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Frostburg State University's new ECHOSTARS members complete paperwork at their Fall 2017 training held at City Place in Frostburg.
This gleaming Aero Morgan has just left Final Inspection, Anyone who touched it would be "severely delt with" so we viewed this striking car from a distance. It was awaiting its shipping container to convey it to a Middle East driver. .
Note the two fellows on the tower who then unbolted it section by section. By lunchtime our view was forever changed.
12"x 18" watercolor & colored pencil
Taken from my new sketches for the semester, I attempted to combine a bit more realistic foreground with a middle/background that pulled from my past semester ideas. I'm not totally excited about this piece, but also don't hate it. I feel I could work on this a bit more and get a more successful piece.
My photo buddies remarking on the lovely new Porthdinllaen Lifeboat Station which is nearing completion after about two years of construction.
There are just two weeks left to complete the middle floor of the townhouse in the Pet Shop set (10218)!!
Check ModularsbyKristel.com for all the details, including the cool prizes on offer! Entries close 31 March 2015 AEST (that's Brisbane, Queensland time!).
Harry Wilson is a dear friend. We have had many adventures on the road. Here's one:
I have come to this cabin to sort my thoughts. Through the window I see huge white clouds tumbling over the buttes - the same weather as four nights ago, before the storm, before we lost Jimmy at the top of the hill. But that's getting ahead of myself.
Every year, spring or fall, sometimes both, Harry and I outfit Jimmy and head for the hills. Jimmy is a 1963 GMC one ton complete with a shack bolted to the frame. It's a home on wheels, with most of the comforts of a Winnebago, but that's where the similarity ends. Jimmy is powered by a straight block six banger that's never missed a beat; a big flywheel gives it the strength of an ox. The shack is as high, wide and long as the legal limit, constructed of two by fours and plywood, insulated, with tin sheeting over the roof. Hitched behind is the trike, part Triumph motorcycle and part VW beetle. We park the truck, call it home, and tour on the trike. The rig is an as-you-build-it, and Harry can repair most anything by the side of the road. He's changed brake lines, a muffler, and re-routed the wiring. A journey in Jimmy is like a poem to self-sufficiency.
This is the second time we've stayed in Dorothy. The first time was two years ago, and I've canoed past twice. This cabin once belonged to a homesteader named Arthur Peake, it's part of a small collection of historical artefacts gathered at the mouth of Circus Coulee. Dorothy lays below: four residences scattered about the town site; the blacksmith's shop and a grocery, windows boarded, porches rotted long ago; two churches, one United, the other Catholic, both derelict; an abandoned grain elevator; a large modern house and several ranch buildings about a half mile south, toward the river, home of Norm Pugh and his daughter, one-time queen of the Drumheller Rodeo.
Beside this cabin sits a community hall and a schoolhouse, joined by a common door and a hallway. Decorations still hang from the last time the buildings were used, for the Pugh family reunion. A sign over the entrance to the schoolhouse annex reads: Pughville Saloon. A quarter bottle of Lemon Hart rum sits on the bar - a murky, golden concoction full of dead flies. The piano still carries a tune.
Jimmy is parked in the community campsite, up against a hedge that runs the length of a two-acre parcel of land on the edge of town. Once owned by George T. Proudfoot, honorary mayor, the land was bequeathed to the town of Dorothy on condition it remain a campsite. Harry and I came to Dorothy to relax and play cribbage. Two friends, a deck of cards, and some stories. Even the coffee cup I drink from has a story. Harry picked it up in Georgia back when he was trucking. The nameplate from his old rig hangs by the door: Purple Hayes. (And, yes, the truck was made by the Hayes Company, and it was purple.) Harry is proud of those miles: "to the moon and back twice," he says; and then points out, "almost everything in this world once rode on a truck."
But his trucking days are over. Five years ago, he fell asleep at the wheel outside Carberry, Manitoba, hit the ditch and broke his back. It was an ignoble way to finish all those proud miles, and I tease him about it if he gets too far ahead in our card tournament. We laugh, but it's not funny.
The town site of Dorothy lays on bottom land in a bend of the Red Deer River, mostly badlands, sparse grasses and sage, as green now as they ever get. There's a bridge connecting the north-south road. There used to be a ferry. Norm Pugh tells how people would wait together on the bank and swap stories. Now there's only the sound of occasional traffic across the bridge. A stretch of the east-west road used to be the rail bed along which steam engines hauled loads of coal from the East Coulee mines; but all that remains of Dorothy are the relic buildings, small and weather-beaten; and the grain elevator, which can be seen from almost anywhere in the valley.
I first came through Dorothy many years ago, on a southern swing through the prairies with a friend. I barely remember the day, but I do remember noting the grain elevator. Years later, with the same friend and several members of my family, I canoed past Dorothy. We pulled to shore a few canyons downstream, at the mouth of Crawling Valley. My brother, David, erected his tent on top of a sandy knoll, and then sat by a small campfire watching the full moon lift over a near rise. It was only month since he'd tried to kill himself with whiskey and pills; but he seemed happy by his campfire under the moon, as if he'd finally shucked his demons. But he died soon after the canoe trip, hit by a car while crossing a street. So, two years ago, I came to Dorothy with Harry and canoed to that spot above the river to honour the memory of my brother.
Now there's an even deeper bond with this place, between Harry and I. Like brothers, we've returned. Strange how a place not home gets into the blood. Sitting in Jimmy, playing our 40th game of cribbage, catching up on our lives - the cards and the game board become like talismans that we touch to waken our memories. The game board is placed in the centre of the table, the cards are dealt over it, and the tales begin. Were runes ever cast more purposefully? So, here's another one for the memory-bank, a story to tell our grandchildren - concerning a dark tower, a dream, and an ordeal.
Our first evening in Dorothy was one of scattered clouds, warm but windy. After dinner and a few games of cards we walked the road to the elevator. There was no moon and the stars shone in a wide, clearing sky. The elevator rose, a form dominating the landscape, taller and taller as we approached. Dorothy's only two streetlights, about 60 yards away, partly illuminated the back and one side, but the wall facing the road was hollow black. We imagined a giant head and shoulders taking shape in that blackness, and we joked a bit about how sinister the elevator appeared. Harry dubbed it the grain reaper, and we agreed that neither of us would want to spend a night inside. The elevator struck some ancient chord in each of us: like two peasants standing beneath a medieval lord's castle. We walked away, uneasy, back to Jimmy, and dealt another hand.
The next day I found myself staring at the grain elevator a lot. It appeared anything but sinister, a relic, barely standing. The wind rose all day and by evening a ridge of cloud shadowed the valley. The rain came at dark. Thunder cracked and rolled through the valley. It gave Jimmy a good jolt, violent enough to make us sit up and exclaim. Then we went back to our game and listened to the rain falling hard on the tin roof. Every so often thunder broke in the near distance. That night Harry had a dream: there was a violent storm and Jimmy shook so badly that the tool shed fell off the back of the truck. He mentioned the dream over cards in the morning, but we thought nothing of it. Who pays any attention to dreams these days? Rain continued through the morning, and we continued our tournament, Harry gaining ground, at least seven games ahead. We played until early afternoon, and then decided it was time to go into Drumheller for supplies.
The roads were muddy, so we left the trike and took Jimmy to town - about 14 miles over slick clay and though water-filled potholes. Two steep grades, one up and one down. We were on the last leg of highway 573, where it meets highway 10, cruising in fourth over the crest of the hill. Harry looked at me and asked if I remembered that time when the brakes failed. "How'd you like it if they went right here?" And they did. Just like that. He rammed the pedal to the floor three times. "Holy shit," he blurted. "I'm not kidding. We haven't got any brakes." I looked up from rolling a cigarette and realized that he wasn't joking.
Harry found third gear and the truck howled. He hugged the first steep corner along the railing, in hopes that the thick mud might slow the truck. But his eyes were searching far down the hill for a place to ditch. Jimmy swerved towards the bank and bogged a bit in the soft shoulder. Harry slammed the gearshift into second, and then quickly into first. Jimmy screamed. But finally came to a halt at the last bend before the highway. All the way down, I'd been rolling a cigarette - bad for the health but in this case certainly an optimistic act. I lit the damn thing and we stared at each other for a long time, taking deep breaths and shaking our heads.
Harry drove carefully into Drumheller, at least as carefully as one can drive with no brakes. Our problem turned out to be the same brake line that we'd fixed previously: the newest one on the truck, cracked at the flange where it met the nipple on the wheel. A mechanic re-flanged it and Harry replaced the line. Sounds easy, but the road was running with water, it was cold, and Harry had to change clothes three times. We mailed our letters, went to a bank machine, bought some grub - including $27 worth of sweets, nachos and potato chips - and then we headed back to Dorothy. On the way, Harry told me about how, whenever he screwed up or did something daring, his grandfather would start a reprimand with, "Mein Got im Himmel". That night Harry wore his grandfather's sweater.
I've been replaying the events for a couple days, and the only thing I'm sure of is that I'll never be the same. I don't know anyone but Harry who could have stopped Jimmy from crashing over the steep bank, or careening across the highway. And that makes our friendship deeper. He's back at the truck ready to play another round of cards. We'll face each other across the crib board and play until we can't play anymore. For years to come, we'll make jokes about escaping from the grain reaper. And every time we climb into the shack, we'll pat the long scrape on the side panel, where Jimmy touched the railing. We'll laugh, but it's not funny.
Beer taps inside O‘Donnabhain’s, a traditional Irish pub in the heart of the little town of Kenmare, County Kerry, Ireland
Some background information:
Well, making a decision can sometimes be tough. But if I recall correctly, I chose the Rye River Pale Ale on that evening. O’Donnabhain’s, where this photo was taken, is a historic inn that dates back to the 18th century. Aside from Irish hospitality and charm, it offers local craft beers, a great selection of Irish whiskeys (you can perceive some of them in the top shelf in the background), good food and traditional Irish live music. And if you need to stay overnight, you can even book one of the 15 rooms there, which are set away from the noise of the pub.
Kenmare is a small town with about 2,400 residents in the south of the Irish County Kerry. The name Kenmare is the anglicised form of Ceann Mara, meaning "head of the sea", referring to the head of Kenmare Bay. The town is located at the head of Kenmare Bay, where the Roughty River flows into the sea. At the same time, Kenmare is also the spot of the junction of the Iveragh Peninsula and the Beara Peninsula. Nearby mountains like the MacGillycuddy's Reeks, Mangerton Mountain and the Caha Mountains make Kenmare a popular hillwalking destination.
In 1656, the entire area was granted to the English economist and scientist Sir William Petty by Oliver Cromwell as part payment for completing the mapping of Ireland. It was Petty, who laid out the modern town around 1670. Before him, the lands where owned by another Englishman, Sir Valentine Browne, who was granted some estates during the so-called Munster Plantation in 1583.
However, Kenmare definitely has more ancient roots. One of the largest stone circles in the south-west of Ireland is close to the town, and shows occupation in the region going back to the Bronze Age, when it was constructed. The circle has 15 stones around the circumference with a boulder dolmen in the centre. Furthermore, it is said that Vikings raided the area around the town in the Early Middle Ages.
In 1861, a convent of the Poor Clare Sisters (officially known as the Order of Saint Clare), was founded in Kenmare, after five nuns had moved there from their old convent in Newry, County Down. Under the guidance of Mother Abbess O'Hagan a lace-working industry was established in 1864, and Kenmare lace became noted worldwide. However, the convent no longer exists and its former site is now occupied by a secondary school. By the way, 1864 was also the year, when Kenmare’s Holy Cross Catholic Church was consecrated.
In 1918, the town library opened, which is one of the Carnegie Libraries funded by the famous Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist, who, among others, also funded Carnegie Hall in New York City. The library building is now home to the Carnegie Arts Centre and theatre, hosting a local drama group and a number of travelling productions each year, as well as music and comedy nights.
During and after the Irish Civil War (1922 to 1923), there were a number of incidents in Kenmare, including the killing of O'Connor brothers in September 1922 by anti-treaty forces of the Irish Republican Army, and an attack on the daughters of a local doctor in 1923. During the Civil War, Kenmare was briefly held by the anti-treaty forces, before being retaken by National Army troops in December 1922.
Today, Kenmare is a popular tourist destination. It lies on two noted Irish tourist routes, the Ring of Kerry and the Ring of Beara, approximately 32 kilometres (20 miles) from Killarney. Many of Kenmare’s businesses cater to tourists and the town is particularly noted for its food and pubs. Since the late 1990s the tourism industry has driven local construction work, with land being sold at high prices to developers wishing to build estates of holiday homes. This has led to an increase in the town's population, particularly during the peak tourist season.
Kenmare is also very neat and tidy. In 2000 and 2013, the commune was a winner in the Irish Tidy Towns Competition, while having been a runner-up in 2003 and 2008. While being on our holiday in Ireland, we had a holiday home in Kenmare and used the town as a basis for our excursions to different places in the Irish County Kerry and the western part of the County Cork. For these purposes, Kenmare was the perfect spot.
Officially the Republic of Bulgaria (Република България, transliterated: Republika Bălgarija, [rɛˈpublika bəlˈɡarija]), is a country in the Balkans in south-eastern Europe. Bulgaria borders five other countries: Romania to the north (mostly along the River Danube), Serbia and the Republic of Macedonia to the west, and Greece and Turkey to the south. The Black Sea defines the extent of the country to the east.
With a territory of 110,994 square kilometers, Bulgaria ranks as the third-largest country in Southeast Europe (after Romania and Greece). Several mountainous areas define the landscape, most notably the Stara Planina (Balkan) and Rodopi mountain ranges, as well as the Rila range, which includes the highest peak in the Balkan region, Musala. In contrast, the Danubian plain in the north and the Upper Thracian Plain in the south represent Bulgaria's lowest and most fertile regions. The 378-kilometer Black Sea coastline covers the entire eastern bound of the country.
The emergence of a unified Bulgarian national identity and state dates back to the 7th century AD. All Bulgarian political entities that subsequently emerged preserved the traditions (in ethnic name, language and alphabet) of the First Bulgarian Empire (632/681 – 1018), which at times covered most of the Balkans and spread its alphabet, literature and culture among the Slavic and other peoples of Eastern Europe, eventually becoming the cultural center of the medieval Slavs. Centuries later, with the decline of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185 – 1396/1422), Bulgarian territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 led to the re-establishment of a Bulgarian state as a constitutional monarchy in 1878, with the Treaty of San Stefano marking the birth of the Third Bulgarian State. In 1908, with social strife brewing at the core of the Ottoman Empire, the Alexander Malinov government and Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria formally proclaimed the full sovereignty of the Bulgarian state at the ancient capital of Veliko Turnovo.
In 1945, after World War II, Bulgaria became a communist state and part of the Eastern Bloc. Todor Zhivkov dominated Bulgaria politically for 35 years, from 1954 to 1989. In 1990, after the Revolutions of 1989, the Communist Party gave up its monopoly on power and Bulgaria undertook a transition to democracy and free-market capitalism.
Bulgaria functions as a parliamentary democracy within a unitary constitutional republic. A member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations and the World Trade Organization, it has a high Human Development Index of 0.840, ranking 61st in the world in 2009. Freedom House in 2008 listed Bulgaria as "free", giving it scores of 1 (highest) for political rights and 2 for civil liberties.
History
The history of Bulgaria as a separate country began in 681 AD. After Old Great Bulgaria disintegrated due to Khazar expansion from the east, one of the Bulgar leaders Asparuh crossed south of the Danube, into the territory of present-day Bulgaria and defeated the armies of the Byzantine Empire. In 680/681, the East Roman Emperor was forced to sign a peace treaty recognizing the First Bulgarian Empire as an independent state, situated on the conquered Byzantine lands with their local Slavic populations.
A country in the middle of the ethnically, culturally, and linguistically diverse Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria has seen many twists and turns in its long history and has been a prospering empire, stretching to the coastlines of the Black, Aegean and Adriatic Seas. The First and Second Bulgarian Empires served as cultural centres of Slavic Europe, but the land was also dominated by foreign states twice in its history, once by the Byzantine Empire (1018 - 1185) and once by the Ottoman Empire (1396 - 1878).
Prehistoric cultures include the neolithic Hamangia culture and Vinča culture (6th to 3rd millennia BC), the eneolithic Varna culture (5th millennium BC, Varna Necropolis) and the Bronze Age Ezero culture. The Karanovo chronology serves as a gauge for the prehistory of the wider Balkans region.
The Thracians
Indo-European tribes of Thracian and Daco-Getic descent lived on the territory of modern Bulgaria before the Slavic influx. Their ancient languages had already gone extinct before the arrival of the Slavs and their cultural influence was highly reduced due to the repeated barbaric invasions on the Balkans during the early Middle Ages by Huns, Goths, Celts and Sarmatians, accompanied by persistent hellenization, romanisation and later slavicisation.
The Slavs
The Slavs emerged from their original homeland (most commonly thought to have been in Eastern Europe) in the early 6th century and spread to most of eastern Central Europe, Eastern Europe and the Balkans, thus forming three main branches - the West Slavs, the East Slavs and the South Slavs. The easternmost South Slavs settled on the territory of modern Bulgaria during the 6th Century.
The Bulgars
The Bulgars (also Bolgars or proto-Bulgarians) were a semi-nomadic people of Turkic descent, originally from Central Asia, who from the 2nd century onwards dwelled in the steppes north of the Caucasus and around the banks of river Volga (then Itil). A branch of them gave rise to the First Bulgarian Empire. The Bulgars were governed by hereditary khans. There were several aristocratic families whose members, bearing military titles, formed a governing class. Bulgars were monotheistic, worshipping their supreme deity Tangra.
Old Great Bulgaria
In 632 the Bulgars, led by Khan Kubrat, formed a tribal union, often called Great Bulgaria (also known as Onoguria), between the lower course of the Danube river to the west, the Black Sea and the Azov Sea to the south, the Kuban river to the east and the Donets river to the north. The capital was Phanagoria, on the Azov. After Kubrat's death his state disintegrated.
One of the successors of Khan Kubrat, Asparuh moved west, occupying today’s southern Bessarabia. After a successful war with Byzantium in 680, Asparuh’s khanate conquered initially Scythia Minor and was recognised as an independent state under the subsequent treaty signed with the Byzantine Empire in 681. That year is usually regarded as the year of the establishment of present-day Bulgaria and Asparuh is regarded as the first Bulgarian ruler. Another Bulgar horde, led by Asparuh's brother Kuber, came to settle in Pannonia and later into Macedonia.
First Bulgarian Empire
During the late Roman Empire several Roman provinces covered the territory that comprises present-day Bulgaria: Scythia (Scythia Minor), Moesia (Upper and Lower), Thrace, Macedonia (First and Second), Dacia (Coastal and Inner, both south of Danube), Dardania, Rhodope and Haemismontus, and had a mixed population of Byzantine Greeks, Thracians and Dacians, most of whom spoke either Greek or variants of Vulgar Latin. Several consecutive waves of Slavic migration throughout the 6th and the early 7th centuries led to a dramatic change of the demographics of the region and its almost complete Slavicisation.
In the beginning of 8th century Byzantine emperor Justinian II asked Khan Tervel to create a union against Arabs invading from the south. The union defeated the Arabs and Khan Tervel received the byzantine title "khesar", which stands for "next to the emperor". Under the warrior Khan Krum (802-814) Bulgaria expanded northwest and south, occupying the lands between the middle Danube and Moldova rivers, all of present-day Romania, Sofia in 809 and Adrianople in 813, and threatening Constantinople itself. Krum implemented law reform intending to reduce poverty and strengthen social ties in his vastly enlarged state.
During the reign of Khan Omurtag (814-831), the northwestern boundaries with the Frankish Empire were firmly settled along the middle Danube. A magnificent palace, pagan temples, ruler's residence, fortress, citadel, water mains and baths were built in the Bulgarian capital Pliska, mainly of stone and brick.
Under Boris I, Bulgarians became Christians, and the Ecumenical Patriarch agreed to allow an autonomous Bulgarian Archbishop at Pliska. Missionaries from Constantinople, Cyril and Methodius, devised the Glagolitic alphabet, which was adopted in the Bulgarian Empire around 886. The alphabet and the Old Bulgarian language that evolved from Slavonic gave rise to a rich literary and cultural activity centered around the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools, established by order of Boris I in 886.
In the early 10th century, a new alphabet — the Cyrillic alphabet — was developed at the Preslav Literary School, based on the Greek and the Glagolitic cursive. An alternative theory is that the alphabet was devised at the Ohrid Literary School by Saint Climent of Ohrid, a Bulgarian scholar and disciple of Cyril and Methodius.
By the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Bulgaria extended to Epirus and Thessaly in the south, Bosnia in the west and controlled all of present-day Romania and eastern Hungary to the north. A Serbian state came into existence as a dependency of the Bulgarian Empire. Under Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria (Simeon the Great), who was educated in Constantinople, Bulgaria became again a serious threat to the Byzantine Empire. Simeon hoped to take Constantinople and become emperor of both Bulgarians and Greeks, and fought a series of wars with the Byzantines through his long reign (893-927). At the end of his rule the front had reached the Peloponnese in the south. Simeon proclaimed himself "Tsar (Caesar) of the Bulgarians and the Romans", a title which was recognised by the Pope, but not of course by the Byzantine Emperor.
In 986, the Byzantine emperor Basil II undertook to reconquer the lands lost to the Bulgarians. After a war lasting several decades he inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Bulgarians in 1014 and completed the campaign four years later. Bulgaria was once again under Roman rule.
Byzantine Bulgaria
Byzantium ruled Bulgaria from 1018 to 1185, subordinating the independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church to the authority of the Ecumenical Patriarch in Constantinople but otherwise interfering little in Bulgarian local affairs.
After the death of the soldier-emperor Basil II the empire entered into a period of instability. There were rebellions against Byzantine rule in 1040-41 at the wars with the Normans and the 1070s and the 1080s, at the time of the wars with the Seljuk Turks. After that the Komnenos dynasty came into succession and reversed the decline of the empire. During this time the empire experienced a century of stability and progress, though it was the time of the Crusades.
In 1180 the last of the capable Komnenoi, Manuel I Komnenos, died and was replaced by the relatively incompetent Angeloi dynasty, allowing Bulgarians to regain their freedom.
Second Bulgarian Empire
In 1185 Peter and Asen, leading nobles of supposed and contested Bulgarian, Cuman, Vlach or mixed origin, led a revolt against Byzantine rule and Peter declared himself Tsar Peter II (also known as Theodore Peter). The following year the Byzantines were forced to recognize Bulgaria's independence. Peter styled himself "Tsar of the Bulgars, Greeks and Vlachs".
Resurrected Bulgaria occupied the territory between the Black Sea, the Danube and Stara Planina, including a part of eastern Macedonia and the valley of the Morava. It also exercised control over Wallachia and Moldova. Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) entered a union with the Papacy, thereby securing the recognition of his title of "Rex" although he desired to be recognized as "Emperor" or "Tsar". He waged wars on the Byzantine Empire and (after 1204) on the Knights of the Fourth Crusade, conquering large parts of Thrace, the Rhodopes, as well as the whole of Macedonia. The power of the Hungarians and to some extent the Serbs prevented significant expansion to the west and northwest. Under Ivan Asen II (1218-1241), Bulgaria once again became a regional power, occupying Belgrade and Albania. In an inscription from Turnovo in 1230 he entitled himself "In Christ the Lord faithful Tsar and autocrat of the Bulgarians, son of the old Asen". The Bulgarian Orthodox Patriarchate was restored in 1235 with approval of all eastern Patriarchates, thus putting an end to the union with the Papacy. Ivan Asen II had a reputation as a wise and humane ruler, and opened relations with the Catholic west, especially Venice and Genoa, to reduce the influence of the Byzantines over his country.
However, weakened 14th-century Bulgaria was no match for a new threat from the south, the Ottoman Turks, who crossed into Europe in 1354. In 1362 they captured Philippopolis (Plovdiv), and in 1382 they took Sofia. The Ottomans then turned their attentions to the Serbs, whom they routed at Kosovo Polje in 1389. In 1393 the Ottomans occupied Turnovo after a three-month siege. It is thought that the south gate was opened from inside and so the Ottomans managed to enter the fortress. In 1396 the Kingdom (Tsardom) of Vidin was also occupied, bringing the Second Bulgarian Empire and Bulgarian independence to an end.
Geography
Geographically and in terms of climate, Bulgaria features notable diversity, with the landscape ranging from the Alpine snow-capped peaks in Rila, Pirin and the Balkan Mountains to the mild and sunny Black Sea coast; from the typically continental Danubian Plain (ancient Moesia) in the north to the strong Mediterranean climatic influence in the valleys of Macedonia and in the lowlands in the southernmost parts of Thrace.
Bulgaria overall has a temperate climate, with cold winters and hot summers. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains has some influence on climate throughout the country: northern Bulgaria experiences lower temperatures and receives more rain than the southern lowlands.
Bulgaria comprises portions of the separate regions known in classical times as Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia. The mountainous southwest of the country has two alpine ranges — Rila and Pirin — and further east stand the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains. The Rila range includes the highest peak of the Balkan Peninsula, Musala, at 2,925 metres (9,596 ft); the long range of the Balkan mountains runs west-east through the middle of the country, north of the famous Rose Valley. Hilly country and plains lie to the southeast, along the Black Sea coast, and along Bulgaria's main river, the Danube, to the north. Strandzha forms the tallest mountain in the southeast. Few mountains and hills exist in the northeast region of Dobrudzha. The Balkan Peninsula derives its name from the Balkan or Stara planina mountain range running through the centre of Bulgaria and extends into eastern Serbia.
Bulgaria has large deposits of manganese ore in the north-east and of uranium in the south-west, as well as vast coal reserves and copper, lead, zinc and gold ore. Smaller deposits exist of iron, silver, chromite, nickel, bismuth and others. Bulgaria has abundant non-metalliferous minerals such as rock-salt, gypsum, kaolin and marble.
The country has a dense network of about 540 rivers, most of them — with the notable exception of the Danube — short and with low water-levels. Most rivers flow through mountainous areas. The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 km (229 mi). Other major rivers include the Struma and the Maritsa River in the south.
The Rila and Pirin mountain ranges feature around 260 glacial lakes; the country also has several large lakes on the Black Sea coast and more than 2,200 dam lakes. Of the many mineral springs, most rise in the south-western and central parts of the country along the faults between the mountains.
Precipitation in Bulgaria averages about 630 millimetres (24.8 in) per year. In the lowlands rainfall varies between 500 and 800 mm (19.7 and 31.5 in), and in the mountain areas between 1,000 and 1,400 mm (39.4 and 55.1 in) of rain falls per year. Drier areas include Dobrudja and the northern coastal strip, while the higher parts of the Rila, Pirin, Rhodope Mountains, Stara Planina, Osogovska Mountain and Vitosha receive the highest levels of precipitation.
Other infos
Oficial name:
Република България
Republika Bălgarija
Formation:
Founded 681
- Last previously independent state, 1396
- Independence from Ottoman Empire, 1878
- Recognized 1908
Area:
110.971 km2
Inhabitants:
9.670.000
Languages: Български (Bulgarien)
Albanian, Gheg [aln] 1,000 in Bulgaria (1963 Newmark). Classification: Indo-European, Albanian, Gheg
Bulgarian [bul] 7,986,000 in Bulgaria (1986). Population total all countries: 8,954,811. Also spoken in Canada, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Moldova, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Turkey (Europe), Ukraine, USA. Alternate names: Balgarski. Dialects: Palityan (Palitiani, Bogomil). Palityan is functionally intelligible with Standard Bulgarian. The Pomak dialect spoken in Greece is close to Serbian and Bulgarian; geographical dialect shading toward each. Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Eastern
Bulgarian Sign Language [bqn] Dialects: Different sign languages are used in the classroom and by adults outside. Classification: Deaf sign language
Crimean Turkish [crh] 6,000 in Bulgaria (1990). Northeast Bulgaria. Alternate names: Crimean Tatar. Dialects: Northern Crimean (Crimean Nogai, Steppe Crimean), Central Crimean, Southern Crimean. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Southern
Gagauz [gag] 12,000 in Bulgaria (1982). Varna coastal region. Alternate names: Gagauzi. Dialects: Bulgar Gagauz, Maritime Gagauz. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Southern, Turkish
Macedonian [mkd] An undetermined number of inhabitants of the Pirin Region in Bulgaria claim Macedonian as first language, bordering the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (Prof. Wayles Brown 1998, Cornell University). Classification: Indo-European, Slavic, South, Easter
Romani, Balkan [rmn] 187,900 in Bulgaria. Population includes 100,000 Arlija, 20,000 Dzambazi, 10,000 Tinsmiths, 10,000 East Bulgarian. Between Sofia and the Black Sea (Central dialect). The Tinsmiths dialect is in central and northwest Bulgaria; Arlija is in the Sofia Region. Alternate names: Gypsy. Dialects: Arlija, Tinners Romani, Greek Romani, Dzambazi, East Bulgarian Romani, Paspatian, Ironworker Romani. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Balkan
Romani, Vlax [rmy] 500 Kalderash in Bulgaria. Classification: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Romani, Vlax
Romanian, Macedo [rup] 4,770 in Bulgaria (2000 WCD). Communities have associations in Peshtera, Velingrad, Dupnitsa, Rakitovo, and Blagoevgrad. Alternate names: Macedo-Rumanian, Arumanian, Aromanian, Armina. Classification: Indo-European, Italic, Romance, Eastern
Russian Sign Language [rsl] Classification: Deaf sign language
Turkish [tur] 845,550 in Bulgaria (1986). Kurdzhali Province and neighboring areas of South Bulgaria, along the Danube, and various regions of East Bulgaria. Alternate names: Osmanli, Turki. Dialects: Danubian, Razgrad, Dinler, Macedonian Turkish. Classification: Altaic, Turkic, Southern, Turkish
Capital city:
Sófia
Meaning of the country name:
Named after the Bulgars. Their tribal name, Bulgar may come from burg, which means "castle" in Germanic languages. A. D. Keramopoulos derives the name "Bulgars" from burgarii or bourgarioi meaning "those who maintain the forts" (burgi, bourgoi, purgoi) along the northern boundaries of the Balkan provinces, and elsewhere in the Roman Empire, first mentioned in Greek in an inscription dated A.D. 202, found between Philippopolis and Tatar Pazardzhik (and last published in Wilhelm Dittenberger's Sylloge inscriptionum graecarum, 3 ed., vol. II [1917], no. 880,1. 51, p. 593). The Bulgarians, previously known as Moesians, inhabited Thrace.
An alternative Turkic etymology for the name of the pre-Slavicised Central-Asian Bulgars derives from Bulgha meaning sable and has a totemistic origin.
Some associate the name Bulgar with the River Volga in present-day Russia: Bulgars lived in that region before and/or after the migration to the Balkans: see Volga Bulgaria.
Description Flag:
The flag of Bulgaria (Bulgarian: знаме на България, zname na Balgariya) is a tricolour consisting of three equal-sized horizontal bands of (from top to bottom) white, green, and red. White represents peace, green represents the fertility of the Bulgarian lands, and red stands for the courage of the people.
Some early versions of the flag (such as the Samara flag) used the Pan-Slavic colours, which were derived from the Pan-Slavism of 19th-century Europe. The central band was blue, and so the flag was similar to the flag of Russia. However after the liberational Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the central band was replaced with green, and the flag was described in the Tarnovo Constitution of 1879
Coat of arms:
The coat of arms of Bulgaria (Bulgarian: Герб на България, Gerb na Balgariya) consists of a crowned golden lion rampant over a dark red shield; above the shield is the Bulgarian historical crown. The shield is supported by two crowned golden lions rampant; below the shield there is compartment in the shape of oak twigs and white bands with the national motto "Unity renders power" inscribed on them.
Motto:
" Съединението прави силата " , "Union makes strength"
National Anthem: Мила Родино, Mila Rodino, Dear Motherland
Bulgarien
Горда Стара планина,
до ней Дунава синей,
слънце Тракия огрява,
над Пирина пламеней.
Припев:
Mила Родино,
ти си земен рай,
твойта хубост, твойта прелест,
ах, те нямат край.(2 пъти)
Паднаха борци безчет
за народа наш любим,
майко, дай ни мъжка сила
пътя им да продължим.
Transliteration
Gorda Stara planina,
do ney Dunava siney,
slantse Trakiya ogryava,
nad Pirina plameney.
Pripev:
Mila Rodino,
ti si zemen ray,
tvoyta hubost, tvoyta prelest,
ah, te nyamat kray.
(twice)
Padnaha bortsi bezchet
za naroda nash lyubim,
mayko, day ni mazhka sila
patya im da prodalzhim
English
Stately Stara planina,
next to it the Danube sparkles,
the sun shines over Thrace,
flames over Pirin.
Refrain:
Dear Motherland,
you are paradise on earth,
your beauty, your charm,
ah, they are boundless.(twice)
Countless fighters fell
for our beloved nation,
Mother, give us manly strength
to carry on their course.
Internet Page: www.bulgariatravel.org
Bulgaria in diferent languages
eng | arg | ast | bre | cos | eus | fao | fin | glg | ina | ita | jav | kal | lat | lin | lld | nor | oci | roh | ron | scn | spa | srd | swa: Bulgaria
fra | frp | fur | jnf | nrm: Bulgarie
hun | por | sme | tet: Bulgária
deu | ltz | nds: Bulgarien / Bulgarien
hau | kin | run: Bulgariya
ces | slk: Bulharsko
dan | swe: Bulgarien
est | vor: Bulgaaria
fry | nld: Bulgarije
ind | msa: Bulgaria / بولڬاريا
lit | mlt: Bulgarija
que | tgl: Bulgarya
afr: Bulgarye
aze: Bolqarıstan / Болгарыстан; Bolqariya / Болгарија
bam: Biligari
bos: Bugarska / Бугарска
cat: Bulgària
cor: Bulgari
crh: Bulğaristan / Булгъаристан
csb: Bùłgarskô
cym: Bwlgaria
dsb: Bulgarska
epo: Bulgarujo; Bulgario
gag: Bulgariya / Булгария
gla: Bulgàiria; A’ Bhulgaire; Bulgaria
gle: An Bhulgáir / An Ḃulgáir
glv: Yn Vulgeyr
hat: Bilgari
hrv: Bugarska
hsb: Bołharska
ibo: Bọlgeria
isl: Búlgaría; Bolgaraland
kaa: Bolgariya / Болгария
kmr: Bilẍarîstan / Бьлг’аристан / بلغاریستان; Bilẍarî / Бьлг’ари / بلغاری; Bolgarî / Болгари / بۆلگاری; Bolẍaristan / Болг’арьстан / بۆلغارستان; Bolẍarî / Болг’ари / بۆلغاری
kur: Bulgaristan / بولگارستان
lav: Bulgārija
lim: Bölgarieë
liv: Bulgārij
mfe: Bilgari
mlg: Bolgaria
mol: Bulgaria / Булгария
mri: Purukeria
pol: Bułgaria
rmy: Bulgariya / बुल्गारिया
rup: Vurgaria
slo: Bulgaria / Булгариа; Bulgarzem / Булгарзем
slv: Bolgarija
smg: Bulgarėjė
smo: Palekeria
som: Bulgaariya
sqi: Bullgaria
szl: Bůugarja
ton: Pulukelia
tuk: Bolgariýa / Болгария
tur: Bulgaristan; Bulgareli
uzb: Bulgʻoriston / Булғористон; Bolgariya / Болгария
vie: Bảo Gia Lợi; Bung-ga-ri
vol: Bulgarän
wln: Bulgåreye
wol: Bulgaari
zza: Bulğarıstan
chu: Блъгарія (Blŭgarīja)
alt | kir | kjh | kom | krc | rus | tyv | udm: Болгария (Bolgarija)
che | chv | oss: Болгари (Bolgari)
abq: Болгария (Bołgarija)
bak: Болгария / Bolgariya
bel: Балгарыя / Bałharyja; Баўгарыя / Baŭharyja
bul: България (Bǎlgarija)
chm: Болгарий (Bolgarij)
kaz: Болгария / Bolgarïya / بولگاريا; Болғария / Bolğarïya / بولعاريا
kbd: Болгарие (Bolgarie)
kum: Болгъария (Bolġarija)
lbe: Булгъария (Bulġarija)
mkd: Бугарија (Bugarija)
mon: Болгар (Bolgar)
srp: Бугарска / Bugarska
tab: Булгъаристан (Bulġaristan)
tat: Болгарстан / Bolğarstan
tgk: Булғористон / بلغارستان / Bulƣoriston; Булғория / بلغاریه / Bulƣorija
ukr: Болгарія (Bolharija)
xal: Болгарь (Bolgar')
ara: بلغاريا (Bulġāriyā)
fas: بلغارستان (Bolġārestān)
prs: بلغاریا (Bolġāriyā)
pus: بلغاريا (Bulġāriyā); بلغاريه (Bulġāriyâ); بلغارستان (Bulġāristān)
uig: بۇلغارىيە / Bulghariye / Болгария
urd: بلغاریہ (Balġāriyâ)
div: ބަލްގޭރިއާ (Balgēri'ā)
syr: ܒܠܓܪܝܐ (Bulgariyā)
heb: בולגריה (Bûlgaryah); בולגאריה (Bûlgâryah)
lad: בולגאריה / Bulgaria
yid: בולגאַריע (Bulgarye)
amh: ቡልጋሪያ (Bulgariya); ቡልጋርያ (Bulgarya)
ell: Βουλγαρία (Voylgaría)
hye: Բուլղարիա (Boulġaria)
kat: ბულგარეთი (Bulgareṭi)
hin: बल्गारिया (Balgāriyā); बुल्गारिया (Bulgāriyā); बल्गेरिया (Balgeriyā)
ben: বুলগেরিয়া (Bulgeriyā)
guj: બલ્ગેરિયા (Balgeriyā)
pan: ਬੁਲਗਾਰੀਆ (Bulgārīā)
kan: ಬಲ್ಗೇರಿಯ (Balgēriya)
mal: ബള്ഗേറിയ (Baḷgēṟiya)
tam: பல்கேரியா (Palkēriyā)
tel: బల్గేరియా (Balgēriyā)
zho: 保加利亞/保加利亚 (Bǎojiālìyà)
yue: 保加利亞/保加利亚 (Bóugàleiha)
jpn: ブルガリア (Burugaria)
kor: 불가리아 (Bulgaria)
bod: པུ་ར་ག་རི་ཡ་ (Pu.ra.ga.ri.ya.); པུར་ག་རི་ཡ་ (Pur.ga.ri.ya.); པོ་ཅ་ལི་ཡ་ (Po.ča.li.ya.); པའོ་ཅ་ལི་ཡ་ (Pa'o.ča.li.ya.)
mya: ဘူဂေးရီးယား (Bʰugèẏìyà)
tha: บัลแกเรีย (Bânkǣriya)
lao: ບຸນກາຣີ (Bunkālī)
khm: ប៊ុលហ្គារី (Bulhkārī)
PAUL McCARTNEY UNPLUGGED COMPLETE 1991 BLU-RAY
The complete Unplugged performance from January 25, 1991 at Limehouse Studios, Wembley, London!
Remastered and upscaled - Looks and sounds fantastic! In stereo! Includes rehearsals from the show and
the TV Broadcast version and a bonus interview on the show. You will LOVE this! 43 chapters approx 165 mins.
VIDEO SAMPLE: youtu.be/b_1gQN12uM8
Unplugged MTV complete uncut stereo version from original videotape.
01 Introduction
02 Mean Woman Blues
03 Matchbox
04 Midnight Special
05 I Lost My Little Girl
06 Here, There And Everywhere
07 San Francisco Bay Blues
08 We Can Work It Out false start
09 We Can Work It Out breakdown
10 We Can Work It Out
11 Blue Moon Of Kentucky
12 I’ve Just Seen A Face
13 Every Night
14 Be-Bop-A-Lula
15 She’s A Woman
16 And I Love Her
17 The Fool
18 Things We Said Today
19 That Would Be Something
20 Blackbird (with false start)
21 Hi-Heel Sneakers
22 Good Rockin’ Tonight
23 Junk
24 Ain’t No Sunshine
25 Ain’t No Sunshine
26 We Can Work It Out
27 Singing The Blues
Jan 25: Broadcast Version
Aired on MTV April 3, 1991
28 Be Bop A Lula
29 I Lost My Little Girl
30 Here There and Everywhere
31 Blue Moon of Kentucky
32 We Can Work It Out
33 I've Just Seen a Face
34 Every Night
35 She's a Woman
36 And I Love Her
37 That Would Be Something
38 Blackbird
39 Good Rocking Tonight
40 Singing The Blues
41 Junk
42 Rehearsals for Unplugged
Midnight Special, Every Night & Blackbird
43 July 19: MTV Unplugged Interview For Japan
Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin [nb 1] (9 March 1934 – 27 March 1968) was a Soviet Air Forces pilot and cosmonaut who became the first human to journey into outer space, achieving a major milestone in the Space Race; his capsule Vostok 1 completed one orbit of Earth on 12 April 1961. Gagarin became an international celebrity and was awarded many medals and titles, including Hero of the Soviet Union, his nation's highest honour.
Vostok 1 was Gagarin's only spaceflight but he served as the backup crew to the Soyuz 1 mission, which ended in a fatal crash, killing his friend and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov. Gagarin later served as the deputy training director of the Cosmonaut Training Centre, which was subsequently named after him. He was elected as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union in 1962 and then to the Soviet of Nationalities, respectively the lower and upper chambers of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Gagarin died in 1968 when the MiG-15 training jet he was piloting with his flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin crashed near the town of Kirzhach.
Contents
1 Early life and education
2 Soviet Air Force service
3 Soviet space program
3.1 Selection and training
3.2 Vostok 1
4 After the Vostok 1 flight
5 Personal life
6 Death
7 Awards and honours
7.1 Medals and orders of merit
7.2 Tributes
7.3 Statues and monuments
7.4 50th anniversary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Early life and education
Yuri Gagarin was born 9 March 1934 in the village of Klushino,[1] near Gzhatsk (renamed Gagarin in 1968 after his death).[2] His parents worked on a collective farm:[3] Alexey Ivanovich Gagarin as a carpenter and Anna Timofeyevna Gagarina as a dairy farmer.[nb 2][4] Yuri was the third of four children: his siblings were brothers Valentin (1924) and Boris (1936), and sister Zoya (1927).[5][6]
Like millions of Soviet Union citizens, the Gagarin family suffered during the Nazi occupation of Russia during World War II. Klushino was occupied in November 1941 during the German advance on Moscow and a German officer took over the Gagarin residence. The family were allowed to build a mud hut approximately 3 by 3 metres (10 by 10 ft) inside on the land behind their house, where they spent twenty-one months until the end of the occupation.[7] His two older siblings were deported by the Germans to Poland for slave labour in 1943 and did not return until after the war in 1945.[5][8] In 1946, the family moved to Gzhatsk, where Gagarin continued his secondary education.[7]
In 1950, aged 16, Gagarin began an apprenticeship as a foundryman at the Lyubertsy steel plant near Moscow,[5][8] and enrolled at a local "young workers" school for seventh-grade evening classes.[9] After graduating in 1951 from both the seventh grade and the vocational school with honours in mouldmaking and foundry work,[9] he was selected for further training at the Saratov Industrial Technical School, where he studied tractors.[5][8][10] While in Saratov, Gagarin volunteered at a local flying club for weekend training as a Soviet air cadet, where he trained to fly a biplane, and later a Yak-18.[8][10] He earned extra money as a part-time dock labourer on the Volga River.[7]
Soviet Air Force service
In 1955, Gagarin was accepted to the 1st Chkalovsky Higher Air Force Pilots School, a flight school in Orenburg.[11][12] He initially began training on the Yak-18 already familiar to him and later graduated to training on the MiG-15 in February 1956.[11] Gagarin twice struggled to land the two-seater trainer aircraft, and risked dismissal from pilot training. However, the commander of the regiment decided to give him another chance at landing. Gagarin's flight instructor gave him a cushion to sit on, which improved his view from the cockpit, and he landed successfully. Having completed his evaluation in a trainer aircraft,[13] Gagarin began flying solo in 1957.[5]
On 5 November 1957, Gagarin was commissioned a lieutenant in the Soviet Air Forces having accumulated 166 hours and 47 minutes of flight time. He graduated from flight school the next day and was posted to the Luostari airbase close to the Norwegian border in Murmansk Oblast for a two-year assignment with the Northern Fleet.[14] On 7 July 1959, he was rated Military Pilot 3rd Class.[15] After expressing interest in space exploration following the launch of Luna 3 on 6 October 1959, his recommendation to the Soviet space program was endorsed and forward by Lieutenant Colonel Babushkin.[14][16] By this point, he had accumulated 265 hours of flight time.[14] Gagarin was promoted to the rank of senior lieutenant on 6 November 1959,[15] three weeks after he was interviewed by a medical commission for qualification to the space program.[14]
Soviet space program
Selection and training
See also: Vostok programme
Vostok I capsule on display at the RKK Energiya museum
Gagarin's selection for the Vostok programme was overseen by the Central Flight Medical Commission led by Major General Konstantin Fyodorovich Borodin of the Soviet Army Medical Service. He underwent physical and psychological testing conducted at Central Aviation Scientific-Research Hospital, in Moscow, commanded by Colonel A.S. Usanov, a member of the commission. The commission also included Colonel Yevgeniy Anatoliyevich Karpov, who later commanded the training centre, Colonel Vladimir Ivanovich Yazdovskiy, the head physician for Gagarin's flight, and Major-General Aleksandr Nikolayevich Babiychuk, a physician flag officer on the Soviet Air Force General Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Air Force.[17]
From a pool of 154 qualified pilots short-listed by their Air Force units, the military physicians chose 29 cosmonaut candidates, of which 20 were approved by the Credential Committee of the Soviet Government. The first twelve including Gagarin were approved on 7 March 1960 and eight more were added in a series of subsequent orders issued until June.[18] Gagarin began training at the Khodynka Airfield in downtown Moscow on 15 March 1960. The training regiment involved vigorous and repetitive physical exercises which Alexei Leonov, a member of the initial group of twelve, described as akin to training for the Olympics Games.[19] In April 1960, they began parachute training in Saratov Oblast and each completed about 40 to 50 jumps from both low and high altitude, and over land and water.[20]
Gagarin was a candidate favoured by his peers. When they were asked to vote anonymously for a candidate besides themselves they would like to be the first to fly, all but three chose Gagarin.[21] One of these candidates, Yevgeny Khrunov, believed that Gagarin was very focused and was demanding of himself and others when necessary.[22] On 30 May 1960, Gagarin was further selected for an accelerated training group, known as the Vanguard Six or Sochi Six,[23][nb 3] from which the first cosmonauts of the Vostok programme would be chosen. The other members of the group were Anatoliy Kartashov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, German Titov, and Valentin Varlamov. However, Kartashov and Varlamov were injured and replaced by Khrunov and Grigoriy Nelyubov.[25]
As several of the candidates selected for the program including Gagarin did not have higher education degrees, they were enrolled into a correspondence course program at Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy. Gagarin enrolled in the program in September 1960 and did not earn his specialist diploma until early 1968.[26][27] Gagarin was also subjected to experiments that were designed to test physical and psychological endurance including oxygen starvation tests in which the cosmonauts were locked in an isolation chamber and the air slowly pumped out. He also trained for the upcoming flight by experiencing g-forces in a centrifuge.[28][25] Psychological tests included placing the candidates in an anechoic chamber in complete isolation; Gagarin was in the chamber on July 26 – August 5.[29][20] In August 1960, a Soviet Air Force doctor evaluated his personality as follows:
Modest; embarrasses when his humor gets a little too racy; high degree of intellectual development evident in Yuriy; fantastic memory; distinguishes himself from his colleagues by his sharp and far-ranging sense of attention to his surroundings; a well-developed imagination; quick reactions; persevering, prepares himself painstakingly for his activities and training exercises, handles celestial mechanics and mathematical formulae with ease as well as excels in higher mathematics; does not feel constrained when he has to defend his point of view if he considers himself right; appears that he understands life better than a lot of his friends.[21]
The Vanguard Six were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961[25] and entered a two-day examination conducted by a special interdepartmental commission led Lieutenant-General Nikolai Kamanin, tasked with ranking of the candidates based on their mission readiness for the first human Vostok mission. On 17 January 1961, they were tested in a simulator at the M. M. Gromov Flight-Research Institute on a full-size mockup of the Vostok capsule. Gagarin, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov all received excellent marks on the first day of testing in which they were required to describe the various phases of the mission followed by questions from commission.[22] On the second day, they were given a written examination following which the special commission ranked Gagarin as the best candidate the first mission. He and the next two highest-ranked cosmonauts, Titov and Nelyubov, were sent to Tyuratam for final preparations.[22] Gagarin and Titov were selected to train in the flight-ready spacecraft on 7 April 1961. Historian Asif Siddiqi writes of the final selection:[30]
In the end, at the State Commission meeting on April 8, Kamanin stood up and formally nominated Gagarin as the primary pilot and Titov as his backup. Without much discussion, the commission approved the proposal and moved on to other last-minute logistical issues. It was assumed that in the event Gagarin developed health problems prior to liftoff, Titov would take his place, with Nelyubov acting as his backup.
Vostok 1
Main article: Vostok 1
Poyekhali!
Menu
0:00
Gagarin's voice
Problems playing this file? See media help.
On 12 April 1961, 6:07 am UTC, the Vostok 3KA-3 (Vostok 1) spacecraft was launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome. Aboard was Gagarin, the first human to travel into space, using the call sign Kedr (Russian: Кедр, Siberian pine or Cedar).[31] The radio communication between the launch control room and Gagarin included the following dialogue at the moment of rocket launch:
Korolev: Preliminary stage ... intermediate... main... LIFT-OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything's all right.
Gagarin: Off we go! Goodbye, until [we meet] soon, dear friends.[32][33]
Gagarin's farewell to Korolev using the informal phrase Poyekhali! (Russian: Поехали!)[nb 4] later became a popular expression in the Eastern Bloc that was used to refer to the beginning of the Space Age.[35][36] The five first-stage engines fired until the first separation event, when the four side-boosters fell away, leaving the core engine. The core stage then separated while the rocket was in a suborbital trajectory, and the upper stage carried it to orbit. Once the upper stage finished firing, it separated from the spacecraft, which orbited for 108 minutes before returning to Earth in Kazakhstan.[37] Gagarin became the first to orbit the Earth.[31]
File:1961-04-19 First Pictures-Yuri Gagarin-selection.ogvPlay media
An April 1961 newsreel of Gagarin arriving in Moscow to be greeted by First Secretary Nikita Khrushchev.
"The feeling of weightlessness was somewhat unfamiliar compared with Earth conditions. Here, you feel as if you were hanging in a horizontal position in straps. You feel as if you are suspended", Gagarin wrote in his post-flight report.[38] He also wrote in his autobiography released the same year that he sang the tune "The Motherland Hears, The Motherland Knows" (Russian: "Родина слышит, Родина знает") during re-entry.[39] Gagarin was qualified a Military Pilot 1st Class and promoted to the rank of major in a special order given during his flight.[15][39]
At about 23,000 feet (7,000 m), Gagarin ejected from the descending capsule as planned and landed using a parachute. There were concerns Gagarin's spaceflight record would not be certified by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the world governing body for setting standards and keeping records in the field, which at the time required that the pilot land with the craft.[40] Gagarin and Soviet officials initially refused to admit that he had not landed with his spacecraft,[41] an omission which became apparent after Titov's subsequent flight on Vostok 2 four months later. Gagarin's spaceflight records were nonetheless certified and again reaffirmed by the FAI, which revised it rules, and acknowledge that the crucial steps of the safe launch, orbit, and return of the pilot had been accomplished. Gagarin continues to be internationally recognised as the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth.[42]
After the Vostok 1 flight
Gagarin in Warsaw, 1961
Gagarin's flight was a triumph for the Soviet space program and he became a national hero of the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, as well as a worldwide celebrity. Newspapers around the globe published his biography and details of his flight. He was escorted in a long motorcade of high-ranking officials through the streets of Moscow to the Kremlin where, in a lavish ceremony, Nikita Khrushchev awarded him the title Hero of the Soviet Union. Other cities in the Soviet Union also held mass demonstrations, the scale of which were second only to World War II Victory Parades.[43]
Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova (seated to his right) sign autographs in 1964
Gagarin gained a reputation as an adept public figure and was noted for his charismatic smile.[44][45][46] On 15 April 1961, accompanied by official from the Soviet Academy of Sciences, he answered questions at a press conference in Moscow reportedly attended by 1,000 reporters.[47] Gagarin visited the United Kingdom three months after the Vostok 1 mission, going to London and Manchester.[48][44] While in Manchester, despite heavy rain, he refused an umbrella, insisted that the roof of the convertible car he was riding in remain open, and stood so the cheering crowds could see him.[44][49] Gagarin toured widely abroad, accepting the invitation of about 30 countries.[50] In just the first four months, he also went to Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Hungary, and Iceland.[51]
In 1962, Gagarin began serving as a deputy to the Soviet of the Union,[52] and was elected to the Central Committee of the Young Communist League. He later returned to Star City, the cosmonaut facility, where he spent several years working on designs for a reusable spacecraft. He became a lieutenant colonel of the Soviet Air Forces on 12 June 1962, and received the rank of colonel on 6 November 1963.[15] On 20 December 1963, Gagarin became Deputy Training Director of the Star City cosmonaut training base.[53] Soviet officials, including cosmonaut overseerer Nikolai Kamanin, tried to keep Gagarin away from any flights, being worried about losing their hero in an accident noting that he was "too dear to mankind to risk his life for the sake of an ordinary space flight".[54] Kamanin was also concerned by Gagarin's drinking and believed the sudden rise to fame had taken its toll on the cosmonaut. While acquaintances say Gagarin had been a "sensible drinker", his touring schedule placed him in social situations in which he was increasingly expected to drink alcohol.[5][10]
Gagarin with U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, French Prime Minister Georges Pompidou and the Gemini 4 astronauts at the 1965 Paris Air Show
Two years later, he was re-elected as a deputy of the Soviet Union but this time to the Soviet of Nationalities, the upper chamber of legislature.[52] The following year, he began to re-qualify as a fighter pilot[55] and was backup pilot for his friend Vladimir Komarov on the Soyuz 1 flight after five years without piloting duty. Kamanin had opposed Gagarin's reassignment to cosmonaut training; he had gained weight and his flying skills had deteriorated. Despite this, he remained a strong contender for Soyuz 1 until he was replaced by Komarov in April 1966 and reassigned to Soyuz 3.[56]
The Soyuz 1 launch was rushed due to implicit political pressures[57] and despite Gagarin's protests that additional safety precautions were necessary.[58] Gagarin accompanied Komarov to the rocket before launch and relayed instructions to Komarov from ground control following multiple system failures aboard the spacecraft.[59] Despite their best efforts, Soyuz 1 crash landed after its parachutes failed to open, killing Komarov instantly.[60] After the Soyuz 1 crash, Gagarin was permanently banned from training for and participating in further spaceflights.[61] He was also grounded from flying aircraft solo, a demotion he worked hard to lift. He was temporarily relieved of duties to focus on academics with the promise that he would be able to resume flight training.[62] On 17 February 1968, Gagarin successfully defended his aerospace engineering thesis on the subject of spaceplane aerodynamic configuration and graduated cum laude from Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy.[27][63][62]
Personal life
Gagarin and his wife Valentina clapping at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin and his wife Valentina at a concert in Moscow in 1964.
Gagarin was a keen sportsman and fond of ice hockey as a goal keeper.[64] He was also a basketball fan and coached the Saratov Industrial Technical School team, as well as being a referee.[65]
In 1957, while a cadet in flight school, Gagarin met Valentina Goryacheva at the May Day celebrations at the Red Square in Moscow.[66] She was a medical technician who graduated from Orenburg Medical School.[8][10] They were married on 7 November 1957,[8] the same day Gagarin graduated from Orenburg, and they had two daughters.[67][68] Yelena Yurievna Gagarina, born 1959,[68] is an art historian who has worked as the director-general of the Moscow Kremlin Museums since 2001;[69][70] and Galina Yurievna Gagarina, born 1961,[68] is a professor of economics and the department chair at Plekhanov Russian University of Economics in Moscow.[69][71] Following his rise to fame, at a Black Sea resort in September 1961, he was reportedly caught by his wife during a liaison with a nurse who had aided him after a boating incident. He attempted to escape through a window and jumped off a second floor balcony. The resulting injury left a permanent scar above his left eyebrow.[5][10]
Death
Plaque on a brick wall with inscription: Юрий Алексеевич Гагарин, 1934-03-09–1968-03-27
Plaque indicating Gagarin's interment in the Kremlin Wall
On 27 March 1968, while on a routine training flight from Chkalovsky Air Base, Gagarin and flight instructor Vladimir Seryogin died when their MiG-15UTI crashed near the town of Kirzhach. The bodies of Gagarin and Seryogin were cremated and their ashes were buried in the walls of the Kremlin.[72] Wrapped in secrecy, the cause of the crash that killed Gagarin is uncertain and became the subject of several theories.[73][74] At least three investigations into the crash were conducted separately by the Air Force, official government commissions, and the KGB.[75][76] According to a biography of Gagarin by Jamie Doran and Piers Bizony, Starman: The Truth Behind the Legend of Yuri Gagarin, the KGB worked "not just alongside the Air Force and the official commission members but against them."[75]
The KGB's report declassified in March 2003 dismissed various conspiracy theories and instead indicated the actions of airbase personnel contributed to the crash. The report states that an air-traffic controller provided Gagarin with outdated weather information and that by the time of his flight, conditions had deteriorated significantly. Ground crew also left external fuel tanks attached to the aircraft. Gagarin's planned flight activities needed clear weather and no outboard tanks. The investigation concluded Gagarin's aircraft entered a spin, either due to a bird strike or because of a sudden move to avoid another aircraft. Because of the out-of-date weather report, the crew believed their altitude was higher than it was and could not react properly to bring the MiG-15 out of its spin.[76] Another theory, advanced in 2005 by the original crash investigator, hypothesizes that a cabin air vent was accidentally left open by the crew or the previous pilot, leading to oxygen deprivation and leaving the crew incapable of controlling the aircraft.[73] A similar theory, published in Air & Space magazine, is that the crew detected the open vent and followed procedure by executing a rapid dive to a lower altitude. This dive caused them to lose consciousness and crash.[74]
On 12 April 2007, the Kremlin vetoed a new investigation into the death of Gagarin. Government officials said they saw no reason to begin a new investigation.[77] In April 2011, documents from a 1968 commission set up by the Central Committee of the Communist Party to investigate the accident were declassified. The documents revealed that the commission's original conclusion was that Gagarin or Seryogin had manoeuvered sharply, either to avoid a weather balloon or to avoid "entry into the upper limit of the first layer of cloud cover", leading the jet into a "super-critical flight regime and to its stalling in complex meteorological conditions".[78]
A Russian MiG-15UTI, the same type as Gagarin was flying
Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov, a member of a state commission established to investigate Gagarin's death, was conducting parachute training sessions that day and heard "two loud booms in the distance". He believes that a Sukhoi Su-15 was flying below its minimum altitude and, "without realizing it because of the terrible weather conditions, he passed within 10 or 20 meters of Yuri and Seregin's plane while breaking the sound barrier". The resulting turbulence would have sent the MiG-15UTI into an uncontrolled spin. Leonov said the first boom he heard was that of the jet breaking the sound barrier and the second was Gagarin's plane crashing.[79] In a June 2013 interview with Russian television network RT, Leonov said a report on the incident confirmed the presence of a second, "unauthorized" Su-15 flying in the area. However, as a condition of being allowed to discuss the declassified report, Leonov was barred from disclosing the name of the Su-15 pilot who was 80 years old and in poor health as of 2013.[80]
Awards and honours
Medals and orders of merit
Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil, decorated Gagarin in 1961.
On 14 April 1961, Gagarin was honoured with a 12-mile (19 km) parade attended by millions of people that concluded at the Red Square. After a short speech, he was bestowed the Hero of the Soviet Union,[81][82] Order of Lenin,[81] Merited Master of Sports of the Soviet Union[83] and the first Pilot-Cosmonaut of the USSR.[82] On 15 April, the Soviet Academy of Sciences awarded him with the Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Gold Medal, named after the Russian pioneer of space aeronautics.[84] Gagarin had also been awarded four Soviet commemorative medals over the course of his career.[15]
He was honoured as a Hero of Socialist Labor (Czechoslovakia) on 29 April 1961,[85][86] and Hero of Socialist Labor (Bulgaria, including the Order of Georgi Dimitrov) on 24 May.[15][chronology citation needed] On the eighth anniversary of the beginning of Cuban Revolution (26 July), President Osvaldo Dorticos of Cuba presented him with the first Commander of the Order of Playa Girón, a newly created medal.[87]
Gagarin was also awarded the 1960 Gold Air Medal and the 1961 De la Vaulx Medal from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale in Switzerland.[88] He received numerous awards from other nations that year, including the Star of the Republic of Indonesia (2nd Class), the Order of the Cross of Grunwald (1st Degree) in Poland, the Order of the Flag of the Republic of Hungary, the Hero of Labor award from Democratic Republic of Vietnam,[15] the Italian Columbus Day Medal,[89] and a Gold Medal from the British Interplanetary Society.[90][91] President Jânio Quadros of Brazil decorated Gagarin on 2 August 1961 with the Order of Aeronautical Merit, Commander grade.[92] During a tour of Egypt in late January 1962, Gagarin received the Order of the Nile[93] and the golden keys to the gates of Cairo.[50] On 22 October 1963, Gagarin and Valentina Tereshkova were honoured with the Order of Karl Marx from the German Democratic Republic.[94]
Tributes
The date of Gagarin's space flight, 12 April, has been commemorated. Since 1962, it has been celebrated in the USSR and most of its former territories as Cosmonautics Day.[95] Since 2000, Yuri's Night, an international celebration, is held annually to commemorate milestones in space exploration.[96] In 2011, it was declared the International Day of Human Space Flight by the United Nations.[97]
Yuri Gagarin statue at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in London
A number of buildings and locations have been named for Gagarin. The Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center in Star City, Russia, was named on 30 April 1968.[98] The launch pad at Baikonur Cosmodrome from which Sputnik 1 and Vostok 1 were launched is now known as Gagarin's Start. Gagarin Raion in Sevastopol, Ukraine, was named after him during the period of the Soviet Union. The Russian Air Force Academy was renamed Gagarin Air Force Academy in 1968.[99] A street in Warsaw, Poland, is called Yuri Gagarin Street.[100] The town of Gagarin, Armenia was renamed in his honour in 1961.[101]
Gagarin has been honoured on the Moon by astronauts and astronomers. During the American space program's Apollo 11 mission in 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin left a memorial satchel containing medals commemorating Gagarin and fellow cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov on the Moon's surface.[102][103] In 1971, Apollo 15 astronauts David Scott and James Irwin left the small Fallen Astronaut sculpture at their landing site as a memorial to the American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who died in the Space Race; the names on its plaque included Yuri Gagarin and 14 others.[104][105] In 1970, a 262 km (163 mi)-wide crater on the far side after him.[106] Gagarin was inducted as a member of the 1976 inaugural class of the International Space Hall of Fame in New Mexico.[107]
Gagarin is memorialised in music; a cycle of Soviet patriotic songs titled The Constellation Gagarin (Russian: Созвездье Гагарина, tr. Sozvezdie Gagarina) was written by Aleksandra Pakhmutova and Nikolai Dobronravov in 1970–1971.[108] The most famous of these songs refers to Gagarin's poyekhali!: in the lyrics, "He said 'let's go!' He waved his hand".[35][108] He was the inspiration for the pieces "Hey Gagarin" by Jean-Michel Jarre on Métamorphoses, "Gagarin" by Public Service Broadcasting, and "Gagarin, I loved you" by Undervud.[109]
Russian ten-ruble commemorating Gagarin in 2001
Vessels have been named for Gagarin; Soviet tracking ship Kosmonavt Yuri Gagarin was built in 1971[110] and the Armenian airline Armavia named their first Sukhoi Superjet 100 in his honour in 2011.[111]
Two commemorative coins were issued in the Soviet Union to honour the 20th and 30th anniversaries of his flight: a one-ruble coin in copper-nickel (1981) and a three-ruble coin in silver (1991). In 2001, to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Gagarin's flight, a series of four coins bearing his likeness was issued in Russia; it consisted of a two-ruble coin in copper-nickel, a three-ruble coin in silver, a ten-ruble coin in brass-copper and nickel, and a 100-ruble coin in silver.[112] In 2011, Russia issued a 1,000-ruble coin in gold and a three-ruble coin in silver to mark the 50th anniversary of his flight.[113]
In 2008, the Kontinental Hockey League named their championship trophy the Gagarin Cup.[114] In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Gagarin was ranked as the sixth-most-popular space hero, tied with Star Trek's fictional James T. Kirk.[115] A Russian docudrama titled Gagarin: First in Space was released in 2013. Previous attempts at portraying Gagarin were disallowed; his family took legal action over his portrayal in a fictional drama and vetoed a musical.[116]
Statues and monuments
There are statues of Gagarin and monuments to him located in Gagarin (Smolensk Oblast), Orenburg, Cheboksary, Irkutsk, Izhevsk, Komsomolsk-on-Amur, and Yoshkar-Ola in Russia, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, Druzhkivka, Ukraine, Karaganda, Kazakhstan, and Tiraspol, Moldova. On 4 June 1980, Monument to Yuri Gagarin in Gagarin Square, Leninsky Avenue, Moscow, was opened.[117] The monument is mounted to a 38 m (125 ft) tall pedestal and is constructed of titanium. Beside the column is a replica of the descent module used during his spaceflight.[118]
Bust of Gagarin at Birla Planetarium in Kolkata, India
In 2011, a statue of Gagarin was unveiled at Admiralty Arch in The Mall in London, opposite the permanent sculpture of James Cook. It is a copy of the statue outside Gagarin's former school in Lyubertsy.[119] In 2013, the statue was moved to a permanent location outside the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.[120]
In 2012, a statue was unveiled at the site of NASA's original spaceflight headquarters on South Wayside Drive in Houston. The sculpture was completed in 2011 by artist and cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and was a gift to Houston by various Russian organisations. Houston Mayor Annise Parker, NASA Administrator Charles Bolden, and Russian Ambassador Sergey Kislyak were present for the dedication.[121][122] The Russian Federation presented a bust of Gagarin to several cities in India including one that was unveiled at the Birla Planetarium in Kolkata in February 2012.[123]
In April 2018, a bust of Gagarin erected on the street in Belgrade, Serbia, that bears his name was removed, after less than week. A new work was commissioned following the outcry over the disproportionately small size of its head which locals said was an "insult" to Gagarin.[124][125] Belgrade City Manager Goran Vesic stated that neither the city, the Serbian Ministry of Culture, nor the foundation that financed it had prior knowledge of the design.[126]
50th anniversary
50th anniversary stamp of Ukraine
The 50th anniversary of Gagarin's journey into space was marked in 2011 by tributes around the world. A film titled First Orbit was shot from the International Space Station, combining sound recordings from the original flight with footage of the route taken by Gagarin.[127] The Russian, American, and Italian crew of Expedition 27 aboard the ISS sent a special video message to wish the people of the world a "Happy Yuri's Night", wearing shirts with an image of Gagarin.[128]
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation released gold and silver coins to commemorate the anniversary.[129] The Soyuz TMA-21 spacecraft was named Gagarin with the launch in April 2011 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the first manned space mission.
Remix and Appropriate - The Complete Incomplete
Artist postcard
Media - Sewing onto other artists work
Nothing you haven’t seen before… Like many of you that have bins or bags of partially used skeins of yarn, my goal this year is to use up as much of it as I can. No color scheme here so I reached in and what ever I grabbed is what I used! This is a great pattern for left over yarn. I plan on creating beautiful projects with my left overs and give them as gifts. This blanket was given to my sister and she loves it, which made me very happy indeed! :)
saqibsomal.com/2015/09/21/the-complete-story-of-call-of-d... -http://saqibsomal.com/2015/09/21/the-complete-story-of-call-of-duty-black-ops/ - saqibsomal.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/call-of-duty-bl...
*SURLY* crosscheck complete bike
BLUE LUG custom
SPEC
Frame: *SURLY* crosscheck BLUE LUG CUSTOM PAINT by COOK PAINT WORKS
Wheels: *H PLUS SON* the box rim × *SHIMANO* 105 road hub
Tire:*FAIRWEATHER* for traveler tire (algae)
Saddle:*BROOKS* swift saddle (black)
Brake Lever:*SHIMANO*
Handle:*NITTO* mod177 noodle bar (silver)
Crank:*SUGINO* rd messenger crankset
*SURLY* crosscheck complete bike
BLUE LUG custom
SPEC
Frame: *SURLY* crosscheck BLUE LUG CUSTOM PAINT by COOK PAINT WORKS
Wheels: *ALEX RIMS* × *SURLY*
Tire:*FAIRWEATHER* for traveler tire (rust)
Saddle:*BROOKS* b17 standard (honey)
Brake:*AVID*
Front Basket:*WALD* front basket small (silver)
Front Rack:*NITTO*
Handle:*VELO ORANGE* porteur handlebar (silver)
Fender:*DIXNA×HONJO*
Pedal:*MKS* BM-7
ANNAPOLIS, Md. (Aug. 22, 2021) U.S. Naval Academy Midshipmen of the Class of 2023 climb the Herndon Monument, a tradition symbolizing the successful completion of the midshipmen's freshman year. Due to restrictions set forth by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Class of 2023 was not able to complete the climb during their plebe year. The Class of 2023 completed the climb in 3 hours and 39 seconds. As the undergraduate college of our country's naval service, the Naval Academy prepares young men and women to become professional officers of competence, character, and compassion in the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. (U.S. Navy photo by Stacy Godfrey)