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Spectators enjoy late summer sunshine at Highfield, home to Fulwood & Broughton Cricket Club. Note the mural. Captured during the closing stages of a Tommy Wilson Trophy T20 final clash with Northern Premier League rivals Netherfield.
The Kendal-based visitors pipped Fulwood & Broughton in a low-scoring thriller that went to the last ball. Needing one to tie and two to win, with one wicket remaining, the hosts completed a single but suffered a runout going for the second. Having lost fewer wickets, Netherfield were able to celebrate. Some felt ‘super overs’ should have been used to determine the winner.
A difficult wicket and a damp outfield ensured both teams had trouble putting runs on the board - despite Highfield being a relatively small ground. With bowlers in command, each team managed only one six. Fours were in short supply, too. Netherfield were 50-3 after 10 overs then 66-4 after 15.
At tea, few would have put money on a Netherfield win. However, Fulwood & Broughton lost two wickets, before scoring a run, in the first over. Game on! The hosts were 49-3 after 10 overs then 67-5 after 15. Twenty-five was needed from the last 18 balls then 13 off the final over. A valiant effort, late in the game, gave Fulwood & Broughton a sniff of the cup but they fell agonisingly short.
Match statistics
Fulwood & Broughton versus Netherfield
Northern Premier League, Tommy Wilson Trophy, Final (20 over match, 2pm start)
Admission: free. Programmes: none. Attendance: 245. Netherfield won the toss and elected to bat. Netherfield 97-6 off 20 overs (Josh Dixon 21, Old Wileman 20, Dominic Jackson 3-16, Matthew Hurst 2-14) tied with Fulwood & Broughton 97 off 20 overs (Matthew Smith 34, Matthew Newby 27, Samuel Medhurst 5-17, Old Wileman 2-12). Netherfield won because they lost fewer wickets. Umpires: Adrian Darlington and Hillal Namajee.
Acherontia atropos brown form
Please support my work on Patreon! I'm an independent entomologist that studies moths: www.patreon.com/BartButterflies
This hollow form of fine silver was created by wrapping layers of silver and painting liquid silver in layer upon layer before firing in the kiln. As a final touch, a fine silver wire was painted with liquid silver and formed into the bail before one last firing. Beautiful!
Lace Monitor, banded or 'Bell's form (Varanus varius), Nombinnie Nature Reserve, NSW, Australia.
On the last day of my Lake Cargelligo trip back in January, I managed the only reptile photograph of the trip. This guy spotted from the road while driving, the only other reptile seen on the trip being the numerous Eastern Blue-tongue Lizards also spotted while driving but were too fast for me by the time I could pull the car over.
Learn more about Tuff Forms playground climbers! mrcrec.com/www/mrc-products/themed-playground-equipment/147
Registration form for the gun that my grandfather, James P. Cole Sr. used when he was Chief of Police in Flint Michigan, early 1900s
Sedum (better known as "Hens and Chicks") found at Lewis Ginter Botanical Gardens in Richmond, Virginia. Notice the number of naturally formed spirals in both directions.
Learn more about Tuff Forms playground climbers! mrcrec.com/www/mrc-products/themed-playground-equipment/147
Começando pela forma que foi utilizada como base para os elementos: o círculo. Na simbologia das formas, representa a união e perfeição, daquilo que começa e acaba em si mesmo. Assim, ele condiz com a proposta do próprio Conselho, somando e interligando valores, laços e vínculos entre os profissionais representados por essa instituição. Também representa o movimento, a atividade, reproduzindo a busca por melhores dinâmicas entre as relações dos Biólogos. O azul, usado de forma mais clara no círculo, é uma cor profunda e calma, que a princípio, representa a água, mas que também passa a idéia de maturidade. O azul também é a cor da Biologia.
A estrutura do DNA traz à tona um elemento sempre presente no cotidiano do profissional da área de Biologia. A base de sua estrutura forma um espermatozóide, que fecundando o óvulo (círculo azul) dá origem a uma nova vida, com toda sua complexidade – a essência da profissão do Biólogo.
Fator de grande importância para qualquer ser vivo, sendo a base dos estudos biológicos, a natureza é representada pelas folhas da base do círculo. Sua cor, não poderia ser outra, senão o verde, pois é a cor universal para a representação da natureza, passando a idéia de frescor, harmonia e equilíbrio.
A espiral, que se encontra dentro das folhas, é o símbolo da evolução e do progresso. O Biólogo sempre deve buscar novos estudos e pesquisas que possam atualizar seus conhecimentos e acrescentar informações úteis a sua profissão. Esse elemento também possui uma interpretação mais subjetiva, podendo ser traduzido de diferentes formas, como por exemplo, a representação de um caracol ou da asa de uma borboleta, mostrando a interação do Biólogo com a biodiversidade e o Planeta, na busca de sua conservação, manejo e sustentabilidade.
O símbolo traduz conceitos que envolvem o cotidiano dos Biólogos e também a importância da vida para esses profissionais. Ao agregar valores de união e evolução à marca CFBio, busca-se demonstrar a forma dinâmica e pró-ativa de relacionamento do Sistema CFBio / CRBios com o Biólogo e a sociedade.
This image forms part of the digitised photographs of the Ross and Pat Craig Collection. Ross Craig (1926-2012) was a local historian born in Stockton and dedicated much of his life promoting and conserving the history of Stockton, NSW. He possessed a wealth of knowledge about the suburb and was a founding member of the Stockton Historical Society and co-editor of its magazine. Pat Craig supported her husband’s passion for history, and together they made a great contribution to the Stockton and Newcastle communities. We thank the Craig Family and Stockton Historical Society who have kindly given Cultural Collections at the University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia, access to the collection and allowed us to publish the images. Thanks also to Vera Deacon for her liaison in attaining this important collection.
Please contact Cultural Collections at the University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia, if you are the subject of the image, or know the subject of the image, and have cultural or other reservations about the image being displayed on this website and would like to discuss this with us.
Some of the images were scanned from original photographs in the collection held at Cultural Collections, other images were already digitised with no provenance recorded.
You are welcome to freely use the images for study and personal research purposes. Please acknowledge as “Courtesy of the Ross and Pat Craig Collection, University of Newcastle (Australia)" For commercial requests please consider making a donation to the Vera Deacon Regional History Fund.
These images are provided free of charge to the global community thanks to the generosity of the Vera Deacon Regional History Fund. If you wish to donate to the Vera Deacon Fund please download a form here: uoncc.wordpress.com/vera-deacon-fund/
If you have any further information on the photographs, please leave a comment.
El presidente de la Junta, Juanma Moreno, ha instado a todos los grupos a trabajar de forma conjunta y a hacer historia aprobando los Presupuestos para 2022 a los que ha definido como la llave para conseguir la recuperación económica y social de Andalucía, al mismo tiempo que ha asegurado que la puerta del diálogo está abierta hasta el próximo 24 de noviembre que se tiene lugar el debate de la totalidad.
En su comparecencia en el Debate de Estado de la Comunidad, Moreno ha pedido a todos los grupos valentía y aprovechar la oportunidad que tenemos de reconstruir lo dañado porque, según ha dicho, "tenemos capacidad, talento, equipo y estamos dispuestos a poner en marcha el mayor Presupuesto de la historia". Por ello, les ha animado a demostrar que esta comunidad es, una vez más, ejemplo, a dejar a un lado trincheras inútiles y apostar por un futuro mejor para Andalucía y los andaluces.
Así, ha anunciado que el próximo 3 de noviembre su Gobierno presentará en el Parlamento andaluz el Presupuesto para 2022, con una cifra récord de 43.814 millones de euros, lo que supone un crecimiento del 9% respecto a las anteriores cuentas, esto es, 3.625 millones de euros más.
"Es el presupuesto de la recuperación y no puede haber excusa alguna ni argumento ideológico para bloquear la recuperación de Andalucía", ha agregado dirigiéndose a los partidos del arco parlamentario.
En este punto, ha destacado que será un presupuesto expansivo, social y vital para la recuperación económica y la mejora de los servicios públicos. "No será pólvora para fuegos artificiales, sino tierra fértil para las reformas que estamos sembrando". En este sentido, ha afirmado que el peso de las políticas sociales vuelve a aumentar, situándose a niveles "impensables" hace sólo tres años.
En concreto, la sanidad alcanzará el 7,4% del PIB –3.000 millones más que en 2018– y la educación, el 5,5% –1.800 millones más–. Sobre sanidad, ha especificado que quizá sea la reforma más acuciante de las que está llevando a cabo su Gobierno con casi 50.000 millones invertidos cuando acabe la legislatura y que este año vuelve a ser prioridad en los Presupuestos aumentando la cuantía en 1.100 millones hasta los 13.000. "Sin este esfuerzo, los servicios públicos y, muy especialmente el sistema sanitario, no hubieran soportado el peso de la pandemia". También se incrementa en 600 millones lo presupuestado para educación, con una subida superior al 7%.
En relación con este asunto, ha declarado que las Cuentas de 2022, que reflejan las políticas y reformas puestas en marcha por su Ejecutivo, recogen igualmente parte de los Fondos Europeos para la Recuperación, los Next Generation EU, que va a recibir Andalucía. En esta línea, ha reclamado al Gobierno de España más participación de las comunidades autónomas, al tener éstas un papel "muy insuficiente" (apenas el 34% del 50% comprometido por Sánchez), y ha criticado la imposición de forma unilateral de los planes.
"El dinero de Europa es recuperar nuestro país y nuestra tierra", ha añadido, al tiempo que ha manifestado que, hasta la fecha, la distribución efectiva en la comunidad autónoma asciende "escasamente" a 2.500 millones de los casi 70.000 del Plan de Recuperación, Transformación y Resiliencia.
Por un modelo justo de financiación autonómica
Al hilo de esto último, ha indicado que Andalucía sufrirá el próximo año un recorte añadido de los recursos del Estado, tras reducir éste el margen de déficit de las comunidades al 0,6% –mientras el Estado se reserva el 5%– y eliminar el Fondo Covid 2022. El impacto de estas dos medidas significa un recorte de la financiación para sanidad, educación y políticas sociales de 2.317 millones, "a pesar de que la Airef ha avisado de que el 40% de los gastos generados por la Covid-19 se consolidarán". Por este motivo, considera que no es sólo un ataque a la autonomía, sino una forma clara de recorte.
A estos recortes, ha seguido, se suma la infrafinanciación de Andalucía. Aquí, ha recordado que la comunidad padece un déficit de financiación que supone una pérdida diaria de 4 millones de euros, "un auténtico lastre para los andaluces", y un total acumulado que supera los 10.000 millones, y ha propuesto "pasar a la acción" para defender el interés de los andaluces. "Eso es ser andalucista. No en los discursos ni en los golpes de pecho, sino influyendo a favor de Andalucía", ha continuado.
Así, ha valorado los recientes encuentros con los presidentes de la Comunidad Valenciana, Región de Murcia y Galicia, en los que todos los dirigentes coincidían en la necesidad de reformar el actual sistema de financiación autonómica y, mientras se negocia un nuevo modelo justo, activar un Fondo Urgente de Compensación prorrogable para equiparar a las comunidades peor financiadas con la media nacional.
En este contexto, ha lamentado que todavía no haya recibido respuesta a la carta que envió el pasado 20 de septiembre al presidente Pedro Sánchez para tratar en una Comisión Bilateral los problemas de Andalucía. "Si Cataluña puede tratar bilateralmente con el Gobierno, Andalucía no va a ser menos. Andalucía no va a admitir nunca una España multinivel, que significa consolidar los privilegios y romper la igualdad entre españoles. Ya cerramos el paso una vez a la España de dos velocidades y lo volveremos a hacer", ha indicado.
Durante la comparecencia, Moreno ha insistido en que Andalucía debe perseverar en el camino de las reformas, que, a su juicio, procura mayor prosperidad, crea riqueza y empleo y permite sostener y ampliar los servicios públicos de calidad. Ejemplo es la reforma fiscal emprendida por su Gobierno en 2019, 2020 y 2021. Por esto, la comunidad ha logrado aumentar el número de contribuyentes en 119.000 y recaudar sólo por IRPF 600 millones de euros más. "De nuevo bajamos los impuestos en 2022, situándonos en el 'Top 5' de territorios fiscalmente más competitivos en España”.
Y es que, aparte de la ampliación del Impuesto de Sucesiones y Donaciones a hermanos, tíos y sobrinos, que como máximo pagarán un 45% frente al 70% que podían alcanzar hasta ahora, la Ley de Tributos Cedidos aprobada recientemente beneficiará directamente a cuatro millones de andaluces y ahorrará, principalmente, a las clases medias y trabajadoras 329 millones de euros.
"Bajar los impuestos nos hace más competitivos y deja de ahuyentar la inversión hacia otros territorios. No podemos permitir que haya ningún menoscabo de nuestra autonomía fiscal para acabar subiendo de nuevo los impuestos. No permitiremos ni un paso atrás sobre lo conseguido. Mientras sea presidente, los andaluces no volverán a sufrir un infierno fiscal", ha advertido.
Esos cimientos de libertad y confianza en Andalucía se han afianzado también, tal y como ha subrayado, con la eliminación y simplificación normativa. De hecho, Andalucía es la primera comunidad con un Plan para la Mejora de la Regulación Económica, para que la burocracia no sea un freno a la competitividad, inversión y creación de empleo. En consecuencia, ha comunicado que en noviembre aprobarán un Decreto Ley por el que se modifican 70 normas, 268 medidas de simplificación y mejora de la regulación, "convirtiendo a Andalucía en la comunidad con menor carga burocrática en su Administración”.
Gracias a todo ello, durante esta legislatura la Junta ha aprobado nueve grandes proyectos industriales y energéticos que representan una inversión superior a 2.800 millones y más de 10.400 puestos de trabajo. Y, actualmente, se están tramitando otros 14 grandes proyectos de inversión.
Además de todo esto, ha remarcado acciones que han funcionado en la creación de empleo, como la Tarifa Plana para autónomos, que ha hecho que Andalucía sea líder a nivel nacional en la creación de autónomos (561.000) y que 9 de cada 10 continúen con su actividad dos años después. O los dos grandes acuerdos con los agentes sociales para la Reactivación Económica y Social de Andalucía, que, en su opinión, han dado sus frutos al aumentar a un ritmo mayor que en el resto del país el número de empresas y de trabajadores en la comunidad.
Sin embargo, ha argumentado no poder olvidar los "nubarrones" que amenazan la viabilidad y el empleo de autónomos y empresas, cuando empiezan a recuperarse de la crisis generada por la pandemia. Se ha referido a la factura de la luz, que ha subido en un año un 44%, a la gasolina y al gasóleo, que lo han hecho un 22 y 23%, respectivamente, lo que ha provocado que muchos negocios vean hasta triplicada su factura sin que, hasta el momento, se aporte una solución.
"Por si esto fuera poco, los Presupuestos Generales del Estado vuelven a castigar a los autónomos con un incremento de las cuotas de entre 96 y 225 euros anuales, y se anuncian peajes en las autovías. Todo esto va en contra de la recuperación, como hemos visto con la modificación a la baja por parte del Banco de España y de la Airef de las previsiones de crecimiento del Gobierno de la Nación”.
El presidente andaluz, por otro lado, ha sostenido que para la recuperación de la comunidad autónoma es clave que el tejido industrial andaluz salga reforzado de la actual coyuntura económica. Así, ha dicho que el Plan Crece Industria, aprobado en agosto y que contó con aportaciones de 200 entidades, quiere que sea el germen de una Alianza por la Industria en Andalucía que verá la luz en el primer trimestre de 2022. Igualmente, ha anunciado que en noviembre su Gobierno aprobará una nueva línea de ayudas al sector, por un importe de 150 millones de euros hasta 2023.
De otra parte, su Ejecutivo está elaborando, en colaboración con las empresas, el Plan de Actuación del Sector Naval Andaluz, para apoyar la consolidación de la industria naval en Andalucía afectada especialmente por la crisis Covid, y se ha aprobado la Estrategia Aeroespacial de Andalucía 2021-2027, que prevé una inversión de 572 millones para potenciar su competitividad y mejorar su proyección internacional.
"Reafirmamos nuestro compromiso con los trabajadores de este sector decisivo, particularmente de Airbus, que tuve la ocasión de transmitirle al comité de empresa de la factoría de Puerto Real. Le he trasladado al presidente del Gobierno nuestra preocupación por el futuro de la empresa y la necesidad de aumentar la carga de trabajo. Siempre vamos a estar al lado de los trabajadores y de una industria vital para nuestra tierra”.
Relacionado con el turismo, ha reconocido el esfuerzo realizado por la Consejería de Turismo, Regeneración, Justicia y Administración Local, de la que es responsable el vicepresidente de la Junta de Andalucía, Juan Marín, por acompañar durante la pandemia a las empresas para que la marca de Andalucía como destino turístico siga siendo sinónimo de calidad, sostenibilidad y competitividad.
Para ello, se aprobó el Plan General de Turismo Sostenible de Andalucía META 2027, con una cuantía económica de 717 millones, y se puso en marcha 22 líneas de incentivos al sector, por un valor conjunto que supera los 150 millones de euros. "Nos hubiera gustado contar con mayor reconocimiento del Gobierno de la Nación a la potencia y el peso real de nuestra industria turística. Sin embargo, ni hemos logrado la rebaja del IVA turístico, a pesar de la reclamación de todo el sector andaluz, ni fuimos reconocidos como zona turística especialmente afectada por la pandemia, como sí fueron reconocidas otras comunidades autónomas”.
No obstante, ha reafirmado que las empresas y trabajadores del sector turístico tienen el respaldo permanente del Gobierno de Andalucía. "Y así lo volveré a defender la próxima semana, con el vicepresidente Juan Marín, ante los turoperadores británicos en la feria turística más importante del mundo que se celebra en Londres. Un mercado crucial para nuestros intereses", ha concluido.
Por último, ha destacado el carácter municipalista de su Gobierno y que nunca los ayuntamientos contaron con tantos recursos incondicionados. La Patrica, por ejemplo, que llevaba congelada ocho años, fue actualizada por el Gobierno del cambio al llegar y, para 2022, ha anunciado que harán una nueva subida de cinco millones hasta alcanzar los 515 millones de euros.
Sobre la deuda con los Ayuntamientos, al comienzo de la legislatura la Junta debía 180 millones y su Ejecutivo ha logrado reducirla en un 88%. También, a las 604 corporaciones locales que adeudan 145 millones a la Junta se le ha aplazado el pago para que tengan un balón de oxígeno. Además, se ha dado un papel protagonista a las entidades locales en las políticas de empleo: la iniciativa Aire ha supuesto una inversión de 115 millones en la práctica totalidad de municipios de Andalucía, lo que ha permitido formalizar 12.000 contratos.
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Fotografía oficial de la Junta de Andalucía. Se pone a disposición solamente para su publicación por las organizaciones de noticias y/o para la impresión de uso personal por parte del sujeto o sujetos de la fotografía. La fotografía no puede ser manipulada de ninguna manera y no se puede utilizar en materiales comerciales o políticos, anuncios, productos o promociones que de alguna manera sugieran aprobación o respaldo de la Junta de Andalucía.
"ERECTED TO /COMMEMORATE/ THE GLORIOUS/ HEROES/ OF THE MACHINE GUN/ CORPS/ WHO FELL IN THE GREAT WAR"
"THE MACHINE GUN CORPS./ OF WHICH HIS MAJESTY KING/ GEORGE V WAS COLONEL-IN-/ CHIEF WAS FORMED BY THE WARRANT DATED THE 14TH DAY/ OF OCTOBER 1915./ THE CORPS SERVED IN/ FRANCE, FLANDERS, RUSSIA, ITALY,/ EGYPT, PALESTINE, MESOPOTAMIA,/ SALONICA. INDIA. AFGANISTAN/ AND EAST AFRICA./ THE LAST UNIT OF THE CORPS/ TO BE DISBANDED WAS THE/ DEPOT AT SHORNCLIFFE ON THE/ 15TH DAY OF JULY 1922. THE/ TOTAL NUMBER WHO SERVED IN/ THE CORPS WAS SOME 11,500/ OFFICERS AND 159,000 OTHER/ RANKS OF WHOM 1,120 OFFICERS/ AND 1,671 OTHER RANKS WERE/ KILLED AND 2881 OFFICERS AND /45377 OTHER RANKS WERE WOUNDED, MISSING OR PRISONERS/ OF WAR"
"While most of London’s World War I memorials feature sculptures depicting soldiers or weaponry, the controversial Machine Gun Corps Memorial at Hyde Park Corner takes as its centrepiece a more classical theme.
Designed by Francis Derwent Wood (known for his role in making masks for soldiers disfigured during the war), the larger than life-sized sculpture on top of this memorial is a nude statue of the Biblical character, David, who stands holding a giant sword – that of Goliath whose head he cut off. The Biblical theme is also found in an accompanying inscription from the Bible: 1 Samuel 18: 7 – “Saul hath slain his thousands but David his tens of thousands”.
To either side of the bronze figure – which has led to the memorial also being known as The Boy David – are two real bronzed Vickers guns wrapped in laurels while the Italian marble plinth carries a dedicated to the almost 14,000 of the corps who died between the raising of the corps in 1915 and its disbanding in 1922. The reverse of the memorial details the corps’ history, recording its service in “France, Flanders, Russia, Italy, Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Salonica, India, Afghanistan and East Africa”.
The Grade II* listed monument, which was much criticised thanks to the juxtaposition of the naked figure and machine guns, was unveiled by the Duke of Connaught in 1925. Originally located on a traffic island to the south of the Royal Artillery Memorial it was dismantled in 1945 when roadworks were carried out and it wasn’t until 1963 that it was reassembled on its current site." exploring-london.com/category/specials/10-of-londons-worl...
Luminosos - Letras de Caja - Corpóreos - Formas con Volumen - Letreros - Rótulos exterior - Textos con relieve
(Rótulos Bia) Pamplona-Navarra
Students enrolled in the “Improvisational Forms” dance course at Wesleyan University performed May 6 and May 8 at various locations, and on objects, around campus. The class is designed to explore various approaches to dance improvisation. Students learn to expand movement vocabulary, increase compositional awareness, develop their creative thinking and observational skills, and sharpen their performance presence.The class is taught by Susan Lourie, adjunct professor of dance. (Photos by Olivia Drake)
William E. Geist: New York is a city of conversations overheard, of people at the next restaurant table (micrometers away) checking your watch, of people reading the stories in your newspaper on the subway train.
Sessa is a former municipality in the district of Lugano in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 18 April 2021 the municipalities of Croglio, Monteggio, Ponte Tresa and Sessa merged to form Tresa.
In the High Middle Ages, members of the Langobard military family, the de Sessa formed a noble corporation with lands centered in the current municipality. The noble corporation remained in power around the village until the reign of the Swiss Confederation. The Capitani of (de) Sessa were Imperial vassals. In 1240, Emperor Frederick II took control of Sessa Castle, which was probably in the village. Due to the tradition of imperial immediacy in the Malcantone region (including Sessa, Astano, and Monteggio), the Bishop of Como lacked the landlord rights he held in neighboring villages. The population of these villages also tried to separate themselves spiritually from the bishop. By the 16th century, and perhaps even before then, they founded an independent parish which also included Monteggio, Castelrotto, and Cremenaga. Cremenaga, which was in Italian territory, only separated from the parish in 1842. The parish church of San Martino was first mentioned in 1288, and its present form dates back to 1630. In addition to San Martino, the city has several other chapels and churches, including S. Orsola (established 1601). At the time of the Swiss Confederation rule, the capitano reggente of Lugano was the bailiff in Sessa. He heard cases in the court building known as the casa dei Landvogti.
Agriculture and emigration marked the traditional economy. In the 19th century local companies exploited the peat layer at Prati Vergani and gold mines at Monte Sceree (between Sessa and Astano). The mining activity was resumed in the 20th century by the company Mines de Costano SA, active from 1935 until the early 1950s.
The Sessa's were originally from the Langobard nobility. They were vassals of the House of Hohenstaufen when they lived in Sessa Castle, which controlled the passage over the Tresa river. This ended in 1240 when Emperor Frederick II took over the castle. The numerous representatives of the family formed a noble corporation, which along with the Vicin family retained power until the reign of the Confederates. Around the 13th century, a Sessa was mentioned who bore the Capitanei title in Locarno. As members of the Capitanei of Locarno in the 14th century, they possessed patronage rights to the chapel of S. Orsola in the church of S. Martino in Sessa. The family spread throughout Lombardy, where presumably the Sala (Varese) branch split off. This line is first mentioned in the 1277 list of the Milanese aristocracy. By the beginning of 16th century the direct line of the family had died out. Anyway, other minor lines have survived and the family, still flourishing, is present on the Libro d'Oro della Nobiltà Italiana and on the Annuario della Nobiltà Italiana with the title of Noble.
Sessa had an area, as of 1997, of 2.87 square kilometers (1.11 sq mi). Of this area, 0.78 km2 (0.30 sq mi) or 27.2% is used for agricultural purposes, while 1.89 km2 (0.73 sq mi) or 65.9% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 0.33 km2 (0.13 sq mi) or 11.5% is settled (buildings or roads) and 0.03 km2 (7.4 acres) or 1.0% is unproductive land.
Of the built up area, housing and buildings made up 6.6% and transportation infrastructure made up 2.8%. while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 1.4%. Out of the forested land, 57.8% of the total land area is heavily forested and 8.0% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 17.4% is used for growing crops, while 3.1% is used for orchards or vine crops and 6.6% is used for alpine pastures.
The former municipality is located in the Lugano district, in the mid-Malcantone. It consists of the village core of Sessa and the surrounding settlements of Beredino, Bonzaglio, Costa, Lanera and Suino.
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Gules a castle with two towers argent ensigned with a swan of the same.
Sessa had a population (as of 2019) of 685. As of 2008, 18.8% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1997–2007) the population has changed at a rate of 10.4%.
Most of the population (as of 2000) speaks Italian (74.7%), with German being second most common (17.7%) and French being third (2.8%).[9] Of the Swiss national languages (as of 2000), 107 speak German, 17 people speak French, 451 people speak Italian, and 1 person speaks Romansh. The remainder (28 people) speak another language.
As of 2008, the gender distribution of the population was 47.9% male and 52.1% female. The population was made up of 251 Swiss men (37.4% of the population), and 71 (10.6%) non-Swiss men. There were 295 Swiss women (43.9%), and 55 (8.2%) non-Swiss women.
In 2008 there were 5 live births to Swiss citizens and were 4 deaths of Swiss citizens and 2 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens increased by 1 while the foreign population decreased by 2. There were 2 Swiss men and 1 Swiss woman who immigrated back to Switzerland. At the same time, there were 2 non-Swiss men and 3 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was a decrease of 4 and the non-Swiss population change was a decrease of 2 people. This represents a population growth rate of -0.9%.
The age distribution, as of 2009, in Sessa is; 60 children or 8.9% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 72 teenagers or 10.7% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 63 people or 9.4% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 78 people or 11.6% are between 30 and 39, 92 people or 13.7% are between 40 and 49, and 117 people or 17.4% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 87 people or 12.9% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 59 people or 8.8% are between 70 and 79, there are 44 people or 6.5% who are over 80.[
As of 2000, there were 265 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.3 persons per household.[9] In 2000 there were 218 single family homes (or 72.9% of the total) out of a total of 299 inhabited buildings. There were 48 two family buildings (16.1%) and 15 multi-family buildings (5.0%). There were also 18 buildings in the municipality that were multipurpose buildings (used for both housing and commercial or another purpose).
The vacancy rate for the municipality, in 2008, was 0.48%. In 2000 there were 389 apartments in the municipality. The most common apartment size was the 5 room apartment of which there were 128. There were 6 single room apartments and 128 apartments with five or more rooms. Of these apartments, a total of 261 apartments (67.1% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 127 apartments (32.6%) were seasonally occupied and 1 apartments (0.3%) were empty. As of 2007, the construction rate of new housing units was 2.9 new units per 1000 residents.
The entire village of Sessa is designated as part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.
In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the FDP which received 29.41% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the CVP (27.8%), the Green Party (13.57%) and the Ticino League (10.86%). In the federal election, a total of 254 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 54.4%.
In the 2007 Gran Consiglio election, there were a total of 475 registered voters in Sessa, of which 300 or 63.2% voted. 2 blank ballots and 1 null ballot were cast, leaving 297 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PLRT which received 68 or 22.9% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PLRT (with 68 or 22.9%), the SSI (with 51 or 17.2%) and the LEGA (with 34 or 11.4%).[17]
In the 2007 Consiglio di Stato election, 1 blank ballot was cast, leaving 299 valid ballots in the election. The most popular party was the PPD which received 74 or 24.7% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were; the PLRT (with 58 or 19.4%), the LEGA (with 51 or 17.1%) and the PS (with 47 or 15.7%).
As of 2007, Sessa had an unemployment rate of 4.67%. As of 2005, there were 17 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 8 businesses involved in this sector. 21 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 3 businesses in this sector. 50 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 17 businesses in this sector. There were 248 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 37.5% of the workforce.
In 2000, there were 94 workers who commuted into the municipality and 171 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net exporter of workers, with about 1.8 workers leaving the municipality for every one entering. About 31.9% of the workforce coming into Sessa are coming from outside Switzerland. Of the working population, 11.3% used public transportation to get to work, and 62.9% used a private car.
As of 2009, there were 2 hotels in Sessa.
From the 2000 census, 447 or 74.0% were Roman Catholic, while 62 or 10.3% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. There are 86 individuals (or about 14.24% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), and 9 individuals (or about 1.49% of the population) did not answer the question.
In Sessa about 74.8% of the population (between age 25 and 64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule).
In Sessa there were a total of 113 students (as of 2009). The Ticino education system provides up to three years of non-mandatory kindergarten and in Sessa there were 18 children in kindergarten. The primary school program lasts for five years and includes both a standard school and a special school. In the municipality, 28 students attended the standard primary schools and 3 students attended the special school. In the lower secondary school system, students either attend a two-year middle school followed by a two-year pre-apprenticeship or they attend a four-year program to prepare for higher education. There were 35 students in the two-year middle school and 1 in their pre-apprenticeship, while 11 students were in the four-year advanced program.
The upper secondary school includes several options, but at the end of the upper secondary program, a student will be prepared to enter a trade or to continue on to a university or college. In Ticino, vocational students may either attend school while working on their internship or apprenticeship (which takes three or four years) or may attend school followed by an internship or apprenticeship (which takes one year as a full-time student or one and a half to two years as a part-time student). There were 5 vocational students who were attending school full-time and 11 who attend part-time.
The professional program lasts three years and prepares a student for a job in engineering, nursing, computer science, business, tourism and similar fields. There was 1 student in the professional program.
As of 2000, there were 3 students in Sessa who came from another municipality, while 62 residents attended schools outside the municipality.
Notable people
Ignazio Cassis (born 1961), physician and President of the Swiss Confederation since January 2022.
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Plateau, the Alps and the Jura; the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, whereas most of the country's population of 9 million are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts its largest cities and economic centres, including Zürich, Geneva and Basel.
Switzerland originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages, following a series of military successes against Austria and Burgundy; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognised in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815. It joined the United Nations only in 2002 but pursues an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building.
Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions, including the WTO, the WHO, the ILO, FIFA, and the United Nations. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but not part of the European Union (EU), the European Economic Area, or the eurozone; however, it participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area. Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons, with federal authorities based in Bern.
Switzerland is one of the world's most developed countries, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. Switzerland ranks first in the Human Development Index since 2021 and performs highly also on several international metrics, including economic competitiveness and democratic governance. Cities such as Zürich, Geneva and Basel rank among the highest in terms of quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living.
It has four main linguistic and cultural regions: German, French, Italian and Romansh. Although most Swiss are German-speaking, national identity is fairly cohesive, being rooted in a common historical background, shared values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Swiss identity transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation ("nation of volition") rather than a nation state.
Since 1848 the Swiss Confederation has been a federal republic of relatively autonomous cantons, some of which have a history of federation that goes back more than 700 years, putting them among the world's oldest surviving republics.
The early history of the region is tied to that of Alpine culture. Switzerland was inhabited by the Helvetii, and it came under Roman rule in the 1st century BC. The Gallo-Roman culture was amalgamated with Germanic influence during Late Antiquity, with the eastern part of Switzerland becoming Alemannic territory. The area of Switzerland was incorporated into the Frankish Empire in the 6th century. In the High Middle Ages, the eastern part became part of the Duchy of Swabia within the Holy Roman Empire, while the western part was part of Burgundy.
The Old Swiss Confederacy in the Late Middle Ages (the Eight Cantons) established its independence from the House of Habsburg and the Duchy of Burgundy, and in the Italian Wars gained territory south of the Alps from the Duchy of Milan. The Swiss Reformation divided the Confederacy and resulted in a drawn-out history of internal strife between the Thirteen Cantons in the Early Modern period. In the wake of the French Revolution, Switzerland fell to a French invasion in 1798 and was reformed into the Helvetic Republic, a French client state. Napoleon's Act of Mediation in 1803 restored the status of Switzerland as a Confederation, and after the end of the Napoleonic period, the Swiss Confederation underwent a period of turmoil culminating in a brief civil war in 1847 and the creation of a federal constitution in 1848.
The history of Switzerland since 1848 has been largely one of success and prosperity. Industrialisation transformed the traditional agricultural economy, and Swiss neutrality during the World Wars and the success of the banking industry furthered the ascent of Switzerland to its status as one of the world's most stable economies.
Switzerland signed a free-trade agreement with the European Economic Community in 1972 and has participated in the process of European integration by way of bilateral treaties, but it has notably resisted full accession to the European Union (EU) even though its territory almost completely (except for the microstate Liechtenstein) has been surrounded by EU member states since 1995. In 2002, Switzerland joined the United Nations.
Archeological evidence suggests that hunter-gatherers were already settled in the lowlands north of the Alps in the Middle Paleolithic period 150,000 years ago. Agriculture in Switzerland began around 5500 BC. By the Neolithic period, the area was relatively densely populated. Remains of Bronze Age pile dwellings from as early as 3800 BC have been found in the shallow areas of many lakes. Around 1500 BC, Celtic tribes settled in the area. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii.
A female who died in about 200 B.C. was found buried in a carved tree trunk during a construction project at the Kern school complex in March 2017 in Aussersihl. Archaeologists revealed that she was approximately 40 years old when she died and likely carried out little physical labor when she was alive. A sheepskin coat, a belt chain, a fancy wool dress, a scarf and a pendant made of glass, and amber beads were also discovered with the woman.
In 58 BC, the Helvetii tried to evade migratory pressure from Germanic tribes by moving into Gaul, but were defeated by Julius Caesar's armies and then sent back. The alpine region became integrated into the Roman Empire and was extensively romanized in the course of the following centuries. The center of Roman administration was at Aventicum (Avenches). In 259, Alamanni tribes overran the Limes, putting the settlements on Swiss territory on the frontier of the Roman Empire.
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Germanic tribes entered the area. Burgundians settled in the west; while in the north, Alamanni settlers slowly forced the earlier Celto-Roman population to retreat into the mountains. Burgundy became a part of the kingdom of the Franks in 534; two years later, the dukedom of the Alamans followed suit. In the Alaman-controlled region, only isolated Christian communities continued to exist and Irish monks re-introduced the Christian faith in the early 7th century.
Under the Carolingian kings, the feudal system proliferated, and monasteries and bishoprics were important bases for maintaining the rule. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 assigned Upper Burgundy (the western part of what is today Switzerland) to Lotharingia, and Alemannia (the eastern part) to the eastern kingdom of Louis the German which would become part of the Holy Roman Empire.
In the 10th century, as the rule of the Carolingians waned, Magyars destroyed Basel in 917 and St. Gallen in 926. Only after the victory of King Otto I over the Magyars in 955 in the Battle of Lechfeld, were the Swiss territories reintegrated into the empire.
In the 12th century, the dukes of Zähringen were given authority over part of the Burgundy territories which covered the western part of modern Switzerland. They founded many cities, including Fribourg in 1157, and Bern in 1191. The Zähringer dynasty ended with the death of Berchtold V in 1218, and their cities subsequently became reichsfrei (essentially a city-state within the Holy Roman Empire), while the dukes of Kyburg competed with the house of Habsburg over control of the rural regions of the former Zähringer territory.
Under the Hohenstaufen rule, the alpine passes in Raetia and the St Gotthard Pass gained importance. The latter especially became an important direct route through the mountains. Uri (in 1231) and Schwyz (in 1240) were accorded the Reichsfreiheit to grant the empire direct control over the mountain pass. Most of the territory of Unterwalden at this time belonged to monasteries that had previously become reichsfrei.
The extinction of the Kyburg dynasty paved the way for the Habsburg dynasty to bring much of the territory south of the Rhine under their control, aiding their rise to power. Rudolph of Habsburg, who became King of Germany in 1273, effectively revoked the status of Reichsfreiheit granted to the "Forest Cantons" of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden. The Forest Cantons thus lost their independent status and were governed by reeves.
By 1353, the three original cantons had been joined by the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the city-states of Lucerne, Zürich, and Bern, forming the "Old Federation" of eight states that persisted during much of the 15th century. The Holy Roman Empire built roads and bridges to connect the industrial region of north Italy with the Rhine (linked with the other industrial area of Middle Age Europe, the Burgundian Netherlands), making the peasants and bankers on the road rich, allowing them to buy specialized Italian armor and to stop paying the road collecting taxes to the Empire who built the road. At the Battle of Sempach in 1386, the Swiss defeated the Habsburgs, gaining increased autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire.
Zürich was expelled from the Confederation from 1440 to 1450 due to a conflict over the territory of Toggenburg (the Old Zürich War). The Confederation's power and wealth increased significantly, with victories over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477), greatly due to the success of the Swiss mercenaries, a powerful infantry force constituted by professional soldiers originally from the cantons of the Old Swiss Confederacy. They were notable for their service in foreign armies, especially among the military forces of the Kings of France, throughout the Early Modern period of European history, from the Late Middle Ages to the Renaissance. Their service as mercenaries was at its peak during the Renaissance when their proven battlefield capabilities made them sought-after mercenary troops. The traditional listing order of the cantons of Switzerland reflects this state, listing the eight "Old Cantons" first, with the city-states preceding the founding cantons, followed by cantons that joined the Confederation after 1481, in historical order.
The Swiss defeated the Swabian League in 1499 and gained greater collective autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire, including exemption from the Imperial reforms of 1495 and immunity from most Imperial courts. In 1506, Pope Julius II engaged the Swiss Guard, which continues to serve the papacy to the present day. The expansion of the Confederation and the reputation of invincibility acquired during the earlier wars suffered its first setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano and Battle of Bicocca.
The Reformation in Switzerland began in 1523, led by Huldrych Zwingli, priest of the Great Minster church in Zürich since 1518. Zürich adopted the Protestant religion, joined by Berne, Basel, and Schaffhausen, while Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Nidwalden, Zug, Fribourg, and Solothurn remained Catholic. Glarus and Appenzell were split. This led to multiple inter-cantonal religious wars (Kappeler Kriege) in 1529 and 1531, as each canton usually made the opposing religion illegal, and to the formation of two diets, the Protestant one meeting in Aarau and the Catholic one in Lucerne (as well as the formal full diet still meeting usually in Baden), despite this the Confederation survived.
During the Thirty Years' War, Switzerland was a relative "oasis of peace and prosperity" (Grimmelshausen) in war-torn Europe, mostly because all major powers in Europe depended on Swiss mercenaries, and would not let Switzerland fall into the hands of one of their rivals. Politically, they all tried to take influence, by way of mercenary commanders such as Jörg Jenatsch or Johann Rudolf Wettstein. The Drei Bünde of Grisons, at that point not yet a member of the Confederacy, were involved in the war from 1620, which led to their loss of the Valtellina in 1623.
At the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, Switzerland attained legal independence from the Holy Roman Empire. The Valtellina became a dependency of the Drei Bünde again after the Treaty and remained so until the founding of the Cisalpine Republic by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1797.
In 1653, peasants of territories subject to Lucerne, Bern, Solothurn, and Basel revolted because of currency devaluation. Although the authorities prevailed in this Swiss peasant war, they did pass some tax reforms and the incident in the long term prevented an absolutist development as would occur at some other courts of Europe. The confessional tensions remained, however, and erupted again in the First War of Villmergen, in 1656, and the Toggenburg War (or Second War of Villmergen), in 1712.
During the French Revolutionary Wars, the French army invaded Switzerland and turned it into an ally known as the "Helvetic Republic" (1798–1803). It had a central government with little role for cantons. The interference with localism and traditional liberties was deeply resented, although some modernizing reforms took place.
Resistance was strongest in the more traditional Catholic bastions, with armed uprisings breaking out in spring 1798 in the central part of Switzerland. The French Army suppressed the uprisings but support for revolutionary ideas steadily declined. The reform element was weak, and most Swiss resented their loss of local democracy, centralization, new taxes, warfare, and hostility to religion.
Major steps taken to emancipate the Jews included the repeal of special taxes and oaths in 1798. However, many such reforms were turned back in 1815, and not until 1879 were the Jews granted equal rights with the Christians.
In 1803, Napoleon's Act of Mediation partially restored the sovereignty of the cantons, and the former tributary and allied territories of Aargau, Thurgau, Grisons, St. Gallen, Vaud, and Ticino became cantons with equal rights. Napoleon and his enemies fought numerous campaigns in Switzerland that ruined many localities.
The Congress of Vienna of 1814–15 fully re-established Swiss independence and the European powers agreed to recognize permanent Swiss neutrality. At this time, Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva also joined Switzerland as new cantons, thereby extending Swiss territory to its current boundaries.
The long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed (by William Martin):
It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, and freedom of thought and faith; it created Swiss citizenship, the basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works.
On 6 April 1814, the so-called "Long Diet" (delegates from all the nineteen cantons) met at Zürich to replace the constitution.
Cantonal constitutions were worked out independently from 1814, in general restoring the late feudal conditions of the 17th and 18th centuries. The Tagsatzung was reorganized by the Federal Treaty (Bundesvertrag) of 7 August 1815.
The liberal Free Democratic Party of Switzerland was strong in the largely Protestant cantons and obtained the majority in the Federal Diet in the early 1840s. It proposed a new Constitution for the Swiss Confederation which would draw the several cantons into a closer relationship. In addition to the centralization of the Swiss government, the new Constitution also included protections for trade and other progressive reform measures. The Federal Diet, with the approval of a majority of cantons, had taken measures against the Catholic Church such as the closure of monasteries and convents in Aargau in 1841, and the seizure of their properties. Catholic Lucerne, in retaliation,1844 recalled the Jesuits to head its education. That succeeded and seven Catholic cantons formed the "Sonderbund." This caused a liberal-radical move in the Protestant cantons to take control of the national Diet in 1847. The Diet ordered the Sonderbund dissolved, igniting a small-scale civil war against rural cantons that were strongholds of pro-Catholic ultramontanism.
The Radical-liberal-Protestant element charged that the Sonderbund violated the Federal Treaty of 1815, § 6 of which expressly forbade such separate alliances. Forming a majority in the Tagsatzung they decided to dissolve the Sonderbund on October 21, 1847. The odds were against the Catholics, who were heavily outnumbered in population; they were outnumbered in soldiers by 79,000 to 99,000 and lacked enough well-trained soldiers, officers, and generals. When the Sonderbund refused to disband, the national army attacked in a brief civil war between the Catholic and the Protestant cantons, known as the Sonderbundskrieg ("Sonderbund War".) The national army was composed of soldiers from all the other cantons except Neuchâtel and Appenzell Innerrhoden (which remained neutral). The Sonderbund was easily defeated in less than a month; there were about 130 killed. Apart from small riots, this was the last armed conflict on Swiss territory. Many Sonderbund leaders fled to Italy, but the victors were generous. They invited the defeated cantons to join them in a program of federal reform, and a new constitution was drafted along American lines. National issues were to be under the control of the national parliament, and the Jesuits were expelled. The Swiss voted heavily in favor of the new constitution by 2 million against 300,000. Switzerland became calm. However, conservatives around Europe became frightened and prepared their forces to meet possible challenges, which indeed soon exploded the Revolutions of 1848. In those violent revolutions, outside Switzerland, the conservatives were always successful.
As a consequence of the civil war, Switzerland adopted a federal constitution in 1848, amending it extensively in 1874 and establishing federal responsibility for defense, trade, and legal matters, leaving all other matters to the cantonal governments. From then, and over much of the 20th century, continuous political, economic, and social improvement has characterized Swiss history.
While Switzerland was primarily rural, the cities experienced an industrial revolution in the late 19th century, focused especially on textiles. In Basel, for example, textiles, including silk, were the leading industry. In 1888 women made up 44% of the wage earners. Nearly half the women worked in the textile mills, with household servants as the second largest job category. The share of women in the workforce was higher between 1890 and 1910 than it was in the late 1960s and 1970s.
Swiss Universities in the late 19th century are notable for the number of female students receiving medical education.
The major powers respected Switzerland's neutrality during World War I. In the Grimm–Hoffmann Affair, the Allies denounced a proposal by one politician to negotiate peace on the Eastern Front; they wanted the war there to continue to tie Germany down.
While the industrial sector began to grow in the mid-19th century, Switzerland's emergence as one of the most prosperous nations in Europe—the "Swiss miracle"—was a development of the short 20th century, among other things tied to the role of Switzerland during the World Wars.
Germany considered invading Switzerland during World War II but never attacked. Under General Henri Guisan, the Swiss army prepared for the mass mobilization of militia forces against invasion and prepared strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Réduit. Switzerland remained independent and neutral through a combination of military deterrence, economic concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion.
Attempts by Switzerland's small Nazi party to cause an Anschluss with Germany failed miserably, largely due to Switzerland's multicultural heritage, a strong sense of national identity, and long tradition of direct democracy and civil liberties. The Swiss press vigorously criticized the Third Reich, often infuriating German leaders. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.
Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and the Axis. Both sides openly exerted pressure on Switzerland not to trade with the other. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion, and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached their zenith after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland surrounded by the Axis. Switzerland relied on trade for half of its food and essentially all of its fuel, but controlled vital trans-alpine rail tunnels between Germany and Italy.
Switzerland's most important exports during the war were precision machine tools, watches, jewel bearings (used in bombsights), electricity, and dairy products. During World War Two, the Swiss franc was the only remaining major freely convertible currency in the world, and both the Allies and the Germans sold large amounts of gold to the Swiss National Bank. Between 1940 and 1945, the German Reichsbank sold 1.3 billion francs worth of gold to Swiss Banks in exchange for Swiss francs and other foreign currency.
Hundreds of millions of francs worth of this gold was monetary gold plundered from the central banks of occupied countries. 581,000 francs of "Melmer" gold taken from Holocaust victims in eastern Europe was sold to Swiss banks. In total, trade between Germany and Switzerland contributed about 0.5% to the German war effort but did not significantly lengthen the war.
Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned 300,000 refugees. 104,000 of these were foreign troops interned according to the Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers outlined in the Hague Conventions. The rest were foreign civilians and were either interned or granted tolerance or residence permits by the cantonal authorities. Refugees were not allowed to hold jobs. 60,000 of the refugees were civilians escaping persecution by the Nazis. Of these, 26,000 to 27,000 were Jews. Between 10,000 and 25,000 civilian refugees were refused entry. At the beginning of the war, Switzerland had a Jewish population of between 18,000 and 28,000 and a total population of about 4 million.
Within Switzerland at the time of the conflict, there was moderate polarization. Some were pacifists. Some took sides according to international capitalism or international communism. Others leaned more towards their language group, with some in French-speaking areas more pro-Allied, and some in Swiss-German areas more pro-Axis. The government attempted to thwart the activities of any individual, party, or faction in Switzerland that acted with extremism or attempted to break the unity of the nation. The Swiss-German speaking areas moved linguistically further away from the standard (high) German spoken in Germany, with more emphasis on local Swiss dialects.
In the 1960s, significant controversy arose among historians regarding the nation's relations with Nazi Germany.
By the 1990s the controversies included a class-action lawsuit brought in New York over Jewish assets in Holocaust-era bank accounts. The government commissioned an authoritative study of Switzerland's interaction with the Nazi regime. The final report by this independent panel of international scholars, known as the Bergier Commission, was issued in 2002.
During the Cold War, Swiss authorities considered the construction of a Swiss nuclear bomb. Leading nuclear physicists at the Federal Institute of Technology Zurich such as Paul Scherrer made this a realistic possibility. However, financial problems with the defense budget prevented substantial funds from being allocated, and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968 was seen as a valid alternative. All remaining plans for building nuclear weapons were dropped by 1988.
From 1959, the Federal Council, elected by the parliament, is composed of members of the four major parties, the Protestant Free Democrats, the Catholic Christian Democrats, the left-wing Social Democrats, and the right-wing People's Party, essentially creating a system without a sizeable parliamentary opposition (see concordance system), reflecting the powerful position of an opposition in a direct democracy.
In 1963, Switzerland joined the Council of Europe. In 1979, parts of the canton of Bern attained independence, forming the new canton of Jura.
Switzerland's role in many United Nations and international organizations helped to mitigate the country's concern for neutrality. In 2002, Switzerland voters gave 55% of their vote in favour of the UN and joined the United Nations. This followed decades of debate and its previous rejection of membership in 1986 by a 3-1 popular vote.
Swiss women gained the right to vote in national-level elections in 1971, and an equal rights amendment was ratified in 1981, however it was not until 1990 that the courts established full nationwide voting rights for women in all elections.
Switzerland is not a member state of the EU but has been (together with Liechtenstein) surrounded by EU territory since the joining of Austria in 1995. In 2005, Switzerland agreed to join the Schengen treaty and Dublin Convention by popular vote. In February 2014, Swiss voters approved a referendum to reinstitute quotas on immigration to Switzerland, setting off a period of finding an implementation that would not violate the EU's freedom of movement accords that Switzerland adopted.
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Switzerland decided to adopt all EU sanctions against Russia. According to the Swiss President Ignazio Cassis, the measures were "unprecedented but consistent with Swiss neutrality". The administration also confirmed that Switzerland would continue to offer its services to find a peaceful solution to the conflict. Switzerland only participates in humanitarian missions and provides relief supplies to the Ukrainian population and neighbouring countries.
Foram formadas há cerca de 150.000.000 de anos. Uma das mais belas esculturas da natureza, considerada "a oitava maravilha do mundo".
O Rio Iguaçu nasce na Serra do Mar e percorre 1.320 Km até Foz do Iguaçu. O conjunto de quedas d'água, pouco antes de seu encontro com o Rio Paraná, formam 275 saltos com altura média de 60 m.
As quedas produzem uma névoa que, coroada por lindos e imensos arco-íris, proporcionam ao visitante um verdadeiro espetáculo de som e cores.
Os grandes saltos são 19, apenas três do lado brasileiro (Floriano, Deodoro e Benjamin Constant). A maior parte deles está do lado Argentino, voltados para o Brasil proporcionando uma melhor visão das quedas do lado brasileiro.
Os mirantes espalhados pelas trilhas das Cataratas permitem aos visitantes contemplarem de vários ângulos o belo espetáculo da natureza.