Camera Sony A300 DSL

Built in 1928, this lovely Spanish style former depot is today the Brownsville Historical Museum. It's open for business now, but the window boards are still up from the fear of Hurricane Dolly.

 

The structure was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

A visit to War Memorial Park in Coventry.

 

It is a short walk from Coventry Station via the Warwick Road.

 

I only walked around half of the park that day.

  

The War Memorial Park is a large park of about 48.5 hectares in southern Coventry, England. The park was opened in July 1921 as a tribute to the 2,587 Coventrians who died between 1914 and 1918 fighting in the First World War. The landscaped gardens and sports areas were created in the late-1920s and 1930s, and the most prominent structure in the park is the city's war memorial monument, built in 1927.

  

The War Memorial in the centre of the park.

 

Grade II* Listed Building

 

War Memorial in Coventry War Memorial Park

 

Summary

 

A War Memorial built in 1925-7 to a design by Thomas Francis Tickner (1864-1924).

Description

 

A War Memorial tower in Art Deco style, with stripped Classical detailing, built in 1925-7 to a design by Thomas Francis Tickner (1864-1924).

 

PLAN: the memorial tower has a square footprint and is set on a circular platform, which was rebuilt in 2011, and replaces the original octagonal shaped platform.

 

MATERIALS: the memorial tower is built of reinforced concrete and clad in Portland stone, with a stepped platform in granite.

 

EXTERIOR: the stepped tower is over 27m high. It has heavy buttresses to its corners, rising to ten tiers. Large, decorative bronze doors (restored in 2004) to both the east and west elevation, are set in plain chamfered Portland stone surrounds, and give access to the Chamber of Silence inside the tower. Each door contains, in relief, a full height cross with above it '1914-1918' and '1939-1945'. The north and south elevations each have a plain cross set on a stepped corbel with guttae. Below the cross on the north elevation is a circular wreath carved in stone, with the dates of both World Wars and the Coat of Arms of the City of Coventry below it. At the top of the tower burns an Eternal Light. The replaced steps of 2011, surrounding the monument, incorporate hand rails and an access ramp, and contain a bronze circle engraved with parts of Laurence Binyon's poem 'For the Fallen' and six bronze discs commemorating the Coventry service men who have been awarded the Victoria Cross.

 

INTERIOR: the Chamber of Silence inside the memorial tower, containing the Rolls of Honour, could not be inspected.

 

SUBSIDIARY FEATURES: there are four Portland stone pedestals, built in 1928 to support floodlights, standing in line with the corners of the memorial tower. Behind the pedestal north of the Memorial is a cast iron power supply junction box with decorative patterns and hinges to its door, which would supply the electricity for the floodlighting, and loudspeakers used on Armistice Sunday and/or other gatherings.

 

This List entry has been amended to add sources for War Memorials Online and the War Memorials Register. These sources were not used in the compilation of this List entry but are added here as a guide for further reading, 18 January 2017.

 

History

 

In 1919 Coventry City Council invited members of the local community to form a War Memorial Committee to consider ways to create a fitting memorial for the city to commemorate the local soldiers who had lost their lives in the First World War. It was decided that this should be a park, which would also be a welcome and valued new asset, as the provision for open space in Coventry was limited at the time. The favoured location was Stivichall, and in 1919 the land was purchased from the Hon AF Gregory following a public appeal for donations. The plans for the park were partly dictated by earlier features and in particular the course of a medieval track, which would divide a formal section from playing fields. The latter were assigned for games and physical recreation for which Coventry had scant provision in 1919. The formal area would include rock gardens, which utilised existing cattle ponds, and in the centre, a War Memorial with radiating avenues planted with memorial trees. A children’s playground, pavilions, shelters and refreshment rooms would also be provided. Due to a lack of funds and priorities elsewhere, such as local housing provision, the creation of the park would take over ten years. When the park was formally opened on 9 July 1921, which included a dedication and memorial service followed by folk dancing and races, only the preparation of the ground had been completed. In 1922 the path layout was agreed with the Council, and in 1923 it was decided that the main entrance should be at the Grove; that the War Memorial should be sited on the high ground in the centre of the park; and that memorial trees should be an important element within the design. Plans were also made for a pavilion with lavatory accommodation for which works started in 1924. By the end of that year a temporary bandstand that had been erected in the summer of 1923, and the Earlsdon Cricket Club pavilion were removed. Planting of the park started in the spring of 1925, and the avenues were opened that summer. On 8 October 1927, the War Memorial, built to a design by the local architect Thomas Francis Tickner, was opened by Earl Haig. In 1926 the City Engineer drew up plans for the main gates, which were completed a year later. On 25 February 1927 the Coventry Herald reported that the memorial had been partly finished, that the paths in the park were lined with copper beeches and that it included a beautiful rock garden, flower beds and shrubs. Golf was introduced in 1930 when a small golf course was laid out on land by the railway. In 1933 the City Engineer prepared plans for a shelter, tea room and conveniences, for which a classical style was chosen. Building work continued during 1934 and the pavilions were first used for the carnival in June 1935.

 

During the Second World War large sections of land in the park were ploughed and used for food cropping and demonstration allotments. As shown on aerial photographs taken in c1946-7, most of the mature trees in the playing fields had disappeared, possibly because of intensive sport use, but more likely because of the introduction of anti-aircraft guns in 1941, a row of concrete cubes (probably to defend an underground ammunition store situated in the park), trench shelters, and a roadway to allow military access to the pavilion. After the War in 1948-52, a memorial tree planting campaign took place to commemorate the local people who lost their lives in the Second World War, resulting in the planting of another avenue across the north of the golf course to the pavilion, and one near the Beechwood Avenue entrance, where by 1977 a car park had been created. In the early 1950s children’s facilities were developed in the park including play equipment and a paddling pool. In 1963, a German Peace Garden was opened to the north of the rock garden. In 1990 an aviary was introduced in one of the former tennis courts, and replacing a collection of war time huts that stood on this site.

 

Memorial tree planting continues (2012) and recently Coventry City Council has refurbished the park through joint funding from the BIG and Heritage Lottery Funds Parks for People Programme.

 

It was intended from the outset, apart from the planting of memorial trees, there should be a monument in Coventry's War Memorial Park. In 1923, the Memorial Committee had invited architects to submit plans. The selected design was by the local architect Thomas Francis Tickner (1864-1924), who died shortly afterwards, so the work was overseen by his partner TRJ Meakin. Funding for the memorial was achieved through a public appeal in 1924. Building works, carried out by John Gray, a local builder, started in the autumn of 1925. On 8 October 1927, the memorial was inaugurated by Field Marshall Douglas Haig. The Roll of Honour was to be housed in a cabinet in a room inside the memorial, to be called the Chamber of Silence. During the opening ceremony the monument was floodlit, and the power supply box was left in place so that it could be floodlit every year on Armistice Day. At the end of 1928, money became available to install decorative bronze clad doors to the Chamber of Silence, and permanent floodlighting pedestals were placed around the memorial. After the Second World War another Roll of Honour was added. The monument commemorates 2587 military victims of the First World War, and 817 casualties in the forces, 115 in civilian defence organisations and 1085 civilians of the Second World War. Soldiers who lost their lives in more recent conflicts, such as the Gulf War, have also been added to the Roll. In 2011 the tower was restored, and stepped platform to the monument replaced to incorporate railings and an access ramp.

 

Reasons for Listing

 

The War Memorial in Coventry War Memorial Park is designated at Grade II* for the following principal reasons:

Architectural interest: it is a particularly important example of a bespoke war memorial tower that is of an unusually bold and arresting Art Deco style design that displays high quality architectural detailing and use of materials and give this memorial more than special visual interest;

Historic Interest: especially in the context of Coventry, a city which suffered such great human loss in both World Wars, the war memorial possesses considerable historic and cultural interest for its link with these world conflicts and the poignant cost of such involvement, both at a local and national level;

Setting: its surrounding park (registered Grade II), specifically designed to complement the War Memorial, with formal avenues radiating from the war memorial, adds significantly to its high level of special interest;

Group Value: it forms an important group with the contemporary main entrance gates and piers to Coventry War Memorial Park (listed Grade II).

This structure is currently home to 9 FM stations and more. It is a 600' self-supporting ferro-concrete structure.

 

It is now 9 stations total - 8 stations on the combiner. 4 stations are doing HD, including KBOO. Six FM's get it together in a Shively balanced combiner with two more (including KBOO) feeding the wideband input using a branch combiner. It all feeds a Jampro Spiral antenna through MYAT 9-3/16" line. There is another FM station on a pipe above the main antenna using a Shively 1 bay 6810 DA.

This structure, built in 1876 with the designs of E.H. Dimick, is a contributing property to the 1980 listing of the Norlin Quadrangle Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places.

 

The University of Colorado Boulder (commonly referred to as CU or Colorado) is a public research university located in beautiful Boulder, Colorado. It is the flagship university of the University of Colorado system and was founded five months before Colorado was admitted to the Union in 1876.

 

Information from: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Colorado_Boulder

An old cotton warehouse, waiting to be rebuild. How to maintain a modern city: modern functions in old structures = no waste of space hand volumes wit respect for the past!

CAMERA: Canon NEW F1

LENS: Canon fd lens 50mm f/1,4 S.S.C.

FILM: Color negative cine-film Svema LN-7 ISO 32 38 exp. - negative scanning

FILM DEVELOPMENT: author's manual film development

ECN-2 handmade ki [10min 15sec 30 °C]

FILM SCANNED: OpticFilm Plustek 7400 with SilverFast Software

SHOOTING DATE: 6/2016

DEVELOPER DATE: 09/2016

TECHNIQUE: Multiple Exposure unedited.

NUMBER OF EXPOSURES: 3

NO POST-PROCESSING

OBJECT: MACBA Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona

PLACE: Barcelona, Spain 2016

 

A collaborative project combining photographs and an original music score.

Photography Derek Eyre

Music Paul Barker

First conceptional approach with the topic structure close-ups.

 

Shot with Nikon D5100.

ISO 1000

105 mm

f/5.6

1/320 sec

Editing in PS Lightroom 5.

struts were made by wrapping newspaper around dowels. for some struts, the dowel was left inside the rolled up newspaper.

Dancing Rabbit is located in a county that has no building codes, which gives members a great deal of leeway in deciding what to build. They do have an environmental covenant that disallows lumber, except for reclaimed lumber and locally harvested wood. Many structures utilize clay taken right out of the ground, often combined with hay bale construction.

 

In this particular photo, there's a converted bus dwelling in the foreground (to the left), a single family home in the middle, and a 6 bedroom hay bale building in the background.

Port Ludlow Resort, Port Ludlow, Washington

Liverpool's other Cathedral sits up the road from the huge Anglican Structure and is recognisable by it;s crown like lantern tower.

The Origin of the building dates to the Catholic population rise in the mid 19th-century. A decision was made for a Cathedral to be built by the then Bishop of Liverpool Alexander Goss. A few designs were drawn out including one from Edward Welby Pugin.

 

The crunch came when the well known architect Sir Edwin Lutyens designed an almighty building, it was to be possibly the biggest Cathedral to have been built in the British Isles, so big it was that St Paul's in London Would fit it inside perfectly. Lutyens design was chosen and construction was started in 1933. With the outbreak of WWII construction ceased and with the cost of building rising it was in the end abandoned with only the crypt having been started and finished.

 

Following this faliure another competition was held, Sir Frederick Gibberd became the new architect and construction was started in 1962 and finished 5 years later. The exterior is noted fro it's circular design and lantern tower. Inside is breathtaking with open space and a large collection of modern stained glass in the tower, designed by both John Piper and Patrick Reyntiens,

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral, one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3 (the other forms being the minerals calcite and vaterite). It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.

  

Aragonite Crystal Structure

The crystal lattice of aragonite differs from that of calcite, resulting in a different crystal shape, an orthorhombic crystal system with acicular crystal.[5] Repeated twinning results in pseudo-hexagonal forms. Aragonite may be columnar or fibrous, occasionally in branching helictitic forms called flos-ferri ("flowers of iron") from their association with the ores at the Carinthian iron mines.[6]

 

Occurrence

The type location for aragonite is Molina de Aragón in the Province of Guadalajara in Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, for which it was named in 1797.[7] Aragonite is found in this locality as cyclic twins inside gypsum and marls of the Keuper facies of the Triassic.[8] This type of aragonite deposit is very common in Spain, and there are also some in France.[6]

 

An aragonite cave, the Ochtinská Aragonite Cave, is situated in Slovakia.[9]

 

In the US, aragonite in the form of stalactites and "cave flowers" (anthodite) is known from Carlsbad Caverns and other caves.[10] For a few years in the early 1900s, aragonite was mined at Aragonite, Utah (now a ghost town).[11]

 

Massive deposits of oolitic aragonite sand are found on the seabed in the Bahamas.[12]

 

Aragonite is the high pressure polymorph of calcium carbonate. As such, it occurs in high pressure metamorphic rocks such as those formed at subduction zones.[13]

 

Aragonite forms naturally in almost all mollusk shells, and as the calcareous endoskeleton of warm- and cold-water corals (Scleractinia). Several serpulids have aragonitic tubes.[14] Because the mineral deposition in mollusk shells is strongly biologically controlled,[15] some crystal forms are distinctively different from those of inorganic aragonite.[16] In some mollusks, the entire shell is aragonite;[17] in others, aragonite forms only discrete parts of a bimineralic shell (aragonite plus calcite).[15] The nacreous layer of the aragonite fossil shells of some extinct ammonites forms an iridescent material called ammolite.[18]

 

Aragonite also forms naturally in the endocarp of Celtis occidentalis.[19]

 

Aragonite also forms in the ocean inorganic precipitates called marine cements (in the sediment) or as free crystals (in the water column).[20][21] Inorganic precipitation of aragonite in caves can occur in the form of speleothems.[22] Aragonite is common in serpentinites where magnesium-rich pore solutions apparently inhibit calcite growth and promote aragonite precipitation.[23]

 

Aragonite is metastable at the low pressures near the Earth's surface and is thus commonly replaced by calcite in fossils. Aragonite older than the Carboniferous is essentially unknown.[24] It can also be synthesized by adding a calcium chloride solution to a sodium carbonate solution at temperatures above 60 °C (140 °F) or in water-ethanol mixtures at ambient temperatures.[25]

 

Physical properties

Aragonite is not the thermodynamically stable phase of calcium carbonate at any pressure below about 3,000 bars (300,000 kPa) at any temperature.[26] Aragonite nonetheless frequently forms in near-surface environments at ambient temperatures. The weak Van der Waals forces inside aragonite give an important contribution to both the crystallographic and elastic properties of this mineral.[27] The difference in stability between aragonite and calcite, as measured by the Gibbs free energy of formation, is small, and effects of grain size and impurities can be important. The formation of aragonite at temperatures and pressures where calcite should be the stable polymorph may be an example of Ostwald's step rule, where a less stable phase is the first to form.[28] The presence of magnesium ions may inhibit calcite formation in favor of aragonite.[29] Once formed, aragonite tends to alter to calcite on scales of 107 to 108 years.[30] Comparing to the calcite, aragonite

 

The mineral vaterite, also known as μ-CaCO3, is another phase of calcium carbonate that is metastable at ambient conditions typical of Earth's surface, and decomposes even more readily than aragonite.[31][32]

 

Uses

In aquaria, aragonite is considered essential for the replication of reef conditions. Aragonite provides the materials necessary for much sea life and also keeps the pH of the water close to its natural level, to prevent the dissolution of biogenic calcium carbonate.[33]

 

Aragonite has been successfully tested for the removal of pollutants like zinc, cobalt and lead from contaminated wastewaters.[34]

 

Claims that magnetic water treatment can reduce scaling, by converting calcite to aragonite, have been met with skepticism,[35] but continue to be investigated.[36][37]

 

References

Warr, L.N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34876711/

geologyscience.com/minerals/aragonite/

www.mindat.org/min-307.html

Bragg, William Lawrence (1924-01-01). "The structure of aragonite". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 105 (729): 16–39. Bibcode:1924RSPSA.105...16B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1924.0002. ISSN 0950-1207.

Sinkankas, John (1964). Mineralogy for amateurs. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 371–372. ISBN 0442276249.

Cairncross, B.; McCarthy, T. (2015). Understanding Minerals & Crystals. Cape Town: Struik Nature. p. 187. ISBN 978-1-43170-084-4.

Calvo, Miguel (2012). Minerales y Minas de España. Vol. V. Carbonatos y Nitratos. Madrid: Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid. Fundación Gómez Pardo. pp. 314–398. ISBN 978-84-95063-98-4.

Pukanská, Katarína; Bartoš, Karol; Bella, Pavel; Gašinec, Juraj; Blistan, Peter; Kovanič, Ľudovít (4 July 2020). "Surveying and High-Resolution Topography of the Ochtiná Aragonite Cave Based on TLS and Digital Photogrammetry". Applied Sciences. 10 (13): 4633. doi:10.3390/app10134633.

Gonzalez, Luis A.; Lohmann, Kyger C. (1988). "Controls on Mineralogy and Composition of Spelean Carbonates: Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico". In James, Noel P.; Choquette, Philip W. (eds.). Paleokarst. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 81–101. doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-3748-8. ISBN 978-1-4612-3748-8.

Balaz, Christine (2009). An Explorer's Guide: Utah. Vermont: The Countryman Press. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-88150-738-6.

Newell, Norman D.; Purdy, Edward G.; Imbrie, John (1960). "Bahamian Oölitic Sand". The Journal of Geology. 68 (5): 481–497. Bibcode:1960JG.....68..481N. doi:10.1086/626683. ISSN 0022-1376. S2CID 129571671.

Nesse, William D. (2000). Introduction to mineralogy. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 336–337. ISBN 9780195106916.

Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 161–164. ISBN 0131547283.

Belcher, A. M.; Wu, X. H.; Christensen, R. J.; Hansma, P. K.; Stucky, G. D.; Morse, D. E. (May 1996). "Control of crystal phase switching and orientation by soluble mollusc-shell proteins". Nature. 381 (6577): 56–58. Bibcode:1996Natur.381...56B. doi:10.1038/381056a0. S2CID 4285912.

Chateigner, D.; Ouhenia, S.; Krauss, C.; Belkhir, M.; Morales, M. (February 2010). "Structural distortion of biogenic aragonite in strongly textured mollusc shell layers". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms. 268 (3–4): 341–345. Bibcode:2010NIMPB.268..341C. doi:10.1016/j.nimb.2009.07.007.

Loftus, Emma; Rogers, Keith; Lee-Thorp, Julia (November 2015). "A simple method to establish calcite:aragonite ratios in archaeological mollusc shells: CALCITE:ARAGONITE IN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SHELLS". Journal of Quaternary Science. 30 (8): 731–735. doi:10.1002/jqs.2819. S2CID 130591343.

Mychaluk, Keith A.; Levinson, Alfred A.; Hall, Russel L. (Spring 2001). "Ammolite: Iridescent fossilized ammonite from southern Alberta, Canada" (PDF). Gems & Gemology. 37 (1): 4–25. doi:10.5741/GEMS.37.1.4. Retrieved 1 August 2021.

Wang, Jang; Jahren, A. Hope; Amundsen, Ronald (1996). "Potential For [Carbon 14] Dating Of Biogenic Carbon In Hackberry (Celtis) Endocarps" (PDF). Quaternary Research. 47: 337–343. doi:10.1006/qres.1997.1894. S2CID 49232599.[permanent dead link]

Bialik, Or M.; Sisma-Ventura, Guy; Vogt-Vincent, Noam; Silverman, Jacob; Katz, Timor (24 September 2022). "Role of oceanic abiotic carbonate precipitation in future atmospheric CO2 regulation". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 15970. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-20446-7. PMC 9509385. PMID 36153366.

Tucker, Maurice E. (1990). Carbonate sedimentology. Oxford [England]: Blackwell Scientific Publications. ISBN 9781444314175.

Nesse 2000, p. 337.

Bonatti, E.; Lawrence, J.R.; Hamlyn, P.R.; Breger, D. (August 1980). "Aragonite from deep sea ultramafic rocks". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 44 (8): 1207–1214. Bibcode:1980GeCoA..44.1207B. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(80)90074-5.

Runnegar, B. (1987). "Shell microstructures of Cambrian molluscs replicated by phosphate". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 9 (4): 245–257. doi:10.1080/03115518508618971.

Sand, K.K., Rodriguez-Blanco, J.D., Makovicky, E., Benning, L.G. and Stipp, S. (2012) Crystallization of CaCO3 in water-ethanol mixtures: spherulitic growth, polymorph stabilization and morphology change. Crystal Growth & Design, 12, 842-853. doi:10.1021/cg2012342.

Carlson, W.D. (1980). "The calcite–aragonite equilibrium: effects of Sr substitution and anion orientational disorder". American Mineralogist. 65 (11–12): 1252–1262. Retrieved 31 July 2021.

Ulian, Gianfranco; Valdrè, Giovanni (2022-09-01). "Structural and elastic behaviour of aragonite at high-pressure: A contribution from first-principle simulations". Computational Materials Science. 212: 111600. doi:10.1016/j.commatsci.2022.111600. ISSN 0927-0256. S2CID 250059382.

Fyfe, W.S. (1964). "Calcite aragonite problem" (PDF). AAPG Bulletin. 48 (4): 526. Retrieved 31 July 2021.

Kitano, Yasushi; Park, Kilho; Hood, Donald W. (November 1962). "Pure aragonite synthesis". Journal of Geophysical Research. 67 (12): 4873–4874. Bibcode:1962JGR....67.4873K. doi:10.1029/JZ067i012p04873.

Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980). Origin of sedimentary rocks (2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0136427103.

Ni, M.; Ratner, B.D. (2008). "Differentiation of Calcium Carbonate Polymorphs by Surface Analysis Techniques – An XPS and TOF-SIMS study". Surf. Interface Anal. 40 (10): 1356–1361. doi:10.1002/sia.2904. PMC 4096336. PMID 25031482.

Kamiya, Kanichi; Sakka, Sumio; Terada, Katsuyuki (November 1977). "Aragonite formation through precipitation of calcium carbonate monohydrate". Materials Research Bulletin. 12 (11): 1095–1102. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(77)90038-1.

Orr, J. C., et al. (2005) Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the 21st century and its impact on calcifying organisms. Nature 437: 681-686

Köhler, S., Cubillas, et al. (2007) Removal of cadmium from wastewaters by aragonite shells and the influence of other divalent cations. Environmental Science and Technology, 41, 112-118. doi:10.1021/es060756j

Krauter, PW; Harrar, JE; Orloff, SP; Bahowick, SM (1996). "Test of a Magnetic Device for Amelioration of Scale Formation at Treatment Facility D" (PDF). Internal Report. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. doi:10.2172/567404. OSTI 567404. Retrieved 2009-12-11.

Coey, J.M.D. (November 2012). "Magnetic water treatment – how might it work?". Philosophical Magazine. 92 (31): 3857–3865. Bibcode:2012PMag...92.3857C. doi:10.1080/14786435.2012.685968. S2CID 96367372.

Kozic, Viljem; Hamler, Anton; Ban, Irena; Lipus, Lucija C. (October 2010). "Magnetic water treatment for scale control in heating and alkaline conditions". Desalination and Water Treatment. 22 (1–3): 65–71. doi:10.5004/dwt.2010.1549.

soccer mom wanna be

North of the SE Tacoma St/Johnson Creek Station, the light rail tracks will travel on a structure that carries trains over the ramp connecting Tacoma Street to McLoughlin Boulevard/Hwy 99E. The concrete girders of the structure are the white lines just north of Tacoma Street in this photograph.

Niofoin / Nionfoin / Nioufouin (etc many various spellings seen) between Boundiali and Korhogo is famous for its Senoufo mudbrick fetish houses.

 

In the Niboladala neighborhood, the origin of Niofoin, most of the structures are traditional mud huts with thatched roofs. Among the elongated and peaked mud barns / granaries, typical in this region of Africa, and the huts of the neighbors of Niboladaba, there are two buildings known as the “fetish houses” with their imposing thick straw roofs rising higher than the others. These two monumental sacred houses guard the two fetishes that protect the town; Diby and Kalegbin. (NB - there is some interesting information on this village on the following website: kumakonda.com/en/niofoin-ivory-coast/ )

 

A stupa (Chorten in Tibetan) (Sanskrit: m.,stūpa "heap") is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing śarīra "relics", typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns, used as a place of meditation.

 

DESCRIPTION AND HISTORY

Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a seated position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier. It is likely that before this time, stupas were built with non-durable materials such as wood, or even as just burial mounds, little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments. However, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE. These are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes. These stupas replicated older stupas made of wood in stone. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating the previous wooden parts.

 

The stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between the stupa and the pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is used for a Buddhist structure of India or Southeast Asia while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be secular in purpose.

 

Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later on, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world.

 

NOTABLE STUPAS

The tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres The Swat Valley hosts one of the well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay and another stupa is located near Barikot in Pakistan. In Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya.

 

The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, Indonesia. The upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is only the crown part of the monument, while the base is pyramidal structure elaborate with galleries adorned with bas relief of scenes derived from Buddhist text depicted the life of Gautama Buddha. Borobudur's unique and significant architecture has been acknowledge by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world.

 

TYPES OF STUPAS

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into five types:

 

Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples and lay saints are interred.

Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.

Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.

Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobuddur is considered to be the symbol of "the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) in a Mahayana bodhisattva's character."

Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually at the site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

 

SYMBOLISM

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne."

 

FIVE PURIFIED ELEMENTS

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements:

 

The square base represents earth

The hemispherical dome/vase represents water

The conical spire represents fire

The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air

The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space

 

CONSTRUCTION

To build a stupa, transmissions and ceremonies from a Buddhist teacher is necessary. Which kind of Stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type of stupa chosen is directly connected with events that have taken place in the area.

 

TREASURY

All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called tsatsas in Tibetan fill a major part of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls, and put into these small clay stupas. Filling the treasury, one layer of Tsa-Tsas are placed, and the empty space between is filled with dry sand. On the new surface appearing, another layer is made, until the entire space of a treasury is full.

 

The number of tsatsas are dependent on the size of both the treasury and tsatsa, since it should be completely filled. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain has approximately 14,000 tsatsas within.

 

Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary that the jewelry be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price. It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the Stupa will be.

 

TREE OF LIVE

A very important element in every Stupa is the Tree of Life. It is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras, and placed in the central channel of the stupa. It is placed here during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged up, and will start to function.

 

BENEFITS

Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action will result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, and being attractive and bringing joy to others and having a long and happy life, in which one's wishes are fulfilled quickly. On the absolute level, one will also be able to reach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism, quickly.

 

Destroying a stupa on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to killing. Such an action is explained to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to massive future problems. It is said this action will leave the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths.

 

TIBETAN STUPAS

There are eight different kinds of stupas in Tibetan Buddhism, each referring to major events in the Buddha's life.

 

LOTUS BLOSSOM STUPA

Also known as "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses" or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa," this stupa refers to the birth of Gautama Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions" (East, South, West and North). In each direction lotuses sprang, symbolizing the brahmavihāras: love, compassion, joy and equanimity. The four steps of the basis of this stupa is circular, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha.

 

ENLIGHTENMENT STUPA

Also known as the Stupa of the Conquest of Mara. This stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under the bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks manifesting in the form of Mara.

 

STUPA OF MANY DOORS

Also known as the Stupa of Many Gates. After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer-park near Sarnath. The series of doors on each side of the steps represent the first teachings: the Four Noble Truths, the Six Pāramitās, the Noble Eightfold Path and the Twelve Nidānas.

 

STUPA OF DESCENT FROM THE GOD REALM

At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in the Tuṣita Heaven where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness he taught the dharma to her reincarnation. Local inhabitants built a stupa like this in Sankassa in order to commemorate this event. This stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side containing a triple ladder or steps.

 

STUPA OF GREAT MIRACLES

Also known as Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas. This stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered maras and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the Lichavi kingdom to commemorate the event.

 

STUPA OF RECONCILIATION

This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among the sangha. A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of Magadha, where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides.

 

STUPA OF COMPLETE VICTORY

This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned.

 

STUPA OF NIRVANA

This stupa refers to the death of the Buddha, when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes the Buddha's complete absorption into the highest state of mind. It is bell-shaped and usually not ornamented.

 

KALACHAKRA STUPA

A ninth kind of stupa exists, the Kalachakra stupa. Its symbolism is not connected to events in the Buddha's life, but instead to the symbolism of the Kalachakra Tantra, created to protect against negative energies.

 

SWAT DISTRICT

Swat District is a small place with large number of ancient Stupas.

 

WIKIPEDIA

An overhead view of progress on the construction progress on the Tacoma structure. The rectangular forms on the face of the structure indicates where light rail will be attached.

 

Licensed for all uses by TriMet.

Built in 1822, this Federal and Greek Revival-style house was built for Henry P. Wilcox, whom served as the postmaster of Marietta, and was purchased by General Henry P. Wilcox in 1837, remaining in the Wilcox family until the 1930s. Between 1837 and 1850, the house was renovated multiple times, adding the Greek Revival-style portico and additional wings to the rear, expanding it to its present size and form. The house is clad in flemish bond brick with a front-gable roof, a two-story gabled rear ell, twelve-over-twelve, six-over-six, and three-over-three double-hung windows, entrance doors with fanlight transoms, a two-story front portico with doric columns, and a fanlight attic window on the front gable. The building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, and is a contributing structure in the Marietta Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974, and expanded to its present size in 2001. Since 1937, the house has served as the official home of the President of Marietta College.

Located approximately 50 miles south of Milwaukee, Wisconsin and 40 miles north of Chicago, the Zion facility is in the process of being decommissioned. Eventually, the whole structure will be removed even desks and chairs, in short, anything at all that might even have the slightest radioactive contamination; and there will be objects that have it.

 

The issue here is nuclear plant safety and it applies to all facilities no matter where they are located. The Zion plant is a good example of the numerous issues involved. For instance, what if there had been a situation similar to Fukushima? A double reactor core meltdown and spent fuel pool damage with massive, potentially catastrophic radiation release in a geographical area with a huge population, one much larger than in Fukushima prefecture. How would you protect people or evacuate before they were overtaken by a plume of radiation containing cancer causing fission products like cesium-137 and iodine-131?

 

Nuclear plants are built on 'design-basis' contingencies. In other words, what the company, NRC, the state in which it is located, and other stakeholders think is likely to happen accident-wise. At Fukushima it was not thought there could ever be a combination of earthquake magnitude 9.0 and a massive tsunami capable of inundating the coastline even though there was historical proof that that area had suffered from massive tsunamis in the past. Consequently, the seawall was not high enough to fight off the tsunami wave that flooded the entire plant and knocked out all power, creating what is known as 'station blackout' where all AC power has been lost. The wave also knocked out the on-site DC generators. With no power the molten reactor core began to boil off the cooling water. The severity of the natural event destroyed nearby roads and infrastructure creating chaos, leaving the facility pretty much isolated. The water boiled away and core meltdown began.

 

There is a strong argument that all facilities should be constructed on a 'beyond-design-basis' plan. In other words, try to factor in the seeming improbable, unlikely set of events, especially with emphasis on maintaining DC power for days and not just hours in case of a severe accident.

 

As you can see from the images, the Zion facility looks very vulnerable. The Lake Michigan water level is low, but what is there to prevent it from rising? There's no seawall there to deflect the water. Granted, it is unlikely there could be a tsunami in the lake, but there could be other ways the lake could suddenly rise and flood the plant. This is especially true of other still operating plants that are downstream from dams. What if the dam burst?

 

LaSalle, Illinois has a boiling water reactor similar to the ones at Fukushima. Could it withstand an F5 tornado? An F5 hit the south suburbs of Chicago in 1990. And the tornado would not have to strike the plant directly. It could knock out all AC power and cripple the plant. Would they be able to maintain cooling long enough before core meltdown began? A fifty mile evacuation zone around LaSalle includes all but the far northern suburbs of Chicago. The plant is built of concrete and reinforced steel; but the winds of an F5 tornado are around 250 to 300 miles an hour. We've all seen news footage of what destruction a tornado can cause. Hard to believe there's any facility that could survive a storm of that ferocity. Don't want to think about that scenario.

 

The nuclear industry is privately owned and operated for profit. Would companies make very expensive safety improvements if it hurts the precious bottom line? I think the answer to that is pretty clear.

 

So we all need to be very concerned about what is happening in this industry. Almost every plant in the country, and probably the world, has had some type of accident or radiation release. The chances of accidents happening are numerous, including weather events, fire, equipment failure, aging equipment and, perhaps most importantly of all, human error and the sometimes frailty of the human condition. For instance, the manager of one unnamed plant came to work drunk. A security guard at another once shot himself in the foot. In what is termed force-on-force security testing plant 'invaders', or 'intruders' sometimes win the contest with the security guards and enter the facility.

 

Back to safety one more time. Spent fuel pools. The spent fuel must be kept cool. The Unit 4 pool at Fukushima is said to have contained 14,000 the amount of radiation released by the Hiroshima atomic bomb. In the United States the tendency is to pack the fuel more densely into the pools to the amount of five times that of Fukushima Unit 4. Do the math.

 

The Zion plant still has 1500 tons of spent fuel in its pool. Eventually, it is slated to be transferred, or is already being transferred, to dry cask strorage which will be kept on-site and under armed guard indefinitely. Dry casks are concrete and steel containers that are air-cooled.

 

Information gleaned from the following sources:

 

Dr. Helen Caldicott and Nuclear Free Planet. org;

 

Beyond Nuclear.org

 

Union of Concerned Scientists.org and the book entitled 'Fukushima: The Story of a Nuclear Disaster

 

NEIS.org

 

and various other sources too numerous to mention.

 

A 'good' documentary to watch is called Chernobyl Heart. You can find it on You Tube.

Dancing Rabbit is located in a county that has no building codes, which gives members a great deal of leeway in deciding what to build. They do have an environmental covenant that disallows lumber, except for reclaimed lumber and locally harvested wood. Many structures utilize clay taken right out of the ground, often combined with hay bale construction.

 

This picture shows an individual's "summer cottage" made of reclaimed lumber.

This is a Technic communitarian project of my LUG Comunidade 0937, the final build will be an automated Oil Rig, mean while as you can see it is a work in progress. This is a project that started in 2013 with an early version and we aim to have the final version completed in June 2015.

Davis Rd

Outbuilding

Corinth Holders, Antioch, Zebulon, JCEMS, ES2

©AVucha 2014

On May 11th at 11:41am, the McHenry Township Fire Protection District responded to 1304 N. Park St. for a reported structure fire. Caller advised they smell smoke and possibly see flames on the roof.

 

At 11:55am, MTFPD activated MABAS Box #5-1241 to the second level for the structure fire.

Units Due:

Engines: McHenry, Richmond, Wauconda, Fox River Grove, Nunda Rural

Tenders: Fox Lake

Squads: Wonder Lake

EMS: McHenry, Lakewood

Chiefs: Spring Grove, Richmond, Wonder Lake, Crystal Lake

Special Equipment: Rehab North, Salvation Army Canteen

Change of Quarters (St.#): Cary Engine and Chief (1), Woodstock EMS (1), Lake Villa Engine (2), Spring Grove EMS (2)

 

At 12:34pm, the MTFPD upgraded MABAS Box #5-1241 to the third level for the structure fire.

Units Due:

Engines: Grayslake, Algonquin, Antioch

Trucks: Round Lake

Squads: Marengo

EMS: Huntley

Chiefs: Fox Lake, Wauconda

Special Equipment: Air 5, UCP 13

 

At 1:17pm, the MTFPD struck out MABAS Box #5-1241 by the authority of command.

 

News obtained from the Northwest Herald: McHENRY – A structure fire at the Polish Legion of American Veterans on 1304 Park St. in McHenry took roughly two and a half hours to extinguish Sunday afternoon, but no one was injured during the annual Mother's Day brunch.

McHenry Township Fire Battalion Chief Joe Krueger said firefighters received a call at 11:41 a.m. for the fire, which was called in while members of the post were cooking for a Mother's Day brunch. Krueger said a Level 3 MABAS box alert was called, bringing assistance from multiple departments in Lake and McHenry counties.

With heavy smoke coming through the roof, McHenry Township Fire Chief Tony Huemann said the first wave of firefighters made an aggressive move and ran hoses inside the building before Krueger deemed the situation too dangerous and pulled out the firefighters. Responders then fought the blaze defensively from the outside of the building, Huemann said.

No civilians or firefighters were injured and the fire was contained to the single building. Some emergency crews began to leave the scene at 3 p.m. The building has "substantial" damage, Krueger said, with most of the back and back roof completely destroyed.

Dan Lisi, first vice commander of Polish Legion of American Veterans Post 188, said he and other members were cooking a Mother's Day brunch at the same time a roofing company was doing work on the building when a breaker popped around 11:30 a.m.

Other breakers started popping and the fire started, Lisi said. He said 70 people were inside the hall, and everybody exited safely and without injury.

Krueger said the cause of the fire is still under investigation. Representatives from the roofing company on scene declined to comment.

Lisi said the post has 144 members and has been in the building since 1980.

8-10-2015

Meadowbrook Rd

Meadow, Stricklands Crossroads, Blackman's Crossroads, Newton Grove, Bentonville

JCEMS

Plant cell structure, vector illustration (Helpful for Education & Schools)

Got a couple Superball sets from Amazing Magnets. Lit with a green laser.

www.stangrecka.com/

У каждого камня свой рисунок - Each stone has its own surface structure

The Kard Bar Fire on January 12, 2015, in Cross Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne & Wear, England, was a significant event that had a profound impact on the local community and garnered national attention. The fire, which engulfed the iconic Kard Bar music store, marked the end of an era and left a lasting legacy in the city's history.

 

The Kard Bar was a well-known institution in Newcastle upon Tyne, particularly among music enthusiasts. Located in the heart of the city, the store served as a cultural hub and a gathering place for generations of music lovers. The store was renowned for its vast collection of vinyl records, CDs, and other music memorabilia, attracting customers from all walks of life.

 

On that fateful day, January 12, 2015, a fire broke out at the Kard Bar, quickly spreading through the premises. The fire was first reported in the early morning hours, and the emergency services were alerted promptly. Firefighters from the Tyne and Wear Fire and Rescue Service rushed to the scene to combat the blaze and prevent it from spreading to neighboring properties.

 

Despite the firefighters' valiant efforts, the fire raged on, fueled by the store's extensive stock of music records and CDs. The iconic wooden structure of the building, along with its accumulated stock, made it difficult for the firefighters to gain control over the inferno. The blaze consumed the entire store, reducing it to ashes within hours.

 

As news of the fire spread throughout Newcastle and beyond, an outpouring of grief and shock swept across the city. The Kard Bar held a special place in the hearts of many, who mourned the loss of a cherished landmark. The store had become synonymous with the vibrant music scene of the city, and its demise marked the end of an era.

 

In the aftermath of the fire, investigations were launched to determine the cause of the incident. The authorities worked tirelessly to piece together the events leading up to the fire. Ultimately, it was revealed that an electrical fault in the building's wiring was the likely cause. The age of the structure and its outdated electrical systems contributed to the rapid spread of the fire.

 

The loss of the Kard Bar was deeply felt by both the local community and the wider music industry. Musicians, artists, and fans rallied together to express their support and solidarity. Benefit concerts and fundraising initiatives were organized to help the store owners and employees recover from the devastating incident. The overwhelming response demonstrated the profound impact the Kard Bar had on the lives of countless individuals.

 

In the years following the fire, the Kard Bar's legacy lived on through the memories and stories shared by those who had visited the store. The music community in Newcastle united to honor the store's memory and preserve its spirit. Local artists dedicated their performances to the Kard Bar, ensuring that its influence would endure.

 

The Kard Bar Fire also highlighted the importance of fire safety regulations and the need for improved infrastructure maintenance. The incident prompted authorities to review safety protocols, particularly in heritage buildings, to prevent similar tragedies from occurring in the future. The fire served as a wake-up call for both the city of Newcastle and other communities across the country to prioritize the preservation of cultural landmarks and implement effective fire prevention measures.

 

Today, the site where the Kard Bar once stood remains a poignant reminder of the store's rich history and the impact it had on Newcastle's music scene. The memories and stories associated with the Kard Bar continue to resonate, ensuring that its spirit remains alive in the hearts of those who cherished it. The Kard Bar Fire of January 12, 2015, remains a significant event in the city's history, forever etched in the collective memory of Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

Newcastle upon Tyne, or simply Newcastle is a cathedral city and metropolitan borough in Tyne and Wear, England. It is located on the River Tyne's northern bank, opposite Gateshead to the south. It is the most populous settlement in the Tyneside conurbation and North East England.

 

Newcastle developed around a Roman settlement called Pons Aelius, the settlement became known as Monkchester before taking on the name of a castle built in 1080 by William the Conqueror's eldest son, Robert Curthose. It was one of the world's largest ship building and repair centres during the industrial revolution. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it separated and formed a county of itself. In 1974, Newcastle became part of Tyne and Wear. Since 2018, the city council has been part of the North of Tyne Combined Authority.

 

The history of Newcastle upon Tyne dates back almost 2,000 years, during which it has been controlled by the Romans, the Angles and the Norsemen amongst others. Newcastle upon Tyne was originally known by its Roman name Pons Aelius. The name "Newcastle" has been used since the Norman conquest of England. Due to its prime location on the River Tyne, the town developed greatly during the Middle Ages and it was to play a major role in the Industrial Revolution, being granted city status in 1882. Today, the city is a major retail, commercial and cultural centre.

 

Roman settlement

The history of Newcastle dates from AD 122, when the Romans built the first bridge to cross the River Tyne at that point. The bridge was called Pons Aelius or 'Bridge of Aelius', Aelius being the family name of Roman Emperor Hadrian, who was responsible for the Roman wall built across northern England along the Tyne–Solway gap. Hadrian's Wall ran through present-day Newcastle, with stretches of wall and turrets visible along the West Road, and at a temple in Benwell. Traces of a milecastle were found on Westgate Road, midway between Clayton Street and Grainger Street, and it is likely that the course of the wall corresponded to present-day Westgate Road. The course of the wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort at Wallsend, with the fort of Arbeia down-river at the mouth of the Tyne, on the south bank in what is now South Shields. The Tyne was then a wider, shallower river at this point and it is thought that the bridge was probably about 700 feet (210 m) long, made of wood and supported on stone piers. It is probable that it was sited near the current Swing Bridge, due to the fact that Roman artefacts were found there during the building of the latter bridge. Hadrian himself probably visited the site in 122. A shrine was set up on the completed bridge in 123 by the 6th Legion, with two altars to Neptune and Oceanus respectively. The two altars were subsequently found in the river and are on display in the Great North Museum in Newcastle.

 

The Romans built a stone-walled fort in 150 to protect the river crossing which was at the foot of the Tyne Gorge, and this took the name of the bridge so that the whole settlement was known as Pons Aelius. The fort was situated on a rocky outcrop overlooking the new bridge, on the site of the present Castle Keep. Pons Aelius is last mentioned in 400, in a Roman document listing all of the Roman military outposts. It is likely that nestling in the shadow of the fort would have been a small vicus, or village. Unfortunately, no buildings have been detected; only a few pieces of flagging. It is clear that there was a Roman cemetery near Clavering Place, behind the Central station, as a number of Roman coffins and sarcophagi have been unearthed there.

 

Despite the presence of the bridge, the settlement of Pons Aelius was not particularly important among the northern Roman settlements. The most important stations were those on the highway of Dere Street running from Eboracum (York) through Corstopitum (Corbridge) and to the lands north of the Wall. Corstopitum, being a major arsenal and supply centre, was much larger and more populous than Pons Aelius.

 

Anglo-Saxon development

The Angles arrived in the North-East of England in about 500 and may have landed on the Tyne. There is no evidence of an Anglo-Saxon settlement on or near the site of Pons Aelius during the Anglo-Saxon age. The bridge probably survived and there may well have been a small village at the northern end, but no evidence survives. At that time the region was dominated by two kingdoms, Bernicia, north of the Tees and ruled from Bamburgh, and Deira, south of the Tees and ruled from York. Bernicia and Deira combined to form the kingdom of Northanhymbra (Northumbria) early in the 7th century. There were three local kings who held the title of Bretwalda – 'Lord of Britain', Edwin of Deira (627–632), Oswald of Bernicia (633–641) and Oswy of Northumbria (641–658). The 7th century became known as the 'Golden Age of Northumbria', when the area was a beacon of culture and learning in Europe. The greatness of this period was based on its generally Christian culture and resulted in the Lindisfarne Gospels amongst other treasures. The Tyne valley was dotted with monasteries, with those at Monkwearmouth, Hexham and Jarrow being the most famous. Bede, who was based at Jarrow, wrote of a royal estate, known as Ad Murum, 'at the Wall', 12 miles (19 km) from the sea. It is thought that this estate may have been in what is now Newcastle. At some unknown time, the site of Newcastle came to be known as Monkchester. The reason for this title is unknown, as we are unaware of any specific monasteries at the site, and Bede made no reference to it. In 875 Halfdan Ragnarsson, the Danish Viking conqueror of York, led an army that attacked and pillaged various monasteries in the area, and it is thought that Monkchester was also pillaged at this time. Little more was heard of it until the coming of the Normans.

 

Norman period

After the arrival of William the Conqueror in England in 1066, the whole of England was quickly subjected to Norman rule. However, in Northumbria there was great resistance to the Normans, and in 1069 the newly appointed Norman Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Comines and 700 of his men were killed by the local population at Durham. The Northumbrians then marched on York, but William was able to suppress the uprising. That same year, a second uprising occurred when a Danish fleet landed in the Humber. The Northumbrians again attacked York and destroyed the garrison there. William was again able to suppress the uprising, but this time he took revenge. He laid waste to the whole of the Midlands and the land from York to the Tees. In 1080, William Walcher, the Norman bishop of Durham and his followers were brutally murdered at Gateshead. This time Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William's half brother, devastated the land between the Tees and the Tweed. This was known as the 'Harrying of the North'. This devastation is reflected in the Domesday Book. The destruction had such an effect that the North remained poor and backward at least until Tudor times and perhaps until the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle suffered in this respect with the rest of the North.

 

In 1080 William sent his eldest son, Robert Curthose, north to defend the kingdom against the Scots. After his campaign, he moved to Monkchester and began the building of a 'New Castle'. This was of the "motte-and-bailey" type of construction, a wooden tower on top of an earthen mound (motte), surrounded by a moat and wooden stockade (bailey). It was this castle that gave Newcastle its name. In 1095 the Earl of Northumbria, Robert de Mowbray, rose up against the king, William Rufus, and Rufus sent an army north to recapture the castle. From then on the castle became crown property and was an important base from which the king could control the northern barons. The Northumbrian earldom was abolished and a Sheriff of Northumberland was appointed to administer the region. In 1091 the parish church of St Nicholas was consecrated on the site of the present Anglican cathedral, close by the bailey of the new castle. The church is believed to have been a wooden building on stone footings.

 

Not a trace of the tower or mound of the motte and bailey castle remains now. Henry II replaced it with a rectangular stone keep, which was built between 1172 and 1177 at a cost of £1,444. A stone bailey, in the form of a triangle, replaced the previous wooden one. The great outer gateway to the castle, called 'the Black Gate', was built later, between 1247 and 1250, in the reign of Henry III. There were at that time no town walls and when attacked by the Scots, the townspeople had to crowd into the bailey for safety. It is probable that the new castle acted as a magnet for local merchants because of the safety it provided. This in turn would help to expand trade in the town. At this time wool, skins and lead were being exported, whilst alum, pepper and ginger were being imported from France and Flanders.

 

Middle Ages

Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress, the centre for assembled armies. The Border war against Scotland lasted intermittently for several centuries – possibly the longest border war ever waged. During the civil war between Stephen and Matilda, David 1st of Scotland and his son were granted Cumbria and Northumberland respectively, so that for a period from 1139 to 1157, Newcastle was effectively in Scottish hands. It is believed that during this period, King David may have built the church of St Andrew and the Benedictine nunnery in Newcastle. However, King Stephen's successor, Henry II was strong enough to take back the Earldom of Northumbria from Malcolm IV.

 

The Scots king William the Lion was imprisoned in Newcastle, in 1174, after being captured at the Battle of Alnwick. Edward I brought the Stone of Scone and William Wallace south through the town and Newcastle was successfully defended against the Scots three times during the 14th century.

 

Around 1200, stone-faced, clay-filled jetties were starting to project into the river, an indication that trade was increasing in Newcastle. As the Roman roads continued to deteriorate, sea travel was gaining in importance. By 1275 Newcastle was the sixth largest wool exporting port in England. The principal exports at this time were wool, timber, coal, millstones, dairy produce, fish, salt and hides. Much of the developing trade was with the Baltic countries and Germany. Most of the Newcastle merchants were situated near the river, below the Castle. The earliest known charter was dated 1175 in the reign of Henry II, giving the townspeople some control over their town. In 1216 King John granted Newcastle a mayor[8] and also allowed the formation of guilds (known as Mysteries). These were cartels formed within different trades, which restricted trade to guild members. There were initially twelve guilds. Coal was being exported from Newcastle by 1250, and by 1350 the burgesses received a royal licence to export coal. This licence to export coal was jealously guarded by the Newcastle burgesses, and they tried to prevent any one else on the Tyne from exporting coal except through Newcastle. The burgesses similarly tried to prevent fish from being sold anywhere else on the Tyne except Newcastle. This led to conflicts with Gateshead and South Shields.

 

In 1265, the town was granted permission to impose a 'Wall Tax' or Murage, to pay for the construction of a fortified wall to enclose the town and protect it from Scottish invaders. The town walls were not completed until early in the 14th century. They were two miles (3 km) long, 9 feet (2.7 m) thick and 25 feet (7.6 m) high. They had six main gates, as well as some smaller gates, and had 17 towers. The land within the walls was divided almost equally by the Lort Burn, which flowed southwards and joined the Tyne to the east of the Castle. The town began to expand north of the Castle and west of the Lort Burn with various markets being set up within the walls.

 

In 1400 Henry IV granted a new charter, creating a County corporate which separated the town, but not the Castle, from the county of Northumberland and recognised it as a "county of itself" with a right to have a sheriff of its own. The burgesses were now allowed to choose six aldermen who, with the mayor would be justices of the peace. The mayor and sheriff were allowed to hold borough courts in the Guildhall.

 

Religious houses

During the Middle Ages a number of religious houses were established within the walls: the first of these was the Benedictine nunnery of St Bartholomew founded in 1086 near the present-day Nun Street. Both David I of Scotland and Henry I of England were benefactors of the religious house. Nothing of the nunnery remains now.

 

The friary of Blackfriars, Newcastle (Dominican) was established in 1239. These were also known as the Preaching Friars or Shod Friars, because they wore sandals, as opposed to other orders. The friary was situated in the present-day Friars Street. In 1280 the order was granted royal permission to make a postern in the town walls to communicate with their gardens outside the walls. On 19 June 1334, Edward Balliol, claimant to be King of Scotland, did homage to King Edward III, on behalf of the kingdom of Scotland, in the church of the friary. Much of the original buildings of the friary still exist, mainly because, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries the friary of Blackfriars was rented out by the corporation to nine of the local trade guilds.

 

The friary of Whitefriars (Carmelite) was established in 1262. The order was originally housed on the Wall Knoll in Pandon, but in 1307 it took over the buildings of another order, which went out of existence, the Friars of the Sac. The land, which had originally been given by Robert the Bruce, was situated in the present-day Hanover Square, behind the Central station. Nothing of the friary remains now.

 

The friary of Austinfriars (Augustinian) was established in 1290. The friary was on the site where the Holy Jesus Hospital was built in 1682. The friary was traditionally the lodging place of English kings whenever they visited or passed through Newcastle. In 1503 Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII of England, stayed two days at the friary on her way to join her new husband James IV of Scotland.

 

The friary of Greyfriars (Franciscans) was established in 1274. The friary was in the present-day area between Pilgrim Street, Grey Street, Market Street and High Chare. Nothing of the original buildings remains.

 

The friary of the Order of the Holy Trinity, also known as the Trinitarians, was established in 1360. The order devoted a third of its income to buying back captives of the Saracens, during the Crusades. Their house was on the Wall Knoll, in Pandon, to the east of the city, but within the walls. Wall Knoll had previously been occupied by the White Friars until they moved to new premises in 1307.

 

All of the above religious houses were closed in about 1540, when Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries.

 

An important street running through Newcastle at the time was Pilgrim Street, running northwards inside the walls and leading to the Pilgrim Gate on the north wall. The street still exists today as arguably Newcastle's main shopping street.

 

Tudor period

The Scottish border wars continued for much of the 16th century, so that during that time, Newcastle was often threatened with invasion by the Scots, but also remained important as a border stronghold against them.

 

During the Reformation begun by Henry VIII in 1536, the five Newcastle friaries and the single nunnery were dissolved and the land was sold to the Corporation and to rich merchants. At this time there were fewer than 60 inmates of the religious houses in Newcastle. The convent of Blackfriars was leased to nine craft guilds to be used as their headquarters. This probably explains why it is the only one of the religious houses whose building survives to the present day. The priories at Tynemouth and Durham were also dissolved, thus ending the long-running rivalry between Newcastle and the church for control of trade on the Tyne. A little later, the property of the nunnery of St Bartholomew and of Grey Friars were bought by Robert Anderson, who had the buildings demolished to build his grand Newe House (also known as Anderson Place).

 

With the gradual decline of the Scottish border wars the town walls were allowed to decline as well as the castle. By 1547, about 10,000 people were living in Newcastle. At the beginning of the 16th century exports of wool from Newcastle were more than twice the value of exports of coal, but during the century coal exports continued to increase.

 

Under Edward VI, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, sponsored an act allowing Newcastle to annexe Gateshead as its suburb. The main reason for this was to allow the Newcastle Hostmen, who controlled the export of Tyne coal, to get their hands on the Gateshead coal mines, previously controlled by the Bishop of Durham. However, when Mary I came to power, Dudley met his downfall and the decision was reversed. The Reformation allowed private access to coal mines previously owned by Tynemouth and Durham priories and as a result coal exports increase dramatically, from 15,000 tons in 1500 to 35,000 tons in 1565, and to 400,000 tons in 1625.

 

The plague visited Newcastle four times during the 16th century, in 1579 when 2,000 people died, in 1589 when 1700 died, in 1595 and finally in 1597.

 

In 1600 Elizabeth I granted Newcastle a charter for an exclusive body of electors, the right to elect the mayor and burgesses. The charter also gave the Hostmen exclusive rights to load coal at any point on the Tyne. The Hostmen developed as an exclusive group within the Merchant Adventurers who had been incorporated by a charter in 1547.

 

Stuart period

In 1636 there was a serious outbreak of bubonic plague in Newcastle. There had been several previous outbreaks of the disease over the years, but this was the most serious. It is thought to have arrived from the Netherlands via ships that were trading between the Tyne and that country. It first appeared in the lower part of the town near the docks but gradually spread to all parts of the town. As the disease gained hold the authorities took measures to control it by boarding up any properties that contained infected persons, meaning that whole families were locked up together with the infected family members. Other infected persons were put in huts outside the town walls and left to die. Plague pits were dug next to the town's four churches and outside the town walls to receive the bodies in mass burials. Over the course of the outbreak 5,631 deaths were recorded out of an estimated population of 12,000, a death rate of 47%.

 

In 1637 Charles I tried to raise money by doubling the 'voluntary' tax on coal in return for allowing the Newcastle Hostmen to regulate production and fix prices. This caused outrage amongst the London importers and the East Anglian shippers. Both groups decided to boycott Tyne coal and as a result forced Charles to reverse his decision in 1638.

 

In 1640 during the Second Bishops' War, the Scots successfully invaded Newcastle. The occupying army demanded £850 per day from the Corporation to billet the Scottish troops. Trade from the Tyne ground to a halt during the occupation. The Scots left in 1641 after receiving a Parliamentary pardon and a £4,000,000 loan from the town.

 

In 1642 the English Civil War began. King Charles realised the value of the Tyne coal trade and therefore garrisoned Newcastle. A Royalist was appointed as governor. At that time, Newcastle and King's Lynn were the only important seaports to support the crown. In 1644 Parliament blockaded the Tyne to prevent the king from receiving revenue from the Tyne coal trade. Coal exports fell from 450,000 to 3,000 tons and London suffered a hard winter without fuel. Parliament encouraged the coal trade from the Wear to try to replace that lost from Newcastle but that was not enough to make up for the lost Tyneside tonnage.

 

In 1644 the Scots crossed the border. Newcastle strengthened its defences in preparation. The Scottish army, with 40,000 troops, besieged Newcastle for three months until the garrison of 1,500 surrendered. During the siege, the Scots bombarded the walls with their artillery, situated in Gateshead and Castle Leazes. The Scottish commander threatened to destroy the steeple of St Nicholas's Church by gunfire if the mayor, Sir John Marley, did not surrender the town. The mayor responded by placing Scottish prisoners that they had captured in the steeple, so saving it from destruction. The town walls were finally breached by a combination of artillery and sapping. In gratitude for this defence, Charles gave Newcastle the motto 'Fortiter Defendit Triumphans' to be added to its coat of arms. The Scottish army occupied Northumberland and Durham for two years. The coal taxes had to pay for the Scottish occupation. In 1645 Charles surrendered to the Scots and was imprisoned in Newcastle for nine months. After the Civil War the coal trade on the Tyne soon picked up and exceeded its pre-war levels.

 

A new Guildhall was completed on the Sandhill next to the river in 1655, replacing an earlier facility damaged by fire in 1639, and became the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council. In 1681 the Hospital of the Holy Jesus was built partly on the site of the Austin Friars. The Guildhall and Holy Jesus Hospital still exist.

 

Charles II tried to impose a charter on Newcastle to give the king the right to appoint the mayor, sheriff, recorder and town clerk. Charles died before the charter came into effect. In 1685, James II tried to replace Corporation members with named Catholics. However, James' mandate was suspended in 1689 after the Glorious Revolution welcoming William of Orange. In 1689, after the fall of James II, the people of Newcastle tore down his bronze equestrian statue in Sandhill and tossed it into the Tyne. The bronze was later used to make bells for All Saints Church.

 

In 1689 the Lort Burn was covered over. At this time it was an open sewer. The channel followed by the Lort Burn became the present day Dean Street. At that time, the centre of Newcastle was still the Sandhill area, with many merchants living along the Close or on the Side. The path of the main road through Newcastle ran from the single Tyne bridge, through Sandhill to the Side, a narrow street which climbed steeply on the north-east side of the castle hill until it reached the higher ground alongside St Nicholas' Church. As Newcastle developed, the Side became lined with buildings with projecting upper stories, so that the main street through Newcastle was a narrow, congested, steep thoroughfare.

 

In 1701 the Keelmen's Hospital was built in the Sandgate area of the city, using funds provided by the keelmen. The building still stands today.

 

Eighteenth century

In the 18th century, Newcastle was the country's largest print centre after London, Oxford and Cambridge, and the Literary and Philosophical Society of 1793, with its erudite debates and large stock of books in several languages predated the London Library by half a century.

 

In 1715, during the Jacobite rising in favour of the Old Pretender, an army of Jacobite supporters marched on Newcastle. Many of the Northumbrian gentry joined the rebels. The citizens prepared for its arrival by arresting Jacobite supporters and accepting 700 extra recruits into the local militia. The gates of the city were closed against the rebels. This proved enough to delay an attack until reinforcements arrived forcing the rebel army to move across to the west coast. The rebels finally surrendered at Preston.

 

In 1745, during a second Jacobite rising in favour of the Young Pretender, a Scottish army crossed the border led by Bonnie Prince Charlie. Once again Newcastle prepared by arresting Jacobite supporters and inducting 800 volunteers into the local militia. The town walls were strengthened, most of the gates were blocked up and some 200 cannon were deployed. 20,000 regulars were billeted on the Town Moor. These preparations were enough to force the rebel army to travel south via the west coast. They were eventually defeated at Culloden in 1746.

 

Newcastle's actions during the 1715 rising in resisting the rebels and declaring for George I, in contrast to the rest of the region, is the most likely source of the nickname 'Geordie', applied to people from Tyneside, or more accurately Newcastle. Another theory, however, is that the name 'Geordie' came from the inventor of the Geordie lamp, George Stephenson. It was a type of safety lamp used in mining, but was not invented until 1815. Apparently the term 'German Geordie' was in common use during the 18th century.

 

The city's first hospital, Newcastle Infirmary opened in 1753; it was funded by public subscription. A lying-in hospital was established in Newcastle in 1760. The city's first public hospital for mentally ill patients, Wardens Close Lunatic Hospital was opened in October 1767.

 

In 1771 a flood swept away much of the bridge at Newcastle. The bridge had been built in 1250 and repaired after a flood in 1339. The bridge supported various houses and three towers and an old chapel. A blue stone was placed in the middle of the bridge to mark the boundary between Newcastle and the Palatinate of Durham. A temporary wooden bridge had to be built, and this remained in use until 1781, when a new stone bridge was completed. The new bridge consisted of nine arches. In 1801, because of the pressure of traffic, the bridge had to be widened.

 

A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Fenham Barracks in 1806. The facilities at the Castle for holding assizes, which had been condemned for their inconvenience and unhealthiness, were replaced when the Moot Hall opened in August 1812.

 

Victorian period

Present-day Newcastle owes much of its architecture to the work of the builder Richard Grainger, aided by architects John Dobson, Thomas Oliver, John and Benjamin Green and others. In 1834 Grainger won a competition to produce a new plan for central Newcastle. He put this plan into effect using the above architects as well as architects employed in his own office. Grainger and Oliver had already built Leazes Terrace, Leazes Crescent and Leazes Place between 1829 and 1834. Grainger and Dobson had also built the Royal Arcade at the foot of Pilgrim Street between 1830 and 1832. The most ambitious project covered 12 acres 12 acres (49,000 m2) in central Newcastle, on the site of Newe House (also called Anderson Place). Grainger built three new thoroughfares, Grey Street, Grainger Street and Clayton Street with many connecting streets, as well as the Central Exchange and the Grainger Market. John Wardle and George Walker, working in Grainger's office, designed Clayton Street, Grainger Street and most of Grey Street. Dobson designed the Grainger Market and much of the east side of Grey Street. John and Benjamin Green designed the Theatre Royal at the top of Grey Street, where Grainger placed the column of Grey's Monument as a focus for the whole scheme. Grey Street is considered to be one of the finest streets in the country, with its elegant curve. Unfortunately most of old Eldon Square was demolished in the 1960s in the name of progress. The Royal Arcade met a similar fate.

 

In 1849 a new bridge was built across the river at Newcastle. This was the High Level Bridge, designed by Robert Stephenson, and slightly up river from the existing bridge. The bridge was designed to carry road and rail traffic across the Tyne Gorge on two decks with rail traffic on the upper deck and road traffic on the lower. The new bridge meant that traffic could pass through Newcastle without having to negotiate the steep, narrow Side, as had been necessary for centuries. The bridge was opened by Queen Victoria, who one year later opened the new Central Station, designed by John Dobson. Trains were now able to cross the river, directly into the centre of Newcastle and carry on up to Scotland. The Army Riding School was also completed in 1849.

 

In 1854 a large fire started on the Gateshead quayside and an explosion caused it to spread across the river to the Newcastle quayside. A huge conflagration amongst the narrow alleys, or 'chares', destroyed the homes of 800 families as well as many business premises. The narrow alleys that had been destroyed were replaced by streets containing blocks of modern offices.

 

In 1863 the Town Hall in St Nicholas Square replaced the Guildhall as the meeting place of Newcastle Town Council.

 

In 1876 the low level bridge was replaced by a new bridge known as the Swing Bridge, so called because the bridge was able to swing horizontally on a central axis and allow ships to pass on either side. This meant that for the first time sizeable ships could pass up-river beyond Newcastle. The bridge was built and paid for by William Armstrong, a local arms manufacturer, who needed to have warships access his Elswick arms factory to fit armaments to them. The Swing Bridge's rotating mechanism is adapted from the cannon mounts developed in Armstrong's arms works. In 1882 the Elswick works began to build ships as well as to arm them. The Barrack Road drill hall was completed in 1890.

 

Industrialisation

In the 19th century, shipbuilding and heavy engineering were central to the city's prosperity; and the city was a powerhouse of the Industrial Revolution. Newcastle's development as a major city owed most to its central role in the production and export of coal. The phrase "taking coals to Newcastle" was first recorded in 1538; it proverbially denotes bringing a particular commodity to a place that has more than enough of it already.

 

Innovation in Newcastle and surrounding areas included the following:

 

George Stephenson developed a miner's safety lamp at the same time that Humphry Davy developed a rival design. The lamp made possible the opening up of ever deeper mines to provide the coal that powered the industrial revolution.

George and his son Robert Stephenson were hugely influential figures in the development of the early railways. George developed Blücher, a locomotive working at Killingworth colliery in 1814, whilst Robert was instrumental in the design of Rocket, a revolutionary design that was the forerunner of modern locomotives. Both men were involved in planning and building railway lines, all over this country and abroad.

 

Joseph Swan demonstrated a working electric light bulb about a year before Thomas Edison did the same in the USA. This led to a dispute as to who had actually invented the light bulb. Eventually the two rivals agreed to form a mutual company between them, the Edison and Swan Electric Light Company, known as Ediswan.

 

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine, for marine use and for power generation. He used Turbinia, a small, turbine-powered ship, to demonstrate the speed that a steam turbine could generate. Turbinia literally ran rings around the British Fleet at a review at Spithead in 1897.

 

William Armstrong invented a hydraulic crane that was installed in dockyards up and down the country. He then began to design light, accurate field guns for the British army. These were a vast improvement on the existing guns that were then in use.

 

The following major industries developed in Newcastle or its surrounding area:

 

Glassmaking

A small glass industry existed in Newcastle from the mid-15th century. In 1615 restrictions were put on the use of wood for manufacturing glass. It was found that glass could be manufactured using the local coal, and so a glassmaking industry grew up on Tyneside. Huguenot glassmakers came over from France as refugees from persecution and set up glasshouses in the Skinnerburn area of Newcastle. Eventually, glass production moved to the Ouseburn area of Newcastle. In 1684 the Dagnia family, Sephardic Jewish emigrants from Altare, arrived in Newcastle from Stourbridge and established glasshouses along the Close, to manufacture high quality flint glass. The glass manufacturers used sand ballast from the boats arriving in the river as the main raw material. The glassware was then exported in collier brigs. The period from 1730 to 1785 was the highpoint of Newcastle glass manufacture, when the local glassmakers produced the 'Newcastle Light Baluster'. The glassmaking industry still exists in the west end of the city with local Artist and Glassmaker Jane Charles carrying on over four hundred years of hot glass blowing in Newcastle upon Tyne.

 

Locomotive manufacture

In 1823 George Stephenson and his son Robert established the world's first locomotive factory near Forth Street in Newcastle. Here they built locomotives for the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, as well as many others. It was here that the famous locomotive Rocket was designed and manufactured in preparation for the Rainhill Trials. Apart from building locomotives for the British market, the Newcastle works also produced locomotives for Europe and America. The Forth Street works continued to build locomotives until 1960.

 

Shipbuilding

In 1296 a wooden, 135 ft (41 m) long galley was constructed at the mouth of the Lort Burn in Newcastle, as part of a twenty-ship order from the king. The ship cost £205, and is the earliest record of shipbuilding in Newcastle. However the rise of the Tyne as a shipbuilding area was due to the need for collier brigs for the coal export trade. These wooden sailing ships were usually built locally, establishing local expertise in building ships. As ships changed from wood to steel, and from sail to steam, the local shipbuilding industry changed to build the new ships. Although shipbuilding was carried out up and down both sides of the river, the two main areas for building ships in Newcastle were Elswick, to the west, and Walker, to the east. By 1800 Tyneside was the third largest producer of ships in Britain. Unfortunately, after the Second World War, lack of modernisation and competition from abroad gradually caused the local industry to decline and die.

 

Armaments

In 1847 William Armstrong established a huge factory in Elswick, west of Newcastle. This was initially used to produce hydraulic cranes but subsequently began also to produce guns for both the army and the navy. After the Swing Bridge was built in 1876 allowing ships to pass up river, warships could have their armaments fitted alongside the Elswick works. Armstrong's company took over its industrial rival, Joseph Whitworth of Manchester in 1897.

 

Steam turbines

Charles Algernon Parsons invented the steam turbine and, in 1889, founded his own company C. A. Parsons and Company in Heaton, Newcastle to make steam turbines. Shortly after this, he realised that steam turbines could be used to propel ships and, in 1897, he founded a second company, Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company in Wallsend. It is there that he designed and manufactured Turbinia. Parsons turbines were initially used in warships but soon came to be used in merchant and passenger vessels, including the liner Mauretania which held the blue riband for the Atlantic crossing until 1929. Parsons' company in Heaton began to make turbo-generators for power stations and supplied power stations all over the world. The Heaton works, reduced in size, remains as part of the Siemens AG industrial giant.

 

Pottery

In 1762 the Maling pottery was founded in Sunderland by French Huguenots, but transferred to Newcastle in 1817. A factory was built in the Ouseburn area of the city. The factory was rebuilt twice, finally occupying a 14-acre (57,000 m2) site that was claimed to be the biggest pottery in the world and which had its own railway station. The pottery pioneered use of machines in making potteries as opposed to hand production. In the 1890s the company went up-market and employed in-house designers. The period up to the Second World War was the most profitable with a constant stream of new designs being introduced. However, after the war, production gradually declined and the company closed in 1963.

 

Expansion of the city

Newcastle was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835: the reformed municipal borough included the parishes of Byker, Elswick, Heaton, Jesmond, Newcastle All Saints, Newcastle St Andrew, Newcastle St John, Newcastle St Nicholas, and Westgate. The urban districts of Benwell and Fenham and Walker were added in 1904. In 1935, Newcastle gained Kenton and parts of the parishes of West Brunton, East Denton, Fawdon, Longbenton. The most recent expansion in Newcastle's boundaries took place under the Local Government Act 1972 on 1 April 1974, when Newcastle became a metropolitan borough, also including the urban districts of Gosforth and Newburn, and the parishes of Brunswick, Dinnington, Hazlerigg, North Gosforth and Woolsington from the Castle Ward Rural District, and the village of Westerhope.

 

Meanwhile Northumberland County Council was formed under the Local Government Act 1888 and benefited from a dedicated meeting place when County Hall was completed in the Castle Garth area of Newcastle in 1910. Following the Local Government Act 1972 County Hall relocated to Morpeth in April 1981.

 

Twentieth century

In 1925 work began on a new high-level road bridge to span the Tyne Gorge between Newcastle and Gateshead. The capacity of the existing High-Level Bridge and Swing Bridge were being strained to the limit, and an additional bridge had been discussed for a long time. The contract was awarded to the Dorman Long Company and the bridge was finally opened by King George V in 1928. The road deck was 84 feet (26 m) above the river and was supported by a 531 feet (162 m) steel arch. The new Tyne Bridge quickly became a symbol for Newcastle and Tyneside, and remains so today.

 

During the Second World War, Newcastle was largely spared the horrors inflicted upon other British cities bombed during the Blitz. Although the armaments factories and shipyards along the River Tyne were targeted by the Luftwaffe, they largely escaped unscathed. Manors goods yard and railway terminal, to the east of the city centre, and the suburbs of Jesmond and Heaton suffered bombing during 1941. There were 141 deaths and 587 injuries, a relatively small figure compared to the casualties in other industrial centres of Britain.

 

In 1963 the city gained its own university, the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, by act of parliament. A School of Medicine and Surgery had been established in Newcastle in 1834. This eventually developed into a college of medicine attached to Durham University. A college of physical science was also founded and became Armstrong College in 1904. In 1934 the two colleges merged to become King's College, Durham. This remained as part of Durham University until the new university was created in 1963. In 1992 the city gained its second university when Newcastle Polytechnic was granted university status as Northumbria University.

 

Newcastle City Council moved to the new Newcastle Civic Centre in 1968.

 

As heavy industries declined in the second half of the 20th century, large sections of the city centre were demolished along with many areas of slum housing. The leading political figure in the city during the 1960s was T. Dan Smith who oversaw a massive building programme of highrise housing estates and authorised the demolition of a quarter of the Georgian Grainger Town to make way for Eldon Square Shopping Centre. Smith's control in Newcastle collapsed when it was exposed that he had used public contracts to advantage himself and his business associates and for a time Newcastle became a byword for civic corruption as depicted in the films Get Carter and Stormy Monday and in the television series Our Friends in the North. However, much of the historic Grainger Town area survived and was, for the most part, fully restored in the late 1990s. Northumberland Street, initially the A1, was gradually closed to traffic from the 1970s and completely pedestrianised by 1998.

 

In 1978 a new rapid transport system, the Metro, was built, linking the Tyneside area. The system opened in August 1980. A new bridge was built to carry the Metro across the river between Gateshead and Newcastle. This was the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge, commonly known as the Metro Bridge. Eventually the Metro system was extended to reach Newcastle Airport in 1991, and in 2002 the Metro system was extended to the nearby city of Sunderland.

 

As the 20th century progressed, trade on the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides gradually declined, until by the 1980s both sides of the river were looking rather derelict. Shipping company offices had closed along with offices of firms related to shipping. There were also derelict warehouses lining the riverbank. Local government produced a master plan to re-develop the Newcastle quayside and this was begun in the 1990s. New offices, restaurants, bars and residential accommodation were built and the area has changed in the space of a few years into a vibrant area, partially returning the focus of Newcastle to the riverside, where it was in medieval times.

 

The Gateshead Millennium Bridge, a foot and cycle bridge, 26 feet (7.9 m) wide and 413 feet (126 m) long, was completed in 2001. The road deck is in the form of a curve and is supported by a steel arch. To allow ships to pass, the whole structure, both arch and road-deck, rotates on huge bearings at either end so that the road deck is lifted. The bridge can be said to open and shut like a human eye. It is an important addition to the re-developed quayside area, providing a vital link between the Newcastle and Gateshead quaysides.

 

Recent developments

Today the city is a vibrant centre for office and retail employment, but just a short distance away there are impoverished inner-city housing estates, in areas originally built to provide affordable housing for employees of the shipyards and other heavy industries that lined the River Tyne. In the 2010s Newcastle City Council began implementing plans to regenerate these depressed areas, such as those along the Ouseburn Valley.

This is a bamboo structure made for the roofing work for a auditorium

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