

The Emirates Air Line

 

This amounts to around 10,000 miles of track and more than 3,000 railway stations and depots. There are more than 1 billion passenger journeys annually on the mainline alone.

 

In addition, British Transport Police in conjunction with the French National Police - Police aux Frontières - police the international services operated by Eurostar.[6]

 

It is not responsible for policing the rest of the Tyne and Wear Metro or the Manchester Metrolink or any other railway with which it does not have a service agreement; it can act as a constabulary for a transport system in Great Britain with which it commences a service agreement.

 

A BTP constable can act as a police constable outside of their normal railway jurisdiction as described in the "Powers and status of officers" section.

Structure

BTP officers patrolling with dogs in Waterloo Station

 

As of 2009, BTP has 2,871 Police Constables,[3] 218 Special Constables, 326 Police Community Support Officers, and 1334 police staff throughout England, Wales, and Scotland.[7] In terms of regular officer numbers this means BTP is the 19th largest police force in England & Wales and Scotland in comparison to the 45 territorial police forces of Great Britain.[7] Since June 2009 the Chief Constable has been Andy Trotter OBE, QPM and is due to be succeeded by Paul Crowther OBE later in 2014.[8]

 

BTP has appeared on UK television in Railcops.[9]

Divisions

 

From 1 April 2014 the divisional structure changed from the previous seven division structure to a four division structure - according to BTP this new structure will 'deliver a more efficient Force, generating savings to reinvest in more police officers across the railway network'.[10] A Division refers to the Force Headquarters (FHQ) and houses the command team, major investigations, forensic support and other centralised departments.

B Division

 

Divisional Commander: Chief Superintedent Paul Brogden.[10]

 

This division covers London and the South East and southern areas of England. This division is further divided into the following sub-divisions:

 

East - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Richard Moffatt.[11]

Transport for London - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Matt Wratten.[12]

South - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Jason Bunyard.[13]

 

C Division

 

Divisional Commander: Chief Superintendent Peter Holden.[10]

 

This division covers the North East, North West, the Midlands, South West areas of England and Wales. This division is further divided into the following sub-divisions:

 

Pennine - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Eddie Wylie.[14]

Midland - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Allan Gregory.[15]

Wales - Sub-divisional Commander: Superintendent Andy Morgan.[16]

 

D Division

 

Divisional Commander: Chief Superintendent Ellie Bird.[10]

 

This division covers Scotland. There are no sub-divisions within D Division.[17]

Former divisions

 

Prior to April 2014, BTP was divided into seven geographical divisions:

 

Scotland (Area HQ in Glasgow)

North Eastern (Area HQ in Leeds)

North Western (Area HQ in Manchester)

London North (Area HQ in London - Caledonian Road)

London Underground (Area HQ in London - Broadway)

London South (Area HQ in London - Bridge Street)

Wales & Western (Area HQ in Birmingham)

 

Prior to 2007, there was an additional Midland Division however this was absorbed into the North Eastern Division.

History

Foundation

 

The first railway employees described as "police" can be traced back to 30 June 1826. A regulation of the Stockton and Darlington Railway refers to the police establishment of "One Superintendent, four officers and numerous gate-keepers". This is the first mention of Railway Police anywhere and was three years before the Metropolitan Police Act was passed. They were not, however, described as "constables" and the description may refer to men controlling the trains not enforcing the law. Specific reference to "constables" rather than mere "policemen" is made by the BTP website article "A History of Policing the Railway"[18] which states "The London, Birmingham and Liverpool Railway Companion of 1838 reports "Each Constable, besides being in the employ of the company, is sworn as a County Constable". Further reference is made by the BTP[19] to "an Act of 1838...which according to J.R. Whitbread in 'The Railway Policeman[20] was the first legislation to provide for any form of policing of the railway whilst under construction, i.e. to protect the public from the navvies more or less."

 

The modern British Transport Police was formed by the British Transport Commission Act 1949[21] which combined the already-existing police forces inherited from the pre-nationalisation railways by British Railways, those forces having been previously formed by powers available under common law to parishes, landowners and other bodies to appoint constables to patrol land and/or property under their control. This is distinct from the establishment of a police force by statute, as applicable to the Metropolitan Police in 1829; BTP did not have jurisdiction on a statutory basis until the enactment of the Transport Police (Jurisdiction) Act 1994,[22] which was subsequently amended by the Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003.[23]

"Policeman" v. "Constable"

 

Some early 19th century references to "railway police" or "policemen" do not concern constables but instead describe the men responsible for the signalling and control of the movement of trains (it is still common colloquial practice within railway staff for their modern equivalents in signal boxes and signalling centres to be called "Bobbies"). These personnel carried out their duties mostly in the open beside the track and were often dressed in a similar manner (e.g. a top hat and frock coat) to early police constables but were not directly concerned with law enforcement. Historical references (including those originating from the BTP itself) to when the first group of true "constables" was organised to patrol a railway should be treated with caution. This warning is repeated by the Metropolitan Police (MP) web page dealing with MP records of service which on the matter of records of other forces held by the Public Record Office (now the National Archives) states: "The occasional references to 'Police Department' in the railway staff records relate to signalmen etc. Although some were simultaneously County Constables."[24]

Navigators

 

A huge workforce was required to build the ever expanding railway system. These armies of rough workers - navigators, or "navvies" for short - brought fear into rural Victorian England. The Special Constables Act 1838 was passed which required railway and other companies to bear the cost of constables keeping the peace near construction works.

Historical crime

 

The continually expanding network of railways gave criminals new opportunities to move around the country and commit crime. The railways were pioneers of the electric telegraph and its use often involved the arrest of criminals arriving or departing by train. On 1 January 1845 a Railway Police Sergeant became the first person to arrest a murderer following the use of an electric telegraph.

 

In 1838 the Royal Mail was conveyed by rail for the first time. The first mail thefts were reported shortly afterwards. In 1848 the Eastern Counties Railway lost 76 pieces of luggage in just one day, and by the following year thefts from the largest six railways amounted to over £100,000 a year.

 

The first railway murder was committed by Franz Muller, who robbed and killed a fellow passenger on a North London Railway train in 1864.

 

The first arrest abroad by the British Police was made in 1874 when a Metropolitan Police Inspector accompanied by a Railway Police Inspector went to the United States to arrest an embezzler.

Reorganisation

 

From 1900, several railway companies re-organised their police forces. The London, Brighton and South Coast Railway virtually reformed their police force from scratch in that year, followed by the Great Eastern Railway, the North Eastern Railway and Midland Railway in 1910, the Caledonian Railway in 1917 and lastly the Great Western Railway in 1918.

Inter-war years

 

The Railways Act 1921 amalgamated over one hundred separate railway systems (of which about 20 had organised police forces) into four groups:

 

The Great Western Railway

The London and North Eastern Railway

The London, Midland and Scottish Railway

The Southern Railway

 

Each had its own police force controlled by a Chief of Police. These four forces were organised in the same way; each split into a number of divisions headed by a superintendent, divided into a number of divisions posts led by an inspector. Detectives worked with their uniformed colleagues at most locations. Many 'non-police' duties were retained however, with officers acting as crossing keepers or locking and sealing wagons.

World War II

 

During the war, the strength of the railway police doubled. With many men conscripted, special constables and women police were again employed.

Post war

Two parked BTP vehicles in York

 

In 1947 the Transport Act created the British Transport Commission (BTC) which unified the railway system. On 1 January 1949 the British Transport Commission Police were created, formed from the four old railway police forces, canal police and several minor dock forces. In 1957 the Maxwell-Johnson enquiry found that policing requirements for the railway could not be met by civil forces and that it was essential that a specialist police force be retained. On 1 January 1962 the British Transport Commission Police ceased to cover British Waterways property[25] and exactly a year later when the BTC was abolished the name of the force was amended to the British Transport Police. In 1984 London Buses decided not to use the British Transport Police. The British Transport Docks Board followed in 1985.

 

The force played a central role in the response to the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Three of the incidents were at London Underground stations: Edgware Road (Circle Line), Russell Square and Aldgate stations.

 

On 15 July 2006, a Dog Section Training School was opened at the Force Training establishment near Tadworth, Surrey.

 

In May 2011, the Secretary of State for Transport Philip Hammond announced that British Transport Police would create an armed capability of its own with the added benefit of additional resilience and capacity of the overall UK police armed capability.[26] The BTP are deployed on armed patrols using Glock 17 pistols, LMT AR-15 CQB carbines as well as tasers.[27]

How the BTP is funded

 

The British Transport Police is largely funded by the train operating companies, Network Rail, and the London Underground – part of Transport for London.[28] Around 95% of BTP's funding comes from the train operating companies.[29] Other operators with whom the BTP has a service agreement also contribute appropriately. This funding arrangement does not give the companies power to set objectives for the BTP, but there are industry representatives serving as members of the police authority.[30] The police authority decides objectives. The industry membership represent 5 out of 13 members.

 

There is also substantial counter-terrorism funding from the Home Office.

 

The police authority has agreed its budget for 2011/2012 at £250.2M.

Attestation

See also: Police Oath

 

Constables of the BTP are required by s.24 of the Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003 to make one of the following attestations, depending on the jurisdiction in which they have been appointed:

in England and Wales

 

I...of the British Transport Police do solemnly and sincerely declare and affirm that I will well and truly serve the Queen in the office of constable, with fairness, integrity, diligence, and impartiality, upholding fundamental human rights and according equal respect to all people; and that I will, to the best of my power, cause the peace to be kept and preserved and prevent all offences against people and property; and that while I continue to hold said office I will, to the best of my skill and knowledge, discharge all the duties thereof faithfully and according to law.

 

[Police Act 1996, Schedule 4 as amended.]

 

The attestation can be made in Welsh.

in Scotland

 

Constables are required to take the oath referred to (but not defined) in s.16 Police (Scotland) Act 1967, which is in simpler form, merely declaring faithfully to execute the duties of his or her office.[31]

 

Communications and Control rooms

 

As of March 2009, BTP operates two control rooms and one Call Handling Centre:

 

First Contact Centre: Based in Birmingham and responsible for handling all routine telephone traffic. This facility was created further to criticism by HMIC.[32][33]

Force Control Room – Birmingham: Based in Birmingham – alongside the First Contact Centre – and responsible for the East Midlands, West Midlands, Wales, the North West of England, the North East of England, the South West of England and Scotland.

Force Control Room – London: Responsible for the Greater London area (including the London Underground and Mainline) and the Home Counties.

 

Powers and status of officers

General powers

 

Under s.31 of the Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003, British Transport Police officers have "all the power and privileges of a constable" when:

 

on track, (any land or other property comprising the permanent way of any railway, taken together with the ballast, sleepers and metals laid thereon, whether or not the land or other property is also used for other purposes, any level crossings, bridges, viaducts, tunnels, culverts, retaining walls, or other structures used or to be used for the support of, or otherwise in connection with, track; and any walls, fences or other structures bounding the railway or bounding any adjacent or adjoining property)[34]

on network, (a railway line, or installations associated with a railway line)[34]

in a station, (any land or other property which consists of premises used as, or for the purposes of, or otherwise in connection with, a railway passenger station or railway passenger terminal (including any approaches, forecourt, cycle store or car park), whether or not the land or other property is, or the premises are, also used for other purposes)[34]

in a light maintenance depot,

on other land used for purposes of or in relation to a railway,

on other land in which a person who provides railway services has a freehold or leasehold interest, and

throughout Great Britain for a purpose connected to a railway or to anything occurring on or in relation to a railway.

 

"Railway" means a system of transport employing parallel rails which provide support and guidance for vehicles carried on flanged wheels, and form a track which either is of a gauge of at least 350 millimetres or crosses a carriageway (whether or not on the same level).[35]

 

A BTP constable may enter:

 

track,

a network,

a station,

a light maintenance depot, and

a railway vehicle.

 

without a warrant, using reasonable force if necessary, and whether or not an offence has been committed.[36] It is an offence to assault or impersonate a BTP constable.[37]

Outside natural jurisdiction

 

They need however to move between railway sites and often have a presence in city centres. Consequently, BTP officers can be called upon to intervene in incidents outside their natural jurisdiction. ACPO estimate that some such 8,000 incidents occur every year. As a result of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001[38] BTP officers can act as police constables outside their normal jurisdiction in the following circumstances:

On the request of constable

 

If requested by a constable of:

 

a Home Office police force,

the Ministry of Defence Police (MDP), or

the Civil Nuclear Constabulary (CNC)

 

to assist him/her in the execution of their duties in relation to a particular incident, investigation or operation, a BTP constable also has the powers of the requesting officer for the purposes of that incident, investigation or operation.[39] If a constable from a territorial police force makes the request, then the powers of the BTP constable extend only to the requesting constable's police area.[39] If a constable from the MDP or CNC makes the request, then the powers of the BTP officer are the same as those of the requesting constable.[39]

This tweak of the US Constitution is dedicated to all those anti-vaxers, anti-maskers, gun rights zealots and their ilk, who believe their individual rights to do as they please trumps the rights of WE The PEOPLE to Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness. The point of the document is to make WE a single collective noun--the people speaking in one voice, united by mutual sacrifice and compromise, and modulated by sound reasoning and the informed consent of the governed.

 

We can of course choose not to be governed this way, but that should, at least initially, be a choice we make as a people. An autocrat, once in power, can be difficult to remove, as we learned in 1776. In the 21st century, with what we now know about mass psychology and the use of force, and with the tools we have at our disposal (like mass media and social networking), the cost of revolution in life and treasure is virtually inconceivable. Powerful forces abroad wait for us to fail so they can sweep in should we fail.

 

The stakes are high, but it does not feel to me as though We the People is ready yet to abandon the pot. Rather it does feel as though a loose federation of minorities, leveraging our disinterest in primary elections, is attempting to shatter the foundations built at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. They seem to be trying to corrupt the courts, legislatures, governors mansions, the halls of congress, and even the ballot box itself, with partisans blindly loyal to the idea of power for its own sake. They long for autocracy, not democracy; for oppression, not governance. They are well on their way to making it happen--with cunning, deception, and force if necessary.

 

If that is what we want, let's vote for it openly. I believe most Americans believe in the concept of democracy, but we do not practice it well. Democracy is hard work. Know the issues and the candidates, be familiar with the science, the facts, and the law. Understand your own interests, both ethical and economic, and how the decisions of government, now in particular and in the future in principle, will affect you and the people who matter to you.

 

Most importantly: VOTE!!! Vote in primaries and mid-terms, where democracy is most vulnerable because our guard is down. Vote in local, county, and state races because decisions at that level are closest to your daily life and affect you most profoundly. Never pass up an opportunity to cast a ballot--That's what makes a democracy work.

 

Vote with your brain and with your heart. Speak out, but listen, too. Don't dismiss someone else's convictions because they conflict with your own. Compromise, don't cave. Don't accept anyone's facts without reliable information from alternate, ideally impartial, sources; trust, but verify. Prepare, then VOTE!!!

 

If we don't find the time and energy to do these things, then democracy does not work. We can pass along our just consent to be governed to an autocrat or demagogue, and be done with it. We can go back to world of widening economic and ethnic disparities, and our own lives of quiet desperation.

 

But won't be any going back. We the people will have failed, and there will be no place for Me the People, either. Let's not call that Liberty, okay?

“The values proposed by St Ivo retain an astonishing timeliness. His concern to promote impartial justice and to defend the rights of the poorest persons invites the builders of Europe today to make every effort to ensure that the rights of all, especially the weakest, are recognized and defended.”

– Pope St John Paul II, from this letter. .

 

Today, 19 May, is the feast of St Yves (or Ivo), who is the patron of lawyers.

After completing a spontaneous weaving, I loved how my piece evolved into this primitive doll.

 

Meet Themis, a Goddess in Athens who, in Greek mythology was the personification of divine or natural law and whose name was justice!

 

Themis was also credited with wisdom and prophecy (her son's name, Prometheus, means "foresight"), and with knowing secrets unknown even to Zeus. She was also known as a protector of the oppressed and of hospitality.

 

"Since the 16th century, Lady Justice has often been depicted wearing a blindfold. The blindfold represents impartiality, the ideal that justice should be applied without regard to wealth, power, or other status."

 

Not until I had finished creating Themis, did I realize the vintage wooden spool (her head) has the word "invisible" on the top. Her "blindfold" was created using rewound threads.

 

The hanging "pendulum" was found over the weekend in a jar of ephemera on my workbench! Here it represents the image of balance . . .

 

I love how the base mirrors the spirals in her sash.

حين تتجرد الملامح في الظروف الغامضة ..

  

I allow using my photos after my permission , and without disarming my rights ..

أسمح بإستخدام صوري بعد إذني ودون نزع حقوقي ..

    

____________________

    

ask || twitter || tumblr || sayat.me || instegram

 

It is almost five months since the Prime Minister of Jamaica, Bruce Golden, gave directive and sign-off on the deadly attack on the depressed community of Tivoli Gardens in West Kingston, Jamaica. The massive joint police and military operation on May 23, was unleashed to serve a warrant on Dudus Coke, a man wanted by the United States. The Jamaica Defense Force and the Jamaica Constabular Force, carried out a reign of terror on the community killing 73 people (official number). Citizens of the Tivoli Gardens and the Human Right organizations have given credible reports on extrajudicial killings by state security forces. To date the government of Jamaica has not set up any independent body to investigate the killings and human rights abuses.

 

"An independent and impartial investigation is critical to determine whether any of the killings were the result of excessive force or outright executions," said José Miguel Vivanco, Americas director at Human Rights Watch.

 

The United Nations Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms by Law Enforcement Officials provides that law enforcement officials, in carrying out their duty, shall, as far as possible, apply non-violent means before resorting to the use of force and firearms. Whenever the lawful use of force and firearms is unavoidable, law enforcement officials shall use restraint and act in proportion to the seriousness of the offense. The legitimate objective should be achieved with minimal damage and injury, and preservation of human life respected. The Basic Principles call for an effective reporting and review process, especially in cases of death and serious injury.

 

To ensure that the residents of West Kingston and the trauma they have experienced are not soon forgotten, Jamaicans for Justice have produced a short video focusing on the survivors. Please watch the video below and please distribute widely to interested networks. The video also signifies the launch of Jamaicans for Justice in Tivoli Gardens media campaign. Today the Government authorities have not conducted prompt, thorough, and impartial investigations into alleged killings and human right abuses carried out on the community.

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKbtMQoJTsc

 

Jamaicans for Justice

2 Fagan Avenue, Kingston 8

Phone: (876) 755-4524-6

Fax #: (876) 755-4355

Email: ja.for.justice@cwjamaica.com

Website: www.jamaicansforjustice.org

 

hcvanalysis.wordpress.com/2010/06/08/jamaica-internationa...

 

YOUTH MISSING WITHOUT A TRACE

www.jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20101011/lead/lead1.html

Today's story and sketch "by me" we are in Pasadena

California for the 129th Rose parade and Rose Bowl

Football game between Georgia and Oklahoma. Santa will

be attending the game he will be sitting on the Oklahoma

side the first half, and the Georgia side the second to

be impartial he is dating teachers from both schools.

But those are stories for another time.

Santa will not be in the parade this year but will be

watching two of his reindeer pulling the winner of the

best use of wild flowers entry, the "IBGHA" International

Brotherhood of Goat Herders Association gypsy wagon,

and I bet you can't wait to see the sketch of that one.

Until then taa ta the Rod Blog.

Fightin’ Texas A&M Aggie Ring ’84 loves good BBQ. In fact, he’s positive most Texas Aggie Rings do. “I’m sure that there’s a vegetarian Aggie Ring or two out there, but that leaves more for the rest of the Aggie Rings, doesn’t it?” is what Aggie Ring ’84 always says.

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 likes the BBQ in New Jersey where he lives and rules the boardwalk on the Jersey Shore. He loved the BBQ in Central and South Texas when he used to live there and he found the BBQ up around Monterey, California where he was once stationed identical to Texas BBQ which was all good for Aggie Ring.

 

All of that aside, Aggie Ring ’84 has found the BBQ in Kansas City to be the “gold standard” for BBQ. “It just doesn’t get any better than KC BBQ.” said Aggie Ring. (Note: Aggie Ring ’84 has never lived in Kansas City, so he is a truly impartial Aggie Ring!) Now, every state has some special features. Aggie Ring ’84 especially loves some of the hot peppers and apple empanadas, not to mention the greens, that Texas offers. California BBQ had some damn good fresh sliced artichoke served along with it. New Jersey BBQ has, well, the Jersey Shore, according to Aggie Ring ’84.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 has had some extremely excellent BBQ on his many Aggie Ring vacations to Kansas City of the brisket and rib variety. Aggie Ring ’84 still thinks Texas rules on the BBQ chicken and German/Polish sausage. However, Kansas City has the best brisket and ribs (steaks too) in the United States in Aggie Ring’s simple Aggie Ring opinion.

 

When Aggie Ring ’84 is gracing Kansas City with his Aggie Ringliness, he especially likes visiting Historic Westport Kansas City for a variety of reasons: best doughnuts in KC, best cigar lounge in KC, and bar in the oldest building in KC. This year, Aggie Ring ’84 ran into three locals in Westport and asked them where the best BBQ in Kansas City was. All three of them replied. “Go to the Char Bar in Westport. It’s the best!”

 

Aggie Ring decided that local recommendations about food are the best. “Screw Yelp!” said Aggie Ring. So, Aggie Ring went to this “Char Bar” that came highly recommended by the locals. Upon entering the “Char Bar,” Aggie Ring ’84 was in awe. First of all, the place was huge. Aggie Ring could have line danced in the inside and outside portions of the “joint.” Secondly, they had a full top-shelf bar. In Texas Aggie Ring’s humble opinion, BBQ just isn’t BBQ without “adult beverage.” However, Aggie Ring ’84 decided to reserve his Aggie Ring opinion until he tried the “goods.”

 

Texas Aggie Ring promptly took a seat at the bar and, after ordering a fine bourbon, began to peruse the menu. There were so many choices that a simple Texas Aggie Ring couldn’t even guess at what to order. For “starters” they had: Lobster Deviled Eggs (charred lobster and pea shoots), Grit Hushpuppies, Fried Green Tomatoes (Aggie Ring fell in love with these in Alabama), Jumbo Smoked Chicken Wings (bbq drizzle and buttermilk-chive dressing), amongst many others.

 

Fixin’s included: BBQ Pit Beans, Potato Salad, Cabbage Slaw, Carrot-Rasin Slaw and Smoked Corn Succotash, BBQ Pork Rinds, Beer-Battered Pickles, and too many other things to mention in this short summary.

 

The smoked meats included: Naked Burnt Brisket Ends (Kansas City is known for these), Ribs, Pulled Pork Butt, Black Angus Brisket, Hand-Cranked Sausage, Pulled Smoked Chicken, Smoked Turkey Breast, and something unknown to a simple Texas Aggie Ring called “Smoked Jackfruit.”

 

The dessert menu consisted of “Burnt Puddin’” (butterscotch custard and fresh blackberries), Bourbon Peach Crisp (almond crust, sticky male glaze and vanilla bean ice cream) and the “Velvet Elvis” (banana bread-peanut butter ice cream sandwich, spiced walnuts, bananas, cracker jacks, hot fudge, whipped cream, and a bourbon-soaked cherry.

 

There were a number of non-meat items on the menu with a skull and crossbones symbol next to them as a warning to real men and women who eat meat but I’ll not enumerate on them because Aggie Ring ’84 says, “Who cares about that stuff?”

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 watches my weight because he doesn’t want me to become a “Fat AG” and have to get him resized. So I let him do the ordering. After much cogitation on Aggie Ring 84’s part. He allowed me to order the BBQ Tray with Naked Burnt Brisket Ends and Smoked Corn Succotash served with pickles and toast. Also, an appetizer of lobster deviled eggs. I asked Aggie Ring ’84 “What about dessert?” Aggie Ring replied, “You can have another glass of bourbon for dessert. It’s got much less calories.”

 

The service at Char Bar was quick. I mean really, really quick. Before Aggie Ring had a chance to put a dent into his bourbon, our order was served. First, I have to say that the presentation was incredible. Our meal was served on butcher paper on a tray with the sides in hand thrown pottery bowls. Even the ramekin with a side sauce was steel and not plastic like something you’d get at Arby’s.

 

Aggie Ring looked at his meal and almost wept. The tray, the brown butcher paper, the freshly toasted bread, the ceramic bowl. It was almost too much for Aggie Ring. “This,” said Texas Aggie Ring, “Is how they roll in Kansas City!” Aggie Ring ’84 says that BBQ served on a plate or in a red plastic basket is for “lady boys” and not really BBQ. The “burnt ends” were “pure delight” said Aggie Ring. The lobster deviled eggs and smoked corn brought tears to Aggie Ring’s eye.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 ate his entire lunch and said, “This is the best BBQ in any state I’ve lived in!”

 

As Texas Aggie Ring ’84 and I were leaving the “Char Bar,” he said to me, “Did you see their Sunday only Fried Chicken special with a whole chicken southern fried with whipped potatoes, pan gravy, “big-ass” buttermilk biscuits, and Tabasco honey?” I told Aggie Ring, “Hell, I’d come back just for the Tabasco honey!”

 

#AggieRing #TexasAggie #AggiesEverywhere

Saint Simeon Stylites was a Syriac ascetic saint who achieved notability for living 37 years on a small platform on top of a pillar near Aleppo (in modern Syria).

 

Simeon was the son of a shepherd. He was born in Sis, now the Turkish town of Kozan in Adana Province. Sis was in the Roman province of Cilicia.

 

According to Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrrhus, Simeon developed a zeal for Christianity at the age of 13, following a reading of the Beatitudes. He entered a monastery before the age of 16. From the first, he gave himself up to the practice of an austerity so extreme and to all appearance so extravagant, that his brethren judged him to be unsuited to any form of community life. They asked Simeon to leave the monastery.

 

He shut himself up in a hut for one and a half years, where he passed the whole of Lent without eating or drinking. When he emerged from the hut, his achievement was hailed as a miracle. He later took to standing continually upright so long as his limbs would sustain him.

 

After one and a half years in his hut, Simeon sought a rocky eminence on the slopes of what is now the Sheik Barakat Mountain, part of Mount Simeon. He chose to live within a narrow space, less than 20 meters in diameter. But crowds of pilgrims invaded the area to seek him out, asking his counsel or his prayers, and leaving him insufficient time for his own devotions. This eventually led him to adopt a new way of life.

 

Simeon discovered a pillar which had survived among ruins in nearby Telanissa (modern-day Taladah in Syria), and formed a small platform at the top. He determined to live out his life on this platform. For sustenance small boys from the nearby village would climb up the pillar and pass him parcels of flat bread and goats' milk.

 

When the monastic Elders living in the desert heard about Simeon, they wanted to test him to determine whether his extreme feats were founded in humility or pride. They decided to order Simeon under obedience to come down from the pillar. They decided that if he disobeyed, they would forcibly drag him to the ground, but if he was willing to submit, they were to leave him on his pillar. St Simeon displayed complete obedience and humility, and the monks told him to stay where he was.

 

The first pillar that Simeon occupied was little more than 3 meters (9 ft). He later moved his platform to others, the last in the series reportedly more than 15 meters (50 ft) from the ground. At the top of the pillar was a platform, which is believed to have been about one square meter and surrounded by a baluster.

 

Edward Gibbon in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire describes Simeon's life as follows:

 

"In this last and lofty station, the Syrian Anachoret resisted the heat of thirty summers, and the cold of as many winters. Habit and exercise instructed him to maintain his dangerous situation without fear or giddiness, and successively to assume the different postures of devotion. He sometimes prayed in an erect attitude, with his outstretched arms in the figure of a cross, but his most familiar practice was that of bending his meagre skeleton from the forehead to the feet; and a curious spectator, after numbering twelve hundred and forty-four repetitions, at length desisted from the endless account. The progress of an ulcer in his thigh might shorten, but it could not disturb, this celestial life; and the patient Hermit expired, without descending from his column."

 

Even on the highest of his columns, Simeon was not withdrawn from the world. If anything, the new pillar attracted even more people, both pilgrims who had earlier visited him and sightseers as well. Simeon was available each afternoon to talk with visitors. By means of a ladder, visitors were able to ascend within speaking distance. It is known that he wrote letters, the text of some of which have survived to this day, that he instructed disciples, and that he also lectured to those assembled beneath. He especially preached against profanity and usury. In contrast to the extreme austerity that he practised, his preaching conveyed temperance and compassion, and was marked with common sense and freedom from fanaticism.

 

Much of Simeon's public ministry, like that of other Syrian ascetics, can be seen as socially cohesive in the context of the Roman East. In the face of the withdrawal of wealthy landowners to the large cities, holy men such as Simeon acted as impartial and necessary patrons and arbiters in disputes between peasant farmers and within the smaller towns.

 

Later, a Basilica was built aroiund St. Simeon's pillar. A steady stream of pilgrims came to visit the site, leading to construction of quarters to house them. A 'pandocheion' is an inn, or public house for the reception of pilgrims and other visitors.

Sort of like the Justice League, without the super heros :-)

 

One of the most recognized legal symbols visible in the architecture of the Supreme Court Building is the female figure representing Justice, who is depicted in three sculptural groups. Portraying Justice as a female figure dates back to depictions of Themis and Justicia in ancient mythology. Themis, known for her clear-sightedness, was the Greek Goddess of Justice and Law. In Roman mythology, Justicia (Justice) was one of the four Virtues along with Prudence, Fortitude and Temperance. Over time, Justice became associated with scales to represent impartiality and a sword to symbolize power. During the 16th century, Justice was often portrayed with a blindfold. The origin of the blindfold is unclear, but it seems to have been added to indicate the tolerance of, or ignorance to, abuse of the law by the judicial system. Today, the blindfold is generally accepted as a symbol of impartiality, but may be used to signify these other traits in political cartoons. To the left of the steps leading to the main entrance is Contemplation of Justice by James Earle Fraser. In this sculpture, a seated female figure reflects on a small figure of Justice that she holds in her right hand (right and detail above). The figure of Justice is blindfolded and cradles a set of scales in her arms.

 

Source: Office of the Curator -Supreme Court of the United States

www.supremecourtus.gov/about/figuresofjustice.pdf

The Myth.

Ariadne was daughter of Minos, king of Crete, and Pasiphae. When Theseus arrived from Athens to kill the Minotaur, housed in the Labyrinth, Ariadne fell in love with him. She provided him with a ball of thread that guided him safely out of the Labyrinth once the Minotaur was dead, then fled with him to escape her father's anger. Theseus had promised to marry her and take her with him to Athens, but on the island of Dia, later called Naxos, he abandoned her – some say from choice, others on the command of the gods - and Ariadne awoke in the morning to find herself alone and to see her lover's ship speeding into the distance. She was desolate for long until the god Dionysus arrived in his chariot drawn by panthers, accompanied by his reveling entourage of Satyrs and maenads, and he carried Ariadne off to be his wife, giving her the gift of immortality. As a wedding present he also gave her a golden crown, made by Hephaestus, that was later set among the stars as the Corona Borealis. Ariadne bore him four sons, Oenopion, Staphylus, Thoas and Peparethus.

The theme of Ariadne's abandonment by Theseus and her rescue by Dionysus appears frequently in ancient art and literature, but was to prove even more inspirational for postclassical artists, in literature, the fine arts and music, especially opera, where she becomes a symbol of new life and hope after abandonment to despair and death.

 

Jennifer R. March. “Dictionary of Classical Mythology”

 

The Sarcophagus

The so-called "Wedding Scene" of Dionysus and Ariadne is the allegory of mutual love between husband and wife. It is an iconographic model passed down by two specimens of the highest quality: this sarcophagus and another one exhibited in Copenhagen.

At the center of the scene the two lovers are sitting on a rocky rise with relaxed pose. Their eyes, suggesting a state of ecstatic contemplation, express the intimate bond between husband and wife: the love between Ariadne and Dionysus is understood and represented as a blissful state out of time. Their heads are unfinished: they were intended to be reworked as portraits of the deceased.

The scene is framed by two bearded statues of Dionysus wearing a long chiton and portrayed in archaizing style; satyrs, maenads and Hermes watch the couple as a prodigious occurrence. Under the two protagonists, the artist has carved a small group of mythological characters representing the victory of Eros on the lascivious Pan. The not impartial arbiter of the competition is the old Silenus who is trying to lighten the effort of Eros with his fan.

According to the myth Ariadne was abandoned by Theseus on Naxos. In the world of Dionysus, Ariadne is no longer alone: the god is not a simple comforter, he dispenses happiness and serenity. This mythical metaphor would be very suitable to emphasize the transition from an earthly life full of troubles to another happy existence in a Dionysian afterlife. These images are therephore open to different interpretations. They can be read as a consolation for the relatives, in the event that the deceased woman has found peace in death, as Ariadne, after long suffering; as a celebration of the conjugal love; as an expression of nostalgia from her husband; as a wish for a blessed life after death; or as a picture of a possible reunion of two lovers.

The Lid

A "parapetasma" runs along the entire scene carved on the lid rise. The reclining figures of Ariadne and Dionysus are represented in a specular manner at center of the lid. Dionysus holding a cup with his left hand, bents his right arm above the head. Arianna reaches out her left hand holding a wreath, in the other hand she has a cup. An erote with a torch is fliing from left towards Dionysus while, in the opposite direction, Psyche holding a wreath flies towards Arianna.

On the left, behind Pan and Silenus raising his arm on the head, a double-flute player closes the scene. On the right corner of the scene, a semi-reclining satyr with a cup. Two heads of young satyrs are arranged as acroteria on the sides of the lid.

 

Source: Zanker P. & Ewald BC., “Vivere con i Miti. L’iconografia dei sarcogagi Romani”

 

Marble sarcophagus

Approx. 200 AD

Rome, Museo Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano

 

on Instagram instagr.am/p/VQPA-yAour/

Yuri (gently): “I can see that easily, Georgie. You have raised an accomplished, well-adjusted young lady, and you are not much more than a child yourself. You do not have my pity, but my admiration.”

 

Georgie: *turns to stare at Yuri, eyes growing suspiciously bright* “What an extraordinarily kind thing to say to a virtual stranger.”

 

Yuri: *shrugs* “Kind, perhaps, but more importantly, true. You look barely out of your teens.”

 

Georgie (softly): “I’m almost twenty-two, and age doesn’t always indicate maturity.”

 

Yuri: “A very astute statement to be sure. I cannot help but note you and Lizzy both share names with characters from one of my favorite novels. I do not suppose…”

 

Georgie: *smiles* “Yes, our mom was a huge fan of Pride and Prejudice. My full name’s Georgiana. Lizzy’s is Elizabeth.”

 

Yuri (enraptured): “How wonderful!”

 

Georgie: “Well, Lizzy’s fine, but I suffered through years of being called Georgie-Porgie.”

 

Yuri: *commiserating grimace* “I understand. Being the only Yuri amidst a sea of Amandas and Jennifers was quite bothersome as a child. Now, I would not change my name for any enticement, since it is the one my mother chose for me…and I cherished her more than words could ever express. She died when I was around the same age as Lizzy when she lost her mother.”

 

Yuri & Georgie: *share a silent look, loaded with meaning, and suddenly decide they like one another enormously*

 

Georgie: “Lizzy spent days choosing what pieces to show you. It really helped take her mind off things, so I appreciate this, Mrs. Monroe. It means a lot to her…and me.”

 

Yuri: “Do you think she has talent?”

 

Georgie: “Of course, but I am hardly an impartial judge. I will say that our mom was a sculptor and a potter, so we grew up surrounded by art and Lizzy has something rare—a way of looking at the world that surprises and moves. She’s special.”

 

Yuri: *brow furrows, as she clearly deliberates over something* “Georgie, this is going to sound quite out of the blue, but I do not suppose you are currently in need of a job?”

 

Georgie: *face goes blank with shock* “Why…yes…I am. How did you know? I just joined the ranks of the unemployed less than an hour ago.”

 

Yuri (gleefully): “How serendipitous! I am looking for a full-time employee, and I believe you would fit the bill nicely. I daresay you will find the pay fair, and it comes with health benefits as well. Plus, Lizzy and Hermione are welcome to come here after school and study in the workroom, if they so desire. I assume those two come as a paired set, hmm?”

 

Georgie (astonished): “Are you serious? You are offering me a job here, which is a million times better than where I was working, and you don’t mind Lizzy and Mione underfoot, either?”

 

Yuri: “Yes, I believe that is the size of it. I assure you this type of slapdash behavior is not normal for me, but I have rarely felt kinship with a person so quickly. I have a very good feeling about you, Georgiana Millard, and I am rarely wrong. About anything.”

 

Georgie: *nods slowly* “In that case…yes! Absolutely, unswervingly, resoundingly yes! You will not regret this Mrs. Monroe. I will be the best employee you’ve ever had! I promise you!”

 

Yuri: *beams* “I believe you. Shall we shake on it, then?”

 

Georgie: *clasps Yuri’s hand between both of her own, voice tight with emotion* “Thank you.”

 

Yuri (warmly): “You are welcome. I believe you and I are going to get along brilliantly. Now, shall we go see what our budding Monet has in store for us?”

 

Georgie: *nods mutely, still shell-shocked, as she allows Yuri to lead her through the gallery, towards her sister and a much brighter future*

 

Continued Next Tuesday…

 

Fashion Credits

**Any doll enhancements (i.e. freckles, piercings, eye color changes, haircuts, restyles) were done by me unless otherwise stated.**

 

Yuri

Dress: Randall Craig RTW – Delightful

Jacket: Jia Jia Doll (etsy.com)

Belt: Randall Craig RTW – Belt Pack

Shoes: IT – Monogram – Extravagance

Necklace: Mattel – BFMC – Dawn ‘til Dusk

Earrings: IT – NuFace – Painted Black Erin

 

Doll is Nu.Fantasy Little Red Riding Hood Yuri transplanted to a NuFace body.

 

Georgie

Sweater & Skirt: Cangaway (etsy.com)

Belt: Volks – Who’s That Girl? – Selfish

Shoes: IT – FR2 – Only Natural

Purse: Mattel – Generation Girl Chelsea – I made the purse charm.

Earrings: Me

 

Doll is a Sweet Confections Poppy Parker.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. According to traditions dating back to the 4th century, it contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, at a place known as Calvary or Golgotha, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected. Each time the church was rebuilt, some of the antiquities from the preceding structure were used in the newer renovation. The tomb itself is enclosed by a 19th-century shrine called the Aedicule. The Status Quo, an understanding between religious communities dating to 1757, applies to the site.

 

Within the church proper are the last four stations of the Cross of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of the Passion of Jesus. The church has been a major Christian pilgrimage destination since its creation in the 4th century, as the traditional site of the resurrection of Christ, thus its original Greek name, Church of the Anastasis ('Resurrection').

 

Control of the church itself is shared, a simultaneum, among several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic, and to a lesser degree the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches.

 

Following the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins. In AD 130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of Aelia Capitolina, on the site. Circa AD 135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb be filled in to create a flat foundation for a temple dedicated to Jupiter or Venus. The temple remained until the early 4th century.

 

After allegedly seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great began to favor Christianity, signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion, and sent his mother, Helena, to Jerusalem to look for Christ's tomb. With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary. Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church. After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus. A shrine was built, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own.

 

In 327, Constantine and Helena separately commissioned the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem to commemorate the birth of Jesus.

 

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, planned by the architect Zenobius, was built as separate constructs over the two holy sites: a rotunda called the Anastasis ("Resurrection"), where Helena and Macarius believed Jesus to have been buried, and across a courtyard to the east, the great basilica, an enclosed colonnaded atrium (the Triportico, sometimes called the Martyrium) with the traditional site of Calvary in one corner. The church was consecrated on 13 September 335. The Church Of The Holy Sepulchre site has been recognized since early in the 4th century as the place where Jesus was crucified, buried, and rose from the dead.

 

This building was destroyed by a fire in May of AD 614, when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius rebuilt the church after recapturing the city. After Jerusalem came under Islamic rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction or use as living quarters. A story reports that the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony, but at the time of prayer, turned away from the church and prayed outside. He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius of Alexandria adds that Umar wrote a decree saying that Muslims would not inhabit this location. The building suffered severe damage from an earthquake in 746.

 

Early in the 9th century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas I. In 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent to the Church. In 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, a riot broke out, which was followed by reprisals. The basilica was burned again. The doors and roof were burnt, and Patriarch John VII was murdered.

 

On 18 October 1009, Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the complete destruction of the church as part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt. The damage was extensive, with few parts of the early church remaining, and the roof of the rock-cut tomb damaged; the original shrine was destroyed. Some partial repairs followed. Christian Europe reacted with shock and expulsions of Jews, serving as an impetus to later Crusades.

 

In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–28, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the church. The rebuilding was finally completed during the tenures of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople in 1048. As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was reopened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name. Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the renunciation of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under al-Hakim's persecutions. In addition, the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by al-Hakim and the reestablishment of a patriarch in Jerusalem. Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made. Still, "a total replacement was far beyond available resources. The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins."

 

The rebuilt church site consisted of "a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it." The chapels were east of the court of resurrection (when reconstructed, the location of the tomb was under open sky), where the western wall of the great basilica had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the city streets. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as 'a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature'... since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the 11th century found much of the sacred site in ruins." Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the Crusaders' arrival in 1099.

 

Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Turkish invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was also of concern, if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abassids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.

 

The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. The classical theory is that Crusader leader Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first Latin ruler of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ("Protector [or Defender] of the Holy Sepulchre"). By the Crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, but there is no evidence of the site's identification before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th-century repairs by Monomachos.

 

According to the German priest and pilgrim Ludolf von Sudheim, the keys of the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre were in hands of the "ancient Georgians", and the food, alms, candles and oil for lamps were given to them by the pilgrims at the south door of the church.

 

Eight 11th- and 12th-century Crusader leaders (Godfrey, Baldwin I, Baldwin II, Fulk, Baldwin III, Amalric, Baldwin IV and Baldwin V — the first eight rulers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem) were buried in the south transept and inside the Chapel of Adam. The royal tombs were destroyed by the Greeks in 1809–1810. It is unclear if the remains of those men were exhumed; some researchers hypothesize that some of them may still be in unmarked pits under the church.

 

William of Tyre, chronicler of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, reports on the renovation of the Church in the mid-12th century. The Crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they transformed this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena, widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase. The Crusaders began to refurnish the church in Romanesque style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the holy places under one roof for the first time. The church became the seat of the first Latin patriarchs and the site of the kingdom's scriptorium. It was lost to Saladin, along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the site. Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century while under a ban of excommunication, with the curious consequence that the holiest church in Christianity was laid under interdict. The church seems to have been largely in the hands of Greek Orthodox patriarch Athanasius II of Jerusalem (c. 1231–47) during the Latin control of Jerusalem. Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244.

 

There was certainly a recognisable Nestorian (Church of the East) presence at the Holy Sepulchre from the years 1348 through 1575, as contemporary Franciscan accounts indicate. The Franciscan friars renovated the church in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an antechamber. A marble shrine commissioned by Friar Boniface of Ragusa was placed to envelop the remains of Christ's tomb, probably to prevent pilgrims from touching the original rock or taking small pieces as souvenirs. A marble slab was placed over the limestone burial bed where Jesus's body is believed to have lain.

 

After the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable firman from the "Sublime Porte" at a particular time, often through outright bribery. Violent clashes were not uncommon. There was no agreement about this question, although it was discussed at the negotiations to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. During the Holy Week of 1757, Orthodox Christians reportedly took over some of the Franciscan-controlled church. This may have been the cause of the sultan's firman (decree) later developed into the Status Quo.

 

A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–10 by architect Nikolaos Ch. Komnenos of Mytilene in the contemporary Ottoman Baroque style.[citation needed] The interior of the antechamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly rebuilt to a square ground plan in place of the previously semicircular western end.

 

Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and solidified the Status Quo for arrangements to "remain in their present state", requiring consensus to make even minor changes.

 

The dome was restored by Catholics, Greeks and Turks in 1868, being made of iron ever since.

 

By the time of the British Mandate for Palestine following the end of World War I, the cladding of red marble applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos had deteriorated badly and was detaching from the underlying structure; from 1947 until restoration work in 2016–17, it was held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities.

 

In 1948, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and the Old City with the church were made part of Jordan. In 1967, Israeli forces captured East Jerusalem in the Six Day War, and that area has remained under Israeli control ever since. Under Israeli rule, legal arrangements relating to the churches of East Jerusalem were maintained in coordination with the Jordanian government. The dome at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored again in 1994–97 as part of extensive modern renovations that have been ongoing since 1959. During the 1970–78 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan bazaar, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white meleke limestone was struck.

 

East of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second-century[dubious – discuss] drawing of a Roman pilgrim ship, two low walls supporting the platform of Hadrian's second-century temple, and a higher fourth-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica. After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena.

 

After seven decades of being held together by steel girders, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) declared the visibly deteriorating Aedicule structure unsafe. A restoration of the Aedicule was agreed upon and executed from May 2016 to March 2017. Much of the $4 million project was funded by the World Monuments Fund, as well as $1.3 million from Mica Ertegun and a significant sum from King Abdullah II of Jordan. The existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule was confirmed, and a window was created to view this from the inside. The presence of moisture led to the discovery of an underground shaft resembling an escape tunnel carved into the bedrock, seeming to lead from the tomb. For the first time since at least 1555, on 26 October 2016, marble cladding that protects the supposed burial bed of Jesus was removed. Members of the National Technical University of Athens were present. Initially, only a layer of debris was visible. This was cleared in the next day, and a partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved was revealed. By the night of 28 October, the original limestone burial bed was shown to be intact. The tomb was resealed shortly thereafter. Mortar from just above the burial bed was later dated to the mid-fourth century.

 

On 25 March 2020, Israeli health officials ordered the site closed to the public due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the keeper of the keys, it was the first such closure since 1349, during the Black Death. Clerics continued regular prayers inside the building, and it reopened to visitors two months later, on 24 May.

 

During church renovations in 2022, a stone slab covered in modern graffiti was moved from a wall, revealing Cosmatesque-style decoration on one face. According to an IAA archaeologist, the decoration was once inlaid with pieces of glass and fine marble; it indicates that the relic was the front of the church's high altar from the Crusader era (c. 1149), which was later used by the Greek Orthodox until being damaged in the 1808 fire.

 

The courtyard facing the entrance to the church is known as the parvis. Two streets open into the parvis: St Helena Road (west) and Suq ed-Dabbagha (east). Around the parvis are a few smaller structures.

 

South of the parvis, opposite the church:

 

Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—stand opposite the church, at the top of a short descending staircase stretching over the entire breadth of the parvis. In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids.

The Gethsemane Metochion, a small Greek Orthodox monastery (metochion).

On the eastern side of the parvis, south to north:

 

The Monastery of St Abraham (Greek Orthodox), next to the Suq ed-Dabbagha entrance to the parvis.

The Chapel of St John the Evangelist (Armenian Orthodox)

The Chapel of St Michael and the Chapel of the Four Living Creatures (both are disputed between the Copts and Ethiopians), giving access to Deir es-Sultan (also disputed), a rooftop monastery surrounding the dome of the Chapel of St Helena.

North of the parvis, in front of the church façade or against it:

 

Chapel of the Franks (Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows): a blue-domed Roman Catholic Crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary. The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus's garments).

Oratory of St. Mary of Egypt: a Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, directly beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt.

The tomb (including a ledgerstone) of Philip d'Aubigny aka Philip Daubeney (died 1236), a knight, tutor, and royal councilor to Henry III of England and signer of the Magna Carta—is placed in front of, and between, the church's two original entrance doors, of which the eastern one is walled up. It is one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Khwarizmian capture of Jerusalem in 1244. In the 1900s, during a fight between the Greeks and Latins, some monks damaged the tomb by throwing stones from the roof. A stone marker[clarification needed] was placed on his tomb in 1925, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor that hides it from view.[citation needed]

A group of three chapels borders the parvis on its west side. They originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinian church. The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex. Now they are dedicated as (from south to north)

 

The Chapel of St. James the Just (Greek Orthodox),

The Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Greek Orthodox),

The Chapel of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Greek Orthodox; at the base of the bell tower).

 

The 12th-century Crusader bell tower is just south of the Rotunda, to the left of the entrance. Its upper level was lost in a 1545 collapse. In 1719, another two storeys were lost.

 

The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved arched doors. Today, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right doorway has long since been bricked up. The entrance to the church leads to the south transept, through the crusader façade in the parvis of a larger courtyard. This is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa by way of a souq in the Muristan. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.

 

According to their own family lore, the Muslim Nuseibeh family has been responsible for opening the door as an impartial party to the church's denominations already since the seventh century. However, they themselves admit that the documents held by various Christian denominations only mention their role since the 12th century, in the time of Saladin, which is the date more generally accepted. After retaking Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin entrusted the Joudeh family with the key to the church, which is made of iron and 30 centimetres (12 in) long; the Nuseibehs either became or remained its doorkeepers.

 

The 'immovable ladder' stands beneath a window on the façade.

 

Just inside the church entrance is a stairway leading up to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus's crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The exit is via another stairway opposite the first, leading down to the ambulatory. Golgotha and its chapels are just south of the main altar of the catholicon.

 

Calvary is split into two chapels: one Greek Orthodox and one Catholic, each with its own altar. On the left (north) side, the Greek Orthodox chapel's altar is placed over the supposed rock of Calvary (the 12th Station of the Cross), which can be touched through a hole in the floor beneath the altar. The rock can be seen under protective glass on both sides of the altar. The softer surrounding stone was removed when the church was built. The Roman Catholic (Franciscan) Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (the 11th Station of the Cross) stretches to the south. Between the Catholic Altar of the Nailing to the Cross and the Orthodox altar is the Catholic Altar of the Stabat Mater, which has a statue of Mary with an 18th-century bust; this middle altar marks the 13th Station of the Cross.

 

On the ground floor, just underneath the Golgotha chapel, is the Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. According to some, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill Adam's skull. Through a window at the back of the 11th-century apse, the rock of Calvary can be seen with a crack traditionally held to be caused by the earthquake that followed Jesus's death;[78] some scholars claim it is the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.

 

Behind the Chapel of Adam is the Greek Treasury (Treasury of the Greek Patriarch). Some of its relics, such as a 12th-century crystal mitre, were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Museum (the Patriarchal Museum) on Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Street.

 

Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition holds to be where Jesus's body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea, though this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.

 

The wall behind the stone is defined by its striking blue balconies and taphos symbol-bearing red banners (depicting the insignia of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre), and is decorated with lamps. The modern mosaic along the wall depicts the anointing of Jesus's body, preceded on the right by the Descent from the Cross, and succeeded on the left by the Burial of Jesus.

 

The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the catholicon, sits on top of four of the now empty and desecrated Crusader graves and is no longer structurally necessary. Opinions differ as to whether it is to be seen as the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and located between the 11th and 12th stations on Calvary.

 

The lamps that hang over the Stone of Unction, adorned with cross-bearing chain links, are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins.

 

Immediately inside and to the left of the entrance is a bench (formerly a divan) that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring. To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing the staircase leading to Golgotha. Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.

 

The rotunda is the building of the larger dome located on the far west side. In the centre of the rotunda is a small chapel called the Aedicule in English, from the Latin aedicula, in reference to a small shrine. The Aedicule has two rooms: the first holds a relic called the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second, smaller room contains the tomb of Jesus. Possibly to prevent pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, by 1555, a surface of marble cladding was placed on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb. In October 2016, the top slab was pulled back to reveal an older, partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved in it. Beneath it, the limestone burial bed was revealed to be intact.

 

Under the Status Quo, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire led by the Greek Orthodox patriarch (with the participation of the Coptic and Armenian patriarchs). To its rear, in the Coptic Chapel, constructed of iron latticework, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox. Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.

 

To the right of the sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.

 

In the central nave of the Crusader-era church, just east of the larger rotunda, is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox catholicon. Its dome is 19.8 metres (65 ft) in diameter, and is set directly over the centre of the transept crossing of the choir where the compas is situated, an omphalos ("navel") stone once thought to be the center of the world and still venerated as such by Orthodox Christians (associated with the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection).

 

Since 1996 this dome is topped by the monumental Golgotha Crucifix, which the Greek Patriarch Diodoros I of Jerusalem consecrated. It was at the initiative of Israeli professor Gustav Kühnel to erect a new crucifix at the church that would not only be worthy of the singularity of the site, but that would also become a symbol of the efforts of unity in the community of Christian faith.

 

The catholicon's iconostasis demarcates the Orthodox sanctuary behind it, to its east. The iconostasis is flanked to the front by two episcopal thrones: the southern seat (cathedra) is the patriarchal throne of the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, and the northern seat is for an archbishop or bishop. (There is also a popular claim that both are patriarchal thrones, with the northern one being for the patriarch of Antioch — which has been described as a misstatement, however.)

 

South of the Aedicule is the "Place of the Three Marys", marked by a stone canopy (the Station of the Holy Women) and a large modern wall mosaic. From here one can enter the Armenian monastery, which stretches over the ground and first upper floor of the church's southeastern part.

 

West of the Aedicule, to the rear of the Rotunda, is the Syriac Chapel with the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located in a Constantinian apse and containing an opening to an ancient Jewish rock-cut tomb. This chapel is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays.

 

The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus. On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass. It is accessed from the Rotunda, by a door west of the Aedicule.

 

On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to an almost complete first-century Jewish tomb, initially holding six kokh-type funeral shafts radiating from a central chamber, two of which are still exposed. Although this space was discovered relatively recently and contains no identifying marks, some believe that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here. Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, the presence of this tomb seems to prove that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion.

 

The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel, an open area, indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.

 

The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), directly north of the above – in memory of Jesus's meeting with his mother after the Resurrection, a non-scriptural tradition. Here stands a piece of an ancient column, allegedly part of the one Jesus was tied to during his scourging.

 

The Arches of the Virgin are seven arches (an arcade) at the northern end of the north transept, which is to the catholicon's north. Disputed by the Orthodox and the Latin, the area is used to store ladders.

 

In the northeast side of the complex, there is the Prison of Christ, alleged to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox are showing pilgrims yet another place where Jesus was allegedly held, the similarly named Prison of Christ in their Monastery of the Praetorium, located near the Church of Ecce Homo, between the Second and Third Stations of the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation at the Second Station of the Via Dolorosa as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins beneath the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ. To reconcile the traditions, some allege that Jesus was held in the Mount Zion cell in connection with his trial by the Jewish high priest, at the Praetorium in connection with his trial by the Roman governor Pilate, and near the Golgotha before crucifixion.

 

The chapels in the ambulatory are, from north to south: the Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus (named after Longinus), the Armenian Chapel of the Division of Robes, the entrance to the Chapel of Saint Helena, and the Greek Chapel of the Derision.

 

Chapel of Saint Helena – between the Chapel of the Division of Robes and the Greek Chapel of the Derision are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena. The Armenians, who own it, call it the Chapel of St. Gregory the Illuminator, after the saint who brought Christianity to the Armenians.

 

Chapel of St Vartan (or Vardan) Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan. The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are open only on request.

 

Chapel of the Invention of the Cross (named for the Invention (Finding) of the Holy Cross) – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found.

 

An Ottoman decree of 1757 helped establish a status quo upholding the state of affairs for various Holy Land sites. The status quo was upheld in Sultan Abdülmecid I's firman (decree) of 1852/3, which pinned down the now-permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.

 

The primary custodians are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches. The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox also acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building.

 

None of these controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nusaybah family. The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors. The Joudeh al-Goudia (al-Ghodayya) family were entrusted as custodian to the keys of the Holy Sepulchre by Saladin in 1187. Despite occasional disagreements, religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is generally peaceful. An example of concord between the Church custodians is the full restoration of the Aedicule from 2016 to 2017.

 

The establishment of the modern Status Quo in 1853 did not halt controversy and occasional violence. In 1902, 18 friars were hospitalized and some monks were jailed after the Franciscans and Greeks disagreed over who could clean the lowest step of the Chapel of the Franks. In the aftermath, the Greek patriarch, Franciscan custos, Ottoman governor and French consul general signed a convention that both denominations could sweep it. On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fight. In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.

 

On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers. On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.

 

In February 2018, the church was closed following a tax dispute over 152 million euros of uncollected taxes on church properties. The city hall stressed that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all other churches are exempt from the taxes, with the changes only affecting establishments like "hotels, halls and businesses" owned by the churches. NPR had reported that the Greek Orthodox Church calls itself the second-largest landowner in Israel, after the Israeli government.

 

There was a lock-in protest against an Israeli legislative proposal which would expropriate church lands that had been sold to private companies since 2010, a measure which church leaders assert constitutes a serious violation of their property rights and the Status Quo. In a joint official statement the church authorities protested what they considered to be the peak of a systematic campaign in:

 

a discriminatory and racist bill that targets solely the properties of the Christian community in the Holy Land ... This reminds us all of laws of a similar nature which were enacted against the Jews during dark periods in Europe.

 

The 2018 taxation affair does not cover any church buildings or religious related facilities (because they are exempt by law), but commercial facilities such as the Notre Dame Hotel which was not paying the municipal property tax, and any land which is owned and used as a commercial land. The church holds the rights to land where private homes have been constructed, and some of the disagreement had been raised after the Knesset had proposed a bill that will make it harder for a private company not to extend a lease for land used by homeowners. The church leaders have said that such a bill will make it harder for them to sell church-owned lands. According to The Jerusalem Post:

 

The stated aim of the bill is to protect homeowners against the possibility that private companies will not extend their leases of land on which their houses or apartments stand.

 

In June 2019, a number of Christian denominations in Jerusalem raised their voice against the Supreme Court's decision to uphold the sale of three properties by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to Ateret Cohanim – an organization that seeks to increase the number of Jews living in the Old City and East Jerusalem. The church leaders warned that if the organization gets to control the sites, Christians could lose access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In June 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the sale and ended the legal battle.

 

The site of the church had been a temple to Jupiter or Venus built by Hadrian before Constantine's edifice was built. Hadrian's temple had been located there because it was the junction of the main north–south road with one of the two main east–west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (now the location of the Muristan, which is smaller than the former forum). The forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north–south road with the other main east–west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east–west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the Russian Mission in Exile).

 

From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall of the temple itself would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.

 

Other archaeologists have criticized Corbo's reconstructions. Dan Bahat, the former city archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known temple of Aphrodite (Venus) matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the temple building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda was not based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site.

 

The New Testament describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall,[l] as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean. Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem. It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church. In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus's time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.

 

The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early first century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.[citation needed]

 

The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem.

 

The Christian Quarter and the (also Christian) Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem are both located in the northwestern and western part of the Old City, due to the fact that the Holy Sepulchre is located close to the northwestern corner of the walled city. The adjacent neighbourhood within the Christian Quarter is called the Muristan, a term derived from the Persian word for hospital – Christian pilgrim hospices have been maintained in this area near the Holy Sepulchre since at least the time of Charlemagne.

 

From the ninth century onward, the construction of churches inspired by the Anastasis was extended across Europe. One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.

 

Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been wholly or partially modeled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. They include the Heiliges Grab ("Holy Tomb") of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504, the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.

 

Author Andrew Holt writes that the church is the most important in all Christendom.

  

Fightin’ Texas A&M Aggie Ring ’84 loves good BBQ. In fact, he’s positive most Texas Aggie Rings do. “I’m sure that there’s a vegetarian Aggie Ring or two out there, but that leaves more for the rest of the Aggie Rings, doesn’t it?” is what Aggie Ring ’84 always says.

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 likes the BBQ in New Jersey where he lives and rules the boardwalk on the Jersey Shore. He loved the BBQ in Central and South Texas when he used to live there and he found the BBQ up around Monterey, California where he was once stationed identical to Texas BBQ which was all good for Aggie Ring.

 

All of that aside, Aggie Ring ’84 has found the BBQ in Kansas City to be the “gold standard” for BBQ. “It just doesn’t get any better than KC BBQ.” said Aggie Ring. (Note: Aggie Ring ’84 has never lived in Kansas City, so he is a truly impartial Aggie Ring!) Now, every state has some special features. Aggie Ring ’84 especially loves some of the hot peppers and apple empanadas, not to mention the greens, that Texas offers. California BBQ had some damn good fresh sliced artichoke served along with it. New Jersey BBQ has, well, the Jersey Shore, according to Aggie Ring ’84.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 has had some extremely excellent BBQ on his many Aggie Ring vacations to Kansas City of the brisket and rib variety. Aggie Ring ’84 still thinks Texas rules on the BBQ chicken and German/Polish sausage. However, Kansas City has the best brisket and ribs (steaks too) in the United States in Aggie Ring’s simple Aggie Ring opinion.

 

When Aggie Ring ’84 is gracing Kansas City with his Aggie Ringliness, he especially likes visiting Historic Westport Kansas City for a variety of reasons: best doughnuts in KC, best cigar lounge in KC, and bar in the oldest building in KC. This year, Aggie Ring ’84 ran into three locals in Westport and asked them where the best BBQ in Kansas City was. All three of them replied. “Go to the Char Bar in Westport. It’s the best!”

 

Aggie Ring decided that local recommendations about food are the best. “Screw Yelp!” said Aggie Ring. So, Aggie Ring went to this “Char Bar” that came highly recommended by the locals. Upon entering the “Char Bar,” Aggie Ring ’84 was in awe. First of all, the place was huge. Aggie Ring could have line danced in the inside and outside portions of the “joint.” Secondly, they had a full top-shelf bar. In Texas Aggie Ring’s humble opinion, BBQ just isn’t BBQ without “adult beverage.” However, Aggie Ring ’84 decided to reserve his Aggie Ring opinion until he tried the “goods.”

 

Texas Aggie Ring promptly took a seat at the bar and, after ordering a fine bourbon, began to peruse the menu. There were so many choices that a simple Texas Aggie Ring couldn’t even guess at what to order. For “starters” they had: Lobster Deviled Eggs (charred lobster and pea shoots), Grit Hushpuppies, Fried Green Tomatoes (Aggie Ring fell in love with these in Alabama), Jumbo Smoked Chicken Wings (bbq drizzle and buttermilk-chive dressing), amongst many others.

 

Fixin’s included: BBQ Pit Beans, Potato Salad, Cabbage Slaw, Carrot-Rasin Slaw and Smoked Corn Succotash, BBQ Pork Rinds, Beer-Battered Pickles, and too many other things to mention in this short summary.

 

The smoked meats included: Naked Burnt Brisket Ends (Kansas City is known for these), Ribs, Pulled Pork Butt, Black Angus Brisket, Hand-Cranked Sausage, Pulled Smoked Chicken, Smoked Turkey Breast, and something unknown to a simple Texas Aggie Ring called “Smoked Jackfruit.”

 

The dessert menu consisted of “Burnt Puddin’” (butterscotch custard and fresh blackberries), Bourbon Peach Crisp (almond crust, sticky male glaze and vanilla bean ice cream) and the “Velvet Elvis” (banana bread-peanut butter ice cream sandwich, spiced walnuts, bananas, cracker jacks, hot fudge, whipped cream, and a bourbon-soaked cherry.

 

There were a number of non-meat items on the menu with a skull and crossbones symbol next to them as a warning to real men and women who eat meat but I’ll not enumerate on them because Aggie Ring ’84 says, “Who cares about that stuff?”

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 watches my weight because he doesn’t want me to become a “Fat AG” and have to get him resized. So I let him do the ordering. After much cogitation on Aggie Ring 84’s part. He allowed me to order the BBQ Tray with Naked Burnt Brisket Ends and Smoked Corn Succotash served with pickles and toast. Also, an appetizer of lobster deviled eggs. I asked Aggie Ring ’84 “What about dessert?” Aggie Ring replied, “You can have another glass of bourbon for dessert. It’s got much less calories.”

 

The service at Char Bar was quick. I mean really, really quick. Before Aggie Ring had a chance to put a dent into his bourbon, our order was served. First, I have to say that the presentation was incredible. Our meal was served on butcher paper on a tray with the sides in hand thrown pottery bowls. Even the ramekin with a side sauce was steel and not plastic like something you’d get at Arby’s.

 

Aggie Ring looked at his meal and almost wept. The tray, the brown butcher paper, the freshly toasted bread, the ceramic bowl. It was almost too much for Aggie Ring. “This,” said Texas Aggie Ring, “Is how they roll in Kansas City!” Aggie Ring ’84 says that BBQ served on a plate or in a red plastic basket is for “lady boys” and not really BBQ. The “burnt ends” were “pure delight” said Aggie Ring. The lobster deviled eggs and smoked corn brought tears to Aggie Ring’s eye.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 ate his entire lunch and said, “This is the best BBQ in any state I’ve lived in!”

 

As Texas Aggie Ring ’84 and I were leaving the “Char Bar,” he said to me, “Did you see their Sunday only Fried Chicken special with a whole chicken southern fried with whipped potatoes, pan gravy, “big-ass” buttermilk biscuits, and Tabasco honey?” I told Aggie Ring, “Hell, I’d come back just for the Tabasco honey!”

 

#AggieRing #TexasAggie #AggiesEverywhere

ROMA ARCHEOLOGIA e RESTAURO ARCHITETTURA: “Rome, Through the Eyes of Flavius Josephus. Where, but in the Eternal City, is it possible to map a 2,000-year-old eyewitness account of history onto an intact urban fabric?”The New York Times (28/03/2018); & Foto: Il Romanista (27/02/2018).

 

ROME - Even without a book or a guide, even after two millenniums of crumbling, the image of the seven-branched candelabrum — the Jewish menorah — is unmistakable on the inner wall of the Arch of Titus in the Roman Forum. Stand at the base of the single-passage arch and look up, and the scene in bas-relief ripples to life with almost cartoon clarity: Straining porters, trudging along what is plainly the route of a Roman triumph, bear aloft the golden menorah and other sacred loot plundered from the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 A.D. The opposite side of the arch depicts the victory lap of the chief plunderer, Emperor Titus — who, as an ambitious young general, crushed the Jews’ revolt, leveled their Temple and brought enough booty and slaves back to Rome to finance an epic construction program that included the Colosseum.

 

I’ve gazed on the Arch of Titus many times in previous trips, marveling at its muscular grace, recoiling from its brazen braggadocio. But it wasn’t until I returned to Rome in October with Flavius Josephus as my guide that I fully grasped the significance of this monument in Jewish and Roman history.

 

“The luckiest traitor ever,” in the words of the historian Mary Beard, Flavius Josephus was a first-century Jewish general who threw in his lot with the Roman legions that destroyed his homeland. When Titus and his father, Vespasian, returned to Rome after the Judean war to inaugurate the Flavian dynasty — successor to the Julio-Claudian dynasty that Augustus founded and Nero destroyed — Josephus went with them. “The Jew of Rome,” as the German writer Lion Feuchtwanger called him in an eponymous historical novel, spent the rest of his days living in luxury in Flavian Rome and writing the history of his times.

 

Turncoat? Asylum seeker? Pragmatic visionary? Historians have long debated Josephus’s motives and character. What’s indisputable is that most of what is known about the violent encounter between Rome and Judea during this period comes out of his work. What’s astonishing is that, with a sharp eye and a bit of research, you can still walk in Josephus’s footsteps in contemporary Rome. Where but in the Eternal City is it possible to map a 2,000-year-old eyewitness account onto an intact urban fabric?

 

The silvery morning light was soothing on my jet-lagged retinas, but traffic was already roaring along Via di San Gregorio as I waited by the gate of the Palatine Hill for Mirco Miraldo, the archeologist-archivist who had agreed to take me on a walking tour of Flavian Rome. Today this artery is a rather featureless channel running between the Colosseum and the Circus Maximus — but Mirco, whose youth and reserve belie a tenacious erudition, reminded me that we were standing on the likely processional route chiseled into the marble of the Arch of Titus and inked even more indelibly on the pages of Josephus’s book “The Jewish War.”

 

“At the break of dawn,” Josephus writes, “Vespasian and Titus issued forth, crowned with laurel and clad in the traditional purple robes, and proceeded to the Octavian walks [the Portico d’Ottavia, now a soaring ruin at the edge of the Jewish ghetto].” From the Portico d’Ottavia to the top of the Capitoline Hill, where all proper Roman triumphal processions culminated, is — and was — a 10-minute stroll. But it is clear from Josephus’s account that the imperial entourage took the long way around, circling counterclockwise around the outer precipices of the Palatine before entering the Forum on the side now dominated by the Colosseum.

 

Mirco and I hiked halfway up the Palatine to a terraced ledge overlooking the Forum. “See those tourists following the lady with the flag?” he asked. “They’re walking on the Via Sacra — the main axis through the Forum that the Flavian procession traversed before ascending the Capitol.”

 

I tried to mentally erase the T-shirts and selfie sticks and resurrect the fallen columns. Vespasian and Titus, riding chariots, would have been two dabs of purple surging up the ramparts of the Capitoline through a sea of white togas. In their train, thousands of Jewish slaves shuffled with bowed heads while the heaps of plundered gold and silver bobbed above them, winking in the sun. “Last of all the spoils,” writes Josephus, “was carried a copy of the Jewish Law” — the Torah.

 

Josephus reveals exactly where these spoils ended up. Vespasian had a new temple — the Templum Pacis (Temple of Peace) — built adjacent to the Forum where “he laid up the vessels of gold from the temple of the Jews, on which he prided himself; but their Law and the purple hangings of the sanctuary he ordered to be deposited and kept in the palace.” The palace, in ancient Rome, meant the Palatine (the word palace derives from the hill’s name) — and so, as the autumn sunlight brightened from silver to gold, I mounted the imperial summit.

 

After the buzzing, marble-strewn congestion of the Forum, the Palatine is like a country stroll. The huge squares of weedy grass and clumps of umbrella pines outlined in brick stubs could almost be farm fields — but, in fact, most of the stubs are remains of a colossal royal residence, the Domus Flavia, inaugurated by Vespasian and completed by his wicked, wildly ambitious second son, Domitian. Josephus, whose life spanned all three Flavian emperors, would have come to the Domus Flavia to pay homage to his patrons and perhaps murmur a prayer before the sacred scroll they had cached here.

 

I lingered on the Palatine for half an hour, trying to conjure the nerve center of an empire from its ruins. Somewhere buried under the dandelions and broken shards stood an inlaid niche or marble alcove where the stolen Torah was caged like a captive king.

 

Josephus’ footsteps lie closer to the surface in the Templum Pacis. I’d never heard of this monument, though I must have passed its ruins a score of times on the wide glaring Via dei Fori Imperiali (Street of the Imperial Fora) that Mussolini carved out as his own triumphal route between the Colosseum and Piazza Venezia. On my second morning in Rome, Josephus’s text in hand, I stood by the railing near the Forum ticket booth and peered down at the ongoing excavations of the temple’s sanctuary, arcades, fountains and gardens. Josephus notes that the Templum Pacis, built “very speedily in a style surpassing all human conception,” housed not only the spoils of Jerusalem, but “ancient masterpieces of painting and sculpture … objects for the sight of which men had once wandered over the whole world.”

 

These masterpieces have long since vanished, but a wall of the temple still stands at the entrance of the sixth-century Basilica of Saints Cosmas and Damiano, now a Franciscan convent. One of the resident brothers, who humbly insisted on anonymity, showed me around. “The Templum Pacis was not only a shrine but a kind of cultural center,” he said. “We’re standing on the site of the temple’s library where the Forma Urbis — an immense marble map of the city — was displayed.” He pointed out a rusty bent spike that once fixed marble veneer to the rough-hewed stone. “Go ahead and touch — it’s been here since the first century A.D.”

 

I was itching to get down to the crypt, which covers part of the footprint of the Templum Pacis, but first we ducked into the basilica and took a moment to savor its principal artistic treasure: a shimmering 6th-century apse mosaic of Christ surfing roseate clouds flanked by saints. Perhaps I’ve read too many thrillers, but as I gazed up at this solemnly joyous creation, I imagined a plumb line dropping from the tiles of Christ’s outstretched hand and coming to rest, magically, on the exact spot where the menorah had been stashed — fanciful, but not impossible.

 

The sacred loot has disappeared without a trace, but a shelf of thrillers could be spun from the theories, myths, sightings and urban legends about where it supposedly ended up: hidden in a cave, glittering on the altar of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, carted off to Constantinople, tossed in the Tiber, and, most recently, squirreled away in a sub-subbasement of the Vatican. Alessandro Sciogliosi, a professor of the history of architecture at the University of Rome whom I met toward the end of my stay, has a more plausible — though mundane — explanation: When the Templum Pacis burned in 191 A.D., the gold and silver vessels melted and were subsequently salvaged and recast, probably as coins.

 

“No one really knows what happened to the stuff,” said Steven Fine, a professor of Jewish history at Yeshiva University in New York and the director of the Arch of Titus Project. “There’s a common desire to establish continuity through things — and certainly the visual environment of Rome fosters this.”

 

Copies of Josephus’s books likely burned in the fire as well, but the texts survived, thanks in large part to Christian scholars who embraced him for his early, impartial (but much disputed) mentions of the historical Jesus — the so-called Testimonium Flavianum — in “Jewish Antiquities.” His fellow Jews, on the other hand, have until recently written Josephus off as a traitor and a Roman sycophant.

 

Still, 1,917 years after his death around 100 A.D., Josephus remains one the most famous Jews of Rome — best-selling author, confidante of emperors, member of a religious community that was already well-established when he arrived in 71 A.D. — and is still going strong today with families tracing their lineage “da Cesare,” from the time of Caesar.

 

I reflected on Josephus’s life and legacy as I made a final trek to the Palatine at the end of my stay. The southwest edge of the hill commands an unforgettable view over the Circus Maximus to the skyline beyond, and in the luminous October haze I picked out the distinctive squared-off metallic dome of the Tempio Maggiore — the main Jewish synagogue — and beyond it, the majestic drum of St. Peter’s. Roman, Jewish, Christian: Josephus’s footsteps lead us through the time and place where these three spheres aligned most exuberantly, most surprisingly.

 

Fonte | source:

 

-- The New York Times (28/03/2018).

 

A version of this article appears in print on April 1, 2018, on Page TR8 of the New York edition with the headline: An Ancient Guide to the Eternal City.

 

www.nytimes.com/2018/03/28/travel/rome-through-the-eyes-o...

 

Foto | fonte | source:

 

-- VIDEO - La neve a Roma vista con il drone che sorvola la Città Eterna. Il nuovo video di Oliver Astrologo in occasione della storica nevicata che ha imbiancato il Colosseo, le strade e i vicoli della città più bella del mondo. Il Romanista (27/02/2018).

 

www.ilromanista.eu/news/cronaca/2926/video-la-neve-a-roma...

I think it was yesterday.. or perhaps the day before? Anyway, I woke up by a terrible boom, like a great thunder making the world shake in it´s foundation. Of cause I instantly knew what was happening, so I pretended to be sleeping, as a voice deep like the roaring oceans themself spoke loudly ”Lisa. Be now awakened, as I your god and father of creation, has come before you!” I moaned, making a helpless effort to tug my duvet, but amidst the effort it vanished into mist. I sad up rubbing my eyes as I had only shortly before bedtime, smoked a joint of astounding quality.

 

”Yo dad, what´s up!” I said, shielding my eyes with a hand from the blinding light. ”Tell me child." He said. "Has the world embraced peace, love and compassion?” I shrugged my shoulders ”Well... you see, it... takes time dad. One can't just expect things to change like... over night. The world it's like... a plant you know... it grows in its own time!” It was as if the light flikered for a spilt of a second before the voice boomed ”Time.. TIME!! I HAVE WAITED CENTURIES... MILLENNIA!!” He tempered him self... always does really, then said. ”I have spoken directly to Abraham, I have sent my own son and now my daugther. I fear I am running out of patience.” (gotta know him, always says that, at least 2 times before he really mean business). ”Dad...” I said giving him the ”puppy look”, never fails.. ”it's like... just a very difficult time right now, with the world facing economic crisis, terrorist attacks, AIDS, global warming and poverty. I'm quite sure that with 10 more years and a little spark of youth, I should be able to round things up by.. say 2020!? Well perhaps 30, but NOT later than 50 on that I guarantee my life!”. He sighed, well you can't really hear it, but if you know him well you can tell by the subtle destinct dim of the light. ”I suppose patience is in order.” He said, ”I shall return in 10 years and hereby grant you rejuvenation.”

 

It feels like... a tingling down the spine, spreading out through your limbs, nothing else really.

 

”Dad... before you go..” He paused. ”I know we talked about this and it's just a thought! a mere.. suggestion. But... if say.. it was to happen for instance, that an ancient scroll was recovered, that by bloodline was incidentally to make yours truly out to be, say.. the Queen of Africa or... India.. or perhaps even US, just to kill two birds with one stone?” He was JUST about to say something but I was faster. ”No please let me finish dad.. I know Jesus started out and made it all by his own, but I am a girl... thats something entirely different., which I am sure you wouldn't understand at all.. but it really IS!” I crossed my arms looking away in a offended kind 'a way. That on the other hand dosn't allways work.

 

It didn't and then he said the most hurtfull thing ever, HIS OWN DAUGHTER mind you, which only goes to show how impartially heartless, unforgivingly cruel and excruciatingly righteous he can be.

 

”Get a job.” he said and vanished!?

 

That REALLY pissed me off. Seriously!

Not my photo or design: this was a poster plastered all over Istanbul during the previous conflict. Turkey, not only as a state, but as people, have always shown sympathy and strong support for the Palestinians.

 

I am not taking sides and consider all violence as inherently wrong and unjustified. The propaganda accusations are mutual as are the violent actions in this on-going conflict. I haven't been in Istanbul in recent weeks, but imagine similar support in the current situation. I also expect Israel, with a much more dispersed diaspora, to have support in many other places. But I wonder if there's a single country where you will see entire cities covered with massive posters like this? With similar images symbolising the suffering of the Israeli people?

 

And it's not just about support from foreign nations - have Israeli people really suffered as badly, at any time after WW2? All history books are biased one way or the other and I cannot rely on objective facts about this. What is objective?

In a midst of a game.

 

June 2012, Kabul, Afghanistan.

 

The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an impartial, neutral and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of armed conflict and other situations of violence and to provide them with assistance. The ICRC also endeavours to prevent suffering by promoting and strengthening humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles. The ICRC is at the origin of the Geneva Conventions and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. It directs and coordinates the international activities conducted by the Movement in armed conflicts and other situations of violence.

 

THE ICRC has been permanently present in Afghanistan since 1987, and the orthopaedic programme was one of its first activities. The ICRC orthopaedic center opened in Kabul in 1988. More than 90,000 Afghan disabled have been assisted through it. Those are combatants and civilians caught up in fighting, hurt during bombardments, or struck by landmines. At present the ICRC directly manages six orthopaedic center in Afghanistan and supports four non-ICRC prosthetic workshops.

 

Of close to 200 employees running Kabul orthopaedic center, including a large hospital and workshops producing prostheses and wheelchairs, all are disabled themselves. The whole center is effectively run by people who had been affected by warfare, loosing limbs, but not losing their spirit.

 

Some of ICRC workers and patients have, under the leadership of Alberto Cairo, legendary head of the center, started a wheelchair basketball team, and practice almost every day after office hours. In June 2012 first wheelchair basketball tournament took place in Afghanistan. Kabul team did not win although they gave a tough fight.

 

It’s been a moving experience to see them practising and playing, an experience that cannot be forgotten.

 

More about the work of ICRC – www.icrc.org

 

Texts quoted after ICRC.

Walk a mile in my shoes before complaining about a call!

If there’s one place on Long Island that I can’t be impartial to... that would be Huntington!!! ♥️

Declaring it's impartiality wearing neutral green, the USA Tank steams past a soccer match on a Saturday afternoon in Kakanj, Bosnia. April 2010. © Photo: David Hill.

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Front Facade of the Federal Statistical Office Building in Neuchâtel, Switzerland

______________________________________________________________________________

    

The Federal Statistical Office (FSO) is a Federal authority of the Swiss Confederation. It is the Statistics Office of Switzerland, situated in Neuchâtel and attached to the Federal Department of Home Affairs (FDHA).

The FSO is the national service provider and competence centre for statistical observations in areas of national, social, economic and environmental importance. The FSO is the main producer of statistics in the country and runs the Swiss Statistics data pool. It provides information on all subject areas covered by official statistics.

The FSO is closely linked to the national statistics scene as well as to partners in the worlds of science, business and politics. It works closely with EUROSTAT, the Statistics Office of the European Union, in order to provide information that is also comparable at international level.

The key principles upheld by the FSO throughout its statistical activities are data protection, scientific reliability, impartiality, topicality and service orientation.

    

The FSO produces and publishes key statistical information on the current situation and development of the nation and society, of the economy and the environment. It completes these with comprehensive analyses, it creates scenarios of future developments and safeguards historical data.

Various methods are employed for data acquisition: direct interviews, more or less automated observation, analyses of administrative data, complete enumeration surveys and representative sample surveys. The efficiency of modern statistical information systems is largely determined by the type of data acquisition. For legal and financial reasons, preference is given to the systematic use of existent data rather than to new direct surveys with the ensuing burden on those interviewed.

Statistical findings are disseminated in various forms and using varying channels: as tables or indicators accompanied by commentaries or graphs and maps, as printed documents or in electronic form, in standard issue or made-to-measure versions.

[Source: Wikipedia]

    

Canon EOS 60D

Canon EF-S 10-22mm f/3.5-4.5 USM

Aperture: f/8

Exposure time: 1/250s

Focal length: 10mm

ISO Speed: 100

Processed with PS CS5 and Nik Software's Silver Efex Pro 2

The Space Needle restaurant now has a glass floor.

  

So with the new changes of flickr. As far as the new and improved(??) Explore. Anyone who can't afford a pro account at $49.99 is a second class citizen in regards to getting your photo on explore. I would think explore should be impartial in that regard. Considering the way this site now pushes it is a site that will allow you to have your efforts get more exposer to others. (But only if you $$$$). A picture of a pro members toe will have a better chance of getting on explore then a fantastic nature picture by a free account holder?? I get everything costs money and they have to make money to stay in business, I respect that. It just seems wrong for explore. Or maybe this is a warning shot towards those of us with free accounts? Slowly they will ease us out until it is a pay $$$$ only site? Have fun with that. Exclusivity rarely works well with fresh creativity.

Mighty. Morphin. Power. Rangers.

 

The OG as introduced by Saban into the English speaking work, and international phenomenon, this adaptation of the Super Sentai Zyuranger became a household name back in 1993, and has been in the hearts of fans since. Me? Well, I enjoyed the show for what it is.. a fun way to kill half an hour, but as always, it was about the toys for me. In recent years, the MMPR franchise has been revisited, first with Bandai of America creating the Legacy product line and milking the MMPR brand, then with the 2017 motion picture that didn't quite make the money Saban wanted it to (I have a theory about this and how it didn't matter, but that's for another discussion). The biggest news would be how Hasbro, now the holders of the Power Ranger toy license, would revisit MMPR and other past Power Rangers characters through something they called the Lightning Collection, a series of collectors grade figures. Personally, I was impartial to this - while others were excited to add these to their collection, I never really got into it when Bandai did it with their Legacy figures and as such, I wouldn't really be pursuing these releases, with the exception of buying one or two to do a bit of comparison and contrast, as well as satisfy my own curiosity regarding a conspiracy theory.

 

In case it wasn't obvious by now, I tend to buy female figures because not only do they generally look better, but it's harder to hidd things on their comparatively smaller bodies. I bought exactly one figure from the Bandai Legacy line - Ninja Storm Blue (or in my case, Hurricane Blue) and while I never really reviewed it, it can summarize it as follows - it was alright. Nothing earth shattering, and definitely not worth the $25 CAD MSRP to me. Well, in Wave 2 of the Hasbro Lightning series, we see the release of the first female Ranger of the line, Kimberly Hart, the original Pink Ranger and Mistress of the Pterodactyl Zord. For the record, Kat was always my MMPR Pink of choice... I always found Kimberly kind of boring.

 

Finding her was a bit of a pain, though not as bad as others have had it.. definitely much easier than finding Springer, that's for sure. Just a few phone calls and a 10 minute drive from home.

 

Normally I'd wait to open this up, as I have been stocking up on some other goodies lately, but questions needed answering dammit, so Kimberly here jumped the queue and was opened next.. about an hour after purchase, in fact. So, without further ado, here is my overview and thoughts on the Power Rangers Lightning Collection Mighty Morphin Pink Ranger.

 

Each Lightning figure comes with the figure itself, an unmorphed (helmetless) head sculpt, a combination of posing and weapon holding hands, the trademark weapons of the character, and some sort of energy effect. In the case of Kimberly, she comes with her bow and arrow, her Blade Blaster side arm, as well as an energy arrow. MSRP is about $20 USD, or roughly what a Marvel Legends figure costs in your area.

 

As the picture shows, Kimberly is roughly the same size as Captain Marvel who is my benchmark female Marvel Legends figure. These figures are of course a smidgen bigger than your typical female S.H. Figuarts figure (i.e. Black Widow), but smaller than the Bandai Legacy female body. While Kimberly isn't as busty as the Blue Ranger, she's certainly less NFL Quarterback in terms of build. Now we got that out of the way, let us focus the comparison on the two players that really matter - Kimberly, and Captain Marvel. Now, the cynic in me pretty much assumed that Hasbro wouldn't reinvent the wheel when it didn't have to, both for better and worse. After all, they developed a body for their Legends line, and it would make sense to reuse it for this line, considering that the price point is the same. So, was I right?

 

Let's start things off with a discussion of aesthetics, articulation, and build quality. Now, no action figure, even the almighty Figuarts release, ever actually replicated the proportions of the suit actors perfectly, so it's not a surprise that things haven't changed here, though I'd like them to resemble human proportions a little better. For whatever reason, her chest area uses plastics that are harder than the rest of her body, and are a tint or two darker than the other pinks on her body. It doesn't show up on my photos, which are powered by flash, but in the crappy room lights I have here, it's clear as day. But in general, unless you're blind, it's pretty clear that this is the MMPR Pink Ranger.

 

I mentioned before that Kimberly has a different height and body shape than your standard Figuarts and Bandai Legacy body. Having said that, however, I think you should be able to see that Kimberly and Captain Marvel share the same general overall silhouette - in fact, if you look really close, you can see the retooling of common parts (upper arms and thighs, for example). I submit to you that the female Lightning body is at its core, an upcycled Legends body, which somehow manages to improve things, and make them worse at the same time. The Lightning female takes the Legends articulation (pivoting and rotating ankles, double jointed knees, thigh swivel, rotating hips, mid torso ball joint, rotating/pivoting shoulders, rotating/pivoting elbows, wrist rotate/pivot (depending on hand) and ball jointed head with a pivoting neck) and adds to it with boots that rotate and shoulders that allow for chest collapse, improving range of motion and posing options. The knee joints are new, most likely needing a redesign due to the the new lower foot/boot combo used. Design of the lower body basically prevents limits the motion of the lower legs to.. I'm going say about 110 degrees or so. No high kicking for this girl...

 

So, overall, I've talked about some nice improvements to the status quo - what am I babbling about with regards to better AND worse then?

 

Well, you see, this is why I looped in build quality into this first point of discussion. Now whatever material Captain Marvel is made of, it's pretty durable and tough, being hard without being brittle. Kimberly, on the other hand, is predominately made up of what they make Transformers of these days, which feels to me like the plastics used in the 3D printing system. This material is softer than the stuff the good Captain is made from. Not an issue on its own, because if this were the end of the story the most I could talk about is how you can't really get any good detailing in the plastics and that it feels like of rough.

 

You notice how Kimberly seems to be bow legged? Well, unlike the lovely DC Icons Wonder Woman I just looked at, THESE joints are made of that same soft plastic that basically was warped due to the restraints of the packaging. Not sure if this is a material issue, or perhaps they didn't wait long enough for the plastic to settle, but the end result is Kimberly is destined to walk like a freakin' cowboy for the rest of her days. Her elbows are made of the same soft plastic, but due to the way she was packaged I guess there was no warping.

 

Another gripe I have is that the ratcheting joints used for shoulders of the Legends figures remain, which normally isn't a problem as you're able to easily apply the necessary force to move it. Now, with her collapsing shoulders, the whole joint has a tendency to move, rather than just the part you want to rotate, making raising and lowering the arms a potential exercise in annoyance.

 

So there you go.. better.. AND worse.. all at the same time.

 

Paint apps are pretty standard affair for anything that Hasbro does on their own (Transformers are shared with Takara as a unified product, so there are higher standards there to be met), namely that paint isn't applied on places that it isn't deemed necessary, and the quality of the apps themselves range from alright to oversprayed with not the greatest masking work. The larger paint apps generally made it through in one piece, though clearly not so much the minute details. Sculpting detailing on the suit, helmet, and weapons are alright. Nothing overly bad about it, and generally the work is quite competent, and includes some more detailing on the helmet that I didn't expect to see, as well as the gloves. I do enjoy the pink energy effect, though I'd enjoy it more if the figure could hold the bloody thing better. The bow fits alright and I'll be honest, I didn't bother with the Blade Blaster, but it seems to me the hand pictured holding the arrow is actually moulded to hold this weapon specifically.

 

We're not QUITE done yet, as I've saved best for last. Let's talk about that unhelmeted sculpt. It looks like the artist who made that Paul Rudd sculpt I can't stand decided to give Kimberly Hart a try with equally disastrous results. I think they got the hairline right, and possibly her earrings. Other than that... YIKES. Definitely keeping the helmeted on this figure.

 

So in conclusion, my overall feeling is a resounding "meh". It's pretty much what I expected, and not exactly the new standard to beat, but it is a step in the right direction. Knowing Hasbro, I don't exactly see them making changes that I complained about here, so I really have no need to revisit this line, but perhaps there is hope that the Legends line can be provided with improvements seen here, most notable being the ability to collapse the shoulders towards the chest. But that's me, and as admitted before, Domestic figures really aren't my thing. For everyone else out there, you really need to be aware of the issues with the knee joints - it's been almost 10 hours since I've opened mine and it's not her legs have straightened out, and the legs can be bent so easily it's not funny.

 

A decent looking figure with some good strengths balanced by some awful design choices.

“Class is the impartial, consistent display of emotional integrity.”

~ J. Frederick Millea ~

 

"I'm an idealist. I don't know where I'm going, but I'm on my way."

~ Carl Sandburg ~

 

TODAY'S NEWS:

"CLASS RESUMES TODAY IN CHICAGO:

Teachers end stalemate with mayor, vote to suspend strike"

 

Wherever one is headed this month . . . back to class, high school reunions or taking advantage of children back in school to hit the roads for a little vacation, ENJOY!

 

I'll be on and off line while I consider the options!

 

HAVE FUN, EVERYONE!

but of course, do it with "class" . . .

  

The Northern Cardinal is arguably one of North America's most well known and conspicuous birds. The male sports a bright red plumage year round. They don't migrate. They don't molt. In the snowy cold of winter their bright plumage sets them apart from their surroundings. I often wonder what advantage this bright color has imparted to the cardinal. In general, a characteristic so prominent would at least be impartial regarding the animals survival, and in most cases it would be of great benefit. Of course, we see the male cardinal as a bright red bird, but how do its major predators see it? Not all animals see in color, and if they do, that color may be selective. Since we are not major cardinal predators, perhaps the fact that we see the bird as so conspicuous has little effect on its survival. It's a bigger question that I have, and I don't have the answer. It's another question for science to try to answer. #iLoveBirds #iLoveNature #iLoveWildlife #WildlifePhotography in #NewJersey #Nature in #America #USA #PickYourPark #Canon #DrDADBooks #Bringit #WildlifeConservation #Photography #Picoftheday #Photooftheday

  

Todays variants of 461 involve the ideas of deliberately being out of gamma...(beyond the capacity of the film/sensor to render tonalities in a a linear relationship.) I use this tool to drive tones by either depressing and flattening them out, or overexposing for the purpose of erasing what I don't want and in the process driving the dark tones into a higher ground. And then there is every thing in the middle.. called contrast control, which in old school days would be manifest with pre and post exposure techniques for the purpose of gaining more creative control.

 

In this digital world i use this technique quite a bit to help clarify issues like... balance of an image in a global edge to edge sense, prior to capture. And then of course there is a spectrum of emotional reasons to apply these ideas. Ex. the "simulacrum" (representation) of a scene, doesn't fit into your emotional boundaries for what you are feeling and trying to say. Perhaps the reason is narrative and perhaps it is the absence that creates a desire in myself and hopefully, in the viewer to fill-in the emotional blanks. We all have emotional blind spots.. biases, because being impartial is not necessarily the motivation. We all need places to fill-in... not be spoon fed. Mystery is good. Seeing and bringing into the world something you've never seen before or felt is better.

 

I often wonder about memory, and all of its crevices and holes and wonder how much of anything is necessary to create a memory imprint.. something that sticks as a residue from witnessing what is in your heart mind and vision.

 

Yes, these are photographic questions as well as poetry and intent and purpose and certainly many other things you have to find answers for yourself. As we entertain and exploit the boundaries of the materials as it relates to one's personal expressionism. Mistakes are good.

 

John

il y causait un grand désordre

Goethe, for one, moving beyond his work as an artist in order to plunge fully into the wellsprings and sources of life, would not take to theoretical discussion nor destroy the fairy tale's living water with his scrutiny when he wanted to reveal one of the most profound insights into the human soul. No, as soon as he had won these insights, it seemed natural to use the fairy tale itself to describe what lives and comes to expression in the soul at its deepest level. In his Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily, Goethe tried to express in his own way the extraordinary soul experiences that Schiller brought forward in a more abstract, philosophical style in the Aesthetic Education of Man.At the outset I can only describe a few impressions to illustrate what was working together in chaotic interplay with the approach of the twentieth century — the century that has placed you before such hard trials of the soul. We have had to face outer events, including the grim and terrible world-war; these are only the outward expression of what is reigning in the innermost soul of the modern civilized world. It is simply so, and we must be conscious of it. Primarily we have to seek for something which the deepest soul of Germany is yearning for — as your speaker truly said — but which precisely within Germany was denied by men's consciousness the nearer the modern age approached. We lost not only Goethe but also a great deal of what was there in the Middle Ages and out of which Goethe grew, and we must find it again. And if it is asked today quite from the external aspect: Why have you come here today? — I shall answer: In order to find this. For you are really seeking for something that is there. Goethe answered the question: Which secret is of the highest value? — The revealed secret. (From the Fairy Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily.) But it has to be revealed through eyes being opened to perceive it. What concerns you are mainly longings of the inner life — if you understand yourselves aright. Whether one has to become a teacher or adopt some other profession — that is not the point. Everything which those who want again to become whole men are seeking today shall be found out of the common center of true manhood. That is why we find ourselves together here.Anthroposophy, on the other hand, tries to approach art out of the living spirit — as I did in speaking of Goethe's Fairy Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily. I did not write a commentary, I let the living lead me into the living. During an inartistic age there appear many scholarly treatises on art, works on aesthetics. They are non-art, counter-art. Savants may reply: To take hold of the world artistically is to move away from reality; it is not scientific; if reality is to be seized, phantasy has to be suppressed, imagination eliminated; one must confine oneself to the logical. This may be demanded. But consider: If reality, if nature herself were an artist, then it would be of no avail to demand that everything be grasped solely through logic; something vital in it would elude logical understanding. And nature is indeed an artist; a truth discovered by anthroposophical cognition at a certain point in its development. Therefore, in order to grasp nature, especially the highest in nature, man's physical form, one must cease to live exclusively in ideas and begin to “think” in pictures. No anatomy, no physiology, can ever grasp the physical human being in his forms. Understanding is achieved only by living cognition that has been given wings by artistic feeling.Emancipation from all these situations, and the impartial embracing of humanity as such, only really came about under the influence of such great spirituality as developed in German philosophy beginning with Lessing, and developing through Herder and Goethe. Here you have a spiritual stream which took account of all that lives in the lodges, but in such a way that the mystery was brought out of the obscurity of the lodges and transformed into a purely human matter. You need only glance at Goethe's fairy tale The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily, at Wilhelm Meister and other of Goethe's writings. This was material with which the step to emancipation could be taken and which still today makes emancipation possible. So you may view that whole part of German cultural history portrayed in my book Vom Menschenrätsel [ Note 6 ] as a forgotten reverberation which is entirely independent of all the intrigues of the lodges.

From: The Karma of Untruthfulness

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

La Goldene Bulle est un support pour marcher vers un monde libre des bulles papales

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

Pourquoi donc ce faisceau à côté de la pomme? Pourquoi le serpent au pied de ce rêve ? Trop de questions tuent les évidences alors apprend à regarder avec des yeux aveugles et contente toi de lire les messages pour l'inconciliable beauté et la pure intelligence du Verbe

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

For example, one may have the following experience. There was a certain man who was once in a peculiar position. Through a friend, the great riddle of human earthly life was raised before him. But this his friend was not altogether free of the angular thinking of Kant (“das kantige Kant'sche Denken”), and thus it came to expression in a rather abstract philosophic way. He himself — the one of whom I am now speaking — could not find his way into the ‘angular thinking of Kant.’ Yet everything in his soul stirred up the same great riddle, the great question of life. How are the reason and the sensuous nature of man connected with one another? And lo, there were opened to him — not merely the doors but the very flood-gates, which for a moment let radiate into his soul those regions of the World in which the mighty Imaginations were being enacted. And all this — entering not through windows or doors but through wide-open flood-gates into his soul — translated as it were into little miniatures, came forth as the fairy-tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily. For the man of whom I speak was Goethe.by Rudolf Steiner

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

Miniatures — tiny reflected images, translated even into a fairy-like prettiness — descended thus in Goethe's Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily. We need not therefore wonder that when it became necessary to give Anthroposophy in artistic scenes or pictures, (where we too must naturally have recourse to the great Imaginations), my first Mystery Play, ‘The Portal of Initiation’ became alike in structure — albeit different in content — alike in structure to the Fairy Tale of the Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily.

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

You see it is possible to look into the deeper connection even through the actual things that have taken place among us. Everyone who has had anything to do with occult matters, knows that that which happens on earth is the downward reflection of something that has taken place long, long before in the spiritual world, though in a somewhat different way, inasmuch as certain spirits of hindrance are not mingled in it there.

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

These souls now, who were preparing to descend into earthly existence at the end of the 19th or at the beginning of the 20th century, brought with them — albeit in their subconsciousness — a longing also to know something of cosmology, etc., i.e. to look out upon the world in the anthroposophical way. But above all things, their heart and mind were strongly inflamed for Christ. They would have felt pangs of conscience if this whole conception of Anthroposophy — to which they found themselves attracted as an outcome of their pre-earthly life — had not been permeated by the Christ Impulse. Such was the one group, taken of course ‘as a whole.’From: Karmic Relationships: Esoteric Studies - Volume III IV

 

Hughes Songe PRO 3 a

In the Hebrew Bible the serpent in the Garden of Eden lured Eve with the promise of forbidden knowledge, convincing her that despite God's warning, death would not be the result. The serpent is identified with wisdom: "Now the serpent was more subtle than any beast of the field which the Lord God had made" (Genesis 3:1). There is no indication in Genesis that the Serpent was a deity in its own right, although it is one of only two cases of animals that talk in the Pentateuch, Balaam's ass being the other. Although the identity of the Serpent as Satan is implied in the Christian Book of Revelation,[30] in Genesis the Serpent is merely portrayed as a deceptive creature or trickster, promoting as good what God had directly forbidden, and particularly cunning in its deception. (Gen. 3:4–5 and 3:22) The staff of Moses transformed into a snake and then back into a staff (Exodus 4:2–4). The Book of Numbers 21:6–9 provides an origin for an archaic copper serpent, Nehushtan by associating it with Moses. This copper snake according to the Biblical text is wrapped around a pole and used for healing. Book of Numbers 21:9 "And Moses made a snake of copper, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a snake had bitten any man, when he beheld the snake of brass, he lived."When the reformer King Hezekiah came to the throne of Judah in the late 8th century BCE, "He removed the high places, broke the sacred pillars, smashed the idols, and broke into pieces the copper snake that Moses had made: for unto those days the children of Israel did burn incense to it: and he called it Nehushtan."2 Kings 18:4.In the Gospel of John 3:14–15, Jesus makes direct comparison between the raising up of the Son of Man and the act of Moses in raising up the serpent as a sign, using it as a symbol associated with salvation: "As Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, even so must the Son of Man be lifted up, that whoever believes in Him should not perish but have eternal life".

   

Impartial as ever, I aim to bring you shots of our regular walk when it's not quite so glorious. I had to take the dog, protesting all the way, back to the car on the start of this morning's walk so I could get the tripod and camera to capture these angry clouds. This is 11 portrait shots, manual focus to infinity with an ND4 with my waterproofs over the equipment whilst I got soaked. You're welcome.

Agrippina

Basanite, AD 49-59

This imposing statue of Agrippina was carved from dark-green stone to imitate the metallic sheen of bronze. Agrippina's power during the reigns of Claudius and Nero alienated many senators and other traditionalists. They slandered prominent women like her with wild tales of sexual promiscuity. Agrippina and Nero were even accused of incest.

Nero justified Agrippina's death in a letter to the senate, claiming that she had planned to assassinate him. Officially, his salvation was celebrated, but Nero's detractors accused him of matricide.

[British Museum]

 

Nero: the Man Behind the Myth

(May - Oct 2021)

 

Nero is known as one of Rome's most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty, debauchery and madness.

The last male descendant of the emperor Augustus, Nero succeeded to the throne in AD 54 aged just 16 and died a violent death at 30. His turbulent rule saw momentous events including the Great Fire of Rome, Boudicca's rebellion in Britain, the execution of his own mother and first wife, grand projects and extravagant excesses.

Drawing on the latest research, this major exhibition questions the traditional narrative of the ruthless tyrant and eccentric performer, revealing a different Nero, a populist leader at a time of great change in Roman society.

Through some 200 spectacular objects, from the imperial palace in Rome to the streets of Pompeii, follow the young emperor’s rise and fall and make up your own mind about Nero. Was he a young, inexperienced ruler trying his best in a divided society, or the merciless, matricidal megalomaniac history has painted him to be?

 

Nero was the 5th emperor of Rome and the last of Rome’s first dynasty, the Julio-Claudians, founded by Augustus (the adopted son of Julius Caesar). Nero is known as one of Rome’s most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He ascended to power in AD 54 aged just 16 and died at 30. He ruled at a time of great social and political change, overseeing momentous events such as the Great Fire of Rome and Boudica’s rebellion in Britain. He allegedly killed his mother and two of his wives, only cared about his art and had very little interest in ruling the empire.

Most of what we know about Nero comes from the surviving works of three historians – Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. All written decades after Nero’s death, their accounts have long shaped our understanding of this emperor’s rule. However, far from being impartial narrators presenting objective accounts of past events, these authors and their sources wrote with a very clear agenda in mind. Nero’s demise brought forward a period of chaos and civil war – one that ended only when a new dynasty seized power, the Flavians. Authors writing under the Flavians all had an interest in legitimising the new ruling family by portraying the last of the Julio-Claudians in the worst possible light, turning history into propaganda. These accounts became the ‘historical’ sources used by later historians, therefore perpetuating a fabricated image of Nero, which has survived all the way to the present.

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37.

He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Both Gnaeus and Agrippina were the grandchildren of Augustus, making Nero Augustus’ great, great grandson with a strong claim to power.

Nero was only two years old when his mother was exiled and three when his father died. His inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his aunt. However, Nero’s fate changed again when Claudius became emperor, restoring the boy’s property and recalling his mother Agrippina from exile.

In AD 49 the emperor Claudius married Agrippina, and adopted Nero the following year. It is at this point that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. In Roman times it was normal to change your name when adopted, abandoning your family name in favour of your adoptive father’s. Nero was a common name among members of the Claudian family, especially in Claudius’ branch.

Nero and Agrippina offered Claudius a politically useful link back to Augustus, strengthening his position.

Claudius appeared to favour Nero over his natural son, Britannicus, marking Nero as the designated heir.

When Claudius died in AD 54, Nero became emperor just two months before turning 17.

As he was supported by both the army and the senate, his rise to power was smooth. His mother Agrippina exerted a significant influence, especially at the beginning of his rule.

The Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all claim that Nero, fed up with Agrippina’s interference, decided to kill her.

Given the lack of eyewitnesses, there is no way of knowing if or how this happened. However, this did not stop historians from fabricating dramatic stories of Agrippina’s murder, asserting that Nero tried (and failed) to kill her with a boat engineered to sink, before sending his men to do the job.

Agrippina allegedly told them to stab her in the womb that bore Nero, her last words clearly borrowed from stage plays.

It is entirely possible, as claimed by Nero himself, that Agrippina chose (or was more likely forced) to take her own life after her plot against her son was discovered.

Early in his rule, Nero had to contend with a rebellion in the newly conquered province of Britain.

In AD 60–61, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a revolt against the Romans, attacking and laying waste to important Roman settlements. The possible causes of the rebellion were numerous – the greed of the Romans exploiting the newly conquered territories, the recalling of loans made to local leaders, ongoing conflict in Wales and, above all, violence against the family of Prasutagus, Boudica’s husband and king of the Iceni.

Boudica and the rebels destroyed Colchester, London and St Albans before being heavily defeated by Roman troops. After the uprising, the governor of Britain Suetonius Paulinus introduced harsher laws against the Britons, until Nero replaced him with the more conciliatory governor Publius Petronius Turpilianus.

The marriage between Nero and Octavia, aged 15 and 13/14 at the time, was arranged by their parents in order to further legitimise Nero’s claim to the throne. Octavia was the daughter of the emperor Claudius from a previous marriage, so when Claudius married Agrippina and adopted her son Nero, Nero and Octavia became brother and sister. In order to arrange their marriage, Octavia had to be adopted into another family.

Their marriage was not a happy one. According to ancient writers, Nero had various affairs until his lover Poppaea Sabina convinced him to divorce his wife. Octavia was first exiled then executed in AD 62 on adultery charges. According to ancient writers, her banishment and death caused great unrest among the public, who sympathised with the dutiful Octavia.

No further motives were offered for Octavia’s death other than Nero’s passion for Poppaea, and we will probably never know what transpired at court. The fact that Octavia couldn’t produce an heir while Poppaea was pregnant with Nero’s daughter likely played an important role in deciding Octavia’s fate.

On 19 July AD 64, a fire started close to the Circus Maximus. The flames soon encompassed the entire city of Rome and the fire raged for nine days. Only four of the 14 districts of the capital were spared, while three were completely destroyed.

Rome had already been razed by flames – and would be again in its long history – but this event was so severe it came to be known as the Great Fire of Rome.

Later historians blamed Nero for the event, claiming that he set the capital ablaze in order to clear land for the construction of a vast new palace. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Nero took in the view of the burning city from the imperial residence while playing the lyre and singing about the fall of Troy. This story, however, is fictional.

Tacitus, the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old), wrote that Nero was not even in Rome when the fire started, but returned to the capital and led the relief efforts.

Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all describe Nero as being blinded by passion for his wife Poppaea, yet they accuse him of killing her, allegedly by kicking her in an outburst of rage while she was pregnant.

Interestingly, pregnant women being kicked to death by enraged husbands is a recurring theme in ancient literature, used to explore the (self) destructive tendencies of autocrats. The Greek writer Herodotus tells the story of how the Persian king Cambyses kicked his pregnant wife in the stomach, causing her death. A similar episode is told of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Nero is just one of many allegedly ‘mad’ tyrants for which this literary convention was used.

Poppaea probably died from complications connected with her pregnancy and not at Nero’s hands. She was given a lavish funeral and was deified.

Centred on greater Iran, the Parthian empire was a major political and cultural power and a long-standing enemy of Rome. The two powers had long been contending for control over the buffer state of Armenia and open conflict sparked again during Nero’s rule. The Parthian War started in AD 58 and, after initial victories and following set-backs, ended in AD 63 when a diplomatic solution was reached between Nero and the Parthian king Vologases I.

According to this settlement Tiridates, brother of the Parthian king, would rule over Armenia, but only after having travelled all the way to Rome to be crowned by Nero.

The journey lasted 9 months, Tiridates’ retinue included 3,000 Parthian horsemen and many Roman soldiers. The coronation ceremony took place in the summer of AD 66 and the day was celebrated with much pomp: all the people of Rome saw the new king of Armenia kneeling in front of Nero. This was the Golden Day of Nero’s rule

In AD 68, Vindex, the governor of Gaul (France), rebelled against Nero and declared his support for Galba, the governor of Spain. Vindex was defeated in battle by troops loyal to Nero, yet Galba started gaining more military support.

It was at this point that Nero lost the support of Rome’s people due to a grain shortage, caused by a rebellious commander who cut the crucial food supply from Egypt to the capital. Abandoned by the people and declared an enemy of the state by the senate, Nero tried to flee Rome and eventually committed suicide.

Following his death, Nero’s memory was condemned (a practice called damnatio memoriae) and the images of the emperor were destroyed, removed or reworked. However, Nero was still given an expensive funeral and for a long time people decorated his tomb with flowers, some even believing he was still alive.

After Nero’s death, civil war ensued. At the end of the so-called ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian became emperor and started a new dynasty: the Flavians.

[Francesca Bologna, curator, for British Museum]

 

Taken in the British Museum

Kelly Woods

About Kelly Woods

 

Kelly is a Celtic term for ‘a wood’. The Kelly Glen was originally part of the estate around Kelly House (since burned down), so it’s a mix of planted specimens and natural regeneration. Although difficult to categorize, it could be classified as an W16 National Vegetation Classification (NVC) woodland community, which is defined as one with a predominance of oak and birch with wavy hair grass with a sub-community of blaeberry and broad buckler fern.

History

 

The first OS maps show the wood covering a much larger area than today and as being a mixture of conifer and broadleaf. The conifers were felled at some stage but their effects on the ground vegetation from shading and acidification are still being felt.

Current State

 

The woods are in a state of benign neglect with some areas being encroached by Rhododendron Ponticum. There is grazing pressure from deer, which may be hindering woodland regeneration. Luckily, there is a Tree Preservation Order (TPO) on the whole wood.

Objectives

Short Term Goals

 

Make contact with the owners of the wood.

 

Raise awareness of the value of the woods.

Long Term Goals

 

Eradicate Rhododendron Ponticum, in particular in the ravines, where the humid microclimate is ideal for rare species of ferns, mosses and lichens.

 

South Ayrshire (Scots: Sooth Ayrshire; Scottish Gaelic: Siorrachd Àir a Deas, is one of thirty-two council areas of Scotland, covering the southern part of Ayrshire. It borders onto Dumfries and Galloway, East Ayrshire and North Ayrshire. South Ayrshire had an estimated population in 2021 of 112,450, making it the 19th–largest subdivision in Scotland by population. With an area of 472 sq mi, South Ayrshire ranks as the 15th largest subdivision in Scotland.

 

South Ayrshire's administrative centre is located in its largest town, Ayr. The headquarters for its associated political body, South Ayrshire Council, is housed at the towns County Buildings located in Wellington Square. Ayr is the former county town of the historic Ayrshire county, with the political activity of the Ayrshire County Council being based at County Buildings.

 

History

South Ayrshire was created in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, which replaced Scotland's previous local government structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts with unitary council areas providing all local government services. South Ayrshire covered the same area as the abolished Kyle and Carrick district, and also took over the functions of the abolished Strathclyde Regional Council within the area. The area's name references its location within the historic county of Ayrshire, which had been abolished for local government purposes in 1975 when Kyle and Carrick district and Strathclyde region had been created.

 

In 2021, South Ayrshire submitted a bid for city status as part of the 2022 Platinum Jubilee Celebrations. The bid was based on the area's rich history and links to royalty, and received backing from organisations and businesses including Ayrshire College and Scottish Enterprise. The bid was ultimately unsuccessful, with eight other settlements across the UK, overseas territories and crown dependencies being awarded city status, including Scottish town Dunfermline.

 

Geographically, South Ayrshire is located on the western coast of Scotland, sharing borders with neighbouring local authorities East Ayrshire, Dumfries and Galloway and North Ayrshire. The climate in South Ayrshire, typical of that in western Scotland, is milder than that of eastern Scotland due to the stronger maritime influence, as the prevailing winds blow from the sea into South Ayrshire, which is located primarily on the western coast of Scotland. The warm Gulf Stream also has a strong influence on western Scotland. With winds mainly blowing from the sea the annual mean temperatures are in the range 9.5 to 9.9 °C (49.1 to 49.8 °F) in coastal areas of South Ayrshire such as Ayr and Troon.

 

The sea reaches its lowest temperature in February or early March so that on average February is the coldest month in some coastal parts of South Ayrshire along with the Rhins of Galloway, Kintyre and the Hebrides. In February the mean daily minimum temperature varies from about 2 °C in most of the islands, 1 to 2 °C along most of the Solway Firth and lowland inland areas, but less than −1 °C in parts of the Southern Uplands and central Highlands. Inland, where the influence of the sea is less, January is the coldest month with mean daily minimum temperatures generally between −3 and 0 °C.

 

The number of hours of natural sunshine in South Ayrshire is controlled by the length of day and by cloudiness. In general, December is the dullest month and May or June the sunniest. Sunshine duration decreases with increasing altitude, increasing latitude and distance from the coast. Local topography also exerts a strong influence and in the winter deep glens and north-facing slopes can be in shade for long periods. Industrial pollution and smoke haze can also reduce sunshine amounts, but the decline in heavy industry in the Ayrshire area, primarily in Ayr in South Ayrshire along with Kilmarnock in East Ayrshire, has resulted in an increase in sunshine duration particularly in the winter months.

 

Average annual rainfall totals range from less than 1,000 mm (39 in) in the upper Clyde valley and along the coasts of Ayrshire and Dumfries and Galloway to on average over 3,500 mm (140 in) over the higher parts of the west Highlands, approaching the maximum values found in the UK (over 4,000 millimetres or 160 inches further north).

 

South Ayrshire's population is mostly concentrated around the adjoining coastal towns of Ayr, Prestwick and Troon located to the north-west of the council, which represents 68% of the council's total population according to data derived from the 2011 census, with a combined population of 76,846. Other areas of significance include the towns of Maybole and Girvan which are located to the south of the council area in the district of Carrick.

 

The economy of South Ayrshire, like many other areas, was badly affected during the worldwide financial crisis from 2009–2012. Despite this, total Gross Value Added for South Ayrshire has seen a steady increase over the last 20 years, reaching a peak in 2015 of £2.4 billion. South Ayrshire's GVA represents 1.9% of the total Scottish Gross Value Added income which is consistent with the previous 20 years. The largest employment industry in South Ayrshire and Scotland is the public administration, education and health sector. Compared with Scotland, proportionally there are more South Ayrshire residents employed in this sector than Scotland, while there are proportionally fewer employed in banking, finance and insurance sector than Scotland. Despite being a costal area, the smallest employment in South Ayrshire is in the agriculture and fishing sector.

 

The council and its neighbours of East Ayrshire and North Ayrshire work together on economic growth as the Ayrshire Regional Economic Partnership, with support from the Scottish and UK governments and other private and public sector organisations.

 

Educational provision in South Ayrshire is offered via eight secondary schools, forty-one primary schools, two special needs schools and five stand-alone Early Years Centres (although some primary schools have Early Years Centres attached). In terms of early years provision, there are also a number of private establishments which are operated in conjunction with South Ayrshire Council, rather than managed and operated entirely by the council.

 

Based on figures from the 2016-2017 academic year, within South Ayrshire, there were 6,091 secondary school aged pupils, 7,855 primary school aged pupils and 251 pupils attending special educational needs provision establishments.

 

South Ayrshire Council

 

South Ayrshire is governed by South Ayrshire Council which has been under no overall control since 2003, in which time various coalitions and minority administrations have operated. Since the last election in 2022, the council has been led by a Conservative minority administration which took office with support from two independent councillors and abstentions from Labour. The next election is due in 2027.

 

The council's civic head takes the title of provost. This is a largely ceremonial role, chairing council meetings and acting as the area's first citizen. Although an elected councillor, the provost is expected to be politically impartial. Political leadership is provided by the leader of the council.

Wider politics

 

At the 2014 Scottish independence referendum South Ayrshire rejected independence by an above-average margin of 57.9% "No" to 42.1% "Yes". With a turnout of 86.1%, there were 34,402 "Yes" votes and 47,247 "No" votes. Nationally 55.3% of voters voted "No" in the referendum compared to 44.7%, who voted "Yes" – resulting in Scotland remaining a devolved part of the United Kingdom.

 

At the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum a majority of voters in South Ayrshire voted for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union (EU), with 59% of voters in South Ayrshire voting for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the EU and 41% voting for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. With a turnout of 69.8%, 36,265 votes were cast for remain and 25,241 were cast for leave. 62% of Scottish voters voted remain whilst 38% voted leave, whilst nationally 51.8% of voters in the United Kingdom as a whole voting to leave and 48.2% voting to remain

 

Fightin’ Texas A&M Aggie Ring ’84 loves good BBQ. In fact, he’s positive most Texas Aggie Rings do. “I’m sure that there’s a vegetarian Aggie Ring or two out there, but that leaves more for the rest of the Aggie Rings, doesn’t it?” is what Aggie Ring ’84 always says.

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 likes the BBQ in New Jersey where he lives and rules the boardwalk on the Jersey Shore. He loved the BBQ in Central and South Texas when he used to live there and he found the BBQ up around Monterey, California where he was once stationed identical to Texas BBQ which was all good for Aggie Ring.

 

All of that aside, Aggie Ring ’84 has found the BBQ in Kansas City to be the “gold standard” for BBQ. “It just doesn’t get any better than KC BBQ.” said Aggie Ring. (Note: Aggie Ring ’84 has never lived in Kansas City, so he is a truly impartial Aggie Ring!) Now, every state has some special features. Aggie Ring ’84 especially loves some of the hot peppers and apple empanadas, not to mention the greens, that Texas offers. California BBQ had some damn good fresh sliced artichoke served along with it. New Jersey BBQ has, well, the Jersey Shore, according to Aggie Ring ’84.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 has had some extremely excellent BBQ on his many Aggie Ring vacations to Kansas City of the brisket and rib variety. Aggie Ring ’84 still thinks Texas rules on the BBQ chicken and German/Polish sausage. However, Kansas City has the best brisket and ribs (steaks too) in the United States in Aggie Ring’s simple Aggie Ring opinion.

 

When Aggie Ring ’84 is gracing Kansas City with his Aggie Ringliness, he especially likes visiting Historic Westport Kansas City for a variety of reasons: best doughnuts in KC, best cigar lounge in KC, and bar in the oldest building in KC. This year, Aggie Ring ’84 ran into three locals in Westport and asked them where the best BBQ in Kansas City was. All three of them replied. “Go to the Char Bar in Westport. It’s the best!”

 

Aggie Ring decided that local recommendations about food are the best. “Screw Yelp!” said Aggie Ring. So, Aggie Ring went to this “Char Bar” that came highly recommended by the locals. Upon entering the “Char Bar,” Aggie Ring ’84 was in awe. First of all, the place was huge. Aggie Ring could have line danced in the inside and outside portions of the “joint.” Secondly, they had a full top-shelf bar. In Texas Aggie Ring’s humble opinion, BBQ just isn’t BBQ without “adult beverage.” However, Aggie Ring ’84 decided to reserve his Aggie Ring opinion until he tried the “goods.”

 

Texas Aggie Ring promptly took a seat at the bar and, after ordering a fine bourbon, began to peruse the menu. There were so many choices that a simple Texas Aggie Ring couldn’t even guess at what to order. For “starters” they had: Lobster Deviled Eggs (charred lobster and pea shoots), Grit Hushpuppies, Fried Green Tomatoes (Aggie Ring fell in love with these in Alabama), Jumbo Smoked Chicken Wings (bbq drizzle and buttermilk-chive dressing), amongst many others.

 

Fixin’s included: BBQ Pit Beans, Potato Salad, Cabbage Slaw, Carrot-Rasin Slaw and Smoked Corn Succotash, BBQ Pork Rinds, Beer-Battered Pickles, and too many other things to mention in this short summary.

 

The smoked meats included: Naked Burnt Brisket Ends (Kansas City is known for these), Ribs, Pulled Pork Butt, Black Angus Brisket, Hand-Cranked Sausage, Pulled Smoked Chicken, Smoked Turkey Breast, and something unknown to a simple Texas Aggie Ring called “Smoked Jackfruit.”

 

The dessert menu consisted of “Burnt Puddin’” (butterscotch custard and fresh blackberries), Bourbon Peach Crisp (almond crust, sticky male glaze and vanilla bean ice cream) and the “Velvet Elvis” (banana bread-peanut butter ice cream sandwich, spiced walnuts, bananas, cracker jacks, hot fudge, whipped cream, and a bourbon-soaked cherry.

 

There were a number of non-meat items on the menu with a skull and crossbones symbol next to them as a warning to real men and women who eat meat but I’ll not enumerate on them because Aggie Ring ’84 says, “Who cares about that stuff?”

 

Now Aggie Ring ’84 watches my weight because he doesn’t want me to become a “Fat AG” and have to get him resized. So I let him do the ordering. After much cogitation on Aggie Ring 84’s part. He allowed me to order the BBQ Tray with Naked Burnt Brisket Ends and Smoked Corn Succotash served with pickles and toast. Also, an appetizer of lobster deviled eggs. I asked Aggie Ring ’84 “What about dessert?” Aggie Ring replied, “You can have another glass of bourbon for dessert. It’s got much less calories.”

 

The service at Char Bar was quick. I mean really, really quick. Before Aggie Ring had a chance to put a dent into his bourbon, our order was served. First, I have to say that the presentation was incredible. Our meal was served on butcher paper on a tray with the sides in hand thrown pottery bowls. Even the ramekin with a side sauce was steel and not plastic like something you’d get at Arby’s.

 

Aggie Ring looked at his meal and almost wept. The tray, the brown butcher paper, the freshly toasted bread, the ceramic bowl. It was almost too much for Aggie Ring. “This,” said Texas Aggie Ring, “Is how they roll in Kansas City!” Aggie Ring ’84 says that BBQ served on a plate or in a red plastic basket is for “lady boys” and not really BBQ. The “burnt ends” were “pure delight” said Aggie Ring. The lobster deviled eggs and smoked corn brought tears to Aggie Ring’s eye.

 

Aggie Ring ’84 ate his entire lunch and said, “This is the best BBQ in any state I’ve lived in!”

 

As Texas Aggie Ring ’84 and I were leaving the “Char Bar,” he said to me, “Did you see their Sunday only Fried Chicken special with a whole chicken southern fried with whipped potatoes, pan gravy, “big-ass” buttermilk biscuits, and Tabasco honey?” I told Aggie Ring, “Hell, I’d come back just for the Tabasco honey!”

 

#AggieRing #TexasAggie #AggiesEverywhere

The village of Fochriw grunts among the higher hills;

The dwellings of miners and pigeons and pigs

Cluster round the little grey war memorial.

The sun brings glitter to the long street roofs

And the crawling promontories of slag,

The sun makes the pitwheels to shine,

And praise be to the sun, the great unselfish sun,

The sun that shone on Plato's shoulders,

That dazzles with light the Taj Mahal.

The same sun shone on the first mineowner,

On the vigorous builder of this brown village,

And praise be to the impartial sun.

He had no hand in the bruising of valleys,

He had no line in the vigorous builder's plans,

He had no voice in the fixing of wages,

He was the blameless one.

And he smiles on the village this morning,

He smiles on the far-off grave of the vigorous builder,

On the ivied mansion of the first mineowner,

On the pigeon lofts and the Labour Exchange,

And he smiles as only the innocent can.

 

Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni known as al-Biruni, was a Khwarazmian Iranian scholar and polymath during the Islamic Golden Age. He has been called variously "Father of Comparative Religion", "Father of modern geodesy", Founder of Indology and the first anthropologist.

 

Al-Biruni was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences; he also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist, and linguist. He studied almost all the sciences of his day and was rewarded abundantly for his tireless research in many fields of knowledge. Royalty and other powerful elements in society funded al-Biruni's research and sought him out with specific projects in mind. Influential in his own right, al-Biruni was himself influenced by the scholars of other nations, such as the Greeks, from whom he took inspiration when he turned to the study of philosophy. A gifted linguist, he was conversant in Khwarezmian, Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit, and also knew Greek, Hebrew, and Syriac. He spent much of his life in Ghazni, then capital of the Ghaznavids, in modern-day central-eastern Afghanistan. In 1017, he travelled to the Indian subcontinent and wrote a treatise on Indian culture entitled Tārīkh al-Hind ("The History of India"), after exploring the Hindu faith practiced in India. He was, for his time, an admirably impartial writer on the customs and creeds of various nations, his scholarly objectivity earning him the title al-Ustadh ("The Master") in recognition of his remarkable description of early 11th-century India.

EDWARD MONTAGU, second Earl of Manchester (Earl of SANDWICH ) (1602-1671), born in 1602, was the eldest son of Sir Henry Montagu, first Earl of Manchester, by Catherine, second daughter of Sir William Spencer of Yarnton in Oxfordshire, who was the third son of Sir John Spencer of Althorp, Lincolnshire. After a desultory education, he entered Sidney Sussex College Cambridge, on 27 Jan. 1618.1 He represented the county of Huntingdon in the parliaments of 1623-4, 1625, and 1625-6. In 1623 he attended Prince Charles in Spain, and was by him created a knight of the Bath at his coronation on 1 Feb. 1625-6. On 22 May 1626, through the influence of the Duke of Buckingham, he was raised to the Upper House with the title of Baron Montagu of Kimbolton. In the same year he became known by the courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville, on his father being created Earl of Manchester. Being allowed but a small income from his father, Mandeville resided little in London, and mixed much with the relations of his second wife, the daughter of Robert Rich, second Earl of Warwick. By them he was led to lean towards the puritan party, and to detach himself from the court.

 

On 24 April 1640, during the sitting of the Short Parliament, he voted with the minority against the king on the question of the precedency of supply.2 In June 1640 he signed the hesitating reply sent by some of the peers to Lord Warriston's curious appeal to them to aid the Scots in an invasion of England.3 Mandeville signed the petition of the twelve peers (28 Aug. 1640) urging the king to call a parliament, and with Lord Howard of Escrick presented it to Charles on 5 Sept. In the same month he obeyed the king's summons to the grand council of peers at York, and was one of those chosen to treat with the Scottish commissioners at Ripon on 1 Oct. In the negotiations he took an active part, passing frequently to and fro between Ripon and York, urging an accommodation,4 and drawing up the articles.5

 

Mandeville was during the early sittings of the Long Parliament an acknowledged leader of the popular and puritan party in the Lords. He was in complete accord with Pym, Hampden, Fiennes, and St. John, and he held constant meetings with them in his house at Chelsea.6On the discovery of the 'first army plot,' in May 1641, he was despatched by the Lords to Portsmouth with a warrant to examine the governor [see Goring, George, Lord Goring], and to send him up to London to appear before parliament.7 He was one of the sixteen peers chosen as a committee to transact business during the adjournment from 9 Sept. to 20 Oct. 1641. On 24 Dec. he protested against the adjournment of the debate on the removal of Sir Thomas Lunsford from the command of the Towering

His position was very clearly denned when his name was joined with those of the five members who were impeached by the king of high treason on 3 Jan. 1642, although his inclusion appears to have been an afterthought.8 When the articles of impeachment were read, Mandeville at once offered, 'with a great deal of cheerfulness,' to obey the commands of the house, and demanded that, 'as he had a public charge, so he might have a public clearing.'9 This demand he reiterated in the House on 11 Jan., and again on 13 Jan., notwithstanding the message from the king waiving the proceedings.10 A bill was finally passed by both houses in March 1642,11 clearing him from the accusation.12

 

Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester. After Anthony Van Dyck's painting of the late 1630s.

Having thus identified himself with the popular party, he was among the few peers who remained with the parliament in August 1642, and in the following month he took command of a regiment of foot inEssex's army. When the king retired to Oxford, Mandeville (who had succeeded his father as Earl of Manchester in November) returned to London and occupied himself in raising money for the army,13 and in the negotiations for the cessation of arms. He was made Lord-Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire by the parliament in 1642. On the first suspicion of the Tomkins and Challoner plot [see Waller, Edmund], Manchester, with Viscount Save and Sele and others, managed (on Sunday, 28 May 1643) to elicit from Roe, a clerk of Tomkins, so many important secrets, that the whole conspiracy was speedily discovered. He afterwards acted as president in the resulting court-martial in June and July.14 Manchester was one of the ten peers nominated to sit as lay members in the Westminster Assembly of Divines in July of the same year.

 

The fortunes of the parliamentary forces in the eastern counties had in the early summer been seriously imperilled by local quarrels. Cromwell recognised the danger, and appealed to parliament to appoint a commander of high position and authority. On 9 Aug. accordingly the Commons resolved to make Manchester Major-General of the associated counties in the place of Lord Grey of Wark. The choice was confirmed by the Lords on the following day, and Essex at once complied with the request to give him the commission. Cromwell and Manchester were thus brought into close connection. They were already well acquainted with each other. Each belonged to a leading family of Huntingdonshire, had been educated at Sidney Sussex, Cambridge,16 and had been concerned in a dispute relating to the enclosing of common lands in the eastern counties, which had been before a committee of the House of Commons.17

 

By 28 Aug. Manchester, in his new capacity, was besieging Lynn-Regis in Norfolk; the town capitulated 16 Sept., and the governorship was bestowed upon him (21 Sept.). On 9 Oct. he joined Cromwell and Fairfax, then besieging Bolingbroke Castle, and the three commanders won Winceby or Horncastle fight on 11 Oct.18 On 20 Oct. the town of Lincoln surrendered to Manchester. On Cromwell's motion (22 Jan. 1644), Lord Willoughby of Parham, who had been commanding in Lincolnshire as Serjeant-Major-General of the county, was ordered to place himself under Manchester's orders. Charges of misconduct had been brought against Willoughby, who resented the position now forced on him, and challenged Manchester as he was on his way to the House of Lords. Both houses treated Willoughby's conduct as a breach of privilege, but after Manchester had defended himself against Willoughby's complaints, the subject dropped,19 and Willoughby returned to his duties under him.

 

On 22 Jan. 1644,20 Manchester was directed to 'regulate' the university of Cambridge, and to remove scandalous ministers in the associated counties. On 24 Feb. he accordingly issued his warrants to the heads of colleges, and began the work of reformation. About the same time (19 Dec. 1643) he authorised William Dowsing to destroy 'superstitious pictures and ornaments.' In February 1644 Manchester became a member of the new committee of both kingdoms, meeting at Derby House. In April he was again with his army watching the movements of Prince Rupert. The town of Lincoln had been retaken by the royalists in March, but Manchester successfully stormed the close on 6 May, and thus secured the county for the parliament.21 A bridge was thrown over the Trent at Gainsborough, and Manchester marched to the aid ofLord Fairfax and the Scots, who were besieging York. This junction was effected on 3 June. On the same day the committee of both kingdoms sent Vane to York, ostensibly to urge the generals to send a force into Lancashire to arrest Prince Rupert's progress, but in reality to propose the formation of a government from which Charles was to be excluded. Manchester and his colleagues rejected the suggestion, but Cromwell, Manchester's Lieutenant-General, probably accepted Vane's proposals, and to this difference of view may be traced the subsequent breach between the two.22Cromwell at the battle of Marston Moor (1 July) commanded Manchester's horse, while the earl himself exercised a general control as a field officer. Though carried away in the flight, he soon returned to the field, and successfully rallied some of the fugitives. After the surrender of the city of York on 16 July, the armies divided, and Manchester marched to Doncaster, which he reached on 23 July. While there Tickhill Castle surrendered (26 July) to John Lilburne, who had summoned it contrary to Manchester's orders, Sheffield Castle surrendered (10 Aug.) to Major-General Lawrence Crawford, and Welbeck House to Manchester himself (11 Aug.) But Pontefract Castle had been passed by, and Manchester paid no attention to the entreaty of the officers to blockade Newark.23 Proceeding leisurely to Lincoln, he subsided into inaction. The committee of both kingdoms (3 Aug.) directed him to march against Prince Rupert, but he (10 Aug.) shrank from 'so large a commission, and a worke so difficult,' in the unsatisfactory condition of his men, and the lateness of the season,24 and though constantly urged to make his way westward, the earl made no movement till the beginning of September.25 By 22 Sept. he was at Watford, on his way to the general rendezvous at Abingdon, and reached Reading on 29 Sept. Here he remained till the middle of October, notwithstanding the urgent desire of the committee in London that he should move forwards. He had reached Basingstoke by 17 Oct., was joined by Waller on the 19th, and by Essexon 21 Oct. For the command of the three armies thus united, a council of war, consisting of the three generals, with Johnston of Warriston and Crewe, had been appointed by the committee of both kingdoms.

 

At the second battle of Newbury, on 28 Oct., Manchester's lethargy became fatally conspicuous. Delaying to make the attack assigned to him till too late in the day, he failed in his attempt on Shaw House, and the royalist army under cover of the darkness made its escape westward, within 'little more than musket-shot' of the earl's position.26 At the council held the following day Manchester opposed Waller's and Cromwell's advice to pursue the enemy, and preferred to summon Donnington Castle. Failing in his attempt to storm it on 1 Nov. he leisurely withdrew, and the castle thus abandoned was relieved by the king on the 9th. At a council of war at Shaw Field on 10 Nov. Manchester plainly declared his horror of prosecution of the war. 'If we beat the king 99 times,' he said, 'he is king still, and so will his posterity be after him; but if the king beat us once, we shall be all hanged, and our posterity be made slaves.' On 17 Nov. he left Newbury for the purpose of protecting the besiegers of Basing House. But Basing was never reached. His starving men were deserting him, and with the remains of his army he made his way to Reading. The siege of Basing House was necessarily abandoned.27

 

Manchester's religious views, though sincere, were not very deep. He inclined to presbyterianism from circumstances rather than from conviction, and had not attempted to curtail Cromwell's efforts to 'seduce' the army 'to independency'.28 Discords among his officers were growing, and in September he had paid a hurried and fruitless visit to London in the hope of healing them, but the breach between him and Cromwell was soon irreparable.

 

On 25 Nov. Cromwell laid before the House of Commons a narrative, charging Manchester with neglect and incompetency in the prosecution of the war.29 He called attention to 'his Lordshipe's continued backwardness to all action, his aversenes to engagement or what tendes thereto, his neglecting of opportunityes and declineing to take or pursue advantages upon the enemy, and this (in many particulars) contrary to advice given him, contrary to commands received, and when there had been noe impediment or other employment for his army.'30 Cromwell's charges were probably not exaggerated. Manchester, a civilian at heart, was always of opinion 'that this war would not be ended by the sword, for if it were so concluded, it would be an occasion of rising again or of a future quarrel, but it would be better for the kingdom if it were ended by an accommodation.'31 Manchester defended himself in the House of Lords on 27 Nov., when a committee of inquiry was appointed,32 and made a vigorous attack on Cromwell.33 But the presentation of the bill for new modelling the army turned the course of public debate from the shortcomings of individuals to more general principles. The Commons (26 Dec., 30 Dec., and 1 Jan.), although urged by the lords to deliver their reports respecting Manchester, centred all their energies on the struggle for the passing of the self-denying ordinance, and on 2 April 1645 (the day before the ordinance passed the Lords) Manchester, like Essex and Denbigh, resigned his commission in the army. Forty of his officers in January 1645 signed a petition for his continuance in the service, fearing that his removal would 'breed a great confusion amongst them by reason of the differences between the Presbyterians and Independents.'34

Manchester, although relieved of military duty, still (4 April) retained his powers for regulating the university of Cambridge, was a constant attendant on the committee of both kingdoms, and frequently acted as Speaker of the House of Lords. In the propositions for peace at the end of 1645 it was recommended that he should be made a marquis. He was one of those to whom Charles on 26 Dec. 1645 expressed himself willing to entrust the militia, in accordance with the Uxbridge proposals, and was a commissioner for framing the articles of peace between the kingdoms of England and Scotland in July 1646.35 With William Lenthall he was entrusted with the charge of the Great Seal from 30 Oct. 1646 to 15 March 1648. Early in 1647 he was busy with other leading presbyterian peers in sketching out a pacification more likely to meet with the royal approval. When the houses of parliament were attacked by the London mob in July 1647, Manchester, notwithstanding his presbyterian leanings, fled to the army on Hounslow Heath with the independent members, and signed the engagement of 4 Aug. to stand by the army for the freedom of parliament.36 On 6 Aug. he returned to London escorted by Fairfax and resumed his duties as Speaker of the upper chamber.

 

Manchester stoutly opposed the ordinance for the king's trial in the House of Lords on 2 Jan. 1649, and retired from public life when the formation of a commonwealth grew inevitable. After the death of the Earl of Holland he was, on 15 March 1649, made chancellor of the university of Cambridge, a post of which he was deprived in November 1651 for refusing to take the engagement.37 Cromwell summoned him to sit in his Upper House in December 1657,38 but the summons was not obeyed. Manchester took an active part in bringing about the Restoration, and as Speaker of the Lords welcomed the king on his arrival (29 May). He was speedily invested with many honours. On 27 April 1660 he was appointed one of the commissioners of the Great Seal, on 22 May was restored to his Lord-Lieutenancy of the counties of Northampton and Huntingdon,39 and on the 26th to the chancellorship of Cambridge. He was made Lord Chamberlain of the household on 30 May, privy councillor on 1 June, and was also chamberlain of South Wales.

From 9 to 19 Oct. he was engaged on the trial of the regicides, and appears to have inclined to leniency.40 At the coronation of Charles II on 23 April 1661 he bore the sword of state, and was made a Knight of the Garter. He became joint commissioner for the office of Earl-Marshal on 26 May 1662, and was incorporated M.A. in the university of Oxford on 8 Sept. 1665. When, in 1667, the Dutch appeared in the Channel, Manchester was made a general, and a regiment was raised under his command (15 June). He was a fellow of the Royal Society from 1667 till his death. He died on 5 May 1671, and was buried in Kimbolton Church, Huntingdonshire.

 

Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester. Studio of Peter Lely, after 1661. NPG

Manchester was of a generous and gentle disposition. Burnet speaks of him as 'of a soft and obliging temper, of no great depth, but universally beloved, being both a virtuous and a generous man,'41and this view is corroborated even by Clarendon.42 Sir Philip Warwick describes him as 'of a debonnair nature, but very facile and changeable,'43 while Baillie calls him 'a sweet, meek man.'44 Peace, a constitutional monarchy, and puritanism were the objects at which he aimed, and his inactivity in the army dated from the time when protracted war, the rule of the people, and independency seemed to be the inevitable outcome of the struggle. It was easy to begin a war, he was in the habit of saying, but no man knew when it would end, and a war was not the way to advance religion.45 When actually in the field, his sense of duty and his humanity prompted him to activity. To encourage his men he marched among them for many a weary mile,46 or spent the night after an engagement in riding from regiment to regiment, thanking the soldiers and endeavouring to supply their wants.47 The same longing for peace and accommodation is exemplified in his religious connections. A presbyterian member of the assembly of divines, he used his influence to have Philip Nye, the independent, appointed to the vicarage of Kimbolton, and in the hearing of Baxter pleaded for moderate episcopacy and a liturgy.48 Baxter, while designating him 'a good man,' complains that he would have drawn the presbyterians to yield more than they did, and was earnest in urging the suppression of passages that were 'too vehement.'49

 

Many of Manchester's letters on army business are in the British Museum50 and in the Bodleian Library.51Manchester married five times. His first wife was Susanna, daughter of John Hill of Honiley in Warwickshire, and of his wife Dorothy Beaumont, sister to the Duke of Buckingham's mother. Pecuniary arrangements between the duke and Manchester's father were amicably concluded by means of the match. The marriage ceremony, which took place early in February 1623, was performed in the king's bedchamber, where James was confined to his bed. He was not, however, incapable of throwing his shoe after the bridal party as they left the room. Susanna Montagu died in January 1625. As Lord Mandeville, Manchester married at Newington Church, on 1 July 1626, Anne, daughter of Robert Rich, second Earl of Warwick, Lord Admiral of the Long Parliament, by whom he had three children: Robert, his successor, noticed below; Frances, who married Henry, son of Dr. Robert Sanderson, Bishop of Lincoln; and Anne, who married Robert Rich, second Earl of Holland and fifth Earl of Warwick. Anne, Lady Mandeville, died on 14 or 19 Feb. 1641-2, and was buried at Kimbolton. There is a portrait of her at Kimbolton Castle. His third wife was Essex (d. 28 Sept. 1658), daughter of Sir Thomas Cheke of Pirgo in Essex, by his wife Essex Rich, daughter of Robert, first Earl of Warwick, and widow of Sir Robert Bevil (d. 1640) of Chesterton in Huntingdonshire, by whom he had six sons and two daughters. Of the daughters, Essex (born 1644) married, in June 1661, Henry Ingram, Viscount Irwin. Of the six sons, Edward, Henry, Charles, and Thomas were members of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Manchester married a fourth wife in July 1659; she was Ellinor, daughter of Sir Richard Wortley of Wortley in Yorkshire, and he was her fourth husband. She had previously married Sir Henry Lee, first Baronet (d. 1631), of Ditchley in Oxfordshire; Edward Radcliffe, sixth Earl of Sussex (d. 1641); and Robert Rich, second Earl of Warwick (d. 1658) (the father of Manchester's second wife). She died in January 1666-7. In August 1667, at St. Martin's-in-the-Fields, Manchester married his fifth wife, Margaret, daughter of Francis Russell, fourth Earl of Bedford, a widow of James Hay, second Earl of Carlisle (d. 1660). She died in November 1676, and was buried at Chenies, Buckinghamshire.

  

1. Admission Registers.

2. Calendar of State Papers, 1640, p. 66.

3. Gardiner, Fall of Charles I, p. 402; Mandeville, MS. Memoirs in Addit. MS. 15567, ff. 7-8.

4. Harl. MS. 456, ff. 38-40.

5. Borough, Treaty of Ripon, pp. 44,55.

6. Evelyn, Diary of Correspondence, iv. 75-6.

7. Lords' Journals, iv. 238.

8. Nicholas Papers, Camden Society, i. 62.

9. Lords' Journals, iv. 501.

10. ib. pp. 505, 511.

11. ib. p. 649.

12. cf. v. 564.

13. Comm. for the Advance of Money, p. 1.

14. Sanford, Studies of the Great Rebellion, p. 561, quoting from D'Ewes.

15. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, i. 224-6.

16. Sanford, Studies, pp. 202-5.

17. Clarendon, Life, 1857, i. 73-4; Carlyle, Cromwell's Letters and Speeches, 1866, i. 90.

18. See Manchester's letter of 12 Oct. in Lords' Journals, vi. 255-6.

19. Harl. MS. 2224, ff. 12-16.

20. Husband, Ordinances of Parliament, 1646, folio, p. 415.

21. True Relation, E. 47 [2], Manchester's letter read in the House of Commons on 9 May.

22. Gardiner, Civil War, i. 431-3.

23. Pickering's Deposition, Cal. State Papers, 1644, p. 151.

24. Quarrel of Manchester and Cromwell, p. 9.

25. ib. pp. 20-4.

26. Watson's Deposition, Cal. State Papers, 1644-5, p. 150.

27. Gardiner, Civil War, p. 518.

28. Baillie, Letters and Journals, ii. 185.

29. Quarrel of Manchester and Cromwell, Camden Soc., pp. 178-95.

30. Cromwell's Narrative in Quarrel, p. 79.

31. Pickering's Deposition, Cal. State Papers, 1644-5, p. 152.

32. Lords' Journals, vii. 76.

33. Camden Miscellany, vol. viii.

34. Whitacre, Diary, British Library Addit. MS. 31116, f. 185.

35. Thurloe, State Papers, i. 77-9.

36. Rushworth, vii. 754.

37. See letters in Hist. MSS. Comm. 8th Rep. pt. ii. p. 64.

38. Parl. Hist. iii. col. 1518.

39. Hist. MSS. Comm. 8th Rep. pt. ii. p. 65.

40. Exact and most impartial Account. E. 1047 [3], p. 53 b.

41. Burnet's History of his Own Time,, 1875, i. 66.

42. History of the Rebellion, ed. Macray, i. 242, ii. 545.

43. Sir Philip Warwick, Memoires of the Reign of King Charles I, 1701. 246.

44. Baillie, Letters and Journals, ii. 229.

45. Cal. State Papers. 1644-5, Pickering's Deposition, p. 152.

46. Ashe, Particular Relation.

47. Sanford, Studies, p. 608.

48. Sylvester, Reliquae Baxterianae, p. 278.

49. ib. p. 365.

50. British Library Egerton MSS. 2643 ff. 9, 23, 2647 ff. 136, 229, 241, 319; Addit. MS. 18979, f. 158; Harl. MS. 7001, ff. 170, 172, 174, 202.

51. Bodleian Library Tanner MSS. lxiii. f. 130, lxiv. f. 91, lxii.'tf.43l, 471, lvii. f. 194.

Kelly Woods

About Kelly Woods

 

Kelly is a Celtic term for ‘a wood’. The Kelly Glen was originally part of the estate around Kelly House (since burned down), so it’s a mix of planted specimens and natural regeneration. Although difficult to categorize, it could be classified as an W16 National Vegetation Classification (NVC) woodland community, which is defined as one with a predominance of oak and birch with wavy hair grass with a sub-community of blaeberry and broad buckler fern.

History

 

The first OS maps show the wood covering a much larger area than today and as being a mixture of conifer and broadleaf. The conifers were felled at some stage but their effects on the ground vegetation from shading and acidification are still being felt.

Current State

 

The woods are in a state of benign neglect with some areas being encroached by Rhododendron Ponticum. There is grazing pressure from deer, which may be hindering woodland regeneration. Luckily, there is a Tree Preservation Order (TPO) on the whole wood.

Objectives

Short Term Goals

 

Make contact with the owners of the wood.

 

Raise awareness of the value of the woods.

Long Term Goals

 

Eradicate Rhododendron Ponticum, in particular in the ravines, where the humid microclimate is ideal for rare species of ferns, mosses and lichens.

 

South Ayrshire (Scots: Sooth Ayrshire; Scottish Gaelic: Siorrachd Àir a Deas, is one of thirty-two council areas of Scotland, covering the southern part of Ayrshire. It borders onto Dumfries and Galloway, East Ayrshire and North Ayrshire. South Ayrshire had an estimated population in 2021 of 112,450, making it the 19th–largest subdivision in Scotland by population. With an area of 472 sq mi, South Ayrshire ranks as the 15th largest subdivision in Scotland.

 

South Ayrshire's administrative centre is located in its largest town, Ayr. The headquarters for its associated political body, South Ayrshire Council, is housed at the towns County Buildings located in Wellington Square. Ayr is the former county town of the historic Ayrshire county, with the political activity of the Ayrshire County Council being based at County Buildings.

 

History

South Ayrshire was created in 1996 under the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994, which replaced Scotland's previous local government structure of upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts with unitary council areas providing all local government services. South Ayrshire covered the same area as the abolished Kyle and Carrick district, and also took over the functions of the abolished Strathclyde Regional Council within the area. The area's name references its location within the historic county of Ayrshire, which had been abolished for local government purposes in 1975 when Kyle and Carrick district and Strathclyde region had been created.

 

In 2021, South Ayrshire submitted a bid for city status as part of the 2022 Platinum Jubilee Celebrations. The bid was based on the area's rich history and links to royalty, and received backing from organisations and businesses including Ayrshire College and Scottish Enterprise. The bid was ultimately unsuccessful, with eight other settlements across the UK, overseas territories and crown dependencies being awarded city status, including Scottish town Dunfermline.

 

Geographically, South Ayrshire is located on the western coast of Scotland, sharing borders with neighbouring local authorities East Ayrshire, Dumfries and Galloway and North Ayrshire. The climate in South Ayrshire, typical of that in western Scotland, is milder than that of eastern Scotland due to the stronger maritime influence, as the prevailing winds blow from the sea into South Ayrshire, which is located primarily on the western coast of Scotland. The warm Gulf Stream also has a strong influence on western Scotland. With winds mainly blowing from the sea the annual mean temperatures are in the range 9.5 to 9.9 °C (49.1 to 49.8 °F) in coastal areas of South Ayrshire such as Ayr and Troon.

 

The sea reaches its lowest temperature in February or early March so that on average February is the coldest month in some coastal parts of South Ayrshire along with the Rhins of Galloway, Kintyre and the Hebrides. In February the mean daily minimum temperature varies from about 2 °C in most of the islands, 1 to 2 °C along most of the Solway Firth and lowland inland areas, but less than −1 °C in parts of the Southern Uplands and central Highlands. Inland, where the influence of the sea is less, January is the coldest month with mean daily minimum temperatures generally between −3 and 0 °C.

 

The number of hours of natural sunshine in South Ayrshire is controlled by the length of day and by cloudiness. In general, December is the dullest month and May or June the sunniest. Sunshine duration decreases with increasing altitude, increasing latitude and distance from the coast. Local topography also exerts a strong influence and in the winter deep glens and north-facing slopes can be in shade for long periods. Industrial pollution and smoke haze can also reduce sunshine amounts, but the decline in heavy industry in the Ayrshire area, primarily in Ayr in South Ayrshire along with Kilmarnock in East Ayrshire, has resulted in an increase in sunshine duration particularly in the winter months.

 

Average annual rainfall totals range from less than 1,000 mm (39 in) in the upper Clyde valley and along the coasts of Ayrshire and Dumfries and Galloway to on average over 3,500 mm (140 in) over the higher parts of the west Highlands, approaching the maximum values found in the UK (over 4,000 millimetres or 160 inches further north).

 

South Ayrshire's population is mostly concentrated around the adjoining coastal towns of Ayr, Prestwick and Troon located to the north-west of the council, which represents 68% of the council's total population according to data derived from the 2011 census, with a combined population of 76,846. Other areas of significance include the towns of Maybole and Girvan which are located to the south of the council area in the district of Carrick.

 

The economy of South Ayrshire, like many other areas, was badly affected during the worldwide financial crisis from 2009–2012. Despite this, total Gross Value Added for South Ayrshire has seen a steady increase over the last 20 years, reaching a peak in 2015 of £2.4 billion. South Ayrshire's GVA represents 1.9% of the total Scottish Gross Value Added income which is consistent with the previous 20 years. The largest employment industry in South Ayrshire and Scotland is the public administration, education and health sector. Compared with Scotland, proportionally there are more South Ayrshire residents employed in this sector than Scotland, while there are proportionally fewer employed in banking, finance and insurance sector than Scotland. Despite being a costal area, the smallest employment in South Ayrshire is in the agriculture and fishing sector.

 

The council and its neighbours of East Ayrshire and North Ayrshire work together on economic growth as the Ayrshire Regional Economic Partnership, with support from the Scottish and UK governments and other private and public sector organisations.

 

Educational provision in South Ayrshire is offered via eight secondary schools, forty-one primary schools, two special needs schools and five stand-alone Early Years Centres (although some primary schools have Early Years Centres attached). In terms of early years provision, there are also a number of private establishments which are operated in conjunction with South Ayrshire Council, rather than managed and operated entirely by the council.

 

Based on figures from the 2016-2017 academic year, within South Ayrshire, there were 6,091 secondary school aged pupils, 7,855 primary school aged pupils and 251 pupils attending special educational needs provision establishments.

 

South Ayrshire Council

 

South Ayrshire is governed by South Ayrshire Council which has been under no overall control since 2003, in which time various coalitions and minority administrations have operated. Since the last election in 2022, the council has been led by a Conservative minority administration which took office with support from two independent councillors and abstentions from Labour. The next election is due in 2027.

 

The council's civic head takes the title of provost. This is a largely ceremonial role, chairing council meetings and acting as the area's first citizen. Although an elected councillor, the provost is expected to be politically impartial. Political leadership is provided by the leader of the council.

Wider politics

 

At the 2014 Scottish independence referendum South Ayrshire rejected independence by an above-average margin of 57.9% "No" to 42.1% "Yes". With a turnout of 86.1%, there were 34,402 "Yes" votes and 47,247 "No" votes. Nationally 55.3% of voters voted "No" in the referendum compared to 44.7%, who voted "Yes" – resulting in Scotland remaining a devolved part of the United Kingdom.

 

At the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum a majority of voters in South Ayrshire voted for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the European Union (EU), with 59% of voters in South Ayrshire voting for the United Kingdom to remain a member of the EU and 41% voting for the United Kingdom to leave the European Union. With a turnout of 69.8%, 36,265 votes were cast for remain and 25,241 were cast for leave. 62% of Scottish voters voted remain whilst 38% voted leave, whilst nationally 51.8% of voters in the United Kingdom as a whole voting to leave and 48.2% voting to remain

 

British postcard by Film Weekly, London.

 

With his smooth, boyish good looks, American actor Richard Cromwell (1910-1960) had the makings of a Hollywood star in the early 1930s. The handsome actor became well known with The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935), sharing top billing with Gary Cooper and Franchot Tone. His film career reached its pinnacle with Jezebel (1938) with Bette Davis and Henry Fonda and John Ford's Young Mr. Lincoln (1939) also with Fonda. But soon after that, his meteoric career crashed and burned.

 

Richard Cromwell was born LeRoy Melvin Radabaugh in Long Beach, California, in 1910. he was the second of five children of Fay B. (née Stocking) and Ralph R. Radabaugh, who was an inventor. In 1918, when Radabaugh was still in grade school, his father died of the Spanish flu. Roy earnestly delivered morning newspapers to help out the family's budget crisis. on a scholarship, he attended the Chouinard Art Institute in Los Angeles, a precursor to the California Institute of the Arts. He continued to work part-time as a maintenance man, custodian and soda jerk. He set up a small art shop in Hollywood in the late 1920s and made masks and oil paintings there. He sold pictures, made lampshades, and designed colour schemes for houses. The handsome Cromwell made contacts with film stars of the time such as Anna Q. Nilsson, Colleen Moore, Beatrice Lillie, Greta Garbo, Joan Crawford and Tallulah Bankhead, some of whom he also immortalised in his paintings and masks. He painted scenery for community theatre productions and eventually took on acting roles. His first film appearance was an extra role in King of Jazz (John Murray Anderson, Walter Lantz, 1930), along with the film's star, Paul Whiteman and his orchestra. On a whim, his friends encouraged him to audition for the lead role in a Columbia remake of D.W. Griffith's silent classic Tol'able David (1921) starring Richard Barthelmess. Radabaugh won the role over thousands of hopefuls. In storybook fashion, studio mogul Harry Cohn gave him his screen name Richard Cromwell and launched his career. Cromwell earned $75 per week for his work on Tol'able David (John G. Blystone, 1930), which co-starred Noah Beery Sr. and John Carradine. Gary Brumburgh at IMDb: "the studio publicity machines worked overtime to promote both the film and their new leading man. Richard lived up to all the hype once the reviews came out, giving a terrific debut performance in a very difficult role. As the rather weak-willed young boy who finds the strength and courage to right the injustice done to him, he hit overnight stardom". Amid the flurry of publicity, Cromwell toured the country and was even invited to the White House to meet President Herbert Hoover. Cohn signed Cromwell to a multi-year contract based on the strength of his performance and the success at the box office of his debut. In the following years, Richard played several leading roles in smaller films, often in youthful, somewhat sensitive roles. Leslie Halliwell later described him in his Filmgoer's Companion as the "friendly hero of the early talkies". Cromwell maintained a deep friendship with Marie Dressler, which continued until her death from cancer in 1934. Dressler personally insisted that her studio bosses cast Cromwell on a loan-out in the lead opposite her in Emma (Clarence Brown, 1932), also with Myrna Loy. Dressler was nominated for a second Best Actress award for her portrayal of the title role in Emma. This was another break that helped sustain Cromwell's rising status in Hollywood. He was now much in demand and his next roles were in The Age of Consent (Gregory La Cava, 1932) co-starring Arline Judge and Eric Linden, Tom Brown of Culver (William Wyler, 1932), and Hoopla (Frank Lloyd, 1933), where he is seduced by Clara Bow, in her final film. He made an early standout performance as the leader of the youth gang in Cecil B. DeMille's unusual cult-favourite, This Day and Age (1933). To ensure that Cromwell's character used the right slang, DeMille asked high school student Horace Hahn to read the script and comment. Cromwell then starred with Jean Arthur in Most Precious Thing in Life (Lambert Hillyer, 1934). He had his definitive breakthrough when he co-starred with Gary Cooper and Franchot Tone in the adventure film The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (Henry Hathaway, 1935), which was nominated for seven Oscars. Cromwell played the son of a senior officer who is tortured by insurgents. His father refuses to rescue him in order to demonstrate his impartiality. After this promising start, Cromwell's career received a bump when he wanted more artistic independence.

 

Richard Cromwell's next pictures at Columbia Pictures and elsewhere were mostly inconsequential. Cromwell starred with Will Rogers in Life Begins at 40 (1935) and appeared in Poppy (1936) as the suitor of W.C. Fields' daughter, Rochelle Hudson. In 1937, he portrayed the young bank robber in love with Helen Mack and on the lam from Lionel Atwill in The Wrong Road (James Cruze, 1937). A challenge was his lead role in The Road Back (James Whale, 1937), a sequel to the classic All Quiet on the Western Front (Lewis Milestone, 1930). The film chronicled the story of young German soldiers readjusting to civilian life after WWI. Fearful that this film would not do well in Germany, the new regime at Universal Pictures severely edited the film before release, removing much of the strongly anti-Nazi slant that author Erich Maria Remarque included in the original novel, and which director James Whale had intended to retain in the film version. The resulting film was not well-received. Richard Cromwell took a detour in his career to Broadway for the chance to star as an evil cadet in an original play by Joseph Viertel, 'So Proudly We Hail!'. The military drama was directed by future film director Charles Walters, co-starred Edward Andrews and Eddie Bracken, and opened to much fanfare. The New York Herald Tribune called Cromwell's acting "a striking portrayal" and The New York Times said that he "ran the gamut of emotions" in the play. Cromwell had shed his restrictive Columbia contract and pursued acting work as a freelancer in other media. Cromwell guest-starred on the radio in 'The Royal Gelatin Hour' (1937) hosted by Rudy Vallee, in a dramatic skit opposite Fay Wray. Enjoying the experience, Cromwell acted in the role of Kit Marshall on the radio soap opera Those We Love, which ran from 1938 until 1942. On-screen, Cromwell appeared in Storm Over Bengal (Sidney Salkow, 1938), for Republic Pictures, in order to capitalise on his success in The Lives of a Bengal Lancer. He stood out in supporting roles as Henry Fonda's brother, who kills a man in a duel of honour, in the romantic drama Jezebel (William Wyler, 1938) starring Bette Davis and as defendant Matt Clay to Henry Fonda's title performance in Young Mr. Lincoln (John Ford, 1939). In 1939, Cromwell again tried his luck on stage in a regional production of Sutton Vane's play 'Outward Bound', co-starring Dorothy Jordan. Cromwell drifted into secondary features. He enjoyed an active social Hollywood life with friends including Barbara Stanwyck, Joan Crawford, Franchot Tone, George Cukor, Cole Porter and William Haines. For Universal Pictures, Cromwell starred as a draftsman who thwarts the Nazis in Enemy Agent. He went on to appear in marginal but still watchable fare such as Baby Face Morgan (Arthur Dreifuss, 1942), with Mary Carlisle. Cromwell enjoyed a career boost with Cosmo Jones, Crime Smasher (1943), the film adaptation of the hit radio serial. However, he was next up at Monogram Pictures, where he was cast as a doctor working covertly for a police department to catch mobsters in the forgettable though endearing Riot Squad.

 

During the last two years of World War II, Richard Cromwell served with the United States Coast Guard. Upon returning to California following the war's end, he acted in local theatre productions. He also signed on for live performances in summer stock in the East during this period. Cromwell's break from films due to his stint in the Service meant that he was not much in demand after the War's end. He failed to make a comeback as a film actor with a role in the Film Noir Bungalow 13 (Edward L. Cahn, 1948) and he retired from the film industry. All told, Cromwell's film career spanned 39 films. In the 1950s, he returned to his artistic roots and studied ceramics. He built a pottery studio on his property, becoming especially known and admired for his creative tile designs. Returning to the name Roy Radabaugh, Cromwell also wrote extensively, producing several published stories and an unfinished novel in the 1950s. Cromwell was married once, briefly (1945–1946), to actress Angela Lansbury, when she was 19 and Cromwell was 35. They were married in a small civil ceremony in Independence, California. Lansbury later stated in a 1966 interview that her first marriage was a mistake because Cromwell was gay. His homosexuality had been kept secret from the public and Lansbury had not known about it before the marriage. However, Cromwell and Lansbury remained friends until his death in 1960. She later described him as "charming with a good knowledge of jazz music". In 1960 he tried a second comeback in the film business. In July 1960, Cromwell signed with producer Maury Dexter for 20th Century Fox's planned production of The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come (Andrew V. McLaglen, 1961), starring singer Jimmie Rogers. Diagnosed with liver cancer shortly thereafter, he was forced to withdraw and Chill Wills replaced Cromwell in the film. Richard Cromwell was a heavy smoker for many years and at times advertised Lucky Strike. He died on 11 October 1960 in Hollywood, at the age of 50. He is interred at Fairhaven Memorial Park in Santa Ana, California. For his services to the film industry, Cromwell has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame (1627 Vine Street). Cromwell's legacy is preserved today by his nephew Dan Putnam and his cousin Bill Keane IV. In 2005, Keane donated materials relating to Cromwell's radio performances to the Thousand Oaks Library's Special Collection, "The American Radio Archive". In 2007, Keane donated memorabilia relating to Cromwell's film career and ceramics work to the AMPAS Margaret Herrick Library in Beverly Hills.

 

Sources: Gary Brumburgh (IMDb), Leslie Halliwell (Filmgoer's Companion), Wikipedia (English and German) and IMDb.

 

And, please check out our blog European Film Star Postcards.

Nero: the Man Behind the Myth

(May - Oct 2021)

 

Nero is known as one of Rome's most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty, debauchery and madness.

The last male descendant of the emperor Augustus, Nero succeeded to the throne in AD 54 aged just 16 and died a violent death at 30. His turbulent rule saw momentous events including the Great Fire of Rome, Boudicca's rebellion in Britain, the execution of his own mother and first wife, grand projects and extravagant excesses.

Drawing on the latest research, this major exhibition questions the traditional narrative of the ruthless tyrant and eccentric performer, revealing a different Nero, a populist leader at a time of great change in Roman society.

Through some 200 spectacular objects, from the imperial palace in Rome to the streets of Pompeii, follow the young emperor’s rise and fall and make up your own mind about Nero. Was he a young, inexperienced ruler trying his best in a divided society, or the merciless, matricidal megalomaniac history has painted him to be?

 

Nero was the 5th emperor of Rome and the last of Rome’s first dynasty, the Julio-Claudians, founded by Augustus (the adopted son of Julius Caesar). Nero is known as one of Rome’s most infamous rulers, notorious for his cruelty and debauchery. He ascended to power in AD 54 aged just 16 and died at 30. He ruled at a time of great social and political change, overseeing momentous events such as the Great Fire of Rome and Boudica’s rebellion in Britain. He allegedly killed his mother and two of his wives, only cared about his art and had very little interest in ruling the empire.

Most of what we know about Nero comes from the surviving works of three historians – Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio. All written decades after Nero’s death, their accounts have long shaped our understanding of this emperor’s rule. However, far from being impartial narrators presenting objective accounts of past events, these authors and their sources wrote with a very clear agenda in mind. Nero’s demise brought forward a period of chaos and civil war – one that ended only when a new dynasty seized power, the Flavians. Authors writing under the Flavians all had an interest in legitimising the new ruling family by portraying the last of the Julio-Claudians in the worst possible light, turning history into propaganda. These accounts became the ‘historical’ sources used by later historians, therefore perpetuating a fabricated image of Nero, which has survived all the way to the present.

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 December AD 37.

He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Both Gnaeus and Agrippina were the grandchildren of Augustus, making Nero Augustus’ great, great grandson with a strong claim to power.

Nero was only two years old when his mother was exiled and three when his father died. His inheritance was taken from him and he was sent to live with his aunt. However, Nero’s fate changed again when Claudius became emperor, restoring the boy’s property and recalling his mother Agrippina from exile.

In AD 49 the emperor Claudius married Agrippina, and adopted Nero the following year. It is at this point that Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus changed his name to Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. In Roman times it was normal to change your name when adopted, abandoning your family name in favour of your adoptive father’s. Nero was a common name among members of the Claudian family, especially in Claudius’ branch.

Nero and Agrippina offered Claudius a politically useful link back to Augustus, strengthening his position.

Claudius appeared to favour Nero over his natural son, Britannicus, marking Nero as the designated heir.

When Claudius died in AD 54, Nero became emperor just two months before turning 17.

As he was supported by both the army and the senate, his rise to power was smooth. His mother Agrippina exerted a significant influence, especially at the beginning of his rule.

The Roman historians Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all claim that Nero, fed up with Agrippina’s interference, decided to kill her.

Given the lack of eyewitnesses, there is no way of knowing if or how this happened. However, this did not stop historians from fabricating dramatic stories of Agrippina’s murder, asserting that Nero tried (and failed) to kill her with a boat engineered to sink, before sending his men to do the job.

Agrippina allegedly told them to stab her in the womb that bore Nero, her last words clearly borrowed from stage plays.

It is entirely possible, as claimed by Nero himself, that Agrippina chose (or was more likely forced) to take her own life after her plot against her son was discovered.

Early in his rule, Nero had to contend with a rebellion in the newly conquered province of Britain.

In AD 60–61, Queen Boudica of the Iceni tribe led a revolt against the Romans, attacking and laying waste to important Roman settlements. The possible causes of the rebellion were numerous – the greed of the Romans exploiting the newly conquered territories, the recalling of loans made to local leaders, ongoing conflict in Wales and, above all, violence against the family of Prasutagus, Boudica’s husband and king of the Iceni.

Boudica and the rebels destroyed Colchester, London and St Albans before being heavily defeated by Roman troops. After the uprising, the governor of Britain Suetonius Paulinus introduced harsher laws against the Britons, until Nero replaced him with the more conciliatory governor Publius Petronius Turpilianus.

The marriage between Nero and Octavia, aged 15 and 13/14 at the time, was arranged by their parents in order to further legitimise Nero’s claim to the throne. Octavia was the daughter of the emperor Claudius from a previous marriage, so when Claudius married Agrippina and adopted her son Nero, Nero and Octavia became brother and sister. In order to arrange their marriage, Octavia had to be adopted into another family.

Their marriage was not a happy one. According to ancient writers, Nero had various affairs until his lover Poppaea Sabina convinced him to divorce his wife. Octavia was first exiled then executed in AD 62 on adultery charges. According to ancient writers, her banishment and death caused great unrest among the public, who sympathised with the dutiful Octavia.

No further motives were offered for Octavia’s death other than Nero’s passion for Poppaea, and we will probably never know what transpired at court. The fact that Octavia couldn’t produce an heir while Poppaea was pregnant with Nero’s daughter likely played an important role in deciding Octavia’s fate.

On 19 July AD 64, a fire started close to the Circus Maximus. The flames soon encompassed the entire city of Rome and the fire raged for nine days. Only four of the 14 districts of the capital were spared, while three were completely destroyed.

Rome had already been razed by flames – and would be again in its long history – but this event was so severe it came to be known as the Great Fire of Rome.

Later historians blamed Nero for the event, claiming that he set the capital ablaze in order to clear land for the construction of a vast new palace. According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, Nero took in the view of the burning city from the imperial residence while playing the lyre and singing about the fall of Troy. This story, however, is fictional.

Tacitus, the only historian who was actually alive at the time of the Great Fire of Rome (although only 8 years old), wrote that Nero was not even in Rome when the fire started, but returned to the capital and led the relief efforts.

Tacitus, Suetonius and Cassius Dio all describe Nero as being blinded by passion for his wife Poppaea, yet they accuse him of killing her, allegedly by kicking her in an outburst of rage while she was pregnant.

Interestingly, pregnant women being kicked to death by enraged husbands is a recurring theme in ancient literature, used to explore the (self) destructive tendencies of autocrats. The Greek writer Herodotus tells the story of how the Persian king Cambyses kicked his pregnant wife in the stomach, causing her death. A similar episode is told of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Nero is just one of many allegedly ‘mad’ tyrants for which this literary convention was used.

Poppaea probably died from complications connected with her pregnancy and not at Nero’s hands. She was given a lavish funeral and was deified.

Centred on greater Iran, the Parthian empire was a major political and cultural power and a long-standing enemy of Rome. The two powers had long been contending for control over the buffer state of Armenia and open conflict sparked again during Nero’s rule. The Parthian War started in AD 58 and, after initial victories and following set-backs, ended in AD 63 when a diplomatic solution was reached between Nero and the Parthian king Vologases I.

According to this settlement Tiridates, brother of the Parthian king, would rule over Armenia, but only after having travelled all the way to Rome to be crowned by Nero.

The journey lasted 9 months, Tiridates’ retinue included 3,000 Parthian horsemen and many Roman soldiers. The coronation ceremony took place in the summer of AD 66 and the day was celebrated with much pomp: all the people of Rome saw the new king of Armenia kneeling in front of Nero. This was the Golden Day of Nero’s rule

In AD 68, Vindex, the governor of Gaul (France), rebelled against Nero and declared his support for Galba, the governor of Spain. Vindex was defeated in battle by troops loyal to Nero, yet Galba started gaining more military support.

It was at this point that Nero lost the support of Rome’s people due to a grain shortage, caused by a rebellious commander who cut the crucial food supply from Egypt to the capital. Abandoned by the people and declared an enemy of the state by the senate, Nero tried to flee Rome and eventually committed suicide.

Following his death, Nero’s memory was condemned (a practice called damnatio memoriae) and the images of the emperor were destroyed, removed or reworked. However, Nero was still given an expensive funeral and for a long time people decorated his tomb with flowers, some even believing he was still alive.

After Nero’s death, civil war ensued. At the end of the so-called ‘Year of the Four Emperors’ (AD 69), Vespasian became emperor and started a new dynasty: the Flavians.

[Francesca Bologna, curator, for British Museum]

 

Taken in the British Museum

The book has been re-jointed, the Headcaps repaired, a number of essential ' in-situ ' text repairs completed and rendered with new period Endpapers. Here the volume is left with the boards open as the application of Leather Dressing compound gradually assimilates into the dry, friable cover for a period of 24 hours.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

 

Article 1.

 

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

 

Article 2.

 

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.

 

Article 3.

 

Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.

 

Article 4.

 

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

 

Article 5.

 

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

 

Article 6.

 

Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.

 

Article 7.

 

All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.

 

Article 8.

 

Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.

 

Article 9.

 

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.

 

Article 10.

 

Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.

 

Article 11.

 

(1) Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.

(2) No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.

 

Article 12.

 

No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.

 

Article 13.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state.

(2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.

 

Article 14.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.

(2) This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

 

Article 15.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to a nationality.

(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality.

 

Article 16.

 

(1) Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.

(2) Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses.

(3) The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection by society and the State.

 

Article 17.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.

(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.

 

Article 18.

 

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.

 

Article 19.

 

Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

 

Article 20.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.

(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

 

Article 21.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.

(2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.

(3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.

  

Article 22.

 

Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.

  

Article 23.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.

(2) Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.

(3) Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if necessary, by other means of social protection.

(4) Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

  

Article 24.

 

Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay.

 

Article 25.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.

(2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.

 

Article 26.

 

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit.

(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.

 

Article 27.

 

(1) Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community, to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.

(2) Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.

 

Article 28.

 

Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.

 

Article 29.

 

(1) Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development of his personality is possible.

(2) In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.

(3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.

 

Article 30.

 

Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.