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I was driving from Jacksonville Florida to Lake City Florida when I came across a section of Pine forest that had recently undergone a controlled burn. I'm not sure I caught the image the way i wanted. I didn't have a tripod with me so you loose some detail in the pines in the background where i think the picture really is.
Hit 'L' to view on large.
A revisit to this abandoned Coking plant on our doorstep. As my friends hadn't been without being seen and escorted out and I've been twice before, I agreed to go back and glad I did as I saw things I had never seen before. Visited with Wiffsmiff23 and Martyn.
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timster1973.wordpress.com
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Wildlife Control vehicle in Park Slope Brooklyn. newyorkdailyphoto.blogspot.com/2007/03/wildlife-control.html
Old railway lines and control. Near the old Hutt Park yards in Gracefield . Wellington, NZ. Canon 650d partnered with Sigma 10-20mm F3.5 EX DC HSM wide angle lens. I'm finally giving wide angle photography a go.
Just a few minutes after separation from its Vega launcher on 23 June, the Sentinel-2A satellite automatically activated its solar array and transmitter, oriented itself into an Earth-pointing mode, and started transmitting 'telemetry' – onboard status signals – to the ground.
Receipt of these first crucial data from the new mission marked the start of an intensive phase in the Main Control Room at ESOC, ESA's operations centre, Darmstadt, Germany.
For the next several days, an extended team of spacecraft engineers, systems specialists, flight dynamics experts and ground station technicians will shepherd Sentinel-2A through 'LEOP' – the launch and early orbit phase.
They will work around the clock to activate crucial systems and ensure the spacecraft’s health in the extreme environment of space. For Sentinel-2A, these will include release of the payload shutter lock, first transition to the nominal mode of operations and the first orbital manoeuvre – a burn using the spacecraft's thrusters – that is planned around 51 hours into the mission.
LEOP is also the first time that the mission operations team gets to work with the satellite in the real environment of space; despite the best preparations, unforeseen problems and challenges often arise that must be solved in real time by teams working and thinking on their feet.
As Europe's centre of excellence for satellite operation, ESOC is home to the engineering teams that control spacecraft in orbit, manage our global tracking station network, and design and build the systems on the ground that support missions in space. Since 1967, over 100 satellites belonging to ESA and its partners have been successfully flown from Darmstadt, Germany.
More about ESA spacecraft operations
Credit: ESA/T. Ormston - CC BY-SA IGO 3.0
Robyn and I first connected on Model Mayhem. I still use that site sometimes but it has little value anymore (at least to me). Anyway, once Robyn and I started talking about a photo session, it took a while to pull it all together mostly because of unpredictable wook schedules. But it was defintely worth the effort.
Robyn loved this dance/blur/motion style image I always try to explore. I wish we could have shot again after tnis to be able to do more of this style.
Wien - Donau City
Mischek Tower
Donau City, or Vienna DC, is a new part of Vienna's 22nd District Donaustadt, next to both the Reichsbrücke and the left bank of the Danube's 21.1 km new channel, Neue Donau.
Construction work for the first building on this site, the Andromeda Tower, started in 1996.
Although the Danube river has been inextricably connected with Vienna, for centuries, it had played only a subordinate role in the city of Vienna.
Unlike in many other cities, the Danube River, because of the numerous floods it regularly caused, was omitted from the urban area. Buildings grew up in Vienna on both sides of the Danube - but not up to the Danube. Only after extensive flood-control engineering and the creation of the New Danube relief channel, with Danube Island, in the 1970s, was the surrounding cityscape of the Danube of interest to builders.
The establishment of Donau City had its origins in the organization of the Vienna International Garden Festival in 1964. This was on a site of a former landfill, later superficially rehabilitated, in an area between the Old Danube and the New Danube.
In 1962, the construction of the Danube Tower began, and two years later, the Garden Festival was held. The site of the garden show was known as Donaupark. Not far from Donaupark, in 1967, the planning of the UNO-City was started, opened in 1979. Through the construction of the U1 and the Reichsbruecke (Empire Bridge), the UN-City had a high-ranking access to the traffic system.
The terrain gained increasing importance with the opening of the congress center Austria Center Vienna in 1987. Next, at the end of the 1980s, there were plans to hold a Vienna-Budapest EXPO along the northern bank of the Danube in Vienna. However, the planned EXPO 1995 was canceled because a majority of Viennese voters rejected it in a referendum on the project. The site was then developed for a subsequent use as a multifunctional district.
In 1991, the EXPO organizing corporation was succeeded by the Vienna Danube Region Development Corporation (WED), with major Austrian banks and insurance companies (BA-CA, Erste Bank, Raiffeisen Bank for Labor and Economy, Invest Bank AG, UNIQA, Wiener Städtische) as principal shareholders.[2] WED owns the area and is responsible for its overall development. Within a few years, the district became a second urban center in Vienna, with residential and office buildings, research facilities, recreational facilities and event locations.
Work on the construction of infrastructure for future use began in 1993. The Danube Bank Motorway (A22) was roofed over, providing more area. The foundation for the first building was completed in 1995, with the start of construction of the Andromeda Tower.
The total area is 17.4 hectares. Of this total, approximately 1.7 million cubic meters are used for construction, which represents a gross floor area of approximately 500,000 square meters. Nearly two-thirds of those buildings are already completed and utilized.
Following the cancellation of the EXPO in 1991 was then still in the undeveloped area within a few years, an urban centre with residential and office buildings, research facilities, recreational facilities and event locations, the Donau City.
The Donau City development concept is a broad mix of uses: office and commercial uses, up to 70 percent, residential use of about 20 percent, and cultural and Freitzeiteinrichtungen of approximately 10 percent.
Approximately 7,500 people currently live and work in this new "city within a city". With the overall expansion, which is expected to be completed in 2012, the population could increase to 15,000. International companies such as IBM, sanofi-aventis and Bauholding Strabag SE are also located in Donau City. Also established are well-known high-tech companies that deal with their employees and scientific institutions in Vienna's first Science and Technology Park, Tech Gate Vienna.
In addition to the above institutions, Donau City has stores, restaurants, cafes, offices, a school and a church. The area bordering the Danube Island has recreation areas, Donaupark and Old Danube. Donau City has two direct connections to the motorway network, and the Vienna International Airport is about 20 minutes away.
(Wikipedia)
Die Donau City ist ein ab 1996 neu errichteter Stadtteil im 22. Wiener Gemeindebezirk, Donaustadt. Sie liegt unmittelbar neben der Reichsbrücke und ist das stadtzentrumsnächste Viertel am linken Donauufer.
Die Donau ist untrennbar mit der Geschichte Wiens verbunden, verlief aber jahrhundertelang außerhalb der Stadt und fungierte als Verkehrsweg ebenso wie als Verkehrshindernis. Die zahlreichen Überschwemmungen des unregulierten Stromes ließen es nicht geraten erscheinen, wichtige Gebäude direkt am Wasser, in den flachen Donauauen oder auf den vom Strom gebildeten Inseln zu errichten. Brücken bestanden zumeist aus Holz und mussten nach Hochwässern nicht selten neu errichtet werden.
Die Donauregulierung von 1870 bis 1875 machte das Areal der Donau City durch den neu angelegten Hubertusdamm, der parallel zum neuen Hauptstrom das Hinterland vom Überschwemmungsgebiet abgrenzte, hochwassersicher. Der bisherige Hauptstrom wurde zum stehenden Gewässer, Alte Donau genannt. Auf dem Areal befanden sich aber ein Altarm, das südlich der Wagramer Straße bis heute bestehende Kaiserwasser, und Aulandschaften, die als Bauland vorerst nicht gefragt waren. 1935 erwarb die Stadt Wien dieses Auland vom Stift Klosterneuburg. Teile des Areals dienten zwischen den Weltkriegen und danach als Mistablagerungsstätte, andere Teile wurden mit Schrebergärten besiedelt. Die schlechte Bauqualität der in Notzeiten errichteten Hütten führte zum Namen Bretteldorf. Die Pachtverträge der rund 1000 Einwohner dieses Gebietes wurden von der Stadt bis in die 1960er Jahre nach und nach gekündigt. Im Gegenzug erweiterte diese die Mülldeponie.
Die Freimachung des Geländes (die frühere Deponie wurde nur oberflächlich saniert) und die Abhaltung der Wiener Internationalen Gartenschau 1964 (WIG 64) auf einem Teil des Areals bildeten die Initialzündung für alle weiteren städtebaulichen Investitionen. Der ab 1962 errichtete Donauturm wurde zum Wahrzeichen der Gegend; das Gartenschaugelände blieb als sogenannter Donaupark großteils bis heute erhalten. Für den Geländestreifen entlang der Wagramer Straße, der wichtigsten Ausfallstraße Wiens nach Nordosten, wurde städtische Bebauung geplant, ohne dass damals bereits konkrete Projekte vorgelegen wären.
Dies änderte sich, als Österreich 1967 den Vereinten Nationen (UNO) ein Amtssitzzentrum in Wien versprach. Das sogenannte Vienna International Centre (VIC), Teil der UNO-City, wurde schließlich ab 1973 zwischen dem verkleinerten Donaupark und der Wagramer Straße errichtet und im August 1979 eröffnet. Die Bauten des VIC gaben größenmäßig einen neuen, großstädtischen Maßstab für ihre Umgebung vor, die bis dahin Stadtrandcharakter hatte.
Der Einsturz der zweiten Reichsbrücke 1976 sollte eine zusätzliche Aufwertung des Areals bedeuten. In den Hohlkasten der bis 1980 wiedererrichteten Brücke wurde nun auch eine U-Bahn-Trasse eingeplant. Die Linie U1 erreichte somit bereits im Jahr 1982 – früher als ursprünglich geplant – das nördliche Donauufer. Über die Station Kaisermühlen – Vienna International Centre ist das Stadtzentrum seither in wenigen Minuten erreichbar. 1972–1988 wurde die Donau im Raum Wien neuerlich reguliert, um verbliebene Hochwassergefahren zu beseitigen. Neben dem Areal der heutigen Donau City entstanden dabei, parallel zum Hauptstrom, die Neue Donau, ein zumeist stehendes Gewässer, das sich für Freizeitnutzung eignete, und die Donauinsel zwischen Neuer Donau und Hauptstrom, die nach Entscheid der Stadtverwaltung nicht verbaut, sondern ebenfalls für Freizeitnutzung bereitstehen sollte. 1987 wurde als zweiter Teil der UNO-City neben dem Vienna International Centre (VIC) das von Staat und Stadtverwaltung finanzierte Kongresszentrum Austria Center Vienna (ACV) eröffnet.
Ende der achtziger Jahre erwog Wien gemeinsam mit Budapest im Jahr 1995 eine Weltausstellung auszurichten. Am 14. Dezember 1989 erhielt man für dieses Vorhaben den Zuschlag. Die Expo 95 sollte demnach von 29. April bis 26. Oktober 1995 stattfinden. Als Ausstellungsgelände wurde der Bereich „Donauraum – Konferenzzentrum“ (ca. 50 ha) definiert. Die Nachnutzung des damals noch kontaminierten und alluvialen Stück Lands wurde als entscheidender Faktor der Expo-Planung bestimmt. Das Gelände sollte im Anschluss an die Weltausstellung gänzlich in die gegebene Stadtstruktur integriert werden. Am 30. März 1990 wurde hierfür ein Leitprogramm für die städtebauliche Entwicklung beschlossen. Die Gestaltung des Ausstellungsgeländes sollte dabei auf Grundlage eines von der (1989 gegründeten) Expo-Vienna AG ausgelobten Architektenwettbewerbs erfolgen. Auf temporäre Bauten größeren Ausmaßes sollte verzichtet werden. Der Wettbewerb „Bebauungs- und Gestaltungskonzepte EXPO 95 in Wien und Nachnutzung“ wurde bis Ende 1990 abgehalten. Teilnahmeberechtigt waren Architekten aus Österreich und Ungarn, sowie ausgewählte internationale Büros. Weiters wurden auch Studierende eingeladen sich zu beteiligen. Aus insgesamt 84 Projekten (65 von Architekten und 19 von Absolventen) wurde jenes von Sepp Frank und Rudolf Zabrana ausgewählt. Entgegen ursprünglicher Pläne die einstige Deponie mit einer Platte zu versiegeln, wurde diese schlussendlich vollständig ausgehoben. Diese Begleitmaßnahme der Expo-Vorbereitungen umfasste einen Aushub von insgesamt rund 965.000 Tonnen Material, davon 240.000 Tonnen Hausmüll aus der Nachkriegszeit bis 1963/64. Im Zuge einer aus politischen Gründen durchgeführten Volksbefragung vom 14. bis 16. Mai 1991 sprachen sich 64.85 % der Befragten jedoch gegen die Abhaltung der Expo aus; ungeachtet breiter Unterstützung durch Politik, Medien und Wirtschaftskreise. In Folge dessen zog die Republik Österreich die Bewerbung für den Standort Wien in der Generalversammlung des BIE am 5. Juni 1991 wieder zurück.
Nach Absage der Expo war man bestrebt das ungenutzte, aber bereits im Umbau befindliche Areal weiter baureif zu machen und zu entwickeln. Hierfür wurde noch 1991 die Auffanggesellschaft WED Wiener Entwicklungsgesellschaft für den Donauraum AG gegründet. [3] Anfang der neunziger Jahre wurden daraufhin die Architekten Adolf Krischanitz und Heinz Neumann mit einem Masterplan für einen neuen, multifunktionalen Stadtteil auf dem freien Areal (das vom ursprünglich größeren Donaupark abgetrennt wurde) zwischen VIC, ACV und Hubertusdamm bzw. Neuer Donau beauftragt. Die WED wählte dafür den Namen Donau City. Bereits im Zuge der Planungen für die Weltausstellung wurde erwogen, die Donauufer Autobahn A 22 im Bereich des VIC zu Überplatten; auch im Hinblick auf eine spätere Nachnutzung des Geländes. An diesem Vorhaben wurde festgehalten und die Autobahn bis 1996 schlussendlich auf einem Abschnitt von 2.150 m überplattet. Der dadurch entstandene Tunnel Kaisermühlen ist heute die am meisten befahrene Tunnelanlage Österreichs. Die Überdeckung der Donauufer Autobahn wurde gleichsam als Fundament für eine künftige Bebauung konzipiert. Dafür wurde über dem Fahrraum des Tunnels ein 2,20 Meter hoher Hohlkasten ausgebildet, der beispielsweise Kellerabteile und Technikräume künftiger Neubauten aufnehmen kann. Die für den Autobahnbetrieb erforderlichen technischen Anlagen sind hingegen vorrangig in seitlichen Kollektoren angesiedelt.
Um die nun entstandenen enormen Niveauunterschiede (nach Aushub der einstigen Deponie lag der gewachsene Boden neun Meter unter dem Niveau der Umgebung) auszugleichen, wurde auch der neue Stadtteil durch eine solche Überbauung (die sogenannte Donauplatte) charakterisiert. Für den Auto- und Fußgängerverkehr sind dabei unterschiedliche Ebenen vorgesehen. 1993 wurde mit der Errichtung der Infrastruktur für die kommende Nutzung begonnen. Der Grundstein für das erste Gebäude, den Andromeda-Tower, wurde 1995 gelegt. Als technische Voraussetzung für die Haupterschließung des Areals wurde 1996 ein – parallel zur Autobahn verlaufendes – Verteilerbauwerk fertiggestellt, welches alle Bauplätze erschließt. Das Ebenenkonzept hat bis heute Bestand, der ursprüngliche Masterplan wurde jedoch nicht weiter umgesetzt. Nach Fertigstellung von knapp zwei Drittel der Gesamtplanung wurden hier bis 2005 ca. 1,7 Millionen Kubikmeter verbaut; das entspricht einer Bruttogeschoßfläche von rund 500.000 Quadratmetern.
Im Jahr 2002 ließ die WED dann einen internationalen Gestaltungswettbewerb für den letzten zu entwickelnden Abschnitt ausschreiben. Den Zuschlag in diesem Gutachterverfahren erhielt der Architekt Dominique Perrault aus Paris. Im Anschluss wurde er mit der Erstellung eines Masterplans für das Gebiet beauftragt. Basierend auf diesen Plänen wurde ein städtebauliches Leitbild entworfen und am 1. Juli 2004 vom Gemeinderat beschlossen. Im Gegensatz zu früheren Projekten am Standort, wurde hier eine gemischte Nutzung vorgeschrieben. Perrault konzipierte als „Brückenkopf“ die beiden DC Towers als gebautes Eingangstor für den Stadtteil.
Nach Eröffnung von Turm 1 im Februar 2014, sollen in den kommenden Jahren die drei Hochhaustürme Danube Flats, DC Tower 2 und DC Tower 3 die Skyline vervollständigen. Der Zeithorizont für diese Bauvorhaben wurde in den letzten Jahren jedoch stets verschoben. Der Uferbereich war in den 1980er Jahren unter dem Namen „Copa Cagrana“ bekannt geworden und wird mittlerweile als „Copa Beach“ vermarktet.
(Wikipedia)
Der Mischek Tower ist ein Wohngebäude im 22. Wiener Gemeindebezirk Donaustadt.
Das Gebäude wurde von 1998 bis 2000 nach Entwürfen des Architekten-Ehepaars Delugan-Meissl von der als Generalunternehmer agierenden Baufirma Mischek im Auftrag des Bauträgers Wiener Heim errichtet. Das 110 Meter hohe Bauwerk war bis zur Fertigstellung des Hochhauses Neue Donau im Jahr 2002 das höchste Wohngebäude Österreichs. Errichtet aus Betonfertigteilen gilt der Mischek Tower mit seinen 35 Stockwerken (ab Niveau Donauplatte, das Straßenniveau befindet sich auf Ebene −3) als das höchste Fertigteilhaus der Welt.
Gelegen am Rand der Donau City zwischen Donaupark und Austria Center Vienna dient der Riegel-förmige Bau optisch als Abgrenzung von Stadt zu Park. Neben dem eigentlichen Hochhaus gibt es zwei weitere Gebäudeteile mit jeweils 9 Stockwerken. Zur Donau hin grenzt unmittelbar an den Gebäudeteil Stiege 3 südlich ein Wohngebäude des Wohnparks Donaucity an.
Das Gebäude steht im Eigentum der Käufer der etwa 500 zum größten Teil durch das Land Wien geförderten Wohnungen.
(Wikipedia)
Found this very old & dirty remote control lying under a bench. This house was completely underwater in the great Brisbane flood and has never been lived in since. Is that mud on the buttons..?
Excitement is rising in anticipation of the pending touchdown of NASA's InSight lander on Mars.
I was not successful finding the official control panel of this spacecraft online and was only able to find a decent facsimile for those who would like to assist the InSight Lander on it's descent. Instructions about how to operate the controls are unavailable except for those who are knowledgeable of steam locomotives, however.
This photo was taken by an Asahi Pentax 6 X 7 medium format film camera and SMC PENTAX 67 1:4 45mm lens and Hoya SMC Y[K2] 82mm filter using Kodak TX400 film, the negative scanned by an Epson Perfection V600 and digitally rendered with Photoshop.
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Imperial China
2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45
2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status
3 Governance
3.1 Structure of government
3.2 Electoral and political reforms
3.3 Legal system and judiciary
3.4 Foreign relations
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Regions and districts
3.7 Military
4 Geography and climate
5 Economy
5.1 Financial centre
5.2 International trading
5.3 Tourism and expatriation
5.4 Policy
5.5 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
6.1 Languages
6.2 Religion
6.3 Personal income
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Sports
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Cityscape
7.4 Symbols
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
"Who controls the past controls the future. Who controls the present controls the past."
George Orwell
yapımında emeğim geçtiği için demiyorum, silahtarağa gidip görülmeli çok güzel...
picture from the control room of the old thermal power plant silahtaraga, the museum of new campus of istanbul bilgi university. i was the design engineer of the infrastructure system during construction.