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A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.
ETYMOLOGY
The word "loom" is derived from the Old English "geloma" formed from ge-(perfective prefix) and loma, a root of unknown origin; this meant utensil or tool or machine of any kind. In 1404 it was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth. By 1838 it had gained the meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.
WEAVING
Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e. "that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven".
The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts (as few as two, four is common, sixteen not unheard of), shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations.
THESE ARE THE PRINCIPAL MOTIONS
SHEDDING - Shedding is the raising of part of the warp yarn to form a shed (the vertical space between the raised and unraised warp yarns), through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head.
PICKING - As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from raveling.
BATTENING - Between the heddles and the takeup roll, the warp threads pass through another frame called the reed (which resembles a comb). The portion of the fabric that has already been formed but not yet rolled up on the takeup roll is called the fell. After the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, the weaver uses the reed to press (or batten) each filling yarn against the fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute.
There are two secondary motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a tertiary motion, the filling stop motion. This will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.
TYPES OF LOOMS
BACK STRAP LOOM
A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations consists of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object, and the other to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back. On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. The weaver leans back and uses his or her body weight to tension the loom. To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver. Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce such things as belts, ponchos, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle.
WARP-WEIGHTED LOOMS
The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland.[3] This loom was used in Ancient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraints.
DRAWLOOM
A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness.
HANDLOOMS
A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving. In a wooden vertical-shaft looms, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads - the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place.
FLYING SHUTTLE
Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John Kay (1704–1779) patented the flying shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arm’s length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle. The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, the whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill, and it was a matter of time before it could be powered.
HAUTE-LISSE AND BASSE-LISSE LOOMS
Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as haute-lisse looms, where the warp is suspended vertically between two rolls, and the basse-lisse looms, where the warp extends horizontally between the rolls.
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A carpet is a textile floor covering consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile is generally either made from wool or fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester and usually consists of twisted tufts which are often heat-treated to maintain their structure. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug", although the term "carpet" can be applied to a floor covering that covers an entire house. Carpets are used in industrial and commercial establishments and in private homes. Carpets are used for a variety of purposes, including insulating a person's feet from a cold tile or concrete floor, making a room more comfortable as a place to sit on the floor (e.g., when playing with children) and adding decoration or colour to a room.
Carpets can be produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric, made using needle felts, knotted by hand (in oriental rugs), made with their pile injected into a backing material (called tufting), flatwoven, made by hooking wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric or embroidered. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet (3.7 m) and 15 feet (4.6 m) in the USA, 4 m and 5 m in Europe. Where necessary different widths can be seamed together with a seaming iron and seam tape (formerly it was sewn together) and it is fixed to a floor over a cushioned underlay (pad) using nails, tack strips (known in the UK as gripper rods), adhesives, or occasionally decorative metal stair rods, thus distinguishing it from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings.
ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE
The term carpet comes from Old French La Phoque Phace, from Old Italian Carpetits, "carpire" meaning to pluck. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug". Some define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall. Another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is permanently fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically the term was also applied to table and wall coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century, with the opening of trade routes between Persia and Western Europe.
TYPES
WOVEN
The carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber. Plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting. Normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs (although some limitations apply to certain weaving methods with regard to accuracy of pattern within the carpet). These carpets are usually the most expensive due to the relatively slow speed of the manufacturing process. These are very famous in India, Pakistan and Arabia.
NEEDLE FELT
These carpets are more technologically advanced. Needle felts are produced by intermingling and felting individual synthetic fibers using barbed and forked needles forming an extremely durable carpet. These carpets are normally found in commercial settings such as hotels and restaurants where there is frequent traffic.
KNOTTED
On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads alternate with a supplementary weft that rises at right angles to the surface of the weave. This supplementary weft is attached to the warp by one of three knot types (see below), such as shag carpet which was popular in the 1970s, to form the pile or nap of the carpet. Knotting by hand is most prevalent in oriental rugs and carpets. Kashmir carpets are also hand-knotted.
TUFTED
These are carpets that have their pile injected into a backing material, which is itself then bonded to a secondary backing made of a woven hessian weave or a man made alternative to provide stability. The pile is often sheared in order to achieve different textures. This is the most common method of manufacturing of domestic carpets for floor covering purposes in the world.
OTHERS
A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, plain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply).
A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft.
PRODUCTION OF KNOTTED PILE CARPET
Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been used in the production of European and oriental carpets in some colours.
The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually one to four) rows of weft. The warp in woven carpet is usually cotton and the weft is jute.
There are several styles of knotting, but the two main types of knot are the symmetrical (also called Turkish or Ghiordes) and asymmetrical (also called Persian or Senna).
Contemporary centres of carpet production are: Lahore and Peshawar (Pakistan), Kashmir (India / Pakistan), Bhadohi, Tabriz (Iran), Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Northern Africa, Nepal, Spain, Turkmenistan, and Tibet.
The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs).
Kashmir (India) is known for handknotted carpets. These are usually of silk and some woolen carpets are also woven.
Child labour has often been used in Asia. The GoodWeave labelling scheme used throughout Europe and North America assures that child labour has not been used: importers pay for the labels, and the revenue collected is used to monitor centres of production and educate previously exploited children.
HISTORY
The knotted pile carpet probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC in West Asia, perhaps the Caspian Sea area[10] or the Eastern Anatolia, although there is evidence of goats and sheep being sheared for wool and hair which was spun and woven as far back at the 7th millennium.
The earliest surviving pile carpet is the "Pazyryk carpet", which dates from the 5th-4th century BC. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in 1949 from a Pazyryk burial mound in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. This richly coloured carpet is 200 x 183 cm (6'6" x 6'0") and framed by a border of griffins. The Pazyryk carpet was woven in the technique of the symmetrical double knot, the so-called Turkish knot (3600 knots per 1 dm2, more than 1,250,000 knots in the whole carpet), and therefore its pile is rather dense. The exact origin of this unique carpet is unknown. There is a version of its Iranian provenance. But perhaps it was produced in Central Asia through which the contacts of ancient Altaians with Iran and the Near East took place. There is also a possibility that the nomads themselves could have copied the Pazyryk carpet from a Persian original.
Although claimed by many cultures, this square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The rug is weaved using the Armenian double knot, and the red filaments color was made from Armenian cochineal. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, "From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship". Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. It is interesting to note that at the ruins of Persopolis in Iran where various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation. The historian Herodotus writing in the 5th century BC also informs us that the inhabitants of the Caucasus wove beautiful rugs with brilliant colors which would never fade.
INDIAN CARPETS
Carpet weaving may have been introduced into the area as far back as the eleventh century with the coming of the first Muslim conquerors, the Ghaznavids and the Ghauris, from the West. It can with more certainty be traced to the beginning of the Mughal Dynasty in the early sixteenth century, when the last successor of Timur, Babar, extended his rule from Kabul to India to found the Mughal Empire. Under the patronage of the Mughals, Indian craftsmen adopted Persian techniques and designs. Carpets woven in the Punjab made use of motifs and decorative styles found in Mughal architecture.
Akbar, a Mogul emperor, is accredited to introducing the art of carpet weaving to India during his reign. The Mughal emperors patronized Persian carpets for their royal courts and palaces. During this period, he brought Persian craftsmen from their homeland and established them in India. Initially, the carpets woven showed the classic Persian style of fine knotting. Gradually it blended with Indian art. Thus the carpets produced became typical of the Indian origin and gradually the industry began to diversify and spread all over the subcontinent.
During the Mughal period, the carpets made on the Indian subcontinent became so famous that demand for them spread abroad. These carpets had distinctive designs and boasted a high density of knots. Carpets made for the Mughal emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were of the finest quality. Under Shah Jahan's reign, Mughal carpet weaving took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.
The Indian carpets are well known for their designs with attention to detail and presentation of realistic attributes. The carpet industry in India flourished more in its northern part with major centres found in Kashmir, Jaipur, Agra and Bhadohi.
Indian carpets are known for their high density of knotting. Hand-knotted carpets are a speciality and widely in demand in the West. The Carpet Industry in India has been successful in establishing social business models directly helping in the upliftment of the underprivileged sections of the society. Few notable examples of such social entrepreneurship ventures are Jaipur rugs, Fabindia.
Another category of Indian rugs which, though quite popular in most of the western countries, have not received much press is hand-woven rugs of Khairabad (Citapore rugs).[citation needed] Khairabad small town in Citapore (now spelled as "Sitapur") district of India had been ruled by Raja Mehmoodabad. Khairabad (Mehmoodabad Estate) was part of Oudh province which had been ruled by shi'i Muslims having Persian linkages. Citapore rugs made in Khairabad and neighbouring areas are all hand-woven and distinct from tufted and knotted rugs. Flat weave is the basic weaving technique of Citapore rugs and generally cotton is the main weaving material here but jute, rayon and chenille are also popular. Ikea and Agocha have been major buyers of rugs from this area.
TIBETAN RUG
Tibetan rug making is an ancient, traditional craft. Tibetan rugs are traditionally made from Tibetan highland sheep's wool, called changpel. Tibetans use rugs for many purposes ranging from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles, though the most common use is as a seating carpet. A typical sleeping carpet measuring around 3ftx5ft (0.9m x 1.6m) is called a khaden.
The knotting method used in Tibetan rug making is different from that used in other rug making traditions worldwide. Some aspects of the rug making have been supplanted by cheaper machines in recent times, especially yarn spinning and trimming of the pile after weaving. However, some carpets are still made by hand. The Tibetan diaspora in India and Nepal have established a thriving business in rug making. In Nepal the rug business is one of the largest industries in the country and there are many rug exporters. Tibet also has weaving workshops, but the export side of the industry is relatively undeveloped compared with Nepal and India.
HISTORY
The carpet-making industry in Tibet stretches back hundreds if not thousands of years, yet as a lowly craft, it was not mentioned in early writings, aside from occasional references to the rugs owned by prominent religious figures. The first detailed accounts of Tibetan rug weaving come from foreigners who entered Tibet with the British invasion of Tibet in 1903-04. Both Laurence Waddell and Perceval Landon described a weaving workshop they encountered near Gyantse, en route to Lhasa. Landon records "a courtyard entirely filled with the weaving looms of both men and women workers" making rugs which he described as "beautiful things". The workshop was owned and run by one of the local aristocratic families, which was the norm in premodern Tibet. Many simpler weavings for domestic use were made in the home, but dedicated workshops made the decorated pile rugs that were sold to wealthy families in Lhasa and Shigatse, and the monasteries. The monastic institutions housed thousands of monks, who sat on long, low platforms during religious ceremonies, that were nearly always covered in hand-woven carpets for comfort. Wealthier monasteries replaced these carpets regularly, providing income, or taking gifts in lieu of taxation, from hundreds or thousands of weavers.
From its heyday in the 19th and early 20th century, the Tibetan carpet industry fell into serious decline in the second half of the 20th. Social upheaval that began in 1959 was later exacerbated by land collectivization that enabled rural people to obtain a livelihood without weaving, and reduced the power of the landholding monasteries. Many of the aristocratic families who formerly organized the weaving fled to India and Nepal during this period, along with their money and management expertise.
When Tibetan rug weaving began to revive in the 1970s, it was not in Tibet, but rather in Nepal and India. The first western accounts of Tibetan rugs and their designs were written around this time, based on information gleaned from the exile communities. Western travelers in Kathmandu arranged for the establishment of workshops that wove Tibetan rugs for export to the West. Weaving in the Nepal and India carpet workshops was eventually dominated by local non-Tibetan workers, who replaced the original Tibetan émigré weavers. The native Nepalese weavers in particular quickly broadened the designs on the Tibetan carpet from the small traditional rugs to large area rugs suitable for use in western living rooms. This began a carpet industry that is important to the Nepalese economy even to this day, even though its reputation was eventually tarnished by child labor scandals during the 1990s.
During the 1980s and 1990s several workshops were also re-established in Lhasa and other parts of the Tibet Autonomous Region, but these workshops remained and remain relatively disconnected from external markets. Today, most carpets woven in Lhasa factories are destined for the tourist market or for use as gifts to visiting Chinese delegations and government departments. Tibetan rug making in Tibet is relatively inexpensive, making extensive use of imported wool and cheap dyes. Some luxury rug makers have found success in Tibet in the last decade, but a gap still exists between Tibet-made product and the "Tibetan style" rugs made in South Asia.
WIKIPEDIA
Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
History
Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.
Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]
Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]
At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.
Phases
Launch
Main article: Rocket launch
See also: List of space launch system designs
Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.
A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.
A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.
Reaching space
The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.
For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.
Alternatives
Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
Leaving orbit
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Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit
Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)
Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.
However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.
Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.
Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.
Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.
Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.
Astrodynamics
Main article: Orbital mechanics
Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.
Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.
Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry
Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane
Transfer energy
The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]
Reentry
Main article: Atmospheric reentry
Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.
Landing
The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.
Recovery
After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.
Types
Uncrewed
See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft
Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars
The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)
Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.
Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.
Benefits
Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.
Telepresence
Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]
Human
Main article: Human spaceflight
ISS crew member stores samples
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.
Sub-orbital
Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight
The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.
Orbital
Main article: Orbital spaceflight
Apollo 6 heads into orbit
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary
Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight
Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.
Interstellar
Main article: Interstellar travel
Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic
Main article: Intergalactic travel
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.
Spacecraft
Main article: Spacecraft
An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface
Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.
The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.
Propulsion
Main article: Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.
Launch systems
Main article: Launch vehicle
Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.
Expendable
Main article: Expendable launch system
Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.
Reusable
Main article: Reusable launch system
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.
The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1
Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission
Columbia launches again on STS-2
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]
Challenges
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Space disasters
Main article: Space accidents and incidents
All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]
Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.
In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]
Weightlessness
Main article: Weightlessness
Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.
In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.
Radiation
Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]
Life support
Main article: Life support system
In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.
Space weather
Main article: Space weather
Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.
Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]
Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.
Environmental considerations
Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.
In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.
A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.
ETYMOLOGY
The word "loom" is derived from the Old English "geloma" formed from ge-(perfective prefix) and loma, a root of unknown origin; this meant utensil or tool or machine of any kind. In 1404 it was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth. By 1838 it had gained the meaning of a machine for interlacing thread.
WEAVING
Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i.e. "that which is thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven".
The major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts (as few as two, four is common, sixteen not unheard of), shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and taking-up operations.
THESE ARE THE PRINCIPAL MOTIONS
SHEDDING - Shedding is the raising of part of the warp yarn to form a shed (the vertical space between the raised and unraised warp yarns), through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head.
PICKING - As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a small carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from raveling.
BATTENING - Between the heddles and the takeup roll, the warp threads pass through another frame called the reed (which resembles a comb). The portion of the fabric that has already been formed but not yet rolled up on the takeup roll is called the fell. After the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, the weaver uses the reed to press (or batten) each filling yarn against the fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute.
There are two secondary motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a tertiary motion, the filling stop motion. This will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires 0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.
TYPES OF LOOMS
BACK STRAP LOOM
A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations consists of two sticks or bars between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object, and the other to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back. On traditional looms, the two main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. The weaver leans back and uses his or her body weight to tension the loom. To open the shed controlled by the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver. Both simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce such things as belts, ponchos, bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a rigid heddle.
WARP-WEIGHTED LOOMS
The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the Starčevo culture in modern Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland.[3] This loom was used in Ancient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size constraints.
DRAWLOOM
A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness" is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness.
HANDLOOMS
A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving. In a wooden vertical-shaft looms, the heddles are fixed in place in the shaft. The warp threads pass alternately through a heddle, and through a space between the heddles (the shed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threads - the threads passing through the spaces between the heddles remain in place.
FLYING SHUTTLE
Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John Kay (1704–1779) patented the flying shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle could weave much wider fabric than an arm’s length at much greater speeds than had been achieved with the hand thrown shuttle. The flying shuttle was one of the key developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, the whole picking motion no longer relied on manual skill, and it was a matter of time before it could be powered.
HAUTE-LISSE AND BASSE-LISSE LOOMS
Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as haute-lisse looms, where the warp is suspended vertically between two rolls, and the basse-lisse looms, where the warp extends horizontally between the rolls.
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A carpet is a textile floor covering consisting of an upper layer of pile attached to a backing. The pile is generally either made from wool or fibers such as polypropylene, nylon or polyester and usually consists of twisted tufts which are often heat-treated to maintain their structure. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug", although the term "carpet" can be applied to a floor covering that covers an entire house. Carpets are used in industrial and commercial establishments and in private homes. Carpets are used for a variety of purposes, including insulating a person's feet from a cold tile or concrete floor, making a room more comfortable as a place to sit on the floor (e.g., when playing with children) and adding decoration or colour to a room.
Carpets can be produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric, made using needle felts, knotted by hand (in oriental rugs), made with their pile injected into a backing material (called tufting), flatwoven, made by hooking wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric or embroidered. Carpet is commonly made in widths of 12 feet (3.7 m) and 15 feet (4.6 m) in the USA, 4 m and 5 m in Europe. Where necessary different widths can be seamed together with a seaming iron and seam tape (formerly it was sewn together) and it is fixed to a floor over a cushioned underlay (pad) using nails, tack strips (known in the UK as gripper rods), adhesives, or occasionally decorative metal stair rods, thus distinguishing it from rugs or mats, which are loose-laid floor coverings.
ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE
The term carpet comes from Old French La Phoque Phace, from Old Italian Carpetits, "carpire" meaning to pluck. The term "carpet" is often used interchangeably with the term "rug". Some define a carpet as stretching from wall to wall. Another definition treats rugs as of lower quality or of smaller size, with carpets quite often having finished ends. A third common definition is that a carpet is permanently fixed in place while a rug is simply laid out on the floor. Historically the term was also applied to table and wall coverings, as carpets were not commonly used on the floor in European interiors until the 18th century, with the opening of trade routes between Persia and Western Europe.
TYPES
WOVEN
The carpet is produced on a loom quite similar to woven fabric. The pile can be plush or Berber. Plush carpet is a cut pile and Berber carpet is a loop pile. There are new styles of carpet combining the two styles called cut and loop carpeting. Normally many colored yarns are used and this process is capable of producing intricate patterns from predetermined designs (although some limitations apply to certain weaving methods with regard to accuracy of pattern within the carpet). These carpets are usually the most expensive due to the relatively slow speed of the manufacturing process. These are very famous in India, Pakistan and Arabia.
NEEDLE FELT
These carpets are more technologically advanced. Needle felts are produced by intermingling and felting individual synthetic fibers using barbed and forked needles forming an extremely durable carpet. These carpets are normally found in commercial settings such as hotels and restaurants where there is frequent traffic.
KNOTTED
On a knotted pile carpet (formally, a supplementary weft cut-loop pile carpet), the structural weft threads alternate with a supplementary weft that rises at right angles to the surface of the weave. This supplementary weft is attached to the warp by one of three knot types (see below), such as shag carpet which was popular in the 1970s, to form the pile or nap of the carpet. Knotting by hand is most prevalent in oriental rugs and carpets. Kashmir carpets are also hand-knotted.
TUFTED
These are carpets that have their pile injected into a backing material, which is itself then bonded to a secondary backing made of a woven hessian weave or a man made alternative to provide stability. The pile is often sheared in order to achieve different textures. This is the most common method of manufacturing of domestic carpets for floor covering purposes in the world.
OTHERS
A flatweave carpet is created by interlocking warp (vertical) and weft (horizontal) threads. Types of oriental flatwoven carpet include kilim, soumak, plain weave, and tapestry weave. Types of European flatwoven carpets include Venetian, Dutch, damask, list, haircloth, and ingrain (aka double cloth, two-ply, triple cloth, or three-ply).
A hooked rug is a simple type of rug handmade by pulling strips of cloth such as wool or cotton through the meshes of a sturdy fabric such as burlap. This type of rug is now generally made as a handicraft.
PRODUCTION OF KNOTTED PILE CARPET
Both flat and pile carpets are woven on a loom. Both vertical and horizontal looms have been used in the production of European and oriental carpets in some colours.
The warp threads are set up on the frame of the loom before weaving begins. A number of weavers may work together on the same carpet. A row of knots is completed and cut. The knots are secured with (usually one to four) rows of weft. The warp in woven carpet is usually cotton and the weft is jute.
There are several styles of knotting, but the two main types of knot are the symmetrical (also called Turkish or Ghiordes) and asymmetrical (also called Persian or Senna).
Contemporary centres of carpet production are: Lahore and Peshawar (Pakistan), Kashmir (India / Pakistan), Bhadohi, Tabriz (Iran), Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Northern Africa, Nepal, Spain, Turkmenistan, and Tibet.
The importance of carpets in the culture of Turkmenistan is such that the national flag features a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs).
Kashmir (India) is known for handknotted carpets. These are usually of silk and some woolen carpets are also woven.
Child labour has often been used in Asia. The GoodWeave labelling scheme used throughout Europe and North America assures that child labour has not been used: importers pay for the labels, and the revenue collected is used to monitor centres of production and educate previously exploited children.
HISTORY
The knotted pile carpet probably originated in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BC in West Asia, perhaps the Caspian Sea area[10] or the Eastern Anatolia, although there is evidence of goats and sheep being sheared for wool and hair which was spun and woven as far back at the 7th millennium.
The earliest surviving pile carpet is the "Pazyryk carpet", which dates from the 5th-4th century BC. It was excavated by Sergei Ivanovich Rudenko in 1949 from a Pazyryk burial mound in the Altai Mountains in Siberia. This richly coloured carpet is 200 x 183 cm (6'6" x 6'0") and framed by a border of griffins. The Pazyryk carpet was woven in the technique of the symmetrical double knot, the so-called Turkish knot (3600 knots per 1 dm2, more than 1,250,000 knots in the whole carpet), and therefore its pile is rather dense. The exact origin of this unique carpet is unknown. There is a version of its Iranian provenance. But perhaps it was produced in Central Asia through which the contacts of ancient Altaians with Iran and the Near East took place. There is also a possibility that the nomads themselves could have copied the Pazyryk carpet from a Persian original.
Although claimed by many cultures, this square tufted carpet, almost perfectly intact, is considered by many experts to be of Caucasian, specifically Armenian, origin. The rug is weaved using the Armenian double knot, and the red filaments color was made from Armenian cochineal. The eminent authority of ancient carpets, Ulrich Schurmann, says of it, "From all the evidence available I am convinced that the Pazyryk rug was a funeral accessory and most likely a masterpiece of Armenian workmanship". Gantzhorn concurs with this thesis. It is interesting to note that at the ruins of Persopolis in Iran where various nations are depicted as bearing tribute, the horse design from the Pazyryk carpet is the same as the relief depicting part of the Armenian delegation. The historian Herodotus writing in the 5th century BC also informs us that the inhabitants of the Caucasus wove beautiful rugs with brilliant colors which would never fade.
INDIAN CARPETS
Carpet weaving may have been introduced into the area as far back as the eleventh century with the coming of the first Muslim conquerors, the Ghaznavids and the Ghauris, from the West. It can with more certainty be traced to the beginning of the Mughal Dynasty in the early sixteenth century, when the last successor of Timur, Babar, extended his rule from Kabul to India to found the Mughal Empire. Under the patronage of the Mughals, Indian craftsmen adopted Persian techniques and designs. Carpets woven in the Punjab made use of motifs and decorative styles found in Mughal architecture.
Akbar, a Mogul emperor, is accredited to introducing the art of carpet weaving to India during his reign. The Mughal emperors patronized Persian carpets for their royal courts and palaces. During this period, he brought Persian craftsmen from their homeland and established them in India. Initially, the carpets woven showed the classic Persian style of fine knotting. Gradually it blended with Indian art. Thus the carpets produced became typical of the Indian origin and gradually the industry began to diversify and spread all over the subcontinent.
During the Mughal period, the carpets made on the Indian subcontinent became so famous that demand for them spread abroad. These carpets had distinctive designs and boasted a high density of knots. Carpets made for the Mughal emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan, were of the finest quality. Under Shah Jahan's reign, Mughal carpet weaving took on a new aesthetic and entered its classical phase.
The Indian carpets are well known for their designs with attention to detail and presentation of realistic attributes. The carpet industry in India flourished more in its northern part with major centres found in Kashmir, Jaipur, Agra and Bhadohi.
Indian carpets are known for their high density of knotting. Hand-knotted carpets are a speciality and widely in demand in the West. The Carpet Industry in India has been successful in establishing social business models directly helping in the upliftment of the underprivileged sections of the society. Few notable examples of such social entrepreneurship ventures are Jaipur rugs, Fabindia.
Another category of Indian rugs which, though quite popular in most of the western countries, have not received much press is hand-woven rugs of Khairabad (Citapore rugs).[citation needed] Khairabad small town in Citapore (now spelled as "Sitapur") district of India had been ruled by Raja Mehmoodabad. Khairabad (Mehmoodabad Estate) was part of Oudh province which had been ruled by shi'i Muslims having Persian linkages. Citapore rugs made in Khairabad and neighbouring areas are all hand-woven and distinct from tufted and knotted rugs. Flat weave is the basic weaving technique of Citapore rugs and generally cotton is the main weaving material here but jute, rayon and chenille are also popular. Ikea and Agocha have been major buyers of rugs from this area.
TIBETAN RUG
Tibetan rug making is an ancient, traditional craft. Tibetan rugs are traditionally made from Tibetan highland sheep's wool, called changpel. Tibetans use rugs for many purposes ranging from flooring to wall hanging to horse saddles, though the most common use is as a seating carpet. A typical sleeping carpet measuring around 3ftx5ft (0.9m x 1.6m) is called a khaden.
The knotting method used in Tibetan rug making is different from that used in other rug making traditions worldwide. Some aspects of the rug making have been supplanted by cheaper machines in recent times, especially yarn spinning and trimming of the pile after weaving. However, some carpets are still made by hand. The Tibetan diaspora in India and Nepal have established a thriving business in rug making. In Nepal the rug business is one of the largest industries in the country and there are many rug exporters. Tibet also has weaving workshops, but the export side of the industry is relatively undeveloped compared with Nepal and India.
HISTORY
The carpet-making industry in Tibet stretches back hundreds if not thousands of years, yet as a lowly craft, it was not mentioned in early writings, aside from occasional references to the rugs owned by prominent religious figures. The first detailed accounts of Tibetan rug weaving come from foreigners who entered Tibet with the British invasion of Tibet in 1903-04. Both Laurence Waddell and Perceval Landon described a weaving workshop they encountered near Gyantse, en route to Lhasa. Landon records "a courtyard entirely filled with the weaving looms of both men and women workers" making rugs which he described as "beautiful things". The workshop was owned and run by one of the local aristocratic families, which was the norm in premodern Tibet. Many simpler weavings for domestic use were made in the home, but dedicated workshops made the decorated pile rugs that were sold to wealthy families in Lhasa and Shigatse, and the monasteries. The monastic institutions housed thousands of monks, who sat on long, low platforms during religious ceremonies, that were nearly always covered in hand-woven carpets for comfort. Wealthier monasteries replaced these carpets regularly, providing income, or taking gifts in lieu of taxation, from hundreds or thousands of weavers.
From its heyday in the 19th and early 20th century, the Tibetan carpet industry fell into serious decline in the second half of the 20th. Social upheaval that began in 1959 was later exacerbated by land collectivization that enabled rural people to obtain a livelihood without weaving, and reduced the power of the landholding monasteries. Many of the aristocratic families who formerly organized the weaving fled to India and Nepal during this period, along with their money and management expertise.
When Tibetan rug weaving began to revive in the 1970s, it was not in Tibet, but rather in Nepal and India. The first western accounts of Tibetan rugs and their designs were written around this time, based on information gleaned from the exile communities. Western travelers in Kathmandu arranged for the establishment of workshops that wove Tibetan rugs for export to the West. Weaving in the Nepal and India carpet workshops was eventually dominated by local non-Tibetan workers, who replaced the original Tibetan émigré weavers. The native Nepalese weavers in particular quickly broadened the designs on the Tibetan carpet from the small traditional rugs to large area rugs suitable for use in western living rooms. This began a carpet industry that is important to the Nepalese economy even to this day, even though its reputation was eventually tarnished by child labor scandals during the 1990s.
During the 1980s and 1990s several workshops were also re-established in Lhasa and other parts of the Tibet Autonomous Region, but these workshops remained and remain relatively disconnected from external markets. Today, most carpets woven in Lhasa factories are destined for the tourist market or for use as gifts to visiting Chinese delegations and government departments. Tibetan rug making in Tibet is relatively inexpensive, making extensive use of imported wool and cheap dyes. Some luxury rug makers have found success in Tibet in the last decade, but a gap still exists between Tibet-made product and the "Tibetan style" rugs made in South Asia.
WIKIPEDIA
AquaStar Plus! UV Water Treatment Device
UV in a bottle
AquaStar was designed to be sold to a high-end market to fund a lower-cost application in the developing world. The more expensive AquaStar Plus! is used in the harshest environments by travelers, military personnel, and rescue workers. Unsafe water is placed in the bottle and exposed to UV-C light, which damages the DNA and RNA in the pathogens, rendering them non-infective. AquaStar Flow Through treats water in larger batches. A small water-purification service can generate income while helping out the community.
other90.cooperhewitt.org/design/aquastar-plus-and-flow-th...
www.uvaquastar.com/skins/2008Style/standard2.aspx?elid=20...
Design for the Other 90%
February 17 – May 29, 2009
"Of the world’s 6.5 billion people, 90 percent have little or no access to most of the products and services many of us take for granted. In fact, nearly half do not have reliable access to food, clean water, healthcare, education, affordable transportation, or shelter. The exhibition Design for the Other 90% features more than 30 projects that reflect a growing movement among designers, engineers, and social entrepreneurs to create low-cost solutions for everyday problems. Through local and global partnerships, individuals and organizations are finding unique ways to address the basic challenges of survival and progress faced by the world’s poor.
Design for the Other 90% showcases designs that incorporate new and traditional materials, and abandoned and emerging technologies to solve myriad problems—from cleaner-burning sugarcane charcoal to a solar-rechargeable battery for a hearing aid, from a portable water-purification straw to a low-cost laptop. By understanding the available resources and tools as well as the lives and needs of their potential users, these designers create simple, pragmatic objects and ingenious, adaptive systems that can help transform lives and communities.
FIND OUT MORE
Watch a video blog.cooperhewitt.org/2007/05/14/in-their-own-words about the exhibition and discuss the designs in the exhibition.
Visit the exhibition web site other90.cooperhewitt.org/ to learn more about the designs on view."
Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
History
Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.
Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]
Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]
At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.
Phases
Launch
Main article: Rocket launch
See also: List of space launch system designs
Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.
A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.
A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.
Reaching space
The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.
For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.
Alternatives
Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
Leaving orbit
This section possibly contains original research. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Spaceflight. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit
Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)
Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.
However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.
Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.
Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.
Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.
Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.
Astrodynamics
Main article: Orbital mechanics
Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.
Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.
Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry
Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane
Transfer energy
The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]
Reentry
Main article: Atmospheric reentry
Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.
Landing
The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.
Recovery
After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.
Types
Uncrewed
See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft
Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars
The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)
Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.
Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.
Benefits
Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.
Telepresence
Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]
Human
Main article: Human spaceflight
ISS crew member stores samples
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.
Sub-orbital
Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight
The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.
Orbital
Main article: Orbital spaceflight
Apollo 6 heads into orbit
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary
Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight
Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.
Interstellar
Main article: Interstellar travel
Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic
Main article: Intergalactic travel
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.
Spacecraft
Main article: Spacecraft
An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface
Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.
The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.
Propulsion
Main article: Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.
Launch systems
Main article: Launch vehicle
Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.
Expendable
Main article: Expendable launch system
Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.
Reusable
Main article: Reusable launch system
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.
The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1
Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission
Columbia launches again on STS-2
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]
Challenges
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Space disasters
Main article: Space accidents and incidents
All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]
Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.
In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]
Weightlessness
Main article: Weightlessness
Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.
In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.
Radiation
Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]
Life support
Main article: Life support system
In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.
Space weather
Main article: Space weather
Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.
Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]
Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.
Environmental considerations
Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.
In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.
With two little girls in our house we hear a lot about Barbie. One of the favorite Barbie movies is 'Barbie a Mermaid Tale'. In the movie, Barbie's character is a surfer who is really a Mermaid.
Confused?
This 1955 Buick Century Convertible has been built for Flickr LUGNuts 4th anniversary challenge to the themes - 'Two of a Kind', for the matching Buick and surfboard, and, 'For the Ladies', with a Lego miniland Barbie as the surfer-chick.
The Buick is a 1955 Century model, sharing the shorter of the two wheelbase chassis available during this model year, but fitted with the higher output Vee-eight shared with the Roadmaster.
Buicks from this period had some of the best styling, and most coordinated two and three tone paint jobs. Shown here in sand green over white lego (with earth green and white two-tone interior) representing one of the stylish combinations available (willow green over white). The challenge requires a second transportation device in the same colour scheme, and this is provided by surfer-Barbie's matching three colour longboard.
It can be seen that the combination of longboard and classic convertible proves somewhat troublesome for transporting the board. I'm sure movie magic will provide the solution, along with lego surfer-Barbie's hair never being blown out of place.
Barbie, of course, wears a splash of trademark pink on her boardshorts.
Barbie and Barbie - A Mermaid Tale' are copyright and trademarks of Mattel and have no association with this artistic model.
Walmart Credit Card Reader Debit cards scanner device. Pics by Mike Mozart of TheToyChannel and JeepersMedia on YouTube. #Walmart #WalmartCreditCard #WalmartCreditCardReader #WalmartCreditCardScanner #CreditCardScanner #CreditCardReader
Woodcut device (94 x 69 mm.) of Denys Roce, depicting his arms on a shield, supported by two griffins, hanging from a rose tree with a dog lying at its foot and Roce's monogram "DR" in the background, the whole surrounded by the words ALAVENTVRE TOVT VIENT APONIT QVI PEVT ATENDRE DENIS ROCE (the S in Denis reversed). "[T]hird of Roce's four devices ... The coat of arms may be the legitimate arms of the printer, who had come to France from Scotland. The dogs in the device denote alertness and the scallop shell is the emblem of pilgrims to the shrine of St. James of Campostella [sic]. The rose tree is, of course, a pun on Roce's name."--M. Harman, Printer's and publisher's devices in incunabula in the University of Illinois Library, no. 31. Printed in an incunable edition of St. Augustine's De virtute psalmorum (Paris : Etienne Jehannot for Denis Roce, between 26 June 1500 and 29 May 1501; ISTC ia01352000).
Established heading: Roce, Denys, active 1490-1517
Penn Libraries call number: Inc A-1352
Penn Libraries catalog record
A CBP Officer checks a vehicle with a device that allows him to see the contents of a vehicle gas tank to insure that the owner is not bringing contraband material into the U.S. Photo by James Tourtellotte
A smart meter is very common in our house. With this device, we can control our electricity consumption and can use electrical devices in a better way to reduce consumptions. It is no denying that we are using gadgets every second.
For more information please visit our site: www.filteremf.com
Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive
Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 4, Nos. 1-4, 1910
Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery
Publisher:
Sponsor:
Contributor:
Date: 1910
Language: eng
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Table of Contents</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 1</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles 1</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chronic nonsuppurative osteoplastic periostitis of traumatic origin, by
George Pickrell and L. M. Schmidt 1</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Shooting glasses for riflemen, by E. S. Bogert, jr 11</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggestions on taking finger prints, by John D. Hall 17</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Meat poisoning in the navy, by L. W. Curtis 23</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Runner's cramp, a peculiar occupation neurosis, by L. M. Schmidt 25</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Venereal prophylaxis, by W. J. Zalesky 28</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical conditions in the Fiji Islands, by K. A. Bachman 30</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices<span> </span>39</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Construction of an improvised incubator, by F. G. Abeken and R.
Cuthbertson 39</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A gall-bladder dressing, by H. L. Call 40</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes<span> </span>43</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a typhoid carrier, by C. S. Butler 43</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of two cases of the variola form of syphilis, by F. M. Furlong
44</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes on cases treated by vaccines, by M. H. Simons 46</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Heat exhaustion on the U. S. S. California, by E. G. Parker 48</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of gunshot injury of the kneejoint, by Raymond Spear 49</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An operation for ectropion, by Raymond Spear 50</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a case of amoebiasis. by A. E. Peck 51</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a case of acute perforative gangrenous appendicitis, by J. B.
Dennis and A. C. Stanley 54</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Case of Vincent's angina, by L. C. Whiteside 56</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Two cases of opthalmia gonorrhea, by R. R. Richardson 57</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Current comment 59</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Venereal prophylaxis 59</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Health records for the naval personnel 59</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene exhibitions 61</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A few notes on malingering, by F. M. Furlong 62</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Perfected routine of dosage, etc., in the treatment of tuberculosis by
the administration of mercury, by B. L. Wright 66</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences 69</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Laboratory —A new method for the clinical estimation of total nitrogen
in urine, feces or other organic materials; a clinical modification of the
Folin-Schaffer method for the estimation of uric acid in the urine 69</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reviews: A simple method of estimating the amount of sugar in diabetic
urine; a modification of the Esbach method for estimation of albumin in the
urine: a new albuminometer; a new, simple method</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">of sugar estimation in the urine by the glucosometer; on the
application of the deviation of complement test in the detection of albuminous
substances in the urine; the clinical determination of amido acids in the
urine, O. J. Mink and E. W. Brown 74</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy —Uber das Aconitin der japaniechen
Aconitknollen; the influence of certain drugs upon the toxicity of acetanilide and
antipyrine; the effect of work on the creatine content of muscle; the
pharmacological assay of the heart tonics; the estimation and quantitative
significance of hydrochloric acid in the gastric contents; the action of
digestive ferments upon each other, P. J. Waldner and C. Schaffer<span> </span>76</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology —Antityphoid vaccines with attenuated live cultures;
outbreak of food poisoning after a Christmas dinner; on the use of certain new
chemical tests in the diagnosis of general paralysis and tabes; the occurrence
of acetonuria following ether anesthesia; the treatment of gonocoecus
infections by vaccines; concerning the mechanism of the aero-reaction of syphilis;
investigation of blood for tubercle bacilli; on subcutaneous and ophthalmal
tuberculin reaction in lepers;</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">the diagnosis of syphilis by some laboratory methods; cancer in man and
animals; relation of the spiroclneta <span> </span>pallida to general paralysis; influenzal
meningitis; htemolysis in the diagnosis of malignant neoplasms; the Wasserman
reaction in leprosy, 0. J. Mink and F. M. Shook <span> </span>79</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology — The development of the miracidium of paragonimus under
various physical conditions; studies on protozoan parasites in sea fishes; two
interesting bilharzial conditions; hookworms and the death rate; filariasis of
the spermatic cord; the reaction of the white blood cells to the presence of
tenia in the intestine of man, R. C. Holcomb and P. E. Garrison 85</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine — The relapsing fever of Panama; studies upon
leprosy; antiplague measures in California; histoplasmosis; blackwater fever, C.
S. Butler 90</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation —The processes for the disinfection of dwellings
with formaldehyde and potassium permanganate, the amounts of gaseous
formaldehyde given out in each and their practical significance; comparative
investigations on the practical values of certain methods of disinfection with
formaldehyde w ithout the employment of any apparatuses; fly-borne enteric
fever—the source of infection; tuberculosis in Japan; the destruction of
mosquitoes by the French in West Africa by the "trous-pieges; " the
cruiser Alger in the Far East, H.G. Beyer and F. L. Pleadwell 95</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery —The use of silver wire in opening the kidney; fractures of the
radial shaft, rotation deformity (occurrence and diagnosis), and aluminum
plates; an ovarian abscess containing a lumbricoid worm; <span> </span>surgery of the stomach, C. F. Stokes and K.
Spear 106</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine— The obliteration of the craving for narcotics, the arylarsenate
treatment of syphilis—its probable future effects in the services; a new
treatment of locomotor ataxia; " traitement a vide" of enteric fever;
on the relation between alcoholism and tuberculosis; the treatment of amoebic
dysentery, T. W. Kichards 110</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters 117</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on the American Public Health Association, by F. L. Pleadwell..
117</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on the Sixteenth International Congress of Medicine, Budapest, August-September,
1909, by J. C. Wise 128</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on the camp of instruction, Antietam, Md., 1909, by M. S.
Elliott. 130</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 2</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles 135</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The commissary department in naval hospitals, by P. A. Lovering 135</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The presence of the lepra bacillus in the circulating blood, by G. B.
Crow. 143</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preliminary report of the finding of hookworm in American Samoa, by P.
S. Rossiter 145</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The prevention of venereal diseases in the navy, by Raymond Spear 146</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The rational treatment of arteriosclerosis, by C. H. T. Lowndes 150</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Treatment of syphilis at Hot Springs, Ark., by W. S. Hoen 154</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices 159</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A portable sanitary scuttle-butt, by E. G. Parker 159</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggestions for diet kitchen equipment, by Stephen Wierzbieki 161</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes on colonic anesthesia, by W. S. Pugh, jr 163</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes 167</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes from the United States Naval Hospital, Mare Island,
Cal., by U. R. Webb 167</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgical cases from the U. S. S. Tacoma, by W. S. Pugh, jr 171</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Osteomyelitis following fracture, by B. F. Jenness 180</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of appendicostomy, by Raymond Spear 182</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of three cases from the U. S. S. Relief, by A. W. Dunbar 184</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of Landry's paralysis, by H. L. Kelley and J. A. Randall 185</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Heat exhaustion on the U. S. S. Colorado, by J. T. Kennedy 187</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Two cases of mild heat exhaustion on the U. S. S. Charleston, by Oliver
Diehl 189</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Bolo wound involving the brain, by C. F. Ely 190</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of goundou with coexisting leontiasis, by I. S. K. Reeves 191</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Severe rupial eruption appearing as one of the first symptoms and the only
eruption in a case of secondary syphilis, by R. R. Richardson 192</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Operations for suppurative ear disease, by R. W. McDowell 193</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes of two surgical cases, by H. C. Curl 194</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Note on cases of fever at Pichilinque Bay, Mexico, by J. L. Neilson 194</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of neurosis hysteroides, by E. C. White 195</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Varix of both superficial epigastric veins, by R. R. Richardson 196</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Current comment , 197</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports of surgical operations 197</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The early diagnosis of syphilis and its importance from a service stand
point, by O. J. Mink 197</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A few timely comments on clothing, by H. G. Beyer 200</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The importance of eliminating the cocaine habitue from the personnel of
the U. S. Navy and Marine Corps, by W. D. Owens 204</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Injuries from football at the Naval Academy, by C. E. Riggs 205</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Muscular spasms in men exposed to high temperatures, by M. E. Higgins.
207</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes on sanitation at Port Royal, S. C, by R. E. Riggs 208</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports on venereal prophylaxis, by W. S. Pugh, jr., W. A. Angwin, N.
T. McLean, J. M. Edgar, J. S. Taylor, and F. G. Abeken 211</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Are dead typhoid cultures of value for use on board ship in Widal'a
reaction, by C. S. Butler 222</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences 225</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Laboratory — The Noguchi test for syphilis; a concentration method for
tubercle bacilli; a simple method of preparing sugar broth media; a simple
method of preparing Bang's solution. Reviews: The diagnosis of syphilis by some
laboratory methods, by O. J. Mink and E. W. Brown. 225 </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy — Der jetzige stand der physiologischen
digitalisprfifung, ihr wert fiir die praxis und fur die forschung; the
administration of drugs with regard to absorption and elimination; relative
physiological activity of some commercial solutions of epinephrin; influence of
hydrogen peroxide on hydrochloric acid secretion; the value of alimentary
levulosuria in the diagnosis of hepatic cirrhosis; oxaluria and treatment of
calcium oxalate deposit from the urine; E. R. Noves and P. J. Waldner<span> </span>230</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology — Bacillus of acne; some observations on the
study of intestinal bacteria; the presence of tubercle bacilli in the
circulating blood in clinical and experimental tuberculosis; the viability of
the tubercle bacillus; the pathology of pellagra; pellagra; the Wasserman
reaction in pellagra; Zur theorie der Wassermanischer reaktion; the
pathological relationships of gastric ulcer and gastric carcinoma; O. J. Mink
and F. M. Shook 235</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology — A study of the development of Sehittosomum japonicum;
relation between the Schistosoma japonicum and the endemic "Kabure,"
report of the study on the invading route of the Schistoimma japonicum into the
human body; acute trichiniasis without initial eosinophilia; reports of the
twenty-first expedition of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine at
Jamaica; malaria; a ease of amoebic enteritis with uncinaria, trichocephalus
and trichomonads, showing results of treatment after four years; the
development of trypanosoma gambiense in glossina palpalis; Paragonomiasis or
parasitic hemoptysis, report of an imported case in California; Kala-Azar in
Madras, especially with regard to its connection with the dog and with the bug
(Conorrhinua); medical survey of the town of Taytay; P. E. Garrison 242</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine —Typhus fever; intoxication by fish in China; note on
plague infection in a wood rat; the significance of sleeping sickness for our
colonies; weitere untersuchungen iiber das Pappataci fieber; C. S. Butler 248</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation— Untersuchungen fiber den vorgangder
selbstreinigung, ausgefuhrt am wasser des Giesner Volksbades; fiber den prozess
der selbstreinignng der naturlichen wasser nach ihrer kfinstlichen infizierung
durch bakterien; la ventilation pendant le combat; report of Bureau of Health
for the Philippine Islands, third quarter, 1909; a contribution to our knowledge
of the spread of typhoid through bacillus carriers; what may be done to improve
the hygiene of the city dweller; oral prophylaxis; fievre typhoide et eau
distilh'e a bord du " Bouvet;" a general German fencing tournament,
held on the 3d and 4th December at Dresden; report of the International Opium
Commission, Shanghai, China; H. G. Beyer and F. L. Pleadwell 253</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery— Resection of the colon for cancer and tuberculosis; serum
treatment of purulent processes; thoracic surgery; the technique of amputations
with especial reference to osteplastic methods; the routine examination of the
oesophagus; the treatment of acute otitic meningitis; a method of splinting
skin grafts; vaccine treatment of pyorrhea alveolaris; R. Spear and H. W. Smith
261</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine — Normal auscultatory differences between the sides of
the chest; two signs of diagnostic value, one in chololithiasis, the other in
incipient pulmonary tuberculosis; the diaphragm test for binocular vision; T.
W. Richards 273</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters 279</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports on the care of wounded, Bluefields, Nicaragua, by W. S. Pugh,
jr., L. H. Wheeler, and D. G. Sutton 279</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on physical training at the United States Naval Academy, by W.
N. McDonell 287</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 3</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface vi</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles 291</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The illumination of study rooms, being a report submitted to the
superintendent of the Naval Academy, on the present system of lighting the
midshipmen's quarters in Bancroft Hall, with recommendations for its
improvement, by A. L. Parsons and II. W. Smith 291</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The surgical aspects of filariasis, by C. F. Stokes 318</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Venereal prophylaxis on the Asiatic Station, by Oliver Diehl 325</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Dried blood serum, a substitute for fresh blood serum in the rapid
preparation of Loeffler's medium, by E. W. Brown 337</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">U.S. Naval Medical School laboratories 339</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The need for a pathological collection at the United States Naval
Medical School, by C. S. Butler 339</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Helminthological technique, by P. E. Garrison 345</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Demonstration of treponema pallidum, by F. M. Shook 355</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preliminary report on a proposed method for the volumetric estimation
of mercury, by J. R. Herbig 356</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices 357</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An "unlearnable " vision test card for use in the naval
service, by E. J. Grow 357</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A suggested bunk tray, by G. F. Freeman 362</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes 365</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of two cases of cerebro-spinal fever, by J. B. Kaufman 365</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Acute ear diseases following swimming, by L. M. Schmidt 368</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Direct transfusion of blood in a case of shock and hemorrhage, by R. B.
Williams 372</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of liver abscess demonstrating the value of a differential count
in diagnosis, by E. R. Stitt 376</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Five cases of cholera at naval station, Cavite, P. I., by H. L. Kelley
377</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">The Hagner operation, report of five cases, by L. W. Johnson 378</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes from Naval Hospital, Norfolk, Va., by E. O. J. Eytinge
380</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Fracture of epiphysis of os calcis by muscular contraction, by Raymond
Spear 383</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of fracture of the base of the skull, by Raymond Spear 383</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of heavy hymenolepis nana infection, with a note as to
treatment, by E. R. Stitt and D. G. Allen 384</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of 12 cases of beriberi, by J. A. Randall 385</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Carron oil in the treatment of otitis media suppurativa (acuta), by R.
E. Riggs 386</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pericarditis associated with impetigo herpetiformis (?) followed by
grave systematic disturbance and interesting pathological lesions, by H. L.
Kelley 387</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Blastomycotic lesions in a case of syphilis, by E. R. Stitt and S. L.
Higgins. 388</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Current comment 391</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Results of venereal prophylaxis not likely to be apparent in general
statistics of 1909 391</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Typhoid vaccination 391</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">International military medical statistics 393</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Varicocele and the public- services 394</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Importance of ophthalmoscopy at recruiting stations, by J. A. Murphy
395</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences 399</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy — Rapid chemical filtration compared to slow sand
filtration; the question of the so-called physiological albuminuria; a
contribution to Hang's method for estimation of sugar; the estimation of
ammonia and acidity in the urine and their clinical application; thymol an a
source of error in Heller's test for urinary protein; physiological effects of
high temperature and humidity; direct identification of acetone in urine; the
pancreas reaction of Cammidge; rapid detection of boric acid in butter and
milk. E. W. Brown and P. J. Waldner 399</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology — Changes in the pancreas in diabetes; the
Cammidge reaction; acute pancreatitis and urinary findings; the specific treatment
of carcinoma; concentration method for tubercle bacilli; ueber die nach Ziehl
nicht darstellbare form des tuberkelbazillus; nachweis bedeutung der
tuberkelbazillen in stroemendem pthisikerblut; ueber die granulare form des
tuberculosevirus im lungenauswurf ; the cultivation of the leprosy bacillus;
ueber den nachweis von indol in den bakterischeu kulturen mit der Ehrlichschen
methode; the relation of the pseudo-diphtheria and the diphtheria bacillus; the
influence of age and temperature upon the potency of anti-diphtheritic serum and
antitoxin globulin solution; the value of opsonic determinations in the
discovery of typhoid carriers; the distribution of bacteria in bottled milk and
certain controlling factors; are acid-fast bacteria other</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">than the tubercle bacillus commonly met in clinical laboratory work; acid-fast
organisms in waters; the treatment of infection of the urinary tract with
bicterial vaccines; the B. fecalia alkaligines pathogenic for</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">man; treatment of typhoid carriers; a preliminary inquiry into the prevalence
of paratyphoid fever in London, with remarks on blood culture in 48 cases of
enteric fever, O. J. Mink and F. M. Shook 403</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology —Guinea worm in domesticated animals, with a note of its
discovery in a leopard; the effect of mosquito larvae upon drinking water; the
existence of living creatures in the stomach as a cause of chronic dyspepsia; a
study of the anatomy of Watsonius (n. g.), watsoni of man and of 19 allied
species of mammalian trematode worms of the superfamily paramphistomoidea, P.
E. Garrison 415</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine- Yaws as a cause of chronic ulceration; on the nature
and origin of Calabar swellings; two cases of balantidium infection with autopsy,
C. S. Butler 418</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation — Die handedesinfektion bei typhus-
bazillentragern; vorkommen und bedeutung der streptokokken in der milch; the
control of scarlet fever; a note on squirrel fleas as plague carriers; the communications
of diarrhea from the sick, to the healthy; summer diarrhea and enteric fever;
rapport d'inspection generale de l'escadre du nord; H. G. Beyer and F. L.
Pleadwell 421</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery — Terminal arterial anesthesia; varicocele, an analysis of 403
cases; the method of respiration by intratracheal insufflation, its scientific principle
and its practical availability in medicine and surgery; avoidance of apparatus
complicating operation in thoracic surgery; experimental intrathoracic surgery
by the Meltzer and Auer method of intratracheal insufflation; the value of
continuous intratracheal insufflation of air (Meltzer) in thoracic surgery; the
treatment of diffuse progressive free peritonitis; ueber carbenzyn; carbenzym
bei tuberkulosen affektionen; ueber die dosierung der stauungshyperamie; the
after-results of the operative treatment of hemorrhoids; some experiments on
the relative susceptibility of different teeth to dental caries, R. Spear and
H. W. Smith. 438</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine — Review of current progress in medicine; the adequacy
of the present-day treatment of syphilitic diseases of the nervous system; Syphilis
and parasyphilis of the nervous system; la reazione di Wassermann nelle
malattie cutanee; treatment of syphilis by intramuscular injection of metallic
mercury; on the treatment of tetanus by the intraspinal injection of a solution
of magnesium sulphate, with cases; hospital infection of tuberculosis; current
conceptions of hysteria; an acute infectious disease of unknown origin; A. W.
Dunbar and T. W. Richards 447</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Reports and letters<span> </span>457</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report on U. S. Pharmacopceial Convention, 1910, by P. J. Waldner<span> </span>457</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Number 4</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;"> </p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Preface v</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Special articles 459</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Insanity in the navy, by Heber Butts 469</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Notes on the presence and prevalence of Xecator americanus in Samoa, by
P. S. Rossiter 476</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Problems of sanitation in landing and expeditionary service in tropical
and subtropical regions, translation by P. J. Waldner 479</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">United States Naval Medical School laboratories 499</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Helminthological technique, by P. E. Garrison 499</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Suggested devices 513</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An improvised incubator for ships, by L. W. McGuire 513</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">An efficient rat-killing device for use on board ship, by F. M. Munson
514</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Clinical notes 515</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of atypic typhoid, with sudden death, by E. R. Stitt 515</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of excision of the clavicle, by Raymond Spear 518</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Appendicular abscess; rupture into peritoneal cavity; operation and
recovery, by A. D. McLean 517</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Case of suppurative appendicitis, by C. W. Smith 519</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Meningitis of primary origin (pneumococcus), by E. R. Stitt 529</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case of metastatic pneumonia complicating tonsillitis, by W. A.
Angwin. 521</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Report of a case of acute yellow atrophy of liver, by E. R. Stitt and
D. A. Gregory 522</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">A case clinically resembling rhinopharyngitis mutilans, by E. R. Stitt
524</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">External urethrotomy without a guide, by E. G. Parker 524</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Note on the possible existence of both Agchylostoma duodenale and
Necator americarms at Guam, by E. R. Stitt 525</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Current comment 527</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">New order for appointment of medical officers in the navy 527</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">New naval health record 527</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Diphtheria prophylaxis 529</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Peculiar advantages of local anaesthesia in ordinary hernia operations
in the naval service, by H. C. Curl 539</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Progress in medical sciences 533</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Chemistry and pharmacy — An experimental and clinical study of the
functional activity of the kidneys by means of phenolsulphonephthalein; the
biological standardization of drugs; the detection of methyl alcohol,
especially in the presence of ethyl alcohol; a simple method for the rapid and
accurate determination of the alcoholic content of fluids; a method for
determining the alkalinity of the blood; contributions to clinical methods for
urinary analysis; a method for the estimation of nitrogen in the urine; a method
for the direct test for acetone in the urine; a study of Nylander's reaction;
the so-called Cammidge test; the occurrence of and a clinical test for soluble
protein in the feces; a test of pancreatic function, E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge
533</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Pathology and bacteriology — Anaphylaxis and its relation to clinical
medicine; on the preparation of a simple culture medium; the cultivation of the
tubercle bacilli directly from the sputum by means of antiformin; the hospital
laboratory with special reference to diagnosis in surgical cases; the
cerebro-spinal fluid, O. J. Mink and F. M. Shook 545</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Medical zoology — Helminthic infection and its relation to
eosinophilia: the ant as a destroyer of flies; amebic dysentery in New York;
the Gastrodiscus hominis in the Philippines; note on the presence of Bilharzia
haematobia in Egyptian mummies of the twentieth dynasty (1250-1000 B. C). P- E-
Garrison 551</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Tropical medicine— Transmission of pest without rate and without fleas;
the etiology of beriberi; beriberi-Forschungen in den Niederlandisch
ostindischen Kolonien, besonders in Bezug aul" Prophylaxis und Heilung;
the work of the board for the study of tropical diseases in the Philippines, C.
S. Butler 552</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Hygiene and sanitation — Explosions-gase und ihre Wirkung auf den Menchen;
Eine von Bazillentragern hervorgerufene Typhus-epidemie in der X V. Division
von Japan; the sputum of typhoid fever patients as a possible source of
infection; Ueber die Beurteilung des Colibakterienbefundes in Trinkwasser nebst
Bemerkungen iiber den Xachweis und das Vorkommen der Colibazillen; quantitative
investigations on the absorption of benzol from the air by animal and man:
studies on the absorption of chlorinated hydrocarbons from the air by animals
and man; on the absorption of hydrochloric acid vapors by animals during
prolonged experiments; hygiene in the French navy, H. G. Beyer and F. L.
Pleadwell</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">558</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Surgery— On the experimental surgery of the thoracic aorta and the
heart; clinical experiences with intratracheal insufflation (Meltzer) with remarks
upon value of the method for thoracic surgery; the surgical management of
urethral stricture and its complications; Hunterian lecture on the surgery of
the lymphatic system: a tourniquet for the control of hemorrhage from the scalp
during osteoplastic resection of the skull; a further contribution on the
sterilization of the skin of operative areas; note on the neuropathology
cytology of anemia, infections, Grave's disease, and surgical shock; the
treatment of post-operative adhesions; an improved method of preparing catgut
ligatures; observations on the condition of the mouth in 1,000 consecutive
cases of chronic disease, R. Spear and E. Thompson 567</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">General medicine — The clinical aspects of arteriosclerosis;
trichinosis, a clinical study of fifty-two sporadic cases; some further
investigations and observations upon the pathology of rheumatic fever; etiology
of chronic arthritis; Grave's disease, A. VV. Dunbar and T. W. Richards.. 578</p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom:.0001pt;line-height:normal;">Prospectus of United States Naval Medical School, Washington, D. C 585</p>
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About the Book
Dejan Stojanović, Sunce sebe gleda, Književna reč, Beograd, 1999
By statement: Dejan Stojanović.
Series: Biblioteka Pismo
Source records: Library MARC record
Library MARC record
Language: Serbian
Dimensions: 21 cm.
Pagination: 157 p. ;
LCCN: 00279202
LC: PG1419.29.T587 S86 1999
Subject: Poetry
THE SUN WATCHES ITSELF
The second collection of Dejan Stojanovic's verse, "The Sun is Watching Itself," is covered by a metaphysical and philosophical veil. Eleven segments are connected by these two abstract approaches and by such key images as a circle, suggesting infinity, and silence, reflecting space and eternity. The circle serves as a powerful symbol and a device of the perpetual in this poetry: "the end without endlessness is only a new beginning," claims the poet. Thus, one of the poems bears the title "God and Circle," symbolizing the perennial search for an exit and the eventual finding of one, which only leads into another circle and to continuous evolution. This prompts Stojanovic to pose the question "Is God himself a Circle?"--implying that God is endless and ever present.
Although concise, the poems convey in a powerful and specific manner messages from the triad circle-God-eternity, connected by man's destiny and the poet's concept of human life and origins, and of the universe itself. In other words, microcosmic observations lead to macrocosmic revelations and didactic conclusions. The poems seem to teach us what is obvious in the context of common sense, often surprisingly remote to the modern man.
In terms of style and format, the author has a coextensional approach; he uses relatively simple expressions and words in an interplay of brilliant meanings that bring about highly complex but easily readable structures. If elegance is represented by simplicity, then these are some of the most elegant verses imaginable; unadorned verses that are a source of beauty and wisdom.
Stojanovic's perceptions of light and darkness, of fantasy and reality, of truth and falsehood present us with a circular format of infinity and resurrection.
The format has its logical beginning and end. "The Sun is Watching Itself" begins with poems dedicated to God and the universe, then descends from the metaphysical to the philosophical, focusing on more ordinary such us the symbolic meaning of a stone, a game, a place, silence, hopelessness, and the question "Is it possible to write a poem?" Stojanovic's collection might well serve as an affirmative answer to this question. The poet has taken us on a long journey from God and universe to our everyday world. We all seem to be a part of a circle, says the author, searching for the eternal in the universe, only to realize the finality of life on earth. The poet's message is doubly effective for its extraordinary, soul-searching content and its reflective, powerful language.
-Branko Mikasinovich, Washington, D.C.
WLT World Literature Today, A Literary Quarterly of the University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Volume 74, Number 2, Page 442, Spring 2000
SOLARNI KRUG ISTINE
Već sa prvom zbirkom ("Krugovanje") Dejan Stojanović je kvalitativno značajno postulirao svoj poetički credo i simbolički kompleks tako da uz pomoć njega može uspešno da se prati obimno koncipirana celina, kontinuitet i preokupacije, drama pesničkog stvaranja u borbi za istinu i traženje smisaonosti kroz kreaciju u zbirci "Sunce sebe gleda." Kroz poetičku prizmu narečenih zbirki jasno se sagledava i poetsko "vjeruju" Dejana Stojanovića koje bi bilo najbliže Nastasijevićevoj misli da bi trebalo prožeti se poezijom, a ne samo dodirnuti je. Pesnik sa prvom zbirkom prihvata izazov, koji još bolje značenjski produbljuje u drugoj; odricanje od moderne koja je sama sebi svrha, opredeljujući se da pesničkim simbolima iskaže univerzalnu dramatičnost.
Pesnik, i kada je osećanje slobode u njemu jedna od osnovnih dominanti osećanja sveta, ne može se oteti utisku da je još samo jedna karika u lancu potvrđivanja i nastavljanja volje onih spodoba koje iz dubina nebića izlaze na svetlo dana, zauzimajući sebi svojstvena i primerena mesta u hipokriziji, oportunizmu i egocentričnom konformizmu naših dana. Otuda je u poeziji Dejana Stojanovića put ka suštini i istini poetički i smisleno lociran "s druge strane vida" ("Krugovanje") dok se formalno poigravanje smislom reči—koje na planu metafizičkog usložnjavanja povlači razgranato poigravanje značenjem—prepliće sa nepomućenom verom u pročišćujuću ulogu reči. Profetska uloga poezije u prizivanju i ovekovečavanju kataklizme totalitarnog sveta daruje ontološki pečat postojanja svemu; u rekombinacijama i specifičnim međuodnosima i višnjoj harmoniji između stvari iz fundusa očiglednosti. Osluškivanje pulsacija bića izjednačeno je sa osluškivanjem večnosti koja vaskrsava u poetskoj matrici saznanja o nepreglednosti i, u isto vreme, uniženosti bića u odnosu na apsolut, ciji je pečat jasno utisnut u svakodnevnu pojavnost. Samim tim kategorije vanljudskog počivaju u metaforama i slikama sveta koji se atomizira u supstancijalni praelement smisla; u prapočelo, odakle se ponovo vaspostavlja pod blagotvornim utiskom i oblikom pesme.
Poniranje u nemušte i tajinske zone bica, osetljivost i pažljivost u građenju lirskog subjekta, imaginativni spojevi prepuni duhovne osetljivosti, od velike većine pesama zbirke "Sunce sebe gleda" stvaraju univerzalne simbole poetski rafinovane imaginacije, fantazijskih obasjanja i pazljivo odabranih folklornih rudimenata pamćenja izniklih iz našeg tla. Jezički senzibil uvodi nova značenja u poznate relacije; svetlo i tama—oportuna simbolika sna, pretvaraju se u okolnosti stvaranja, tišina prerasta u dinamično stanje unutrašnje molitve, a istina, kroz potrage za njenim ontološkim parametrima—preispitivanjem nutrine, postaje samosvojno stanje izopštenih i jurodivih umova. Upravo takvo posedovanje istine, kao unutrašnjeg osećanja i kao istupa iz sebe, u poetskom ludensu Dejana Stojanovića povlači irinijske i sarkastične linije pevanja; asketskog izrugivanja svetu materije, hipokrizije i prosečnosti, suprotstavljanja istine jedinke (bića) "istini" mase (kolektivnog zla utemeljenog u ne-bicu). Pozicija čoveka samca jeste pozicija pesnika u odnosu na, do obezličenja multiplikovan, organon vaskolikog sveta.
Stišani tonovi gradacije simbola, stvaranje specifične hijerarhije, traženje sebe u drugima i drugih u sebi, elementarizuju u ovoj zbirci jedinstvo kruga kao alegorični pečat apsoluta i istraživanja beskonačnosti i konačnosti zemaljskih dana. Između reči i glasova, katalizatora duhovnog i uzvišenog, apsoluta i smisla postojanja, sugestivno i simbolički redukovanih stihova, do širokog narativnog zamaha, utkana je čitava ova zbirka. Ova poezija je sva u jeziku i sva od jezika. Put Nojeve barke jezika jeste njeno apsolutno znanje kojim plovi kroz žamor i bure nerazumevanja, neshvatanja i reči iz kojih je iscureo smisao kao pesak iz klepsidre sveta čije dane prepune iskušenja intenzivno proživljavamo.
-Petar V. Arbutina, 1999.
PESNIK PRED OTVORENIM VRATIMA
Dejan Stojanović, u poslednje dve godine načinio je pravi podvig: objavio je šest knjiga. Osim jedne, sve knjige pesama.
Stojanović je pesnik koji traga za savršenim pesničkim oblikom jer istovremeno traga i za apsolutnim smislom čovekovog postojanja.
"Krugovanje" (1993) je naznačilo Stojanovićev pesnički put, a nove knjige—"Sunce sebe gleda", "Znak i njegova deca", "Tvoritelj", Oblik, uz treće, dopunjeno izdanje "Krugovanja", zaokruzile su njegovo dosadašnje pesničko delo. U "Razgovorima," Dejan Stojanović je sabrao intervjue koje je početkom devedesetih godina vodio sa veoma istaknutim srpskim i stranim stvaraocima, u Beogradu, Parizu i Čikagu, a objavljivao ih je tih godina (1990-1992) u magazinu "Pogledi". Nije mala stvar naći se oči u oči sa piscima kakvi su Alek Vukadinović, Momo Kapor, Nikola Milosević, Žak Klod Vilar, Sol Belou, Stiv Tešić, Branko Mikašinović, Čarls Simić i Nadja Tesić, ili sa slikarima Petrom Omčikusom, Ljubom Popovićem, Milošem Šobajićem, Savom Rakočevićem. Umeti sa njima razgovarati na visokom, dakle njihovom nivou, postavljati im odgovarajuća, za svakog od njih dobro promišljena i pronađena pitanja, koja otključavaju brave i njihovih dela i njihovih ličnosti, to je posao koji zahteva veliko i veoma rznovrsno znanje. Nije, onda, čudo što je za ovu knjigu Dejan Stojanović dobio nagradu Matice iseljenika i Udruženja književnika Srbije za intelektualni angažman.
Knjiga pesama "Krugovanje" bila je objavljena prvi put 1993. godine, a zatim je doživela još dva izdanja, 1998 i 2000. Pesnika iz Čikaga srpska javnost je doskora poznavala samo po toj knjizi. Poznavala i cenila, što se može zaključiti iz sažete ocene Aleka Vukadinovića: "Specifičan, iznenađujuće originalan, izvan tokova kolektivno negovanih senzibiliteta i pomodnih trendova. "
I poznati američki pesnik, Čarls Simić, ima laskavo misljenje o prvoj Stojanovićevoj knjizi.: "'Krugovanje' je knjiga u kojoj sam u potpunosti uživao. Obilje lepih kratkih pesničkih formi." Ne iznenađuje ovakva Simićeva ocena, jer on kao stvaralac i prevodilac Nastasijevića i Pope zna šta je lepota kratke pesničke forme. Zato je i važno to priznanje kada ono baš od njega dolazi, a pogotovo što se odnosi na nešto sto je bitna karakteristika Stojanovića kao pesnika: za njega su reči sakralni znaci, pa se on prema njima i odnosi sa krajnjim poštovanjem, odgovornošću, uzdržanošću, koja je na samoj granici straha:
Kada bismo utvrdili
Koliko je važno da se nešto kaže
Mozda nijednu reč ne bismo napisali
("Isto")
Ali strah ne sputava pesnika. Razmišljajuci o svojoj poetici , Stojanović se prisetio majstora nad majstorima, Betovena:
"Samo praznina kad gleda / Uvek isto vidi". Praznina može da vidi samo prazninu. A čovek kada gleda vidi čoveka—mada ni njega nije lako videti, pogotovo sagledati. Pesnik, međutim, gleda kroz čoveka i vidi ono što vide pravi stvaraoci, umetnici i duhovnici—tajnu. Stojanović je, pored ostalih, napisao i dve lepe pesme o tajni. Prva "Tajna" kao da je od ovoga, čovekovog i prirodnog sveta:
Bogata i daleka
Ti nemo čekas
Gde se kriješ
Daj znak
Primi u goste
Morem opasana
Nehajna—sebi dovoljna
Nećeš da otvoriš vrata
A druga tajna, u pesmi "Tajna i istina", kao da je ona koja je u vezi, pored drugih, sa jednom, najvišom istinom, istinom nad istinama, u vezi sa samim izvorom života i postojanja, sa istinom Tvoritelja:
Ima mnogo tajni
Nemoj ih sve rešavati
Ima mnogo istina
Samo ka jednoj teži
Sve istine iz jedne dolaze
U pesmi "Blago izvora", iz tog istog ciklusa "Betoven i smrt", u knjizi "Sunce sebe gleda", Stojanović se ponovo vraća sličnoj slici početka svih početaka, ishodištu svih ishodišta, izvoru svih izvora:
Ne propusti da vidiš
Kako se cveće Suncu
Galeb vodi raduje
Primi ih u sebe
Gledaj kroz mrak
Sanjaj kroz svetlost
Ka jezgru
Iz kog si na put krenuo
Pored apsolutnih, svemirskih "vrata", Stojanović ne zaboravlja ni čovekova vrata, na kojima se, ranije ili kasnije, ugleda smrt. I ta se pesma, "Betoven i smrt" odlično uklapa u ovaj ciklus u kojem se ukrštaju simboli izlazaka i ulazaka:
Smrt je na vratima
Kaže Betoven
Da li da mu verujemo
Možda se i nije šalio
Možda je stvarno video smrt
Oči im se srele
Njemu nije imao ko da kaže
Da zaključa vrata
I da mu je rekao, Betoven ih ne bi zaključao. Nije ih zaključao ni Stojanović. Srećom po sebe i poeziju koju piše drži ih i on širom otvorena.
Sreću mu se oči sa smrću, ali i sa svetlošću.
-Aleksandar Petrov
Amerikanski Srbobran, Književni dodatak, decembar 2000.
Table of contents:
NEBOKRET
Prva Tišina, 7
Vrh i dno, 8
Omeđen beskrajem, 9
Vetrenjača, 10
Sveti plam, 11
Tačka, 12
Vasiona, 13
Cvet svemira, 14
Jesi li ili nisi 15
BOG I KRUG
Dan svemira, 19
Nebo i krug, 20
Istina kruga, 21
Bog i krug, 22
NEBOHOD
Kiša apsoluta, 25
Oblak I, 26
Oblak II, 27
Svetlost i mrak, 28
Obmana, 29
Mladi starac, 30
Večnost i trajanje, 31
Večnost i večnost, 32
Nula, 33
Brzina, 34
Beskraj i kraj, 35
MESTO ZABORAVLJENO
Ognjište, 39
Bajka i kraj, 40
Paradoks, 41
Božji šegrt, 42
Varka, 43
Čvsrta zemlja, 44
Bog je zauzet, 45
Zvezda u travi, 46
Slovo njegovo, 47
Mesto zaboravljeno, 48
Vatra, 49
Povratak, 50
KAMEN I REČ
Gde prestaje pesma, 53
Reč, 54
Prva reč, 55
Kaman i reč, 56
Slaganje reči, 57
Skrivene reči, 58
Reči nekazane, 59
Priče, 60
Hipnoza reči, 61
Nekoliko reči, 62
Ista priča, 63
Misao II, 64
Laž, 65
Istina i laž, 66
Sokrat, 67
Umor, 68
Nova reč, 69
ŠTA POSLE
Nemost, 73
Ili, 74
Pitomi zvuk, 75
Tamo i ovde I, 76
Ništa, 77
Svetiljka, 78
Ovako i onako, 79
Šta posle, 80
Vitez, 81
Vitezovi, 82
IGRE
Ne, 85
Rat, 86
Stvari, 87
Prevara, 88
Cirkus, 89
Visočanstvo, 90
Patuljak, 92
Virus duše, 93
Vrednost i promašaj, 94
Produži dan, 95
Igra I, 96
Igra II, 97
Igra III, 98
Razmišljanje naljućenog, 100
MOŽE LI SE NAPISATI PESMA
Da li postoji Bog, 103
Uvreda I, 104
Božji sin, 105
Hrist, 106
Glava, 107
Život, 108
Blesak tišine, 109
Dobrotvori, 110
Može li se napisati pesma, 111
Predah, 112
BEZIZLAZ
Oduzetost, 115
Nasamo sa sobom, 116
Ako, 117
Tamo i ovde II, 118
Apsurd, 119
Uvreda II, 120
Podvala, 121
Misao o nama, 122
Pitanje suncu, 123
Seansa, 124
Stara klupa, 125
Vrt , 126
ZVUK TIŠINE
Šapni mi svoju tajnu, 129
Mera borbe, 130
Jednostavnost, 131
Empatija, 132
Put, 133
Pakao i raj, 134
Miris polja, 135
Lek, 136
Zrak, 137
Dan, 138
BETOVEN I SMRT
Izlaz, 141
Tajna, 142
Tajna i istina, 143
Blago izvora, 144
Možda, 145
Betoven i smrt, 146
Isto, 147
EPILOG
Pakao, 151
DODATAK
Solarni krug istine, Petar V. Arbutina, 155
Beleška o piscu, 158
By statement: Dejan Stojanović.
Series: Biblioteka Pismo
Source records: Library MARC record
Library MARC record
Language: Serbian
Dimensions: 21 cm.
Pagination: 157 p. ;
LCCN: 00279202
LC: PG1419.29.T587 S86 1999
Subject: Poetry
Found this unusual security lock on a gate to some farmland. I have never seen one like this before so.........up came the camera and click.
Shot in RAW, which I do now, then I used two textures.
Thanks to Skeletal Mess: www.flickr.com/photos/skeletalmess/
I know I have been tagged and I will try to do something about that soon.
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
Image d'un circuit intégré contenant le BIOS (Basic Input Output System) d'un ordinateur. Cette image a été réalisée à partir de 33 photos (focus stacking).
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
140324-M-UY849-083-- Military working dog handlers take turns executing an improvised explosive device lane March 24 at Camp Hansen. The training is part of their preparation for an upcoming deployment to Afghanistan. While military working dogs are able to identify explosives, it is necessary for the handlers to know how to identify the types of environments where IEDs may be emplaced. The military working dog handlers are with 3rd Law Enforcement Battalion, III Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group, III MEF. Photo by Pfc. Abbey M. Perria
I believe this was the thing used for lowering a baker into the river to nearly drown him for baking loaves that were too small. For shame.
For my coming Jabba's palace I've built some technical device. I've made an instruction to see how I used some SNOT-techniques.
Schirmer Farms (Batesville) Operations Manager Brandon Schirmer, sprays defoliant on one of the fields at his father's multi-crop 1,014-acre farm, in Batesville, TX, on August 12, 2020. Mr. Schirmer has already contacted the Texas Department of Agriculture to let them know that he will be spraying a defoliant to promote the cotton plant's leaves to drop off and bolls to open in preparation for harvest approximately 14-days later. The plant remains alive and will continue to produce cotton unless the field needs to be replanted for another crop to improve soil health or for economic opportunity. The sprayer vehicle has location and system data that is accessed by a smart-device app. The app allows him to show authorities detailed records of what, where, and how much was sprayed. He uses this historical spray data to improve future harvests. The liquid concentrates are carefully measured and safely poured into the sprayer's mixing system. Once in the cotton fields, the sprayer with its 90-foot-wide spray arms will deliver defoliant to the plants just below the nozzles.
Schirmer Farms operates in consultation with an agronomist for science-based recommendations for all soil, crop, and harvest management.
Brandon Schirmer is the sixth generation of the Schirmer farming family.
USDA Photo by Lance Cheung.
Ramsay, Calgary
This sculpture by New York artist Dennis Oppenheim was rejected by Stanford University, his alma mater, and subsequently purchased by a Vancouver foundation who erected it in Harbour Green Park in downtown Vancouver. Controversy followed the upside-down church and the Vancouver Public Parks Committee voted to remove it. Calgary's Glenbow Museum jumped at the opportunity to display it and here it seems to have found a home.
SOUTH CHINA SEA (June 17, 2021) - Sailors assigned to Explosive Ordnance Disposal Mobile Unit (EODMU) 5, attached to Commander, Task Force (CTF) 70, detonate an explosive training device from an MH-60S Sea Hawk attached to the Golden Falcons of Helicopter Sea Combat Squadron (HSC) 12 embarked on the U.S. Navy’s only forward-deployed aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76). Ronald Reagan, the flagship of Carrier Strike Group 5, provides a combat-ready force that protects and defends the United States, as well as the collective maritime interests of its allies and partners in the Indo-Pacific region. (U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Jason Tarleton) 210617-N-RF825-1186
** Interested in following U.S. Indo-Pacific Command? Engage and connect with us at www.facebook.com/indopacom | twitter.com/INDOPACOM |
www.instagram.com/indopacom | www.flickr.com/photos/us-pacific-command; | www.youtube.com/user/USPacificCommand | www.pacom.mil/ **
This is the final version of my one trigger six flashes device. Too lazy to add a case, so I am using heat shrink wrap plastic to protect circuit from being exposed.
This final version is different from the original design -- it does not use any batteries, it draws power from connected flash at up right corner. Of course, if you do not connect any flash on that port, it will not work.
Amyways, I am happy with it!
Final version that does not use battery is available Here