The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often /ˈtɑːʒ/; from Persian and Arabic, "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]) is a white marble mausoleum located on the southern bank of Yamuna River in the Indian city of Agra. It was commissioned in 1632 by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) to house the tomb of his favorite wife of three, Mumtaz Mahal.

 

Construction of the mausoleum was essentially completed in 1643 but work continued on other phases of the project for an additional ten years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around 32 million Indian rupees, which in 2015 would be valued at around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US). The construction project employed around 20,000 artisans under the guidance of a board of architects led by Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The domed marble tomb is part of an integrated complex consisting of gardens and two red-sandstone buildings surrounded by a crenellated wall on three sides.

 

The Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the best example of Mughal architecture and is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India". It is one of the world’s most celebrated structures and a symbol of India’s rich history. Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, the Taj Mahal attracts some 3 million visitors a year.

 

INSPIRATION

In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest prosperity, was grief-stricken when his favorite of three wives and beloved companion, Mumtaz Mahal, a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum. Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The principal mausoleum was completed in 1643 and the surrounding buildings and garden were finished about five years later.

 

ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN

The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called the Baby Taj), and Shah Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily constructed of red sandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones. Buildings under his patronage reached new levels of refinement.

 

TOMB

The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. It is a large, white marble structure standing on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial. Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.

 

The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an unequal eight-sided structure that is approximately 55 metres on each of the four long sides. Each side of the iwan is framed with a huge pishtaq or vaulted archway with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower level.

 

The most spectacular feature is the marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The dome is nearly 35 metres high which is close in measurement to the length of the base, and accentuated by the cylindrical "drum" it sits on which is approximately 7 metres high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design which also serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasized by four smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome. The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and chattris are topped by a gilded finial which mixes traditional Persian and Hindustani decorative elements.

 

The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.

 

The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres tall, display the designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets - a traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse, a typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period, the material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.

 

EXTERIOR DECORATIONS

The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal architecture. As the surface area changes, the decorations are refined proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco, stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs. Throughout the complex are passages from the Qur'an that comprise some of the decorative elements. Recent scholarship suggests that the passages were chosen by Amanat Khan.

 

The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy was created in 1609 by a calligrapher named Abdul Haq. Shah Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling virtuosity". Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi." Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.

 

Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway, mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings have been stained or painted in a contrasting color which creates a complex array of geometric patterns. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks in tessellation patterns.

 

On the lower walls of the tomb are white marble dados sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings. The dado frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.

 

INTERIOR DECORATION

The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal reaches far beyond traditional decorative elements. The inlay work is not pietra dura, but a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the south is used. The interior walls are about 25 metres high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. The octagonal marble screen or jali bordering the cenotaphs is made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work. The remaining surfaces are inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers. Each chamber wall is highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels which reflect, in miniature detail, the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex.

 

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner chamber with their faces turned right, towards Mecca. Mumtaz Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres. Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet. Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base precisely decorated with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies him. On the lid of the casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.

 

The pen box and writing tablet are traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz Mahal. Other inscriptions inside the crypt include, "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."

 

GARDEN

The complex is set around a large 300-metre square charbagh or Mughal garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the center of the garden is a raised marble water tank with a reflecting pool positioned on a north-south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.

 

Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise) and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of the Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.

 

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggests both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the Taj Mahal and its gardens also declined. By the end of the 19th century, the British Empire controlled more than three-fifths of India, and assumed management of the Taj Mahal. They changed the landscaping to their liking which more closely resembled the formal lawns of London.

 

OUTLYING BUILDINGS

The Taj Mahal complex is bordered on three sides by crenellated red sandstone walls; the side facing the river is open. Outside the walls are several additional mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for Mumtaz's favourite servant.

 

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble, and reminiscent of the Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways mirror the shape of the tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the calligraphy that decorates the tomb. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate geometric designs like those found in the other sandstone buildings in the complex.

 

At the far end of the complex are two grand red sandstone buildings that mirror each other, and face the sides of the tomb. The backs of the buildings parallel the western and eastern walls. The western building is a mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), thought to have been constructed for architectural balance although it may have been used as a guesthouse. Distinctions between the two buildings include the jawab's lack of a mihrab (a niche in a mosque's wall facing Mecca), and its floors of geometric design whereas the floor of the mosque is laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly the Masjid-i Jahān-Numā, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide the sanctuary hall into three areas comprising a main sanctuary and slightly smaller sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an expansive vaulting dome. The outlying buildings were completed in 1643.

 

CONSTRUCTION

The Taj Mahal is built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra. Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and leveled at 50 metres above riverbank. In the tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it would take years to dismantle.

 

The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia. It is believed over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was from Tibet and the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious stones were inlaid into the white marble.

 

According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A fifteen kilometer tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.

 

The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets, mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages, discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion". Construction of the mausoleum itself was essentially completed by 1643 while work continued on the outlying buildings. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to be about 32 million Indian rupees, which is around 52.8 billion Indian rupees ($827 million US) based on 2015 values.

 

LATER DAYS

Abdul Hamid Lahauri in his book Badshahnama refers to Taj Mahal as rauza-i munawwara, meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, along with the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation.

 

By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-style lawns that are still in place today.

 

THREATS

In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.

 

More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre area around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.

 

Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin which is falling at a rate of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5 years.

 

TOURISM

The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more than 2 million visitors in 2001, which increased to about 3 million in 2015. A two tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use as a new visitor center.

 

The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.

 

The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five items - water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile phones and small ladies' purses - are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.

 

MYTHS

Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned a mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a European traveller who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that Shah Jahan was overthrown by his son Aurangzeb before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in Moonlight Garden, Mahtab Bagh, seemed to support this legend. However, excavations carried out in the 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Moonlight Garden. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself.

 

No evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail, the deaths, dismemberments and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. Similar claims are made for many famous buildings. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish the Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort.

 

Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette.

 

In 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005 a similar petition was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court. This case was brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher who says that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu King Parmar Dev in 1196.

 

WIKIPEDIA

The San Juan fiestas are the main festivities of Tolosa and take place around June 24th.

Following old traditions, the festivities of San Juan have kept up the Bordon-dantza (dance with military origins) and the jump over the fire, and they have strengthened and updated the parade of arms (riflemen).

The Bordon-dantza, the dance that has its origins in the Battle of Beotibar between Navarre and Gipuzkoa, offers the public a unique spectacle. In addition to this dance, the Zortziko of San Juan and the Aurresku are also performed.

The parade of arms, which initially only involved 20 riflemen, now has 14 crews, of between 40 and 60 riflemen and riflewomen, each equipped with bright clothing, drums and Txistus (type of fipple flute). In the morning, they fire salvoes in Plaza Vieja, Plaza Santa María and Plaza Triangulo, among others. In the afternoon, the riflemen and riflewomen parade towards the Basilica of San Juan de Arramele, which is the main church, and Plaza Triangulo, together with the municipal plenary and male and female dancers of the Bordon-dantza.

 

Las fiestas de San Juan en Tolosa, celebradas en torno al 24 de junio, son sus fiestas patronales principales, destacando por tradiciones como la Bordon-dantza (danza de la Batalla de Beotibar), el salto sobre la hoguera y el multitudinario Alarde de Armas con escopeteros. Es una celebración vibrante con música, verbenas y actividades tradicionales.

Le Cardo maximus, un des deux axes de la ville romaine, se prolonge vers la mer.

 

Les Phéniciens ont fondé à Tipaza un comptoir vers le Ve siècle av. J.-C. : c'est de cette origine que la ville tire son nom qui signifie « lieu de passage » ou « escale ».

 

La ville connaît son essor sous le roi numide Juba II et devient avec Caesaria (actuelle Cherchell) l'un des foyers de la culture gréco-romaine en Afrique du Nord. Tipaza avait alors le type de la ville punique car elle se situait dans l'aire d'influence de Carthage.

 

Sous l'empereur romain Claude Ier, en 39, Tipaza prend le statut de municipe latin et se dote d'une muraille longue de plus de deux kilomètres. Hadrien éleva par la suite Tipaza au rang de colonie honoraire. À la fin du IIe siècle, la ville connaît son apogée avec une population qui s'élève, selon les estimations de Stéphane Gsell, a 20 000 habitants.

 

Au deuxième siècle, cette cité romanisée s’agrandit vers l’ouest au dépend d’une ancienne nécropole punique. Bien qu’elle était entourée d’une longue muraille de 2 km cela n’a pas empêché sa destruction en l’an 430 par les Vandales menés par Genséric (Wikipedia)

 

Tipaza est un site inscrit au Patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO en 1982. Les premières fouilles y ont été effectuées en 1895.

The red-wattled lapwing (Vanellus indicus) is an Asian lapwing or large plover, a wader in the family Charadriidae. Like other lapwings they are ground birds that are incapable of perching. Their characteristic loud alarm calls are indicators of human or animal movements and the sounds have been variously rendered as did he do it or pity to do it[ leading to the colloquial name of did-he-do-it bird. Usually seen in pairs or small groups and usually not far from water they sometimes form large aggregations in the non-breeding season (winter). They nest in a ground scrape laying three to four camouflaged eggs. Adults near the nest fly around, diving at potential predators while calling noisily. The cryptically patterned chicks hatch and immediately follow their parents to feed, hiding by lying low on the ground or in the grass when threatened.

 

Taxonomy:

Traditionally well-known to native hunters, the red-wattled lapwing was first described in a book by the French polymath Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in his Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux in 1781. The bird was also illustrated in a hand-coloured plate engraved by François-Nicolas Martinet in the Planches Enluminées D'Histoire Naturelle produced uinder the supervision of Edme-Louis Daubenton to accompany Buffon's text. Neither the plate nor Buffon's description included a scientific name but in 1783 the Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert used the binomial name Tringa indica in his catalogue of the Planche Enluminées. The type locality is Goa in western India. It was subsequently placed in various other genera such as Sarcogrammus and Lobivanellus before being merged into Vanellus which was erected by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760. Vanellus is the Medieval Latin for a "lapwing". It is a diminutive of the Latin vanus meaning "winnowing" or "fan". The specific epithet indicus is the Latin for "India".

 

Across their wide range there are slight differences in the plumage and there are four recognized subspecies:

 

V. i. aigneri (Laubmann, 1913) – southeast Turkey to Pakistan

V. i. indicus (Boddaert, 1783) – central Pakistan to Nepal, northeast India and Bangladesh

V. i. lankae (Koelz, 1939) – Sri Lanka

V. i. atronuchalis (Jerdon, 1864) – northeast India to south China, southeast Asia, Malay Peninsula and north Sumatra.

 

Description:

Red-wattled lapwings are large waders, about 35 cm (14 in) long. The wings and back are light brown with a purple to green sheen, but the head, a bib on the front and back of the neck are black. Prominently white patch runs between these two colours, from belly and tail, flanking the neck to the sides of crown. Short tail is tipped black. A red fleshy wattle in front of each eye, black-tipped red bill, and the long legs are yellow. In flight, prominent white wing bars formed by the white on the secondary coverts..

Race aigneri is slightly paler and larger than the nominate race and is found in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan and the Indus valley. The nominate race is found all over India. The Sri Lankan race lankae is smaller and dark while atronuchalis the race in north-eastern India and eastern Bangladesh has a white cheek surrounded by black.

Males and females are similar in plumage but males have a 5% longer wing and tend to have a longer carpal spur. The length of the birds is 320-350mm, wing of 208-247mm with the nominate averaging 223mm, Sri Lanka 217mm. The Bill is 31-36mm and tarsus of 70-83mm. Tail length is 104-128mm.

 

It usually keeps in pairs or trios in well-watered open country, ploughed fields, grazing land, and margins and dry beds of tanks and puddles. They occasionally form large flocks, ranging from 26 to 200 birds. It is also found in forest clearings around rain-filled depressions. It runs about in short spurts and dips forward obliquely (with unflexed legs) to pick up food in a typical plover manner. They are said to feed at night being especially active around the full moon. Is uncannily and ceaselessly vigilant, day or night, and is the first to detect intrusions and raise an alarm, and was therefore considered a nuisance by hunters. Flight rather slow, with deliberate flaps, but capable of remarkable agility when defending nest or being hunted by a hawk.

Its striking appearance is supplemented by its noisy nature, with a loud and scolding did-he-do-it call, uttered both in the day and night.

Leucistic abnormal plumages have been noted.

 

The local names are mainly onomatopoeic in origin and include titeeri (Hindi), tittibha (Kannada), tateehar (Sindhi), titodi (Gujarati), hatatut (Kashmiri), balighora (Assamese), yennappa chitawa (Telugu), aal-kaati (Tamil, meaning "human indicator").

 

Distribution:

It breeds from West Asia (Iraq, SW Iran, Persian Gulf) eastwards across South Asia (Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, the entire Indian subcontinent up to Kanyakumari and up to 1800m in Kashmir/Nepal), with another sub-species further east in Southeast Asia. May migrate altitudinally in spring and autumn (e.g. in N. Baluchistan or NW Pakistan), and spreads out widely in the monsoons[13] on creation of requisite habitats, but by and large the populations are resident.

 

This species is declining in its western range, but is abundant in much of South Asia, being seen at almost any wetland habitat in its range.

 

Behaviour and ecology:

The breeding season is mainly March to August. The courtship involves the male puffing its feathers and pointing its beak upwards. The male then shuffles around the female. Several males may display to females and they may be close together. The eggs are laid in a ground scrape or depression sometimes fringed with pebbles, goat or hare droppings.[19] About 3–4 black-blotched buff eggs shaped a bit like a peg-top (pyriform), 42x30 mm on average. Nests are difficult to find since the eggs are cryptically coloured and usually matches the ground pattern. In residential areas, they sometimes take to nesting on roof-tops. They have been recorded nesting on the stones between the rails of a railway track, the adult leaving the nest when trains passed. Nests that have been threatened by agricultural operations have been manually translocated by gradually shifting the eggs. When nesting they will attempt to dive bomb or distract potential predators. Both the male and female incubate the eggs and divert predators using distraction displays or flash their wings to deter any herbivores that threaten the nest. Males appear to relieve females incubating at the nest particularly towards the hot part of noon. The eggs hatch in 28 to 30 days. The reproductive success is about 40%. Egg mortality is high (~43%) due to predation by mongooses, crows and kites. Chicks had a lower mortality (8.3%) and their survival improved after the first week.

 

Like other lapwings, they soak their belly feathers to provide water to their chicks as well as to cool the eggs during hot weather.

  

The chick leaves the nest and follows the parents soon after hatching

They bathe in pools of water when available and will often spend time on preening when leaving the nest or after copulation. They sometimes rest on the ground with the tarsi laid flat on the ground and at other times may rest on one leg.

 

Healthy adult birds have few predators and are capable of rapid and agile flight when pursued by hawks or falcons.Some endoparasitic tapeworms and trematodes have been described from the species. Mortality caused by respiratory infection by Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale has been recorded in captive birds in Pakistan.

 

Diet:

The diet of the lapwing includes a range of insects, snails and other invertebrates, mostly picked from the ground. They may also feed on some grains. They feed mainly during the day but they may also feed at night. They may sometimes make use of the legs to disturb insect prey from soft soil.

 

In culture:

In parts of India, a local belief is that the bird sleeps on its back with the legs upwards and an associated Hindi metaphor Tithiri se asman thama jayega ("can the lapwing support the heavens?") is used to refer to persons undertaking tasks beyond their ability or strength.

 

In parts of Rajasthan it is believed that the laying of eggs by the lapwing on high ground was an indication of good rains to come. The eggs are known to be collected by practitioners of folk medicine.

The origin of the name Odessa is uncertain. The Turkish name for the district was Yedisan, meaning "seven flags", and this might be the source. Alternatively, it is proposed that the city was named after the ancient Greek city of Odessos, which was falsely believed to have been founded at the location of present day Odessa; although Odessa is in fact located in the area between the ancient Greek cities of Tyras and Olbia, Odessos is believed to be somewhere near the present day town of Varna in Bulgaria.

The water buffalo or domestic Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) is a large bovid originating in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. Today, it is also found in Europe, Australia, and some American countries. The wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee) native to Southeast Asia is considered a different species, but most likely represents the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo.

 

Two extant types of water buffalo are recognized based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo of South Asia and further west to the Balkans, Egypt, and Italy, and the swamp buffalo, found from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze valley of China in the east. The origins of the domestic water buffalo types are debated, although results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the swamp type may have originated in China and was domesticated about 4,000 years ago, while the river type may have originated from India and was domesticated about 5,000 years ago. Water buffalo were traded from the Indus Valley Civilisation to Mesopotamia, in modern Iraq, 2500 BC by the Meluhhas. The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows the sacrifice of water buffalo.

 

At least 130 million domestic water buffalo exist, and more human beings depend on them than on any other domestic animal. They are especially suitable for tilling rice fields, and their milk is richer in fat and protein than that of dairy cattle. The large feral population of northern Australia became established in the late 19th century, and smaller feral herds are in New Guinea, Tunisia, and northeastern Argentina. Feral herds are also present in New Britain, New Ireland, Irian Jaya, Papua New Guinea, Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, Brazil, and Uruguay.

 

CHARACTERISTICS

The skin of river buffalo is black, but some specimens may have dark, slate-coloured skin. Swamp buffalo have a grey skin at birth, but become slate blue later. Albinoids are present in some populations. River buffalo have comparatively longer faces, smaller girths, and bigger limbs than swamp buffalo. Their dorsal ridges extend further back and taper off more gradually. Their horns grow downward and backward, then curve upward in a spiral. Swamp buffalo are heavy-bodied and stockily built; the body is short and the belly large. The forehead is flat, the eyes prominent, the face short, and the muzzle wide. The neck is comparatively long, and the withers and croup are prominent. A dorsal ridge extends backward and ends abruptly just before the end of the chest. Their horns grow outward, and curve in a semicircle, but always remain more or less on the plane of the forehead. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks. Height at withers is 129–133 cm for males, and 120–127 cm for females. They range in weight from 300–550 kg, but weights of over 1,000 kg have also been observed.

 

Tedong bonga is a black pied buffalo featuring a unique black and white colouration that is favoured by the Toraja of Sulawesi.

 

The swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes; the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, and the embryos of such hybrids do not reach maturity in laboratory experiments.

 

The rumen of the water buffalo has important differences from that of other ruminants. It contains a larger population of bacteria, particularly the cellulolytic bacteria, lower protozoa, and higher fungi zoospores. In addition, higher rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH4-N) and higher pH have been found as compared to those in cattle

 

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR

River buffalo prefer deep water. Swamp buffalo prefer to wallow in mudholes which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire a thick coating of mud. Both are well adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from 0 °C in the winter to 30 °C and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in thermoregulation. Some breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain.

 

DIET

Water buffalo thrive on many aquatic plants and during floods, will graze submerged, raising their heads above the water and carrying quantities of edible plants. They eat reeds (quassab), a giant reed (birdi), a kind of bulrush (kaulan), water hyacinth, and marsh grasses. Some of these plants are of great value to local peoples. Others, such as water hyacinth, are a major problem in some tropical valleys, and water buffalo may help to keep waterways clear.

 

Green fodders are used widely for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include alfalfa, berseem and bancheri, the leaves, stems or trimmings of banana, cassava, fodder beet, halfa, ipil-ipil and kenaf, maize, oats, pandarus, peanut, sorghum, soybean, sugarcane, bagasse, and turnips. Citrus pulp and pineapple wastes have been fed safely to buffalo. In Egypt, whole sun-dried dates are fed to milk-buffalo up to 25% of the standard feed mixture.

 

REPRODUCTION

Swamp buffalo generally become reproductive at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated at about 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy

 

they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until the animal is 12 years or even older. A good river male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on mating occurs. Heat stress reduces libido

 

Although buffalo are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. Buffalo cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying oestrus, conception rate, and calving rate. The age at first oestrus of heifers varies between breeds from 13–33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. Gestation lasts from 281–334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffalo carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffalo. It is not rare to find buffalo that continue to work well at the age of 30, and instances of a working life of 40 years are recorded.

 

TAXONOMIC HISTORY

Carl Linnaeus first described the genus Bos and the water buffalo under the binomial Bubalis bubalus in 1758; the latter was known to occur in Asia and as a domestic form in Italy. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics whereas others treated them as different species. The nomenclatorial treatment of wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within the works of single authors.

 

In March 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature achieved consistency in the naming of wild and domestic water buffalo by ruling that the scientific name Bubalus arnee is valid for the wild form. B. bubalis continues to be valid for the domestic form and applies also to feral populations.

 

DOMESTICATION AND BREEDING

Water buffalo were domesticated in India about 5000 years ago, and in China about 4000 years ago. Two types are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans and Italy, and the swamp buffalo, found from Assam in the west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze valley of China in the east. The present-day river buffalo is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events. Twenty-two breeds of the river type water buffalo are known, including Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti, Jafarabadi, Anatolian, Mediterranean, and Egyptian buffalo. China has a huge variety of buffalo genetic resources, comprising 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions.

 

Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that the two types were domesticated independently. Sequencing of cytochrome b genes of Bubalus species implies that the domestic buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river and the swamp types have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp type was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw.

 

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATIONS

The water buffalo population in the world is about 172 million.

 

IN ASIA

More than 95.8% of the world population of water buffalo are found in Asia including both river and swamp types. The water buffalo population in India numbered over 97.9 million head in 2003, representing 56.5% of the world population. They are primarily of the river type, with 10 well-defined breeds comprising Badhawari, Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Jafarabadi, Marathwada, Mehsana, Nagpuri, Pandharpuri, Toda, and Surti. Swamp buffalo occur only in small areas in the north-eastern part of the country and are not distinguished into breeds.

 

In 2003, the second-largest population lived in China, with 22.759 million head, all of the swamp type with breeds kept only in the lowlands, and other breeds kept only in the mountains; as of 2003, 3.2 million swamp-type carabao buffalo were in the Philippines, nearly three million swamp buffalo were in Vietnam, and 772,764 buffalo were in Bangladesh. About 750,000 head were estimated in Sri Lanka in 1997.

 

The water buffalo is the main dairy animal in Pakistan, with 23.47 million head in 2010. Of these, 76% are kept in the Punjab. The rest of them are mostly in the province of Sindh. Breeds used are Nili-Ravi, Kundi, and Azi Kheli. Karachi has the largest population of water buffalos for an area where fodder is not grown, consisting of 350,000 head kept mainly for milking.

 

In Thailand, the number of water buffalo dropped from more than 3 million head in 1996 to less than 1.24 million head in 2011. Slightly over 75% of them are kept in the country's northeastern region. The statistics also indicate that by the beginning of 2012, less than one million were in the country, partly as a result of illegal shipments to neighboring countries where sales prices are higher than in Thailand.

 

Water buffalo are also present in the southern region of Iraq, in the marshes. These marshes were drained by Saddam Hussein in 1991 in an attempt to punish the south for the uprisings of 1991. Following 2003, and the fall of the Saddam regime, these lands were reflooded and a 2007 report in the provinces of Maysan and Thi Qar shows a steady increase in the number of water buffalo. The report puts the number at 40,008 head in those two provinces.

 

IN EUROPE AND THE MEDITERRANEAN

Water buffalo likely were introduced to Europe from India or other Oriental countries. To Italy they were introduced about the year 600 in the reign of the Longobard King Agilulf. As they appear in the company of wild horses, they probably were a present from the Khan of the Avars, a Turkic nomadic tribe that dwelt near the Danube River at the time. Sir H. Johnston knew of a herd of water buffalo presented by a King of Naples to the Bey of Tunis in the mid-19th century that had resumed the feral state in northern Tunis.

 

European buffalo are all of the river type and considered to be of the same breed named Mediterranean buffalo. In Italy, the Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called Mediterranean Italian breed to distinguish it from other European breeds, which differ genetically. Mediterranean buffalo are also found in Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Kosovo, and the Republic of Macedonia, with a few hundred in the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Hungary. Little exchange of breeding buffalo has occurred among countries, so each population has its own phenotypic features and performances. In Bulgaria, they were crossbred with the Indian Murrah breed, and in Romania, some were crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah. Populations in Turkey are of the Anatolian buffalo breed.

 

IN AUSTRALIA

Between 1824 and 1849, water buffalo were introduced into the Northern Territory from Timor, Kisar, and probably other islands in the Indonesian archipelago. In 1886, a few milking types were brought from India to Darwin. They have been the main grazing animals on the subcoastal plains and river basins between Darwin and Arnhem Land since the 1880s. In the early 1960s, an estimated population of 150,000 to 200,000 buffalo were living in the plains and nearby areas.

 

They became feral and are causing significant environmental damage. Buffalo are also found in the Top End. As a result, they were hunted in the Top End from 1885 until 1980. The commencement of the brucellosis and tuberculosis campaign (BTEC) resulted in a huge culling program to reduce buffalo herds to a fraction of the numbers that were reached in the 1980s. The BTEC was finished when the Northern Territory was declared free of the disease in 1997. Numbers dropped dramatically as a result of the campaign, but have since recovered to an estimated 150,000 animals across northern Australia in 2008.

 

During the 1950s, buffalo were hunted for their skins and meat, which was exported and used in the local trade. In the late 1970s, live exports were made to Cuba and continued later into other countries. Buffalo are now crossed with riverine buffalo in artificial insemination programs, and may be found in many areas of Australia. Some of these crossbreds are used for milk production. Melville Island is a popular hunting location, where a steady population up to 4,000 individuals exists. Safari outfits are run from Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the Top End, often with the use of bush pilots. The horns, which can measure up to a record of 3.1 m tip-to-tip, are prized hunting trophies.

 

The buffalo have developed a different appearance from the Indonesian buffalo from which they descend. They live mainly in freshwater marshes and billabongs, and their territory range can be quite expansive during the wet season. Their only natural predators in Australia are adult saltwater crocodiles, with whom they share the billabongs, and dingoes, which have been known to prey on buffalo calves and occasionally adult buffalo when the dingoes are in large packs.

 

Buffalo were exported live to Indonesia until 2011, at a rate of about 3000 per year. After the live export ban that year, the exports dropped to zero, and had not resumed as of June 2013.

 

IN SOUTH AMERICA

Water buffalo were introduced into the Amazon River basin in 1895. They are now extensively used there for meat and dairy production. In 2005, the buffalo herd in the Brazilian Amazon stood at roughly 1.6 million head, of which 460,000 were located in the lower Amazon floodplain. Breeds used include Mediterranean from Italy, Murrah and Jafarabadi from India, and Carabao from the Philippines.

 

During the 1970s, small herds were imported to Costa Rica, Ecuador, Cayenne, Panama, Surinam, Guyana, and Venezuela.

 

In Argentina, many game ranches raise water buffalo for commercial hunting

 

IN NORTH AMERICA

In 1974, four water buffalo were imported to the United States from Guam to be studied at the University of Florida. In February 1978, the first herd arrived for commercial farming. Until 2002, only one commercial breeder was in the United States. Water buffalo meat is imported from Australia. Until 2011, water buffalo were raised in Gainesville, Florida, from young obtained from zoo overflow. They were used primarily for meat production, frequently sold as hamburger.[38] Other US ranchers use them for production of high-quality mozzarella cheese.

 

HUSBANDRY

The husbandry system of water buffalo depends on the purpose for which they are bred and maintained. Most of them are kept by people who work on small farms in family units. Their buffalo live in very close association with them, and are often their greatest capital asset. The women and girls in India generally look after the milking buffalo while the men and boys are concerned with the working animals. Throughout Asia, they are commonly tended by children who are often seen leading or riding their charges to wallowing places. Water buffalo are the ideal animals for work in the deep mud of paddy fields because of their large hooves and flexible foot joints. They are often referred to as "the living tractor of the East". It probably is possible to plough deeper with buffalo than with either oxen or horses. They are the most efficient and economical means of cultivation of small fields. In most rice-producing countries, they are used for threshing and for transporting the sheaves during the rice harvest. They provide power for oilseed mills, sugarcane presses, and devices for raising water. They are widely used as pack animals, and in India and Pakistan also for heavy haulage. In their invasions of Europe, the Turks used buffalo for hauling heavy battering rams. Their dung is used as a fertilizer, and as a fuel when dried.

 

Buffalo contribute 72 million tones of milk and three million tones of meat annually to world food, much of it in areas that are prone to nutritional imbalances. In India, river-type buffalo are kept mainly for milk production and for transport, whereas swamp-type buffalo are kept mainly for work and a small amount of milk.

 

DAIRY PRODUCTS

Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from that of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins. The physical and chemical parameters of swamp and river type water buffalo milk differ. Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein, fat, calcium, and phosphorus, and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk. The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) content in milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play a role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of the water buffalo milk.

 

Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products:

 

- Cream churns much faster at higher fat levels and gives higher overrun than cow cream.

- Butter from water buffalo cream displays more stability than that from cow cream.

- Ghee from water buffalo milk has a different texture with a bigger grain size than ghee from cow milk.

- Heat-concentrated milk products in the Indian subcontinent include paneer, khoa, rabri, kheer and basundi.

- Fermented milk products include dahi, yogurt, and chakka.

- Whey is used for making ricotta and mascarpone in Italy, and alkarish in Syria and Egypt.

- Soft cheeses made include mozzarella in Italy, karish, mish, and domiati in Egypt, madhfor in Iraq, alghab in Syria, kesong puti in the Philippines, and vladeasa in Romania.

- The semihard cheese beyaz peynir is made in Turkey.

- Hard cheeses include braila in Romania, rahss in Egypt, white brine in Bulgaria, and akkawi in Syria.

- Watered-down buffalo milk is used as a cheaper alternative to regular milk.

 

MEAT AND SKIN PRODUCTS

Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved (rendang, for example) where the slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available.Their hides provide tough and useful leather, often used for shoes.

 

BONE AND HORN PRODUCTS

The bones and horns are often made into jewellery, especially earrings. Horns are used for the embouchure of musical instruments, such as ney and kaval.

 

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

Wildlife conservation scientists have started to recommend and use introduced populations of feral domestic water buffalo in far-away lands to manage uncontrolled vegetation growth in and around natural wetlands. Introduced water buffalo at home in such environs provide cheap service by regularly grazing the uncontrolled vegetation and opening up clogged water bodies for waterfowl, wetland birds, and other wildlife. Grazing water buffalo are sometimes used in Great Britain for conservation grazing, such as in Chippenham Fen National Nature Reserve. The buffalo can better adapt to wet conditions and poor-quality vegetation than cattle.

 

Currently, research is being conducted at the Lyle Center for Regenerative Studies to determine the levels of nutrients removed and returned to wetlands when water buffalo are used for wetland vegetation management.

 

However, in uncontrolled circumstances, water buffalo can cause environmental damage, such as trampling vegetation, disturbing bird and reptile nesting sites, and spreading exotic weeds.

 

RESEARCH

The world's first cloned buffalo was developed by Indian scientists from National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal. The buffalo calf was named Samrupa. The calf did not survive more than a week, and died due to some genetic disorders. So, the scientists created another cloned buffalo a few months later, and named it Garima.

 

On 15 September 2007, the Philippines announced its development of Southeast Asia's first cloned buffalo. The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), under the Department of Science and Technology in Los Baños, Laguna, approved this project. The Department of Agriculture's Philippine Carabao Center (PCC) will implement cloning through somatic cell nuclear transfer as a tool for genetic improvement in water buffalo. "Super buffalo calves" will be produced. There will be no modification or alteration of the genetic materials, as in genetically modified organisms.

 

On 1 January 2008, the Philippine Carabao Center in Nueva Ecija, per Filipino scientists, initiated a study to breed a super water buffalo that could produce 4 to 18 litres of milk per day using gene-based technology. Also, the first in vitro river buffalo was born there in 2004 from an in vitro-produced, vitrified embryo, named "Glory" after President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Joseph Estrada's most successful project as an opposition senator, the PCC was created through Republic Act 3707, the Carabao Act of 1992.

 

IN CULTURE

Some ethnic groups, such as Batak and Toraja in Indonesia and the Derung in China, use water buffalo or kerbau (called horbo in Batak or tedong in Toraja) as sacrificial animals at several festivals.

 

- Legend has it that the Chinese philosophical sage Laozi left China through the Han Gu Pass riding a water buffalo.

- According to Hindu lore, the god of death Yama, rides on a male water buffalo.

- The carabao subspecies is considered a national symbol in the Philippines.

- In Vietnam, water buffalo are often the most valuable possession of poor farmers: "Con trâu là đầu cơ nghiệp". They are treated as a member of the family: "Chồng cày, vợ cấy, con trâu đi bừa" ("The husband ploughs, the wife sows, water buffalo draws the rake") and are friends of the children. Children talk to their water buffalo, "Bao giờ cây lúa còn bông. Thì còn ngọn cỏ ngoài đồng trâu ăn." (Vietnamese children are responsible for grazing water buffalo. They feed them grass if they work laboriously for men.) In the old days, West Lake, Hà Nội, was named Kim Ngưu - Golden Water Buffalo.

- The Yoruban Orisha Oya (goddess of change) takes the form of a water buffalo.

 

FIGHTING FESTIVALS

- Pasungay Festival is held annually in the town of San Joaquin, Iloilo in the Philippines.

- Moh juj Water Buffalo fighting, is held every year in Bhogali Bihu in Assam. Ahotguri in Nagaon is famous for it.

- Do Son Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam, held each year on the ninth day of the eighth month of the lunar calendar at Do Son Township, Haiphong City in Vietnam, is one of the most popular Vietnam festivals and events in Haiphong City. The preparations for this buffalo fighting festival begin from the two to three months earlier. The competing buffalo are selected and methodically trained months in advance. It is a traditional festival of Vietnam attached to a Water God worshipping ceremony and the Hien Sinh custom to show martial spirit of the local people of Do Son, Haiphong.

- "Hai Luu" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Vietnam, According to ancient records, the buffalo fighting in Hai Luu Commune has existed from the 2nd century B.C. General Lu Gia at that time, had the buffalo slaughtered to give a feast to the local people and the warriors, and organized buffalo fighting for amusement. Eventually, all the fighting buffalo will be slaughtered as tributes to the deities.

- "Ko Samui" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival of Thailand, is a very popular event held on special occasions such as New Year's Day in January, and Songkran in mid-April, this festival features head-wrestling bouts in which two male Asian water buffalo are pitted against one another. Unlike in Spanish Bullfighting, wherein bulls get killed while fighting sword-wielding men, Buffalo Fighting Festival held at Ko Samui, Thailand is fairly harmless contest. The fighting season varies according to ancient customs & ceremonies. The first Buffalo to turn and run away is considered the loser, the winning buffalo becomes worth several million baht. Ko Samui is an island in the Gulf of Thailand in the South China Sea, it is 700 km from Bangkok and is connected to it by regular flights.

- "Ma'Pasilaga Tedong" Water Buffalo Fighting Festival, in Tana Toraja Regency of Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, is a very popular event where the Rambu Solo' or a Burial Festival took place in Tana Toraja.

 

RACING FESTIVALS

Carabao Carroza Festival is being held annually every May in the town of Pavia, Iloilo, Philippines.

Kambala races of Karnataka, India, take place between December and March. The races are conducted by having the water buffalo (he buffalo) run in long parallel slushy ditches, where they are driven by men standing on wooden planks drawn by the buffalo. The objectives of the race are to finish first and to raise the water to the greatest height and also a rural sport. Kambala races are arranged with competition, as well as without competition and as a part of thanks giving (to god) in about 50 villages of coastal Karnataka.

 

In the Chonburi Province of Thailand, and in Pakistan, there are annual water buffalo races.

 

Chon Buri Water buffalo racing festival, Thailand In downtown Chonburi, 70 km south of Bangkok, at the annual water buffalo festival held in mid-October. About 300 buffalo race in groups of five or six, spurred on by bareback jockeys wielding wooden sticks, as hundreds of spectators cheer. The water buffalo has always played an important role in agriculture in Thailand. For farmers of Chon Buri Province, near Bangkok, it is an important annual festival, beginning in mid-October. It is also a celebration among rice farmers before the rice harvest. At dawn, farmers walk their buffalo through surrounding rice fields, splashing them with water to keep them cool before leading them to the race field. This amazing festival started over a hundred years ago when two men arguing about whose buffalo was the fastest ended up having a race between them. That’s how it became a tradition and gradually a social event for farmers who gathered from around the country in Chonburi to trade their goods. The festival also helps a great deal in preserving the number of buffalo, which have been dwindling at quite an alarming rate in other regions. Modern machinery is rapidly replacing buffalo in Thai agriculture. With most of the farm work mechanized, the buffalo-racing tradition has continued. Racing buffalo are now raised just to race; they do not work at all. The few farm buffalo which still do work are much bigger than the racers because of the strenuous work they perform. Farm buffalo are in the "Buffalo Beauty Pageant", a Miss Farmer beauty contest and a comic buffalo costume contest etc.. This festival perfectly exemplifies a favored Thai attitude to life — "sanuk," meaning fun.

 

Babulang Water buffalo racing festival, Sarawak, Malaysia, is the largest or grandest of the many rituals, ceremonies and festivals of the traditional Bisaya (Borneo) community of Limbang, Sarawak. Highlights are the Ratu Babulang competition and the Water buffalo races which can only be found in this town in Sarawak, Malaysia.

Vihear Suor village Water buffalo racing festival, in Cambodia, each year, people visit Buddhist temples across the country to honor their deceased loved ones during a 15-day period commonly known as the Festival of the Dead but in Vihear Suor village, about 35 km northeast of Cambodia, citizens each year wrap up the festival with a water buffalo race to entertain visitors and honour a pledge made hundreds of years ago. There was a time when many village cattle which provide rural Cambodians with muscle power to plough their fields and transport agricultural products died from an unknown disease. The villagers prayed to a spirit to help save their animals from the disease and promised to show their gratitude by holding a buffalo race each year on the last day of "P'chum Ben" festival as it is known in Cambodian. The race draws hundreds of spectators who come to see riders and their animals charge down the racing field, the racers bouncing up and down on the backs of their buffalo, whose horns were draped with colorful cloth.

Pothu puttu matsaram, Kerala, South India, is similar to Kambala races.

 

WIKIPEDIA

COLLECTIVE ARTS CREATIVITY. Imperial Stout, Double barrel aged in Bourbon and Tawny port barrels. with Cherries, Vanilla & Cacao nibs.

Goblet Artist.. @MATMILLER , Bristol UK

museumPASSmusees 2018 - Autoworld Brussels

 

Etabli au coeur de la capitale, le musee Autoworld figure parmi les hauts lieux de l'histoire automobile belge. Plus de 300 vehicules, carrosses et motos de differentes origines retracent l'histoire de l'automobile.

 

Dans le cadre majestueux du Cinquantenaire, le musee Autoworld abrite plus de 300 vehicules, carrosses et motos de differentes origines qui retracent l'histoire de l'automobile et illustrent le developpement spectaculaire des vehicules sur plus d'un siecle. Les voitures les plus emblematiques de chaque epoque permettent egalement de suivre l'evolution du design automobile du debut jusqu'a aujourd'hui.

 

Le musee propose aussi une zone consacree au sport automobile, une zone dediee a l'histoire de l'automobile en Belgique et une nouvelle zone, munie d'ecrans, retracant l'histoire du batiment et du site du Cinquantenaire mais egalement l'histoire du musee Autoworld et l'evolution de l'automobile.

 

Porsche 70th Anniversary

 

La marque emblematique de Zuffenhausen fete cette annee son 70e anniversaire. En 1948, Ferdinand et son fils Ferry Porsche presentent pour la premiere fois une petite sportive basee sur la Volkswagen developpee par le pere. Le moteur est lui-meme base sur la Volkswagen 4 cyl. boxer de 1.131 cc ; la boite de vitesses et le poste de conduite proviennent aussi de VW. La premiere 356 est un spider. Elle gagne d'emblee la premiere course a laquelle elle participe. Suit en aout de la meme annee un coupe qui sera construit a 50 exemplaires. Le reste releve de l'histoire. Porsche est devenue une des marques de voitures de course les plus populaires et ses modeles - nouveaux comme anciens - continuent de faire rever de nombreux amateurs.

 

( 1 pass, 120 musees, 277 expositions

 

Payez une fois 50? et visitez tous les musees participants belges pendant un an. Quand vous voulez et autant de fois que vous le souhaitez.

 

La carte des musees : drive.google.com/open?id=1ncaA0eoa_CM_YyNAeGPbkfbLw327BT_f )

Toyota Origin, Versión limitada y vendida únicamente en Japón. Se produjeron aproximadamente unas 1000 unidades de este precioso auto.

 

Nikon D7100 | 80mm | 1/125 sec | f/8 | iso 320

 

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Diagram outlining the critical stages of evolution of the Universe from the Big Bang to the present.

 

credit: CERN

Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnamese: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh; [tʰàjŋ̟ fǒ hò cǐ mīŋ̟] (About this soundlisten) or [tʰàn fǒ hò cǐ mɨ̄n]), also known by its former name of Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn; [sàj ɣɔ̀n] or [ʂàj ɣɔ̀ŋ]), is the most populous city in Vietnam with a population of 8.4 million (13 million in the metropolitan area) as of 2017. Located in southeast Vietnam, the metropolis surrounds the Saigon River and covers about 2,061 square kilometres.

 

Ho Chi Minh City is the financial centre of Vietnam and is classified as a Beta+ World City by Globalization and World Cities Research Network It is home to the Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange, the largest stock exchange by total market capitalization in Vietnam and the headquarters of many national and international banks and companies.

 

Ho Chi Minh City is the most visited city in Vietnam, with 6.3 million visitors in 2017. Many of the city's landmarks which are well known to international visitors include the Bến Thành Market, Ho Chi Minh City Hall, Notre-Dame Cathedral Basilica of Saigon, Independence Palace and the Municipal Theatre. The main passenger airport serving the metropolitan area is Tan Son Nhat International Airport, it is the busiest airport in Vietnam handling 36 million passengers in 2017.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Ho Chi Minh City has gone by several different names during its history, reflecting settlement by different ethnic, cultural and political groups. Originally a trading port (city) of the Khmer Empire known as Prey Nokor (Khmer: ព្រៃនគរ)] (still known as Prey Nokor to Cambodians even today). In time, under the control of the Vietnamese it was officially renamed to Gia Định (嘉定) remained until the time of French conquest in the 1860s, when it was then adopted the westernized form as Saïgon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn) , although the city was still indicated as 嘉定 on Vietnamese maps written in Chữ Hán until at least 1891 .

 

The current Ho Chi Minh name was given after the Fall of Saigon in 1975 honoring Hồ Chí Minh .[nb 1] Even today, however, the informal name of Sài Gòn remains in daily speech both domestically and internationally, especially among the Vietnamese diaspora. However, there is a technical difference between the two terms: Sài Gòn is commonly used to refer to the city center in District 1 and the adjacent areas, while Ho Chi Minh City is referred more to the entire modern city with all its urban and rural districts

 

SAIGON

An etymology of Saigon (or Sài Gòn in Vietnamese) is that Sài is a Sino-Vietnamese word (Hán tự: 柴) meaning "firewood, lops, twigs; palisade", while Gòn is another Sino-Vietnamese word (Hán tự: 棍) meaning "stick, pole, bole", and whose meaning evolved into "cotton" in Vietnamese (bông gòn, literally "cotton stick", i.e., "cotton plant", then shortened to gòn). This name may refer to the many kapok plants that the Khmer people had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and surrounding areas. It may also refer to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city, a forest to which the Khmer name, Prey Nokor, already referred.

 

Other proposed etymologies draw parallels from Tai-Ngon (堤 岸), the Cantonese name of Cholon, which means "embankment" (French: quais),[nb 2] and Vietnamese Sai Côn, a translation of the Khmer Prey Nokor (Khmer: ព្រៃនគរ). Prey means forest or jungle, and nokor is a Khmer word of Sanskrit origin meaning city or kingdom, and related to the English word 'Nation' – thus, "forest city" or "forest kingdom".[nb 3]

 

Truong Mealy (former director of King Norodom Sihanouk's royal Cabinet), says that, according to a Khmer Chronicle, The Collection of the Council of the Kingdom, Prey Nokor's proper name was Preah Reach Nokor (Khmer: ព្រះរាជនគរ), "Royal City"; later locally corrupted to "Prey kor", meaning "kapok forest", from which "Saigon" was derived ("kor" meaning "kapok" in Khmer and Cham, going into Vietnamese as "gòn").

 

HO CHI MINH CITY

The current official name, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, adopted in 1976 and abbreviated Tp. HCM, is translated as Ho Chi Minh City, abbreviated HCMC, and in French as Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville (the circumflex is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. The name commemorates Hồ Chí Minh, the first leader of North Vietnam. This name, though not his given name, was one he favored throughout his later years. It combines a common Vietnamese surname (Hồ, 胡) with a given name meaning "enlightened will" (from Sino-Vietnamese 志 明; Chí meaning 'will' or 'spirit', and Minh meaning 'light'), in essence, meaning "light bringer".[

 

HISTORY

KHMER PERIOD

The earliest settlement in the area was a Funan temple at the location of the current Phung Son Pagoda, founded in the 4th century AD. A settlement called Baigaur was established on the site in the 11th century by the Champa. When the Cham Empire was invaded by the Khmer people, Baigaur was renamed Prey Nokor. This meant "Forest City". An alternative name was Preah Reach Nokor which, according to a Khmer Chronicle meant "Royal City". It was succeeded a small fishing village likely known as the area that the city now occupies was originally forested, and was inhabited by Khmer people for centuries before the arrival of the Vietnamese.

 

Beginning in the early 17th century, colonization of the area by Vietnamese settlers gradually isolated the Khmer of the Mekong Delta from their brethren in Cambodia proper and resulted in their becoming a minority in the delta.[citation needed] In 1623, King Chey Chettha II of Cambodia (1618–28) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trịnh–Nguyễn civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor and to set up a customs house there. Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom could not impede because it was weakened by war with Thailand, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon. Prey Nokor was the most important commercial seaport to the Khmers. The loss of the city and the rest of the Mekong Delta cut off Cambodia's access to the East Sea. Subsequently, the only remaining Khmers' sea access was south-westerly at the Gulf of Thailand e.g. at Kampong Saom and Kep.

 

NGUYEN DYNASTY RULE

In 1698, Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh, a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyễn rulers of Huế by sea to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement. A large Vauban citadel called Gia Định was built by Victor Olivier de Puymanel one of the French mercenaries of Nguyễn Ánh. The citadel was later destroyed by the French following the Battle of Kỳ Hòa (see Citadel of Saigon).[citation needed] Initially called Gia Dinh, the Vietnamese city became Saigon in the 18th century.

 

FRENCH COLONIAL ERA

Colonized by France and Spain in 1859, and ceded to France by the 1862 Treaty of Saigon, the city was influenced by the French during their colonisation of Vietnam, and a number of classical Western-style buildings and French villas in the city reflect this. Saigon had, in 1929, a population of 123,890, including 12,100 French.

 

In 1931, a new région called Saïgon–Cholon consisting of Saïgon and Cholon was formed. Saïgon and Cholon, meanwhile, remained separate cities with their respective mayors and municipal councils. In 1956, after South Vietnam's independence from France in 1955, the région of Saïgon–Cholon became a single city called Saïgon following the merger of the two cities of Saïgon and Cholon.

 

REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM ERA

The Viet Minh proclaimed the independence of Vietnam in 1945 after a combined occupation by Vichy France and Japan, and before the Communist revolution in China. They were led by Ho Chi Minh. The Viet Minh-held sections of Vietnam were more concentrated in rural areas. Following the death of Franklin Roosevelt and the abandonment of anti-colonialist policies, the U.S. (in an attempt to control the spread of communism) supported France in regaining its control over the country, with effective control spanning mostly in the Southern half and parts of the Red River Delta region like Hanoi, Haiphong and Thái Bình.

 

Former Emperor Bảo Đại made Saigon the capital of the State of Vietnam in 1949 with himself as head of state. In 1954, the Geneva Agreement partitioned Vietnam along the 17th parallel (Bến Hải River), with the communist Việt Minh, under Ho Chi Minh, gaining complete control of the northern half of the country, while the Saigon government continued to govern the State of Vietnam which continued in the southern half of the country and the southern half gaining independence from France. The State officially became the Republic of Vietnam when Bảo Đại was deposed by his Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm in 1955 in the referendum. Saigon and Cholon, an adjacent city with mostly Sino-Vietnamese residents, were combined into an administrative unit known as the Đô Thành Sài Gòn (Capital City Saigon), or Thủ đô Sài Gòn (National Capital Saigon).

 

South Vietnam was a capitalist and anti-communist state which fought against the communist North Vietnamese and their allies during the Vietnam War, with the assistance of the United States and other countries. The Viet Cong (formerly Viet Minh), on the other hand, was supported by the Soviet Union. On 30 April 1975, Saigon fell, ending the Vietnam War.

 

POST-VIETNAM WAR AND TODAY

At the conclusion of the Vietnam War on 30 April 1975, the city came under the control of the Vietnamese People's Army. Among Vietnamese diaspora communities and particularly the U.S. (which had fought the communists), this event is commonly called the "fall of Saigon", while the Socialist Republic of Vietnam refers to it as the "Liberation of Saigon". In 1976, upon the establishment of the unified communist Socialist Republic of Vietnam, the city of Saigon (including Cholon), the province of Gia Ðịnh and two suburban districts of two other nearby provinces were combined to create Ho Chi Minh City in honor of the late Communist leader Hồ Chí Minh. The former name Saigon is still widely used by many Vietnamese, especially in informal contexts. Generally, the term Saigon refers only to the urban districts of Ho Chi Minh City.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Ho Chi Minh City is located in the south-eastern region of Vietnam, 1,760 km south of Hanoi. The average elevation is 19 metres above sea level. It borders Tây Ninh Province and Bình Dương Province to the north, Đồng Nai Province and Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu Province to the east, Long An Province to the west and the East Sea to the south with a coast 15 km long. The city covers an area of 2,095 km2 (or 0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to Củ Chi District (19 km from the Cambodian border) and down to Cần Giờ on the Eastern Sea. The distance from the northernmost point (Phú Mỹ Hưng Commune, Củ Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hòa Commune, Cần Giờ District) is 102 km, and from the easternmost point (Long Bình ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Bình Chánh Commune, Bình Chánh District) is 47 km.

 

CLIMATE

The city has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical savanna climate, with an average humidity of 78–82%. The year is divided into two distinct seasons. The rainy season, with an average rainfall of about 1,800 millimetres annually (about 150 rainy days per year), usually lasts from May to October. The dry season lasts from November to April. The average temperature is 28 °C, with little variation throughout the year. The highest temperature recorded was 40.0 °C in April while the lowest temperature recorded was 13.8 °C in January. On average, the city experiences between 2,400 to 2,700 hours of sunshine per year.

 

CITY GOVERNMENT

The Ho Chi Minh City People's Committee is a 13-member executive branch of the city. The current chairman is Nguyễn Thành Phong. There are several vice chairmen and chairwomen on the committee with responsibility over various city departments. The legislative branch of the city is the Ho Chi Minh City People's Council and consists of 95 members. The current Chairwoman is Nguyễn Thị Quyết Tâm. The judiciary branch of the city is the Ho Chi Minh City People's Court. The current Judge is Ung Thị Xuân Hương. The executive committee of Communist Party of Ho Chi Minh City is the leading organ of the Communist Party in Ho Chi Minh City. The current secretary is Nguyễn Thiện Nhân. The chairman of the People's Committee is ranked second in the city politics after the Secretary of the Communist Party, while the chairman of the People's Council is ranked third.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the 1 October 2004 census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In mid-2007, the city's population was 6,650,942 – with the 19 inner districts home to 5,564,975 residents and the five suburban districts containing 1,085,967 inhabitants. The result of the 2009 Census shows that the city's population was 7,162,864 people, about 8.34% of the total population of Vietnam, making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As of the end of 2012, the total population of the city was 7,750,900 people, an increase of 3.1% from 2011. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level.

 

The city's population is expected to grow to 13.9 million by 2025. The population of the city is expanding faster than earlier predictions. In August 2017 the city's mayor, Nguyen Thanh Phong, admitted that previous estimates of 8–10 million were drastic underestimations. The actual population (including those who have not officially registered) was estimated 13 million in 2017. The Ho Chi Minh City Metropolitan Area, a metropolitan area covering most parts of the southeast region plus Tiền Giang Province and Long An Province under planning, will have an area of 30,000 square kilometres with a population of 20 million inhabitants by 2020. Inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as "Saigonese" in English and "dân Sài Gòn" in Vietnamese.

 

ETHNIC GROUPS

The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh) at about 93.52%. Ho Chi Minh City's largest minority ethnic group are the Chinese (Hoa) with 5.78%. Cholon – in District 5 and parts of Districts 6, 10 and 11 – is home to the largest Chinese community in Vietnam. The Hoa (Chinese) speak a number of varieties of Chinese, including Cantonese, Teochew (Chaozhou), Hokkien, Hainanese and Hakka; smaller numbers also speak Mandarin Chinese. Other ethnic minorities include Khmer with 0.34%, and Cham with 0.1%.

 

Religion

The three most prevalent religions in Ho Chi Minh City are Mahayana Buddhism with Taoism and Confucianism (via ancestor worship), which are often celebrated together in the same temple. Most Vietnamese and Han Chinese are strongly influenced by these traditional religious practices. There is a sizeable community of Roman Catholics, representing about 10% of the city's population. Other minority groups include Hòa Hảo, Cao Đài, Protestants, Muslims, Hindus, and members of the Bahá'í Faith.

 

Economy

Ho Chi Minh City is the economic center of Vietnam and accounts for a large proportion of the economy of Vietnam. Although the city takes up just 0.6% of the country's land area, it contains 8.34% of the population of Vietnam, 20.2% of its GDP, 27.9% of industrial output and 34.9% of the FDI projects in the country in 2005. In 2005, the city had 4,344,000 labourers, of whom 130,000 are over the labour age norm (in Vietnam, 60 for male and 55 for female workers). In 2009, GDP per capita reached $2,800, compared to the country's average level of $1,042.

 

2006

As of June 2006, the city has been home to three export processing zones and twelve industrial parks. Ho Chi Minh City is the leading receiver of foreign direct investment in Vietnam, with 2,530 FDI projects worth $16.6 billion at the end of 2007. In 2007, the city received over 400 FDI projects worth $3 billion.

 

2007

In 2007, the city's GDP was estimated at $14.3 billion, or about $2,180 per capita, up 12.6 percent from 2006 and accounting for 20% of the country's GDP. The GDP adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) reached $71.5 billion, or about $10,870 per capita (approximately three times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was $6.4 billion, equivalent to 30% of the value of the entire nation. Export – Import Turnover through HCMC ports accounted for $36 billion, or 40% of the national total, of which export revenue reached $18.3 billion (40% of Vietnam's total export revenues). In 2007, Ho Chi Minh City's contribution to the annual revenues in the national budget increased by 30 percent, accounting for about 20.5 percent of total revenues. The consumption demand of Ho Chi Minh City is higher than other Vietnamese provinces and municipalities and 1.5 times higher than that of Hanoi.

 

2008

In 2008, it attracted $8.5 billion in FDI.[55] In 2010, the city's GDP was estimated at $20.902 billion, or about $2,800 per capita, up 11.8 percent from 2009.

 

2012

By the end of 2012, the city's GDP was estimated around $28,595 billion[dubious – discuss], or about $3,700 per capita, up 9.2 percent from 2011. Total trade (export and import) reached $47.7 billion, with export at $21.57 billion and import $26.14 billion.

 

2013

In 2013, GDP of the city grew 7.6% by Q1, 8.1% by Q2, and 10.3% by the end of Q3. By the end of 2013, the city's GDP grew 9.3%, with GDP per capital reach $4500.

 

2014

By the end of 2014, the city's GDP grew 9.5%, with GDP per capita reaching $5100.[

 

SECTORS

The economy of Ho Chi Minh City consists of industries ranging from mining, seafood processing, agriculture, and construction, to tourism, finance, industry and trade. The state-owned sector makes up 33.3% of the economy, the private sector 4.6%, and the remainder in foreign investment. Concerning its economic structure, the service sector accounts for 51.1%, industry and construction account for 47.7% and forestry, agriculture and others make up just 1.2%.

 

Quang Trung Software Park is a software park situated in District 12. The park is approximately 15 km from downtown Ho Chi Minh City and hosts software enterprises as well as dot.com companies. The park also includes a software training school. Dot.com investors here are supplied with other facilities and services such as residences and high-speed access to the internet as well as favourable taxation. Together with the Hi-Tech Park in District 9, and the 32 ha. software park inside Tan Thuan Export Processing Zone in District 7 of the city, Ho Chi Minh City aims to become an important hi-tech city in the country and the South-East Asia region.

 

This park helps the city in particular and Vietnam in general to become an outsourcing location for other enterprises in developed countries, as India has done. Some 300,000 businesses, including many large enterprises, are involved in high-tech, electronic, processing and light industries, and also in construction, building materials and agricultural products. Additionally, crude oil is a popular economic base in the city. Investors are still pouring money into the city. Total local private investment was 160 billion đồng (US$7.5 million) with 18,500 newly founded companies. Investment trends to high technology, services and real estate projects.

 

As of June 2006, the city had three export processing zones and twelve industrial parks, in addition to Quang Trung Software Park and Ho Chi Minh City hi-tech park. Intel has invested about 1 billion dollars in a factory in the city. More than fifty banks with hundreds of branches and about 20 insurance companies are also located inside the city. The Stock Exchange, the first stock exchange in Vietnam, was opened in 2001. There are 171 medium and large-scale markets as well as several supermarket chains, shopping malls, and fashion and beauty centres.

 

NEW URBAN ERAS

With a population now of 8,382,287 (as of Census 2010 on 1 April 2010) (registered residents plus migrant workers as well as a metropolitan population of 10 million), Ho Chi Minh City needs increased public infrastructure. To this end, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centres. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city centre in District 2 and the Phu My Hung Urban Area, a new city centre in District 7 (as part of the Saigon South project) where various international schools such as Saigon South International School and Australia's Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology are located. In December 2007, Phu My Hung's new City Centre completed the 17.8 km 10–14 lane wide Nguyen Van Linh Boulevard linking the Saigon port areas, Tan Thuan Export Processing Zone to the National Highway 1 and the Mekong Delta area. In November 2008, a brand new trade centre, Saigon Exhibition and Convention Centre, also opened its doors. Other projects include Grandview, Waterfront, Sky Garden, Riverside and Phu Gia 99. Phu My Hung's new City Center received the first Model New City Award from the Vietnamese Ministry of Construction.[

 

TOURISM

Today, the city's core is still adorned with wide elegant boulevards and historic French colonial buildings. The majority of these tourist spots are located in District 1 and are a short leisurely distance from each other. The most prominent structures in the city centre are the Reunification Palace (Dinh Thống Nhất), City Hall (Ủy ban nhân dân Thành phố), Municipal Theatre (Nhà hát thành phố, also known as the Opera House), City Post Office (Bưu điện thành phố), State Bank Office (Ngân hàng nhà nước), City People's Court (Tòa án nhân dân thành phố) and Notre-Dame Cathedral (Nhà thờ Đức Bà) the cathedral was constructed between 1863 and 1880. Some of the historic hotels are the Hotel Majestic, dating from the French colonial era, and the Rex and Caravelle hotels are former hangouts for American officers and war correspondents in the 1960s & '70s.

 

The city has various museums including the Ho Chi Minh City Museum, Museum of Vietnamese History, the Revolutionary Museum, the Museum of south-eastern Armed Forces, the War Remnants Museum, the Museum of Southern Women, the Museum of Fine Arts, the Nha Rong Memorial House, and the Ben Duoc Relic of Underground Tunnels. The Củ Chi tunnels are north-west of the city in Củ Chi District. The Saigon Zoo and Botanical Gardens, in District 1, dates from 1865. The Đầm Sen Tourist and Cultural Park, Suối Tiên Amusement and Culture Park, and Cần Giờ's Eco beach resort are three recreational sites inside the city which are popular with tourists. Aside from the Municipal Theatre, there are other places of entertainment such as the Bến Thành theatre, Hòa Bình theatre, and the Lan Anh Music Stage. Ho Chi Minh City is home to hundreds of cinemas and theatres, with cinema and drama theatre revenue accounting for 60–70% of Vietnam's total revenue in this industry.[citation needed] Unlike other theatrical organisations found in Vietnam's provinces and municipalities, residents of Ho Chi Minh City keep their theatres active without the support of subsidies from the Vietnamese government. The city is also home to most of the private film companies in Vietnam.

 

Like many of Vietnam's smaller cities, the city boasts a multitude of restaurants serving typical Vietnamese dishes such as phở or rice vermicelli. Backpacking travellers most often frequent the "Western Quarter" on Phạm Ngũ Lão Street and Bùi Viện Street, District 1.

 

It was approximated that 4.3 million tourists visited Vietnam in 2007, of which 70 percent, approximately 3 million tourists, visited Ho Chi Minh City. According to the most recent international tourist statistic, Ho Chi Minh City welcomed 6 million tourists in 2017.

 

UNIVERSITIES

Higher education in Ho Chi Minh City is a burgeoning industry; the city boasts over 80 universities and colleges with a total of over 400,000 students. Notable universities include Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, with 50,000 students distributed among six schools; The University of Technology (Vietnamese: Đại học Bách khoa, formerly Phú Thọ National Center of Technology); The University of Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The International University; The University of Economics and Law; and the newly established University of Information Technology.

 

Some other important higher education establishments include HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, University of Architecture, Pham Ngoc Thach University of Medicine Nong Lam University (formerly University of Agriculture and Forestry), University of Law, University of Technical Education, University of Banking, University of Industry, Open University, University of Sports and Physical Education, University of Fine Arts, University of Culture, the Conservatory of Music, the Saigon Institute of Technology, Văn Lang University, Saigon University and Hoa Sen University.

 

In addition to the above public universities, Ho Chi Minh City is also home to several private universities. One of the most notable is RMIT International University, Vietnam, a campus of Australian public research RMIT University with an enrollment of about 6,000 students. Tuition at RMIT is about US$40,000 for an entire course of study. Other private universities include The International School of Business (Vietnam) (or ISB), an English-language university run as a partnership with universities abroad, including the University of Western Sydney and UQAM, Montreal. The Saigon International University (or SIU) is another private university run by the Group of Asian International Education. Enrollment at SIU averages about 12,000 students Depending on the type of program, tuition at SIU costs US$5,000–6,000 per year.

 

CULTURE

MUSEUMS AND ART GALLERIES

Ho Chi Minh City is the second largest art city in Vietnam. Due to its history, artworks have generally been inspired by both Western and Eastern styles.

 

Famous art locations in Ho Chi Minh City include Ho Chi Minh City Museum of Fine Arts, and various art galleries located on Nam Ky Khoi Nghia street, Tran Phu street, and Bui Vien street.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Jean-Henri Manara, niçois d'origine, débute sa carrière en 1960 comme assistant de mathématiques à la Faculté des sciences de Paris-Jussieu, après avoir étudié à l'Ecole normale de Nice et celle de Montpellier, puis à l'Ecole normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud. II s'oriente vers l'informatique, accompagnant le rapide développement de cette nouvelle technologie qu'il enseigne comme maître de conférence, toujours sur le site de Jussieu (Université Paris 7-Diderot), jusqu'à sa retraite en 1998. Avec son premier appareil photo, un Agfa Silette, il commence par immortaliser ses vacances dans divers lieux touristiques. Ce sont les premières des plus de 50 000 diapositives qu'il possède aujourd'hui. Le déclic en faveur des transports provient, se souvient-il, de la couverture d'un numéro de La Vie du Rail qui met en vedette un tramway PCC de Saint-Etienne, alors que ce mode de transport disparaît à vitesse accélérée de nos villes. Jean-Henri Manara "mitraille" alors les tramways survivants en France et franchit les frontières pour photographier ceux de réseaux allemands, suisses, belges, portugais, norvégiens, autrichiens et italiens. Il s'intéresse ensuite aux trains à voie métrique, puis au trolleybus, aux autobus et enfin aux autocars (son premier cliché concernant le transport routier est celui d'un trolleybus niçois, pris en 1961). Parmi ces milliers de clichés consacrés aux transports, 371 ont donné naissance à ce livre ! Nicolas Tellier, originaire de Caen, se passionne depuis toujours pour les autocars et les autobus, avec une prédilection pour les premiers. Depuis ses débuts professionnels en 1979, il a toujours travaillé chez un constructeur, d'abord allemand, puis suédois et aujourd'hui italien, dans différents domaines : commercial, marketing, communication et relations presse. En parallèle, il s'est activement penché sur l'histoire de la profession en écrivant trois livres (La grande aventure des cars Chausson, Edijac 1988 . La fabuleuse aventure du S 45 ou 40 ans d'histoire de cars Renault, Massin 1993 . Les cars Isobloc, ETAI 1998) ainsi que de nombreux articles, pour la revue Charge Utile, sur de nombreux transporteurs et carrossiers français. Parmi ces derniers, on peut citer Amiot, Belle-Clot, Besset, la Carrosserie dauphinoise, Currus, Di Rosa, Gangloff, Gruau, Ravistre & Martel, dont on retrouve certaines réalisations illustrées dans ce livre. Nicolas Tellier prend autant de plaisir à évoquer l'histoire de nos vénérables véhicules qu'à les conduire. Ainsi, il possède depuis 1985 un car ancien, qui fut tout à tour un Chausson ANG de 1959 suivi d'un APH 522 du même millésime. puis un Renault R 4192 de 1956, un Berliet PHC Escapade de 1958, et, aukourd'hui, un Saviem S 53 M Luxe de 1975. De quoi passer de joyeux moments avec famille et amis dans l'ouest francilien où il réside ! les passionnés du monde automobile, et particulièrement ceux dont les autocars, les autobus et les trolleybus sont les véhicules de prédilection ! Ouvrez grand les yeux, 371 photos en couleurs, toutes plus belles les unes que les autres - prises par Jean-Henri Manara, photographe émérite de véhicules de transport en commun depuis 1961, et légendées par Nicolas Tellier, historien reconnu en la matière - permettent de profiter sans retenue de ces véhicules dans leur merveilleux environnement des Trente Glorieuses. Ce périple photographique nous transporte un peu partout en France pour découvrir de nombreux autocars d'entreprises privées ainsi que des autobus et des trolleybus de la RATP et de plusieurs réseaux urbains de province. Le panorama des marques qu'arborent tous ces véhicules témoigne de la richesse de notre industrie, à l'époque : Berliet, Chausson, Delahaye, Floirat, Isobloc, Saviem, Somua, Verney, Vetra, entre autres, sans oublier d'illustres carrossiers comme Amiot, Besset, Currus, Gangloff, MGT, pour en citer quelques-uns. Les matériels étrangers roulant dans notre pays sont tout aussi présents, provenant d'Allemagne, d'Angleterre, de Belgique et d'Italie. Circulez, il y a plein de choses à voir ! transporturbain.canalblog.com/pages/l-histoire-des-trolle... @ Tramways mis en service le 4 décembre 1881 amtuir.org/03_htu_cp/03_reseau_france_cp/saint_etienne_cp...

Trolleybus mise en service courant 1940

Compléments des services assurés par des autobus

La ville de Saint-Etienne est bâtie sur un long axe nord-sud sur lequel s'étendent d'interminables communes étirées tout au long d'étroites vallées. La vocation de la région a très tôt été tournée vers l'industrie. La topographie de la vile a déterminé la structure des réseaux de transports. Ainsi, les premiers tramways ont-ils été construits au fond des vallées sur des itinéraires à gros trafic. En complément de ces lignes, d'autres itinéraires ont été desservis vers les collines à partir de cet axe central.En 1883, la Compagnie des Chemins de Fer à Voie Etroite de Saint-Etienne, Firminy, Rive-de-Gier et Extensions (CFVE) fut constituée. Deux lignes de tramways furent mises en chantier, d'une part entre Saint-Etienne et Firminy et, d'autre part, entre Saint-Etienne et Rive-de-Gier. Le 4 décembre 1881, le premier tronçon urbain entre Bellevue et Terrasse, fut mis en service, suivi le 20 mars 1882 par un court prolongement à La Digonnière.Le réseau suburbain fut ensuite achevé et ouvert à l'exploitation le 23 février 1882 vers Firminy, le 1er juillet 1882 entre Saint-Etienne et Saint-Chamond et le 16 novembre suivant entre Saint-Chamond et Rive-de-Gier. Toutes les lignes étaient construites à voie métrique, unique avec des évitements.L'exploitation était assurée par des train à vapeur comportant trois ou quatre voitures. Le parc comportait en 1884, 34 locomotives Winterthur, Brown ou Tubize, 97 voitures et 12 fourgons.

En 1907, les CFVE procédèrent à des extensions de leur réseau :la ligne de Rive-de-Gier est prolongée de 2 km vers La Madeleine, le 14 septembre 1907 ;

un embranchement de la ligne est mis en service vers Saint-Jean-Bonnefond, le 4 décembre 1907 ;

la ligne de Firminy est envoyée vers Pertuiset, sur 4 km supplémentaires, le 18 juin 1907.

Toujours en 1907, deux nouvelles lignes furent construites, l'une vers La Fouillouse, sur 7 km ; l'autre vers Saint-Genest-Lerpt (12 avril et 4 décembre 1907). Enfin, un embranchement de cette dernière ligne vers Riche-la-Molière fut mis en service le 15 avril 1908.Mais à la fin du XIX° siècle, une nouvelle compagnie stéphanoise était apparue : la Compagnie des Tramways Eletriques de Saint-Etienne (TE). Le 7 avril 1897, elle mit en service deux lignes à voie métrique reliant Bellevue et La Rivière à la Gare de Châteaucreux et le Rond-Point au Marais. Les deux lignes, parallèles à celles des CFVE, les concurrençaient directement. En 1906, les TE mirent en service une nouvelle ligne entre Châteaucreux et l'Hôtel de Ville. L'exploitation était assurée par des motrices électriques à deux essieux, de construction assez sommaire, avec un accès frontal par les plates-formes. Leur gabarit en largeur était limité à 1,87 m. En plus des CFVE et des TE, la Société des Tramways Electriques de Saint-Chamond (TSC) mit en service, le 1er juillet 1906, une petite ligne de 2 km, entre Izieux et saint-Chamond, en correspondance avec la ligne CFVE de Rive-de-Gier. L'exploitation était assurée par de petites motrices à deux essieux.Devant la concurrence de ces deux nouvelles compagnies, les CFVE modernisèrent leur propre réseau. La totalité des services furent électrifiés entre août 1907 et juin 1914. Une série de lourdes motrices à essieux radiants, de type H assurèrent dès lors l'exploitation. Elles tractaient les anciennes remorques des trains vapeur. Les motrices étaient équipées du frein à air mais ne possédaient pas de compresseur : les réservoirs étaient remplis à chaque terminus à l'aide de prise d'air comprimé. Ce système restera une particularité stéphanoise jusqu'à l'arrivée des PCC, en 1959. Après la première guerre, les CFVE complétèrent leur parc par du matériel d'occasion provenant de Nancy (type R). A partir de 1920, les TE rencontrèrent de graves difficultés financières et tombèrent en faillite en 1930. Leurs lignes furent alors reprises par les CFVE. Mais la concurrence des autocars qui commencaient à apparaître, provoqua des difficultés importantes aux CFVE. Ces derniers abandonnèrent alors les lignes interurbaines vers Rive-de-Gier, Saint-Jean-Bonnefonds, La Fouillouse et Saint-Genest-Lerpt. En contrepartie, les CFVE obtinrent le monopole sur les lignes de Firminy et de Terrenoire. En 1935-38, une nouvelle série de 8 motrice de type J furent construites neuves et mises en service. Parallèlement quelques morices H furent modernisées. Enfin, en 1941, une petite série de 10 nouvelles motrices de type K fut mise en service. Mais le tracé défecteux des lignes des anciens TE provoqua une première mise sur route en 1938. Dès lors, il fut envisagé de convertir une partie du réseau pour l'exploitation par trolleybus. Dès 1940, les CFVE avaient entamé la transformation de tout l'ancien réseau des TE. A la fin de 1940, la ligne Tardy - Le Soleil vit appraître 6 trolleybus Vétra CS35 prévus à l'origine pour le réseau de Poitiers. A la fin de 1942, 7 Vétra CS45 de 45 places remplacent les CS35 qui furent envoyé à Poitiers.

En 1947, 22 trolleybus de type CS60 remplacèrent les tramways sur la ligne de Bellevue à Firminy. De décembre 1947 à 1954, 6 trolleybus VBD, 40 VCR et 50 ELR furent mis en service sur les anciennes lignes de TE dont les derniers tramways disparurent en 1949.

En 1954, seule la ligne de Bellevue à Terrasse restait exploitée par tramways. Bien qu'envisagée, sa conversion en trolleybus ou autobus paraissait impossible ; son important trafic (70 à 80.000 voyageurs par jour) et son tracé dans des rues étroites, rendait quasi impossible une exploitation par véhicule routier.

Après quelques années d'hésitation, la Ville de Saint-Etienne accepta le maintien des traways dans le centre - cas unique en France - et les CFVE passèrent commande de 30 motrices PCC de conception belge et construites à Strasbourg. Ces remarquables motrices étaient calquées pour la voie métrique sur celles circulant depuis 1951 à Bruxelles. Montées sur deux ogies à roues élastiques, elles comportaient quatre moteurs de 50 CV. Le confort intérieur était particulièrement soigné. Chaque motrice présente une caisse de 13,95 m de long.

En complément, les voies de la ligne furent réaménagée afin de permettre aux tramways de circuler sans être gênés par la circulation automobile.

La première motrice PCC fut livrée le 4 août 1958 et mise en service le 11 décembre suivant. Le 1er septembre 1959, le dernier tramway ancien fut retiré du service. Le succès fut complet : les critiques à l'encontre des anciens tramways s'évaporèrent et les Stéphanois pouvaient s'ennorgueillir de posséder la ligne urbaine la plus moderne de France.

En 1967, les CFVE commandèrent une nouvelle série de 5 motrices PCC articulées afin de renforcer la capacité de la ligne dont le tafic augmentait.

Parallèlement, le parc de trolleybus s'étoffa entre 1960 et 1970, de plusieurs séries de voitures Berliet ELR provenant de Nice et de quelques VA3B2 de Marseille. En 1972, le parc comprenait 35 motrices de tramways, 105 trolleybus et 80 autobus.

Contrairement à ce qui se rencontrait alors en France, le réseau de Saint-Etienne avait su conserver un grande qualité de service et une attractivité qui en faisait un des réseaux les plus efficaces. Cas rare, les CFVE réussissaient à maintenir l'équilibre de leurs comptes ...

Voir aussi :

les tramways de Saint-Etienne dans les années cinquante

le renouveau des tramways de Saint-Etienne

les trolleybus de Saint-Etienne

140 ans de tramway à Saint-Etienne – un record de longévité inégalé en France www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gv6hWmCaLq8&feature=emb_imp_woyt - 1881 – 2021. Cela fait 140 ans que le tramway circule à Saint-Étienne sans discontinuité. À travers ce record de longévité inégalé en France pour un tramway intramuros, c’est aussi des milliers d’hommes et de femmes qui se sont succédés pour assurer au quotidien le déplacement de plusieurs milliards de voyageurs.

140 ans jour pour jour après le lancement de son premier tramway, la Société de Transport de l’Agglomération Stéphanoise et Saint-Étienne Métropole ont décidé de célébrer l’événement comme il se doit.

La journée à débuté par la sortie de la motrice J74 du dépôt de la STAS qui a repris du service pour 200 heureux voyageurs, qui, tirés au sort parmi près de 1000 inscrits, pourront circuler à bord de cette motrice emblématique toute la journée entre les stations. Terrasse et Bellevue, tronçon historique du réseau exploité dès 1881 ! Les locomotives à vapeur du réseau CFVE (Chemin de Fer à Voie Etroite) 1881 – 1914

Rue Gambetta sur la ligne Terrasse-Bellevue: En décembre 1881 pour l’ouverture de la ligne; le service est limité à un tram toutes les 1/2 heures pour que les stéphanois s’habituent à la présence des tramways.

 

C’est en 1981 que le nom STAS apparait pour la première fois, remplaçant la CFVE.

 

Quatre murs et un toit 1953 - Le Corbusier, l'architecte du bonheur 1957 conceptions architecturales le modulor, l'architecture de la ville radieuse, Chandigarh, Marseille, Nantes www.dailymotion.com/video/xw8prl Un documentaire consacré aux conceptions architecturales et urbanistiques de Le Corbusier.

 

Exposées par l'architecte lui-même et étayées par des plans, dessins et images de ses réalisations en France et à l'étranger, ces théories témoignent d'une réflexion approfondie et originale sur la ville et sa nécessaire adaptation à la vie moderne, notamment Paris dont l'aménagement révolutionnaire rêvé par Le Corbusier est ici exposé. Un classique du documentaire.

 

Les premiers projets de Le Corbusier resteront à l'état de maquette : le plan de modernisation de la ville d'Alger. Certains seront réalisés par d'autres architectes : ministère de l'éducation à Rio de Janeiro, Palais de l'ONU à New York. Dès l'après-guerre en moins de 10 ans, Le Corbusier réalise de grandes unités d'habitation à Marseille, Nantes une chapelle à Ronchamps, une usine à Saint-Dié, une ville Chandigarh en Inde. Par des schémas, l'architecte présente sa théorie de la "ville radieuse", le modulor clef mathématique de son œuvre ainsi que son projet de réorganisation de la campagne, des cités industrielles et urbaine en un regroupement autour d'un système coopératif. Le film expose les conceptions architecturales de Le Corbusier, dans la ligne des précurseurs de l'architecture moderne comme Claude-Nicolas Ledoux. Paris et le désert français 1957 réalisation : Roger Leenhardt et Sydney Jezequel, résoudre le déséquilibre démographique ville campagne www.dailymotion.com/video/x177lrp Film réalisé par Roger Leenhardt et Sydney Jezequel en 1957, d'après le livre de Jean-François Gravier. Document d'information général proposant les solutions de l'époque pour éviter la désertification des campagnes et la folie concentrationnaire des villes. Dès 1957, la désertification des campagnes prend des proportions tragiques. L'exemple est donné pour le village de Gourdon dans le Quercy.

 

Quelles évolutions proposer pour éviter l'exode rural et le développement anarchique, qui s'amorce, des villes champignons, construites en plein champ sans urbanisme et sans âme ? Le commentaire propose les solutions de l'époque : modernisation de l'agriculture, adaptation de l'artisanat, implantations d'industries dans les provinces. Gazoducs dans le sud-ouest, barrage en Haute-Savoie, polder en Bretagne semblaient à l'époque pouvoir résoudre le déséquilibre ville campagne. Visages de la France 1957 Production - réalisation Atlantic-Film Marcel de Hubsch www.dailymotion.com/video/x19g59p Le film commence avec des vues de villages et d'architecture traditionnelle du Pays Basque, des Landes, de la Touraine, de la Normandie, de la Bretagne, d'Alsace. La voix off s'interroge : faut il transformer la France en un musée de ses vieilles demeures ? et poursuit : pourquoi des maisons de 10 à 15 mètres de hauteur à Honfleur n'ont elles que 3 à 5 mètres de large ? Le commentaire se pose la question du nombre de maisons individuelles dans les villes qui entrainent l'étalement urbain. Lorsque les villes ont bâtit des immeubles, le commentaire se demande que cachent ces façades ? Des coures étroites que le soleil ne visite jamais, un enchevêtrement inouï de constructions hétéroclites. L'époque de grande prospérité de la troisième république n'a rien su construire de grand poursuit la voix off. Ce document nous propose ensuite une animation de maquette pour l'aménagement d'une friche. Dans un premier temps à la façon d'avant avec la maison individuelle. La voix off s'exclame : ce n'est pas autrement que d'affreuses banlieues naquirent que tant de villes furent à jamais enlaidies, essayons autre chose. L'animation se met à empiler les maisons individuelles et propose des bâtiments collectifs dans des jardins. Le commentaire poursuit : maintenant c'est l'heure de l'urbaniste à lui de répartir les constructions dans la cité. Plusieurs organisation de logements collectifs sont proposées en maquettes. La voix off pointe les défauts d'un urbanisme des grands ensemble trop ennuyeux. Puis une solution émerge de l'animation : pour que la cité vive il faut mettre au place d'honneur école, dispensaire, bibliothèque, salle de réunion, puis viennent les deux pièces maîtresse deux grands immeubles puis les rues se glissent dans la composition et enfin les pelouse et les jardins apparaissent et voila conclue le commentaire. Le film montre ensuite de réalisation de grands ensemble et on entre dans un immeuble au sein d'une famille : air et lumière sont au rendes-vous. On voit des enfants faire du patin à roulette dans le parc de l'immeuble la voix off annonce : finit l'individualisme renfrogné de l'échoppe d'antan : la cité tout entière est un jardin, les jeux d'enfants se mêlent aux fleurs. Le film se termine sur des vues de réalisation de grands ensemble sur toute la France (vue entre autre de la cité radieuse de Le Corbusier à Marseille). Production Films Caravelle MRU (ministère de la reconstruction et de l'urbanisme) Scenario et réalisation : Pierre JaLLAUD

The Newar people or Newars (/nɪˈwɑrz/; Newar: नेवार) are the historical inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and its surrounding areas in Nepal and the creators of its historic civilization.

 

The valley and surrounding territories constituted the former Newar kingdom of the Nepal Mandala. Unlike a common-origin ethnic group, Newars are a good example of a nation-community with relic-identity of a previously existing country. Newar community within it consists of various strands of ethnic, racial, caste and religious heterogeneity, as Newars of today are descendants of the diverse group of people that have lived in Nepal Mandala since prehistoric times. Indo-Aryan immigrants like the Licchavis and Mallas that arrived at different periods eventually merged with the local indigenous population by adopting their language and customs. These immigrants retained their Indic heritage and brought with them their Sanskritic languages, social structure, Vedic religion and culture which has profoundly altered the history of Newar civilization. Newar rule in Nepal Mandala ended with its conquest by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1768.

 

Today, Newars are a linguistic and cultural community of primarily Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman ethnicities following Hinduism and Buddhism with Nepal Bhasa as their common language. Unlike other ethnic or caste groups of Nepal, they are a linguistic and cultural community that transcends religion, caste, ethnicity and cultural distinctions. Scholars have also described the Newars as a nation. They developed a division of labour and a sophisticated urban civilization not seen elsewhere in the Himalayan foothills. They are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, and left their mark on the art of Central Asia.

 

According to Nepal's 2011 census, the 1,321,933 Newars in the country are the nation's sixth-largest ethnic group, representing 5% of the population. Recent mass migration into the Kathmandu Valley has resulted in the Newars becoming a minority in their homeland. Despite the high level of development, Newar culture and language are both under threat today.

 

HISTORY

For about a thousand years, the Newari civilization in Central Nepal preserved a microcosm of classical North Indian culture in which Brahmanic and Buddhist elements enjoyed equal status. Snellgrove and Richardson (1968) speak of 'the direct heritage of pre-Islamic India'.

 

The different divisions of Newars had different historical developments. The common identity of Newar was formed in the Kathmandu Valley. Until the conquest of the valley by the Gorkha Kingdom in 1769, all the people who had inhabited the valley at any point of time were either Newar or progenitors of Newar. So, the history of Newar correlates to the history of the Kathmandu Valley prior to the establishment of the modern state of Nepal.

 

The earliest known history of Newar and the Kathmandu Valley blends with mythology recorded in historical chronicles. One such text, which recounts the creation of the valley, is the Swayambhu Purana. According to this Buddhist scripture, the Kathmandu Valley was a giant lake until the Bodhisattva Manjusri, with the aid of a holy sword, cut a gap in the surrounding hills and let the water out. This apocryphal legend is supported by geological evidence of an ancient lakebed, and it provides an explanation for the high fertility of the Kathmandu Valley soil.

 

According to the Swayambhu Purana, Manjusri then established a city called Manjupattan (Sanskrit "Land Established by Manjusri"), now called Manjipā, and made Dharmākara its king. A shrine dedicated to Manjusri is still present in Majipā. No historical documents have been found after this era till the advent of the Gopal era. A genealogy of kings is recorded in a chronicle called Gopalarajavamsavali. According to this manuscript, the Gopal kings were followed by the Mahispals and the Kirats before the Licchavis entered from the south. Some claim Buddha to have visited Nepal during the reign of Kirat king Jitedasti. The Licchavi dynasty ruled for at least 600 years, followed by the Malla dynasty in the 12th century AD.

 

Newar reign over the valley and their sovereignty and influence over neighboring territories ended with the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley in 1769 by the Gorkhali Shah dynasty founded by Prithvi Narayan Shah. Systematic brutal suppression of the Newar people was pursued for generations during early dynastic rule in order to discourage them from any political aspiration.

 

Prior to the Gorkha conquest, which began with the Battle of Kirtipur in 1767, the borders of Nepal Mandala extended to Tibet in the north, the nation of the Kirata in the east, the kingdom of Makwanpur in the south and the Trishuli River in the west which separated it from the kingdom of Gorkha.

 

ECONOMY HISTORY

Trade, industry and agriculture have been the mainstay of the economy of the Newars. They are made up of social groups associated with hereditary professions that provide ritual and economic services. Merchants, craftsmen, artists, potters, weavers, dyers, farmers and other castes all played their part in creating a flourishing economic system. Elaborate cultural traditions which required the use of varied objects and services also fuelled the economy. Towns and villages in the Kathmandu Valley specialized in producing particular products, and rich agriculture produced a surplus for export.

 

For centuries, Newar merchants have handled trade between Tibet and India besides exporting locally manufactured products to Tibet. Rice was another major export. Porters and pack mules transported merchandise over mountain tracks that formed the old trade routes. Since the 18th century, Newars have spread out across Nepal and established trading towns dotting the midhills. They are known as jewelry makers and shopkeepers. Today, they are engaged in modern industry, business and service sectors.

 

RELIGION

According to the 2001 Nepal Census, 84.13% of the Newars were Hindu and 15.31% were Buddhist, but most of the Newars practice both Hinduism and Buddhism. These days Christianity, Islam, and other religions are also followed.

 

Out of the three main cities of the Kathmandu Valley which are historically Newar, the city of Patan is the most Buddhist containing the four stupas built by Indian emperor Ashoka. Bhaktapur is primarily Hindu, while Kathmandu is a mix of both. Generally, both Hindu and Buddhist deities are worshiped and festivals are celebrated by both religious groups. However, for ritual activities, Hindu and Buddhist Newars have their own priests and cultural differences.

 

Religiously, the Newars can be classified as both Hindu and Buddhist. The major cults are Vajrayana Buddhism and Tantric Hinduism. The former is referred to as Buddhamarga, the latter as Sivamarga. Both creeds have been established since antiquity in the valley. Both Buddhamargi and Sivamargi Newars are Tantricists, i.e., one believes that the union of male and female powers moves the universe. In this regard the cult of the mother Goddesses and their consorts, the Bhairavas, is particularly important. The most important shrines in the valley are Swayambhunath (Buddhist) and Pashupatinath (Hindu). Different castes worship different deities at different occasions, and more or less intensively. Only the higher echelons in the caste system claim to be exclusively Buddhist or Hindu. The Vajracharyas, Buddhist priests, will adamantly maintain that they are Buddhists, and so will the Bare and the Uray, whereas, the Deobrahman, the Jha, and the dominant Shresthas will maintain that they are Hindus. Further down in the caste hierarchy no distinction is made between Buddhists and Hindus. Hindu and Buddhist alike always worship Ganesh first in every ritual, and every locality has its local Ganesh shrine (Ganesh Than).

Although Newar Buddhism (Vajrayana) had been traditionally practiced in the Kathmandu Valley, Theravada Buddhism made a comeback in Nepal in the 1920s and now is a common form of Buddhism among Buddhamargi Newars.

 

LANGUAGE

Newars are bound together by a common language and culture. Their common language is Nepal Bhasa or the linguistic progenitor of that language. However, despite a government directive that the name Nepal Bhasa should be used, the Central Bureau of Statistics has not been doing so.

 

Nepal Bhasa already existed as a spoken language during the Licchavi period. Inscriptions in Nepal Bhasa emerged from the 12th century, the palm-leaf manuscript from Uku Bahah being the first example. Nepal Bhasa developed from the 14th to the late 18th centuries as the court and state language. It was used universally in stone and copper inscriptions, sacred manuscripts, official documents, journals, title deeds, correspondence and creative writing.

 

In 2011, there were approximately 846,000 native speakers of Nepal Bhasa. Many Newar communities within Nepal also speak their own dialects of Nepal Bhasa, such as the Dolakha Newar Language. Nepal Bhasa is of Tibeto-Burman origin but has been heavily influenced by Indo-Aryan languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Bengali and Maithili.

 

SCRIPTS

Nepal script is a group of scripts that developed from the Brahmi script and are used primarily to write Nepal Bhasa and Sanskrit. Among the different scripts, Ranjana, Bhujinmol and Prachalit are the most common. Nepal script is also known as Nepal Lipi and Nepal Akhala.

 

Nepal script appeared in the 10th century. For a thousand years, it was used on stone and copper plate inscriptions, coins (Nepalese mohar), palm-leaf documents and Hindu and Buddhist manuscripts. Devanagari began to be used to write Nepal Bhasa in the beginning of the 20th century, and Nepal script has limited usage today.

 

LITERATURE

Nepal Bhasa is one of the five languages in the Sino-Tibetan family with an ancient literary tradition. Literature in Nepal Bhasa began as translation and commentary in prose in the 14th century AD. The earliest known document in Nepal Bhasa is called "The Palmleaf from Uku Bahal" which dates from 1114 AD during the Thakuri period.

 

Classical Nepal Bhasa literature is represented by all the three major genres-prose, poetry and drama. Most of the writings consist of prose including chronicles, popular stories and scientific manuals. Poetry consists of love songs, ballads, working songs and religious poetry. The earliest poems date from the 1570s. Epic poetry describing historical events and tragedies are very popular. The ballads Sitala Maju, about the expulsion of children from Kathmandu, Silu, about an ill-fated pilgrimage to Gosaikunda, and Ji Waya La Lachhi Maduni, about a luckless Tibet trader, are sung as seasonal songs.

 

The dramas are based on stories from the epics, and almost all of them were written during the 17th and 18th centuries. Nepal Bhasa literature flourished for five centuries until 1850. Since then, it suffered a period of decline due to political oppression. The period 1909–1941 is known as the Nepal Bhasa renaissance period when writers defied official censure and braved imprisonment to create literary works. Modern Nepal Bhasa literature began in the 1940s with the emergence of new genres like short stories, poems, essays, novels and plays.

 

DANCE

MASKED DANCE

Newar dance consists of sacred masked dance, religious dance without the use of masks known as Dyah Pyakhan, dance performed as part of a ritual and meditation practice known as Chachaa Pyakhan (Newar: चचा प्याखं) (Charya Nritya in Sanskrit) and folk dance. There are also masked dance dramas known as Daboo Pyakhan which enact religious stories to the accompaniment of music.

 

DHIME DANCE

The dance done in the tune of Dhime are Dhime dance.

 

MUSIC

Traditional Newa music consists of sacred music, devotional songs, seasonal songs, ballads and folk songs. One of the most well-known seasonal songs is Sitala Maju. The ballad describes the expulsion of children from Kathmandu in the early 19th century. Another seasonal song Silu is about a pilgrimage to Gosaikunda that went wrong. Ji Waya La Lachhi Maduni is a tragedy song about a newly married couple. The ballad Rajamati about unlucky lovers is widely popular. In 1908, maestro Seturam Shrestha made the first recording of the song on gramophone disc in Kolkata.

 

Common percussion instruments consist of the dhimay, khin, naykhin and dhaa. Wind instruments include the bansuri (flute), payntah (long trumpet) and mwahali (short trumpet), chhusya, bhusya, taa (cymbals), and gongs are other popular instruments. String instruments are very rare. Newa people call their music Dhime Baja.

 

The musical style and musical instruments are still in use today. Musical bands accompany religious processions in which an idol of a deity is placed in a chariot or portable shrine and taken around the city. Devotional songs known as bhajan may be sung daily in community houses. Hymn societies like Gyanmala Bhajan Khala hold regular recitals. Dapa songs are sung during hymn singing seasons at temple squares and sacred courtyards.

 

Gunla Bajan musical bands parade through the streets during Gunla, the 10th month of the Nepal Sambat calendar which is a holy month for Newar Buddhists. Musical performances start with an overture which is a salutation to the gods.

 

Seasonal songs and ballads are associated with particular seasons and festivals. Music is also played during wedding processions, life-cycle ceremonies and funeral processions.

 

POPULAR TRADITIONAL SONGS

Ghātu (summer music, this seasonal melody is played during Pahan Charhe festival)

Ji Wayā Lā Lachhi Maduni (tragedy of a merchant)

Mohani (festive joy, this seasonal tune is played during Mohani festival)

Rājamati (about young lovers)

Silu (about a couple who get separated during a pilgrimage, this seasonal music is played during the monsoon)

Sitālā Māju (lament for children expelled from the Kathmandu Valley)

 

RELIGIOUS MUSIC

Gunlā Bājan

 

ART

The Newars are the creators of most examples of art and architecture in Nepal. Traditional Newar art is basically religious art. Newar devotional paubha painting, sculpture and metal craftsmanship are world-renowned for their exquisite beauty. The earliest dated paubha discovered so far is Vasudhara Mandala which was painted in 1365 AD (Nepal Sambat 485). The murals on the walls of two 15th-century monasteries in the former kingdom of Mustang in the Nepal Himalaya provide illustrations of Newar works outside the Kathmandu Valley. Stone sculpture, wood carving, repoussé art and metal statues of Buddhist and Hindu deities made by the lost-wax casting process are specimens of Newar artistry. The Peacock Window of Bhaktapur and Desay Madu Jhya of Kathmandu are known for their wood carving.

 

Building elements like the carved Newar window, roof struts on temples and the tympanum of temples and shrine houses exhibit traditional creativity. From as early as the seventh century, visitors have noted the skill of Newar artists and craftsmen who left their influence on the art of Tibet and China. Newars introduced the lost-wax technique into Bhutan and they were commissioned to paint murals on the walls of monasteries there. Sandpainting of mandala made during festivals and death rituals is another specialty of Newar art.

 

Besides exhibiting a high level of skill in traditional religious art, Newar artists have been at the forefront in introducing Western art styles in Nepal. Raj Man Singh Chitrakar (1797-1865) is credited with starting watercolor painting in the country. Bhaju Man Chitrakar (1817–1874), Tej Bahadur Chitrakar (1898-1971) and Chandra Man Singh Maskey were other pioneer artists who introduced modern style paintings incorporating concepts of lighting and perspective.

 

TRADITIONAL PAINTING

Paubhā

 

ARCHITECTURE

There are seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 2,500 temples and shrines in the Kathmandu Valley that illustrate the skill and aesthetic sense of Newar artisans. Fine brickwork and woodcarving are the marks of Newar architecture. Residential houses, monastic courtyards known as baha and bahi, rest houses, temples, stupas, priest houses and palaces are the various architectural structures found in the valley. Most of the chief monuments are located in the Durbar Squares of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur, the old royal palace complexes built between the 12th and 18th centuries.

 

Newa architecture consists of the pagoda, stupa, shikhara, chaitya and other styles. The valley's trademark is the multiple-roofed pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, Indochina and Japan. The most famous artisan who influenced stylistic developments in China and Tibet was Arniko, a Newar youth who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in the 13th century AD. He is known for building the white stupa at the Miaoying Temple in Beijing.

 

SETTLEMENTS

Durbar squares, temple squares, sacred courtyards, stupas, open-air shrines, dance platforms, sunken water fountains, public rest houses, bazaars, multistoried houses with elaborate carved windows and compact streets are the characteristics of traditional planning. Besides the historical cities of Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Madhyapur Thimi and Kirtipur, small towns with a similar artistic heritage dot the Kathmandu Valley where almost half of the Newar population lives.

 

Outside the valley, historical Newar settlements include Nuwakot, Nala, Banepa, Dhulikhel, Panauti, Dolakha, Chitlang and Bhimphedi. The Newars of Kathmandu founded Pokhara in 1752 at the invitation of the rulers of Kaski. Over the last two centuries, Newars have fanned out of the Kathmandu Valley and established trade centers and settled in various parts of Nepal. Bandipur, Baglung and Tansen in west Nepal and Chainpur and Bhojpur in east Nepal contain large Newar populations.

 

Outside Nepal, many Newars have settled in Darjeeling and Kalimpong in West Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Sikkim, India. Newars have also settled in Bhutan. Colonies of expatriate Newar merchants and artisans existed in Lhasa, Shigatse and Gyantse in Tibet till the mid-1960s when the traditional trade came to an end after the Sino-Indian War. In recent times, Newars have moved to different parts of Asia, Europe and America.

 

FESTIVALS

Newar religious culture is rich in ceremony and is marked by frequent festivals throughout the year. Many festivals are tied to Hindu and Buddhist holidays and the harvest cycle. Street celebrations include pageants, jatras or processions in which a car or portable shrine is paraded through the streets and sacred masked dances. Other festivals are marked by family feasts and worship. The celebrations are held according to the lunar calendar, so the dates are changeable.

 

Mohani (Dasain) is one of the greatest annual celebrations which is observed for several days with feasts, religious services and processions. During Swanti (Tihar), Newars celebrate New Year's Day of Nepal Sambat by doing Mha Puja, a ritual in which a mandala is worshipped, that purifies and strengthens one spiritually for the coming year.Similarly, Bhai Tika is also done during Swanti. It is a ritual observed to worship and respect a woman's brothers, with or without blood relation. Another major festival is Sā Pāru (Gai Jatra) when people who have lost a family member in the past year dress up as cows and saints, and parade through town, following a specific route. In some cases, a real cow may also be a part of the parade. People give such participants money, food and other gifts as donation. Usually, childrens are the participants of the parade.

 

In Kathmandu, the biggest street festival is Yenya (Indra Jatra) when three cars bearing the living goddess Kumari and two other child gods are pulled through the streets and masked dance performances are held. The two godchild are Ganesh and Bhairav. Another major celebration is Pahan Charhe when portable shrines bearing images of mother goddesses are paraded through Kathmandu. During the festival of Jana Baha Dyah Jatra, a temple car with an image of Karunamaya is drawn through central Kathmandu for three days. A similar procession is held in Lalitpur known as Bunga Dyah Jatra which continues for a month and climaxes with Bhoto Jatra, the display of the sacred vest. The biggest outdoor celebration in Bhaktapur is Biska Jatra which is marked by chariot processions and lasts for nine days. Sithi Nakha is another big festival when worship is offered and natural water sources are cleaned. In addition, all Newar towns and villages have their particular festival which is celebrated by holding a chariot or palanquin procession.

 

CLOTHING

Western wear is the norm as in urban areas in the rest of the country. Traditional costumes consist of trousers (suruwā) and long shirts (tappālan) for men, blouse (misālan) and saris (parsi) for women and ankle-length gowns (bhāntānlan) for girls. Ritual dresses consist of pleated gowns, coats and a variety of headresses. Similarly, a shawl (gā) are worn by women. Traditionally, newar women wear a shoe made out of red cloth. It is decorated with glitters and colorful beads (potya). One of the major part of newari dressup is bracelets (chūra).

 

CUISINE

Meals can be classified into three main categories: the daily meal, the afternoon snack and festival food. The daily meal consists of boiled rice, lentil soup, vegetable curry and relish. Meat is also served. The snack generally consists of rice flakes, roasted and curried soybeans, curried potato and roasted meat mixed with spices.

 

Food is also an important part of the ritual and religious life of the Newars, and the dishes served during festivals and feasts have symbolic significance. Different sets of ritual dishes are placed in a circle around the staple rice flakes to represent and honour different sets of deities depending on the festival or life-cycle ceremony.

 

Kwāti (क्वाति soup of different beans), kachilā (कचिला spiced minced meat), chhoyalā (छोयला water buffalo meat marinated in spices and grilled over the flames of dried wheat stalks), pukālā (पुकाला fried meat), wo (वः lentil cake), paun kwā (पाउँक्वा sour soup), swan pukā (स्वँपुका stuffed lungs), syen (स्येँ fried liver), mye (म्ये boiled and fried tongue), sapu mhichā (सःपू म्हिचा leaf tripe stuffed with bone marrow), sanyā khunā (सन्या खुना jellied fish soup) and takhā (तःखा jellied meat) are some of the popular festival foods. Dessert consists of dhau (धौ yogurt), sisābusā (सिसाबुसा fruits) and mari (मरि sweets). Thwon (थ्वँ rice beer) and aylā (अयला local alcohol) are the common alcoholic liquors that Newars make at home.

 

Traditionally, at meals, festivals and gatherings, Newars sit on long mats in rows. Typically, the sitting arrangement is hierarchical with the eldest sitting at the top and the youngest at the end. Newar cuisine makes use of mustard oil and a host of spices such as cumin, sesame seeds, turmeric, garlic, ginger, mint, bay leaves, cloves, cinnamon, pepper, chili and mustard seeds. Food is served in laptya (लप्त्य plates made of special leaves, held together by sticks). Similarly, any soups are served in botā (बोटा bowls made of leaves). Liquors are served in Salinchā (सलिंचाः bowls made of clay) and Kholchā (खोल्चाः small metal bowls).

 

LIFE-CYCLE CEREMONIES

Elaborate ceremonies chronicle the life cycle of a Newar from birth till death. Hindu Newars consider life-cycle rituals as a preparation for death and the life after it. Macha Janku, the rice feeding ceremony, is performed at the age of six or eight months for boys and at the age of five or seven months for girls. As a male child approaches puberty, the Kayta Puja, a rite of initiation, is performed. Shakyas and Bajracharyas perform Bare Chhuyegu which is initiation into the monkhood. The boy disrobes and goes back to being a layman after four days.

 

For a female child, Ihi (also called Bel Bibaha) is performed between the ages of five to nine. The next ceremony is Baray when a girl approaches puberty. She is kept in a room for 12 days hidden from the sun and generally taught domestic sciences. At the end of the retreat, a service is held. The next ceremony is marriage. Janku is an old-age ceremony which is conducted when a person reaches the age of 77 years, seven months and seven days. Further Janku ceremonies are performed at similar auspicious milestones after which the person is accorded deified status. The Sagan ceremony where auspicious food items are presented is an important part of life-cycle rituals.

 

All Newars, except the Laakumi and Jogi caste, cremate their dead. The Jogis bury their dead. As part of the funeral, offerings are made to the spirit of the deceased, the crow and the dog. The crow and the dog represent ancestors and the god of death. Subsequently, offerings and rituals are conducted four, seven, eight, 13 and 45 days following death and monthly for a year and then annually.

 

Buddhist Newars also make a mandala (sand painting) depicting the Buddha on the third day after death which is preserved for four days.

 

SUB-COMMUNITIES

Newar people are divided into various endogamous clans or groups on the basis of their ancient hereditary occupations, deriving its roots in the classic late-Vedic Varna model. Although first introduced in the time of the Licchavis, the Newar caste system assumed its present shape during the medieval Malla period.

 

NEWAR GAMES

The games which had been played by prasanga people from their ancient time can be classified as Newa games.

 

Kana kana pichha (Blindfold game), Piyah (a game played with stone by pushing stone within the marks drawn in ground), Gatti (another game played with stone by hand), pasa are some games played by newar people since ancient time.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Croatia - may 2009 -

Buzzworthy Bumblebee

A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya; disciple, student) or शिक्ष (śikṣa; instruction). A Sikh is a disciple of a guru. According to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), a Sikh is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru". "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhs often share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the U.K., recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".

 

Male Sikhs usually have "Singh" (Lion), and female Sikhs have "Kaur" (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the khanḍe-kī-pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: uncut hair (kesh); an iron or steel bracelet (kara); a kirpan (a sword tucked into a gatra strap); kachehra, a cotton undergarment, and kanga, a small wooden comb. Baptized male Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban, which is optional for baptized female Sikhs. The greater Punjab region is the historic homeland of the Sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.

 

HISTORY

Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer in the 15th-century Punjab. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Singh baptized five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. Sikhism has generally had amicable relations with other religions, except for the period of Mughal rule in India (1556–1707). Several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under Ranjit Singh was characterized by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The confederacy is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab.

 

The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi-speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.

 

Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.

 

According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government", and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage". Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Khushwant Singh described the riots as a Sikh pogrom; he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany". Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right-wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus" disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.

 

In 1996, United Nations Commission on Human Rights Freedom of Religion or Belief Special Rapporteur Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004) visited India to report on religious discrimination. The following year Amor concluded, "In India it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment (sic) sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the military, and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi".

 

Although Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks of the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, they make up 1.87 percent of the Indian population.

 

During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.

 

DEFINITION

According to Guru Granth Sahib:

One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, the Sikh is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, the Sikh is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, the Sikh is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, the Sikh is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food – that Gursikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that Gursikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that Gursikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.

 

Simran of the Lord's name is a recurring theme of Guru Granth Sahib, and Sukhmani Sahib were composed to allow a devotee to recite Nam throughout the day. Rising at Amrit Velā (before sunrise) is a common Sikh practice. Sikhism considers the spiritual and secular lives to be intertwined: "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite and partakes of its characteristics." According to Guru Nanak, living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is superior to a purely contemplative life.

 

FIVE Ks

The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on God and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:

- Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a Dastar

- Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a Dastar

- Katchera: Cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti. Worn by both sexes, the katchera is a symbol of chastity.

- Kara: An iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity

- Kirpan: An iron dagger in different sizes. In the UK Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the Punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.

 

MUSIC & INSTRUMENTS

The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged in Guru Har Gobind. The rubab was first played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were designed by Guru Arjan. The taus was made by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was made by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabda in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as ragas. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.

 

When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.

 

DISTRIBUTION

Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two-thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs (more than 200,000) live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana (more than 1.1 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.

 

Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India and Pakistan after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia and Thailand.

 

Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom[ing] virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.

 

Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.

 

REPRESENTATION

Sikhs have been represented in Indian politics by former Indian prime minister Manmohan Singh and the deputy chairman of the Indian Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Punjab Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal is also a Sikh. Past Sikh politicians in India include former president Giani Zail Singh, Sardar Swaran Singh (India's first foreign minister), Speaker of Parliament Gurdial Singh Dhillon and former Chief Minister of Punjab Pratap Singh Kairon.

 

Politicians from the Sikh diaspora include the first Asian American member of the United States Congress, Dalip Singh Saund, British MPs Piara Khabra, Parmjit Dhanda and Paul Uppal, the first couple to sit together in a Commonwealth parliament (Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, who requested a Canadian government apology for the Komagata Maru incident), former Canadian Shadow Social Development Minister Ruby Dhalla, Canadian Minister of State for Sport Baljit Singh Gosal and Legislative Assembly of Ontario members Vic Dhillon and Jagmeet Singh. Ujjal Dosanjh was the New Democratic Party Premier of British Columbia from July 2004 to February 2005, and was later a Liberal frontbench MP in Ottawa. In Malaysia, two Sikhs were elected MPs in the 2008 general elections: Karpal Singh (Bukit Gelugor) and his son, Gobind Singh Deo (Puchong). Two Sikhs were elected assemblymen: Jagdeep Singh Deo (Datuk Keramat) and Keshvinder Singh (Malim Nawar).

 

Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, while making up 1.87 percent of the Indian population. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.

 

Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India"). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj-developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial". However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science [i.e. the green revolution] on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.

 

Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.

 

In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America, especially in California’s fertile Central Valley. American Sikh farmers such as Harbhajan Singh Samra and Didar Singh Bains dominate California agriculture, with Samra specialising in okra and Bains in peaches.

 

Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Bollywood actress Neetu Singh, Sunny Leone, actors Parminder Nagra, Neha Dhupia, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral, Archie Panjabi and director Gurinder Chadha.

 

Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sarera, Sikligar, Sunar, Sudh, Tarkhan and Zargar.

 

An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.

 

IN THE INDIAN & BRITISH ARMIES

Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.

 

During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.

 

In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. They all died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world, and during shell fire, with no other protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.

—General Sir Frank Messervy

 

British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice [in two world wars] and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.

—Sir Winston Churchill

 

IN THE WEST

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.

 

Since Sikhs (like Middle Eastern men) wear turbans, some in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim or Arabic men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al-Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.

 

Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The Kundalini Yoga-based activities of Harbhajan Singh Yogi in his 3HO (Happy, Healthy, Holy) organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ‘gora’ (ਗੋਰਾ) or ‘white’ Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.

 

In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations have begun. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada.

 

ART & CULTURE

Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India’s melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures (Greek, Mughal and Persian) from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".

 

During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.

 

The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.

 

Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts - except for the relics of the Gurus - have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.

 

Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins") is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.

Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").

 

PAINTING

Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.

 

The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Origin story

10/27/2022

Off Broadway Theater

41 Broadway, New Haven, CT 06511

Christina Sarantopoulos

Played a lot of Arkham Origins Lately. Enjoy

Presidential Candidate 總統候選人

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Tianliang Ma

 

~ a Taiwanese social reformer, philosopher, photographer and film director

 

“Touching Fairness and Justice”

  

馬天亮

 

~ 臺灣的社會改革者，哲學家，攝影師，和電影導演

 

《感動的公平與正義》

  

TianLiang Maa, alternative spelling: Tianliang Ma, also known as Theophilus Raynsford Mann; Ma, Tianliang; Chinese: 馬天亮; 马天亮.

  

SUMMARY

 

TianLiang Maa is a naturalist, occultist, Buddhist and Taoist. In 1982, Maa developed a technique for abstract photography, applied “Rayonism” into photographic works. Maa staged 32 individual, extraordinary exhibitions around Taiwan, who was the first exhibitor around Formosa. Maa’s works is the beginning of modernization in the modern abstract arts in the world. At the University of Oxford, Maa’s attractive topic was “A View of Architectural History: Towns through the Ages from Winchester through London Arrived at Oxford in England”; also an author at the University of California, Berkeley and the University of Michigan in the United States; an alumnus from Christ Church College at the University of Oxford in England, the University of Glamorgan in Wales, and National Taiwan University in Taipei on Taiwan. Maa’s works have been quoted by the scholars many times, making Maa one of the highly cited technological, artistic, and managing public administrators in the academia. Maa was listed in “Taiwan Who’s Who In Business” © 1984, 1987, 1989 Harvard Management Service.

  

Early Life and Record of Genealogy

 

TianLiang Maa possesses both Taiwanese and German surnames from birth. Usually, whenever anyone asks Maa about where he comes from, he would reply “Formosa” as he grew up and was educated in the Far East and lives in Taiwanese and Japanese lifestyles. Moreover, he often teaches and educates younger generations based on the methods of the Far Eastern teaching he experienced when he was young, though he does not oppose the Western ways of teaching and thinking. Maa takes great pride in his roots, which go back 150 years (since 1864); Maa’s ancestry originates and creates generations, and prepares younger generations to succeed their personality and ethical standards and integrity.

 

Education in Taiwan and a Brief of Latest Generation of History in Taiwan / Formosa

 

In 1980, Maa obtained his postgraduate certificate from the Graduate Institute of Electrical Engineering of National Taiwan University in Taipei; successfully completed another graduate studies in Information dBase III Plus and Taiwanese Traditional Chinese Mandarin Information System at National Sun Yat-Sen University in Kaohsiung in 1989.

 

In history, the Portuguese explorers discovered and called the island (Taiwan), “Formosa” (meaning “Beautiful Island”) in 1590. They are non-Chinese people; it was long a Chinese and Japanese pirate base. Fighting continued, between its original inhabitants of Taiwanese and the Chinese settlers, into the 19th century. In 1894-95 first Sino-Japanese War that ended in Manchus of the Qing (Ching) dynasty defeat, the late Manchu Qing Government forced to cede Formosa to Japan. This result was made by the Treaty of Shomonoseki in 1895 and remained under Japanese control until the end of the Second World War. Early on, Taiwan was conquered by the Qing in 1683 and for the first time became part of older China dynasty. However, today, the home country of Maa’s origin has around 165 institutions (93 universities) of higher education, which now has one of the best-educated populations in Asia. Among the major public (state) ones are the National Taiwan University (NTU) at Taipei, and National Sun Yat-Sen University (NSYSU) at Kaohsiung. NSYSU is also called National Chun-Shan University; according to Times Higher Education 2010-2011, NSYSU ranks as the 3rd university in Taiwan, 21st in Asia, and 163rd worldwide. National Taiwan University is ranked 51 to 60 ranks on Times Higher Education World University Rankings - Top Universities by Reputation 2013, the United Kingdom (see www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/...); King's College London (KCL) (21st in the world and 6th in Europe in the 2010, QS World University Rankings), the University of London, and University of Southern California (is one of the world's leading private research universities, located in the heart of Los Angeles), afterward.

 

Backing to Maa’s early school-time of Taiwan Provincial Kaohsiung Industrial Senior High School (Kaohsiung Municipal Kaohsiung Industrial High school), the professional technical education, which is equivalent to Advanced Level General Certificate of Education, commonly referred to as an A-level in the United Kingdom; China Electronic Engineering College, the distance learning programme, which is in equivalence as UK’s Diploma of Higher Education / Undergraduate Diploma (as an Associate Degree in the United States). An additional, his middle education was taught by the Kaohsiung Municipal Chihjh (Ci Sian) Junior High School; and Kaohsiung Municipal San Min Elementary School was his first school in Taiwan.

  

Early Career

 

In 1989, Maa instituted Maa’s Office of Electrical Engineer, he settled himself in electrical technology and industries as a chief engineer in his early years. He put his professional and precise knowledge to good account in business management. A formal business management with business relationship established to provide for regular services, dealings, and other commercial transactions and deed. He had many customers having a business and credit relationship with his firm then he was a successful engineer.

  

Study Abroad and Immigration into the United Kingdom

 

In 1998, Maa studied abroad when he arrived in Great Britain; he studied at School of Built Environment, the University of Glamorgan (Prifysgol Morgannwg) in Merthyr Tydfil, Pontypridd, Wales for a master of science in real estate appraisal. Until the summer of 2000, Maa completed an academic course on “Towns through the Ages” from Christ Church College at the University of Oxford (is ranked the 2nd place worldwide on The Times Higher Education, World University Rankings 2012-2013

www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/...) in England. Afterward, Maa immigrated into the United Kingdom in the early year of 2004.

  

PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS

 

Maa is a naturalist; he trusts spiritual naturalism and naturalistic spirituality, which teaches that “the unknown” created this wonderful world. “The unknown” arranged the nature with its law so that everything in nature is kept balanced and in order. However, human beings failed to control themselves, deliberately went against the law of nature, and resulted in disasters, which we deserved. He also is an occultist, a Taoist, and a Buddhist; but in Britain, he frequently goes to Christian and Catholic churches, where he makes friends with pastors and fathers as well as churchgoers. In his mind, he recognizes “Belief is truth held in the mind; faith is a fire in the heart”. He is always a freethinker, does not accept traditional, social, and religious teaching, but based on his ideas: a thought or conception that potentially and actually exists in his mind as a product of mental activity - his opinion, conviction, and principle. If people have not come across eastern classics and philosophy, we are afraid that people would never understand TianLiang Maa. People cannot judge an eastern philosopher based on western ways of thinking. He studies I Ching discovering eastern classics of ancient origin consisting of 64 interrelated hexagrams along with commentaries. The hexagrams embody Taoist philosophy by describing all nature and human endeavour in terms of the interaction of yin and yang, and the classics may be consulted as an oracle.

 

Back in the 1990s when Maa just arrived at England, he had been offered places to do Ph.D. and LL.M. degrees (degree in Law and Politics of the European Union) by several western professors in the Great Britain. He has met all the requirements for postgraduate admissions to study at UK’s universities.

 

During his time at Oxford, he learnt a lot of British culture and folk-custom while carrying out research with many British and Western professors, experts, and archaeologists. This proves that Maa understands various aspects in British society, culture, and lifestyles. Of course, he does not fully understand about the perspectives of thinking of a typical British. For example, what would be the most valuable in life for a British person? What would a British want to gain from life? What is the goal in life for a British? Is it fortune or a lover? Alternatively, perhaps honour? On the other hand, maybe being able to travel around the world and see the world?

  

FAIRNESS and JUSTICE

 

As TianLiang Maa’s (馬天亮) saying are:

 

“Touching Fairness and Justice”

 

Feel good about themselves, but do not know the sufferings of the people...

Who can get easy life like them?

What is profile of modern society?

What type and style is truly solemn for this society identify?

Where “the characterization” is? Who can see? Did you see it?

 

《感動的公平與正義》

 

自我感覺良好, 不知民間疾苦...

誰能得到安逸的生活如同他們一樣？

這是個什麼樣子的社會？

這個社會認定什麼樣的類型和風格是真正莊重的?

「特徵」在那裡？誰可以看到？你看到了嗎？

  

Jurisprudence and Political Philosophy and Perspectives

 

Maa ever studied judicial review and governmental action, the impact of law and legal techniques, constitutional mechanisms for the protection of basic rights, and ensuring the integrity of commercial activity, the impact of law and legal techniques on government, policymaking, and administration, as well as the creation of markets. He tries to understand these critical trends in the political development of modern state. Maa will combine both theoretical and empirical approaches, and the conditions for democratic transition and the nature of state development in the ‘post-industrial’ era of globalisation and economic integration.

 

According as Maa’s legal experiences, he comprehend that “the knowledge of the law is like a deep well, out of which each man draught according to the strength of his understanding”, and, law and arbitrary power are in eternal enmity. He is also sure law and institutions are constantly tending to gravitate like clocks; they must be occasionally cleansed, and wound up, and set to true time.

 

The government issues a decree - an authoritative order having the force of law, which charged with putting into effect a country's laws and the administering of its functions. Any of the officials promulgate a law or put into practice relating to the government charged with the execution and administration of the nation's laws then they announce and carry out the creation of any order or new policy that will be responsible for the people.

 

Maa had knowledge in connexion with construction law; he also understands architectural arts, and as well learnt the forms by combining materials and parts include as an integral part concerning modern construct. I ever built urban buildings and rural architecture in different styles under new housing and building projects by the governmental administration and construction corporations.

 

Right now, Maa studies the problems caused by ethnic disputes and human armed conflicts in the modern society resulted code of mixed civil and criminal procedure. He wishes an agreement or a treaty to end human hostilities - the absence of war and other hostilities around the world. The interrelation and arrangement of freedom from quarrels and disagreement become harmonious relations living in peace with each other. Actually, erect peace in more friendly ways of making friendships for modern human society is comfortable in my ideal. It is like building monolithic architecture: houses and buildings for the people. Maa would like to do “something beautiful for `the unknown`”.

 

In the ethnic disagreement and armed conflicts as concerning the poor people and children notwithstanding they live through a bad environment on any of poor or crowded village or town in a particular manner - lived frugally. However, after years of industrialisation as a more educated population, becomes more aware of global plenum, continuing to be alive. Environmental groups are increasing and lobbing government will legislate to stop bad environmental and social practices. The establishments of human rights’ wide and untiring efforts will be alleviated people’s suffering. And as well the poor people shall meet and debate sustainable development and for a concerted government led action towards sustainability is an example that the younger generation are concerned for the future. It shall be making the younger easier for their life and make better on their lives, and help them to build a better future.

 

In present world, Maa really knows the full meanings of “Fundamental Human Rights and Equal Opportunities for the People”. He thinks ethics is the moral code governing the daily conduct of the individual toward those about him / her. It represents those rules or principles by which men and women live and work in a spirit of mutual confidence and service. Without going into the question of how an ethical code was formulated or why anybody should obey it, we can look at the matter in a common-sense fashion with reference to its influence upon our legal affairs. In brief, from the law point of view, a reputable ethical code embodies the qualities of accuracy, dependability, fair play, sound judgement, and service. It is based upon honesty.

 

No person can have an ethical code that concerns him / her alone. Living in society, as he / she must, a person encounters others whose rights must be respected as well as his / her own. An honest regard for the rights of others is an essential element of any decent code of ethics, and one that anyone must observe if anybody intends to follow that code. After all, ethics is not something apart from human beings. Indeed, there is no such thing apart from our actions and us. It is the duty, therefore, of every man and woman in legal affairs to see that his daily associations with others are truly in conformity with the plain meaning of the Ten Commandments: “Thou shalt not barratry, thou shalt not bear false witness, thou shalt not receive illegal fee and the rest”.

 

The knowledge Maa has, in connection with legal affairs, was usually come from his precious experiences of his past over ten year’s law and political careers. In an interval regarded as a distinct period of 1980s, he studied mixed civil and crime, and the code of mixed civil and criminal procedure for the problems caused by ethnic disputes and human armed conflicts in the modern society. He was especially one who maintains the language and customs of the group, and social security in Taiwan.

 

Since 30 July of 1988, Maa settled himself in law as a chief executive and scrivener at Central Legal, Real Estate, and Accounting Services Office; it is in the equivalent to a solicitor of the United Kingdom. The Office provided full legal, accounting, real estate, and commercial services to the public. He did his job as a person legally appointed by another to act as his or her agent in the transaction of business, specifically one qualified and licensed to act for plaintiffs and defendants in legal proceedings and affairs. Over and above Maa was a chairman and executive consultant at Taiwan Credit Information Company®, founded in 1994. The company offered services to the public in response to need and demand in the area of credit information.

 

Maa had excellent experiences in political and law work was pertaining to mixed civil and crime, the code of mixed civil and criminal procedure, construction, and commercial law abroad. The experiences of legal services related to the rights of private individuals and legal proceedings concerning these rights as distinguished. In the criminal proceedings, he did many cases for the defendants. Although an act committed or omitted in violation of a law forbidding or commanding it and for which punishment is imposed upon conviction; but he also laid legal claim, required as useful, just, proper, or necessary to the defendants under the human rights in the meantime. This provision ensures to the defendant a real voice in the subject.

 

The men whose judgement we respect are those who do not allow prejudices, preferences, or personalities to influence their decisions. Profit and self-aggrandisement are likewise ignored in their determination to reach an equitable and fair settlement. What are the basic principles upon which good judgement is founded? A keen intellect, a normal emotionally, a through understanding of human nature, experience of law work, sincerity, and integrity.

  

Developed a Technique for Abstract Photography and Abstractionist

 

In 1982, Maa developed a technique for abstractive photography, which applied “rayonism” to the photographic works. In November of 1984, Maa was 26-year-old, he instructed many professors and students of National Taiwan Normal University in photography of abstract impressionism and rayonnisme in Taipei, Taiwan. The word “rayonnisme” is French for rayonism - a style of abstract painting developed in 1911 in Russia.

  

Photographic Exhibitions

 

TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) Photographic Exhibition of “Rayonnisme / Rayonism” Tour - Invitational Exhibition of Taiwan 1983-84.

一九八三〜八四年中華民國臺灣 馬天亮攝影巡迴邀請展

 

TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) Photographic Exhibition of Rayonnisme / Rayonism (32 individual exhibitions) 1983~1985.

馬天亮『光影』攝影特展（個人展32場）1983〜1985年.

 

Maa staged 32 individual, extraordinary exhibitions and annual special exhibitions on photography of abstractive image and Rayonnisme around Taiwan / Formosa. Maa was the first exhibitor around the country. All of the invited displays were by the Chinese Government, cultural and artistic organisations, and sponsors. Maa’s earliest exhibition took place in the National Taiwan Arts Education Institute (Museum) on 19 December 1983 when Maa was 25 years old; Maa was the youngest exhibitor in the history of the Institute in any solo exhibitions. The Institute that was opened in March 1957, kept a collection of Maa’s work. It is currently updating the Institute’s internal organisation and strengthening co-operation with leading institutes and museums around the world. Meanwhile, it widened the institute’s scope to increase its emphasis on Taiwan’ regional culture and folk arts.

  

Modernization in the Modern Abstract Arts of Taiwan

 

Maa’s works is the beginning of modernization in the modern abstract arts of Taiwan, China and greater Chinese society in the world. The use of “modernisation” as a concept that is opposed to “Traditional” of “Conservative” ideas began with the approach of the 20th century. It spreads rapidly through academic circles, and was broadly accepted as a means to reform society. Chinese Manchu Qing (Ching) dynasty’s first steps toward modernisation began in the Tung-chih era (1862-1874) with the “Self-Empowerment Movement”. During the late 19th century, as late Manchu dynasty was confronted on all sides by foreign aggression, voices throughout society debated the most effective means to reform and strengthen the country. Some advocated “combining the best of East and West”, while others went so far as to call for “complete Westernisation”. Taiwan was at the centre of these waves of reform. Faced with direct threats against the island by foreign enemies, the Chinese Ching dynasty court took special steps to push Taiwan’s modernisation.

 

In a role just like that of a gardener wanting to create a rich and fertile environment for the seeds of culture, one in which Maa may sprout, grow and bloom. Maa aims to provide an educational stimulus for society by introducing his works - Maa can express the neo-romantic spirit deftly from various creations and supporting international artistic exchanges. Maa believes that the first step in creating such a new and independent state is the real emergence of culture and arts, for which the art and science of designing and erecting buildings, and fine arts (including photography and motion picture) of the civilization is a good measurement of success. For the foreseeable future, Maa should be continuing to forge ahead, working diligently and unceasingly towards its mission of raising China and Formosa / Taiwan’s culture in his spare time.

  

Became an Author and a Scholar

 

In 1980, TianLiang Maa completed his first book - scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”, also named: “Hun Yun : Jin Qi Tu Rui” 電影原著《魂韻》(衿契吐蕊) then Maa was at the age of 22. In 1983, The General Library of the University of California, Berkeley in the United States of America, collected and kept Maa’s writings - scenario original 「魂韻 : 衿契吐蕊」“Hun Yun : jin qi tu rui”, included a musical composition of his own – “Sonate Nr. 1 C-dur op. 3 für Klavier (piano)”, composed on 3rd April 1977 then Maa was 18 years old. The works were published in 1980; the theme was based on “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”. Another masterpiece was an Album of Academic Work for News Publication “TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) Photographic Exhibition of Rayonnisme / Rayonism”, published in 1985. The Hathi Trust Digital Library, the University of Michigan also collected and kept Maa’s writings.

  

Authorship

 

Maa’s articles and writings were published in more than 200 different kinds of domestic and foreign magazines, newspapers, and periodicals, in the period between May of 1972 and 1990s. It was all started when Maa was just 13-year-old. Many of which have been very influential. These have been quoted by Western and Eastern scholars many times in the last few years, making Maa one of the highly cited technological, artistic, and managing public administrators in the world in the late 20th and early 21st century. The Ministry of the Interior in Taiwan had registered Maa’s professional writings and given him two certificates of copyright. The numbers are 33080 and 33081 on 4th July of 1985; and Taiwan’s Gazette of The Presidential Office issue No. 4499, featured his writings on 4th September 1985.

  

Became an Academic and Film Director

 

Today, Maa is a professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, and a photographer, film director, and computer engineer now live and work in London.

  

Director Works:

FILMS:

Experimental Film “New Image for the Spring” © 1982

Documentary Film “Rayonnisme” © 2011

“The Soul's Sentimentalizing” of the feature film is based on the scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing” (preparation)

 

FASHION SHOWS:

New Image for the Spring of Shapely Models International © 1982

High Lights on the Summer and Fall Fashion of Shapely Models Int’l © 1982

 

ART EXHIBITIONS:

The Cadillac Club International Fine Arts Exhibition © 1981

The Cinematic & Photographic Arts Salon and the Hall of the Arts, Pegasus Academy of Arts © 1981

  

Musician Work:

MUSIC COMPOSITION:

Sonate Nr. 1 C-dur op. 3 für Klavier (piano) © 1977, © 1980, © 1981, © 1983, the theme was based on “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”.

  

PHOTOGRAPHIC ALBUMS:

Portrait and Landscape in France © 2000

Portrait and Landscape in Scotland © 2001

Portrait and Landscape in England © 2009

Portrait at Queen Mary, University of London © 2010

Rayonism of London © 2011

Portrait at The University of Nottingham, United Kingdom © 2011

Snowy London © 2012

Portrait at King's College London © 2013

  

BOOKS:

Scenario Original「魂韻」(衿契吐蕊) “Hun yun: jin qi tu rui” © December 1980, © 1981, © 1983 (Date of First Publication: 31 December 1980, Second Edition on 29 July 1981, Date of Revision: Revised Edition on 8 May 1983), Languages: Chinese (traditional), and English language.

“Album of the Cadillac Club International Fine Arts Exhibition” © 1981

“Album of the Cinematic & Photographic Arts Salon and the Hall of the Arts, Pegasus Academy of Arts” © 1981

“Album of New Image for the Spring of Shapely Models International” © 1982

“Album of High Lights on the Summer and Fall Fashion of Shapely Models Int’l” © 1982

“Romantic Carol” © 1982

Album of Academic Work for News Publication: “TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) Photographic Exhibitions of Rayonnisme” © May 1985

新聞出版之學術著作專輯「馬天亮『光影』“Rayonism” 攝影展」© May 1985

New version of scenario original “The Soul's Sentimentalizing” (to be published)

「曾經輝煌到頂天立地」 “The Indomitable Spirit Was Brilliant to Upright” (individual biography, to be published)

“My Life, My History, and My Love” (based on a legend, to be published, a film scenario will be developed later)

「感動的公平與正義」“Touching Fairness and Justice” (political science and social studies, to be published)

  

Research Interests:

 

University of Oxford

Research Studies in Archaeology:

Maa’s attractive topic was “A View of Architectural History: Towns through the Ages from Winchester through London Arrived at Oxford in England”.

 

National Taiwan University

Graduate Certificate,

Graduate Institute of Electrical Engineering:

Maa’s monograph of seminar was “Applied the sequence control in the electric power distribution engineering”.

 

University of Glamorgan

M.Sc. Course,

Master of Science in Real Estate Appraisal:

Maa’s thesis - major subject, with relevant construction law was “The Assignment is under Economics of Construction Management in Architecture”.

 

National Sun Yat-Sen University

Postgraduate Certificate,

Postgraduate Studies in Computing:

Maa’s required subject was Information dBase III Plus and Taiwanese Traditional Mandarin Chinese Information System. He combined academic course work and practical laboratory sessions in “Applied Mandarin Phonetic Symbols into Traditional Taiwanese Personal Computer and Its Information System”.

  

Associations:

 

Since 1980, a member of Chinese Taipei Film Archive (CTFA, National Film Archive, Taiwan; founded in 1978), The Motion Picture Foundation, R.O.C. (member of Fédération Internationale des Archives du Film, FIAF; The International Federation of Film Archives was founded in Paris in 1938 by the British Film Institute, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, the Cinémathèque Française and the Reichsfilmarchiv in Berlin.)

 

Commissioner of the cinema, photography, radio, and television committee of The Culture and Arts Association (Chinese Writers and Artists Association) of Taiwan ever since September 1983.

 

Classic member, the membership is equivalent to a doctorate membership of the Chinese Institute of Electrical Engineering since 23 March 1984.

 

On 15 March 1989, Maa promoted and founded the Consortium Juridical Person Mr. TianLiang Maa Social Benefit Foundation 財團法人馬天亮先生社會公益基金會 in Taiwan. near.archives.gov.tw/cgi-bin/near2/nph-redirect?rname=tre...

 

Classic member, the membership is equal to a professor or associate professor of The Chinese Institute of Engineers since 30 September 1991.

  

Honours:

 

Listed on ‘Taiwan Who’s Who In Business’, © 1984, © 1987, and © 1989 Harvard Management Service.

中華民國企業名人錄編纂委員會, 哈佛企業管理顧問公司.

 

On 26 August 1985, Maa was awarded a professional certificate of the Outdoor Artistry Activities issued by Education Bureau, Kaohsiung City Government, Taiwan. He acquired awards and certificates of honour about twenty times from National Taiwan Arts Education Center (Museum) on 24 December 1983; Kaohsiung Municipal Social Education Center on 17 March 1984, Kaohsiung Cultural Center, Taipei Cultural Center (Taipei Municipal Social Education Hall); and Taiwan Province Government, Taipei City Government, Kaohsiung City Government, and many cultural centres and art galleries, and so on.

  

Careers:

 

Honorary Professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, 7 June 2012 to present; Professor at Space Time Life Research Academy, 1 September 2011 to 1 June 2012 in London, United Kingdom:

Academia,

Teaching and Research:

business management and consultant, political philosophy, Chinese classics, Chinese humanities, modern Chinese language and literature, photography (portrait, fashion, commercial, digital, architectural, abstract photography), visual arts and film production.

www.facebook.com/stlra/info

教學與研究：

企業管理及顧問、政治哲學、中華經典 (古典漢學、文學、藝術、語言) 、中華人文、中華現代語言與文學、攝影 (人像、時裝、商業、數位/數碼、建築、抽象攝影) ，視覺藝術和影片製作。

 

Consultant and Translator at Eternal Life Consultants of Immigration and Translations Services, 10 March 2004 to present in London, United Kingdom:

consultants of immigration, translations, and legal services.

www.facebook.com/elcits/info

永生移民顧問翻譯服務社的移民諮詢顧問和翻譯：

移民事務，翻譯和法律服務。

 

Computer Hardware & Networking Engineer at Maa Office of Electrical Engineer, 8 March 2004 to present in London, United Kingdom:

Computer Engineering and Network Services. Repairing of Motherboards, Monitors, Power Supplies, CD-ROM Drives; UPS, Hard Disk Drives, H.D.D Data Recovery; BIOS Programming, and all types of Computer Hardware and Software Solutions.

www.facebook.com/maaelec/info

計算機工程和網絡服務。維修主機板，顯示器，電源供應器，光碟機/光盘驱动器，不斷電系統，硬碟/硬盘，硬盤數據恢復，基本輸入輸出系統編程，以及所有類型的電腦/計算機硬體/硬件和軟體/軟件解決方案。

 

Film Director & Photographer at Photographer and Film Director (Shapely), 2 April 2007 to present in London, United Kingdom:

1) Photo, Video and Film Production; 2) Graphic Design, Web Design, Social Networking, Social Media and Advertising; 3) Architectural Design and Interior Design.

www.facebook.com/filmshapely/info

 

Reformer and Philosopher at Taiwanese Social Reformer and Philosopher, 7 April 2012 (location: Los Angeles, California) to present in London, United Kingdom:

Social Reform in Taiwan

www.facebook.com/twreform/info

  

《魂韻》(衿契吐蕊) - 馬天亮22歲寫的電影原著。TianLiang Maa (Theophilus Raynsford Mann) wrote “Hun Yun” (Jin Qi Tu Rui), scenario original “The Soul’s Sentimentalizing” © 1980, 1981, 1983, was at the age of 22.

Website

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album.blog.yam.com/mtltwp

photo.roodo.com/photos/mtltwp/albums/small/100469.html

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Sonate Nr. 1 C-dur op. 3 für Klavier (piano) by Theophilus Raynsford Mann (TianLiang Maa 馬天亮) © 1977, © 1980, © 1981, © 1983. The Sonate composed on 3rd April 1977 then Maa was 18-year-old. The work was published in 1980; the theme was based on “The Soul's Sentimentalizing”.

Website

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LINKS:

 

University of California, Berkeley

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National Yang Ming University 國立陽明大學

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National Taiwan University of Science and Technology 國立臺灣科技大學

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Atomzone

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Nature - National Library Board Singapore

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画像検索

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Japan Photos and Pictures

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far-east-movement - Blogcu (Turkey)

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man fashion

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Travel Splash

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Country profile Taiwan

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University of California, Berkeley period

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University of Michigan period

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University of Huddersfield period

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art galleries uk

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Mitrasites system

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articles.whmsoft

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German

www.wer-ist.org/person/Jin_Mann

 

www.pediatr.org.tw/DB/News/file/1913-1.pdf

  

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Batman: Arkham Origins - Downsampled from 3200x1800, Hide HUD, cheat engine, no clip, camera coordinates, SweetFX K-putt'e Config 1.3

Roscoff [ʁɔskɔf], est une commune française du Léon située sur la côte nord de la Bretagne, dans le département du Finistère.

 

Ancien havre de corsaires puis de contrebandiers, d'où partirent les Johnnies vendre leurs oignons rosés, Roscoff, homologué « petite cité de caractère1 », est une petite ville balnéaire qui a conservé son patrimoine architectural des XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Son port en eau profonde, desservi par Irish Ferries et Brittany Ferries, qui y a son siège, assure la liaison en ferry avec les îles Britanniques ainsi que l'Espagne.

 

Son estran, balayé par des marées dont le marnage peut atteindre 10,40 m, abrite une diversité biologique propre à deux écosystèmes d'algues frontaliers dont l'étude, en 1872, est l'origine du premier2 pôle européen3 de recherches et d'enseignement en biologie marine, la Station biologique de Roscoff. Recherché pour ses embruns iodés et la douceur d'un climat maintenue par un courant marin qui ne varie qu'entre 8 °C et 18 °C, Roscoff a vu la naissance du concept de centre de thalassothérapie en 1899, avec l'institut de Rockroum, et la fondation d'un centre héliomarin en 1900.

 

L'île de Batz est desservie par des vedettes au départ du vieux port de Roscoff.

 

Géographie physique

Carte schématique de Roscoff et ses environs.

 

Roscoff occupe la pointe du promontoire qui ferme à l'ouest la baie de Morlaix. La ville s'étend sur 619 hectares au nord de Saint-Pol-de-Léon distant de centre à centre de 5 kilomètres, avec lequel elle tend à former une conurbation, et possède 14 kilomètres de côte avec plusieurs plages de sable blanc très fin. L'accès par la terre se fait de Saint-Pol par une route unique, la RD 58 (ancienne route nationale) ou de Santec, au sud ouest, par une petite route côtière.

Le figuier de Roscoff vers 1910 (carte postale ND Photo)

 

Ce territoire est dessiné par trois pointes. Celle du milieu, la moins marquée, occupe le centre de la vieille ville et est appelée la pointe du Vil. Les deux autres sont 0,665 mille à l'est la péninsule de Bloscon, séparée de la précédente par la petite anse du vieux port, et 0,604 mille à l'ouest la presqu'île de Perharidy, séparée de la même par l'anse de Laber. Celle-ci, profonde de près de 2 kilomètres, se découvre entièrement à marée basse. Son tiers amont est depuis 1835 un polder.

Article détaillé : Pointe de Perharidy.

 

Roscoff appartient à la Ceinture Dorée, cet affleurement lœssique de 30 à 60 centimètres de profondeur, formé au Devensien par les déjections friables et les moraines du bord de la calotte glaciaire, dont la fertilité, bien qu'il soit plus de mille fois plus mince, ne se compare qu'à celui de la plaine du fleuve Jaune. C'est ce lœss, amendé par les phosphates du goémon, qui donne l'impression que les Roscovites, tels Ulysse, cultivent du sable. La région de Roscoff, réchauffée par le Gulf Stream et protégée des vents du nord par l'Île de Batz, est la zone privilégiée de la Ceinture Dorée. Le célèbre figuier de Roscoff, un figuier géant planté en 1610, situé dans l'enclos du couvent des Capucins, qui illustrait la douceur du climat local, a été coupé en 19864.

Situation et transports

Roscoff est à 98 milles marins, soit 182 kilomètres, de Plymouth, 210 kilomètres de Rennes et 562 de Paris. Il faut 6 heures en ferry5, environ 15 heures à la voile (mais deux jours par vents contraires), pour rejoindre Plymouth. L''aérodrome de Morlaix et la base de Landivisiau sont à une trentaine de kilomètres chacun.

 

En face de Roscoff, au-delà d'un double chenal, le grand Kan et le petit Kan séparés par le rocher de Perroc'h, et animé de forts courants, se situe l'Île-de-Batz distante de 0,55 mille.

 

Roscoff dispose d'un port en eau profonde, ce qui lui permet d'accueillir les ferries des compagnies Brittany Ferries et Irish Ferries, qui desservent la Grande-Bretagne (Plymouth) et l'Irlande (Cork).

Article détaillé : Port de Roscoff - Bloscon.

 

Roscoff est desservi par voie routière par la D 58 qui est à 4 voies (de type voie express) de Morlaix (où cette route rejoint la route nationale 12) jusqu'à Saint-Pol-de-Léon et la D 788 depuis Brest via Lesneven. La ligne ferroviaire Morlaix-Roscoff, à voie unique et non électrifiée, relie Roscoff au réseau ferré national ; son trafic est interrompu depuis juin 2018 en raison d'un effondrement de terrain survenu près de Morlaix6.

Article détaillé : Gare de Roscoff.

 

Vestige de l'habitat dispersé, la commune est entourée d'écarts (Laber, Kersaliou, Keradennec…), parfois séparés par des champs en pleine zone urbaine, signe que le rendement agricole reste supérieur à celui de la rente immobilière.

 

Population

 

47% de la population a plus de 60 ans. En période estivale, la commune peut dénombrer de 16 à 20 000 résidents17.

 

D'année en année, la densité démographique reste supérieure à 550 habitants au kilomètre carré, la plus forte de la côte du Léon après Brest et Morlaix18.

Logement

 

La commune regroupe 1 597 résidences principales, 881 résidences secondaires et 549 logements vacants (+10% en 5 ans) 19.

Climat

 

Le ciel de Roscoff, extrêmement variable sur une journée, délivre tout au long de l'année une luminosité d'une grande constance, laquelle est ici un des facteurs déterminants, avec la transparence des eaux, de l'abondance exceptionnelle des algues.

Faune remarquable

Dans les eaux limpides au large de Roscoff, ici en 2015, convergent deux écosystèmes d'algue, source d'une exceptionnelle biodiversité.

 

Roscoff est inclus dans la Zone de protection spéciale Natura 2000 de la Baie de Morlaix20 et borde21 la zone naturelle d'intérêt écologique, faunistique et floristique de l'estuaire de la Penzé. L'exceptionnelle diversité biologique de Roscoff, constituée de plus de trois mille espèces animales22, est liée à son interface maritime et à ses singularités géographiques (marée, climat, courants marins, nébulosité, géodésie, etc.) qui font s'y chevaucher deux écosystèmes d'algues, un nordique et un méditerranéen.

 

Oiseaux.

Sternes de différentes espèces (S. caugek23, goélette23, S. de Dougall24…)nb 1.

Fou de Bassan. Plus grand voilier planant au-dessus de Roscoff (jusqu'à 1,70 m d'envergure), il niche depuis la fin des années trente dans la réserve naturelle de l'île Rouzic, en janvier.

Goélands (Goéland argenté25, goéland brun, goéland marin26)

Cormoran huppé

Mouette rieuse

Mouette mélanocéphale

Océanite tempête. Elle niche dans la réserve naturelle des Sept-Îles et seuls les marins la voient, rarement.

Fulmar boréal

Tournepierre

Huîtrier pie

Tadorne de Belon

Bernache

Guillemots. En particulier, quelques dizaines de Guillemot de Troïl nichent dans la réserve naturelle des Sept-Îles.

Guifette noire23

Sarcelle d'hiver26

Héron cendré26

Petit Pingouin26

Grand Corbeau

…

 

Mammifères (leur observation est très aléatoire)

Phoque gris, non vu depuis 198127.

Veau marin28

Marsouin29

Vison d'Amérique

Musaraigne couronnée27

Hérisson d'Europe27

Blaireau commun27, autrefois chassé pour sa fourrure et consommé pour sa chair délicieuse.

Belette commune27

…

 

Les baleines (Rorqual commun27, Balaenoptera acutorostrata26, Cachalot pygmée27) et dauphins (Dauphin commun à bec court26, Dauphin de Risso26) ont pour l'instant disparu mais se voient toujours en très grand nombre dans le golfe de Gascogne.

L'hippocampe est répandu en Bretagne mais l'espèce guttulatus, présente sur la côte sud de l'Angleterre, dans le bassin d'Arcachon et jusqu'en Méditerranée, ne s'y voit qu'à Roscoff.

 

.

 

Poissons

Hippocampe à museau court30.

Hippocampe moucheté (Hippocampus guttulatus)31.

Vieille27, qui change de sexe avec l'âge.

…

 

Invertébrés

Ver plat de Roscoff

Halammohydra (H. octopodites, H. schulzei, H. vermiformis H. adhaerens), hydrozoaires de la méiofaune dont la découverte a permis en 1959 l'invention à Roscoff de l'ordre des Actinulides et une révision de la phylogénèse de certains cnidaires (Gymnoblastiques et méduses Trachylides) par Georges Tessier.

Loricifères, phylum inventé dans le benthos d'une dune hydraulique de Roscoff en 1983.

Spirorbis27

Oursin violet, modèle du développement embryonnaire dont le génome a été décodé en totalité à la Station biologique de Roscoff

Ver de sable, appât traditionnel dont l'hémoglobine étudiée32 à la Station biologique de Roscoff par l'équipe de Franck Zal permet d'envisager dans le cadre du projet Hémarina une production industrielle de sang artificiel33 (cicatrisation, greffe…).

Coquillages et crustacés communs (langouste, crabe, étrille, pétoncle, bernique, bigorneau, couteau…)

Crépidule

Veloutée moine27

Abeille noire de Bretagne

…

 

Flore remarquable

 

Le paysage de Roscoff abrite plus de sept cents espèces végétales différentes22.

Les microalgues pélagiques du plancton, tels Emiliania huxleyi34 et Phymatolithon calcareum, se protègent de coccolithes qui en sédimentant forment le traez, variété de sable crayeux, et le maërl où dominent les Corallinacées, tous deux dragués pour amender les sols.

 

Algues

Emiliania huxleyi35.

Phymatolithon calcareum qui produit le maërl.

Alexandrium minutum, sécréteur de la saxitoxine dont l'efflorescence rend les coquillages neurotoxiques.

Dinophysis, autre dinoflagellé qui, elle, se défend en sécrétant de l'acide okadaïque qui a provoqué sous d'autres tropiques des diarrhées.

Pseudo-nitzschias, diatomées phytotoxiques qui sécrètent de l'acide domoïque et font l'objet elles aussi d'une surveillance sanitaire.

Picobiliphytes, phylum de phycobilines invisibles du picoplancton découvert en 2003 et caractérisé en 200636 par Fabrice Not et Daniel Vaulot à la Station biologique de Roscoff37.

Laminaires (laminaire sucrée, fleur de mai, fouet des sorcières…) Pour voir une forêt de laminaires, il faut cependant aller à Molène.

Goémon, combustible du pauvre que quelques goémoniers récoltent encore pour servir d'engrais. La soude ne sort plus aujourd'hui des fours à goémon.

Goémon noir, matière première des alginates (E400 & E405) utilisés dans les industries alimentaires, pharmaceutiques et cosmétique.

Varech vésiculeux que les enfants font exploser entre leurs doigts.

Sargasse japonaise.

Corrallines (C. officinalis, C. squamata…), utilisées pour reconstruire les os et les dents.

Dulse alimentaire.

Mousse d'Irlande, source du E407.

Porphyras, enveloppe des makis.

…

 

Flore indigène

Ajonc. Cultivé sur les terres à lande, il était écrasé après récolte selon la méthode Calloet-Kerbrat pour faire un fourrage garant de la bonne qualité du beurre.

Genêt. Il était planté dans les jachères pour enrichir la pâture et fournir des balais, des litières, des joncs de toiture, le reste pour servir de combustible ou d'engrais.

Laiche, tressée pour faire des licous, des paillassons, des ruches, des coussins, etc.

Chardon, symbole des liens de Roscoff avec l'Écosse des Stuarts et le pèlerinage de Saint Ninian.

Fétuque

Les symboles de la littérature (lierre, coudrier, chèvrefeuille).

Orme de Cornouailles (en), typique de la Bretagne. Un exemplaire résiste à Kerestat38.

Les simples de la tradition (herbe d'or39 utilisée comme cierge propitiatoire40, jusquiame, pimprenelle d'eau, verveine, primevère, trèfle)41

…

 

Flore acclimatée

 

Le figuier des Capucins, aujourd'hui détruit, attraction touristique en 1913.

 

Figuier. Symbole de la terre d'Israël annonçant le Royaume des Cieux et plus encore affirmant la liberté dans la Grâce face à certains augustiniens, le premier figuier a été planté par les missionnaires capucins à côté de leur cloître en 163442, année de l'inauguration de la Chapelle d'albâtre dans Notre Dame de Batz. Le spécimen, visité par les voyageurs, couvrait plus de sept cents mètres carrés quand il a été rasé en 1987 pour faire un parking ; il avait 800 m²de ramifications supportées par 120 béquilles de granite et ses branchages abritaient trois profondes tonnelles43.

Artichaut, autre héritage de la curiosité des capucins, férus de botanique depuis leur promotion à la tête du projet scientifique et colonial de la France par le plus influent d'entre eux. Quelques siècles ont donc suffi pour aboutir à l'actuel cultivar Camus de Bretagne.

Échalote rosée ronde de Jersey44 introduite au XIIe siècle45.

Oignon rosé importé du Portugal et acclimaté par les Capucins au milieu du XVIIe siècle.

Pomme de terre46, résultat de l'activisme physiocratique de l'« évêque aux patates » lors de la crise alimentaire qui a précédé la Révolution.

Rhododendron

Tamaris

Palmier, déjà évoqué dans l'odyssée du malouin Saint Brendan.

Palmier de Chine, expédié de Chousan, à l'est de Shanghaï, par Charles de Montigny en 185147, planté en 1853 à Alger puis en 1856 à Porzantrez près de Morlaix48.

Désespoir des singes, souvenir des cap-horniers revenus de Valparaiso.

Aloe et agaves, témoignage des relations commerciales anciennes avec la Floride et la Nouvelle-Espagne.

…

 

Toponymie

 

Le nom en breton de la commune en breton est Rosko prononcé [ʁoskṓ].

 

Roscoff vient du breton ros signifiant promontoire, et de goff qui signifie forgeron, probablement un anthroponyme49, peut-être celui du même saint patron que celui de la paroisse de Plogoff, masque chrétien d'une divinité forgeronne, Gofannon. Le nom de Roscoff pourrait donc se traduire en français par le coteau du forgeron.

 

Une mutation consonantique durcit après ros le g en c. La prononciation de la consonne finale -ff est muette en léonard, d'où la graphie bretonne moderne : Rosko [roskṓ]. La prononciation française [roskɔf] est une lecture fautive de la graphie bretonne classique, Roscoff.

Gentilé

 

Les habitants de Roscoff, appelés Roscouins au XVIIIe siècle, s'appellent aujourd'hui les Roscovites.

Blason

Blason de Roscoff

  

Blason de Roscoff :

Blasonnement : D'azur au navire d'argent équipé d'hermine voguant sur une onde d'argent ; au chef de Bretagne (qui est semé d'hermine).

Devise

 

« A rei, a skei atao » (« Donner et frapper toujours »).

 

La devise est un jeu de mots sur les composantes du nom de la ville prononcé en breton: Rosko, le double f final étant muet. En breton ro signifie en effet donne, et sko veut dire littéralement frappe, selon le contexte au sens physique de joue des poings ou au sens moral de frappe l'imagination, accomplis quelque chose de touchant, mais aussi dirige, oriente, commande. D'où l'impératif ro, sko, donne, frappe, atténué par l'infinitif a rei, a skei, expression d'une sorte de justice immanente, dont le sous entendu ironique est que celui qui paye, décide. L'étymologie véritable de Roscoff est pourtant toute différente.

Hymne

 

Au début du XIXe siècle, le vicomte Eugène d'Herbais de Thun écrivit, sur une musique galloise qui avait eu beaucoup de succès dans les cercles celtisants, l'hymne Paotred rosko (Les gars de Roscoff)50. Les compagnies de Johnnies partantes en chantait le refrain Rosko, sko mibin, sko kaled, sko atao (« Roscoff, cogne sec, cogne dur, cogne sans cesse ») en hissant trois fois le pavillon en vue de la chapelle de Sainte Barbe, patronne de la cité depuis au moins le début du XVIIe siècle.

Histoire

Roscoff avant Roscoff

Préhistoire

 

Le réchauffement climatique, qui a commencé à l'épipaléolithique en achevant de transformer la vallée de la Manche en mer et s'est poursuivi après le boréal jusqu'à le phase atlantique, voit en Bretagne l'homme de Téviec se sédentariser vers - 7000 autour de sites de « pieds rouges » (récolteurs de coquillages sur l'estran), en particulier celui de la baie de Pemprat, au sud de Roscoff, qui, à défaut d'ossements, conserve un kokkenmodding semblable à ceux de la culture d'Ertebølle.

 

Des traces mégalithiques subsistent faiblement : le dolmen de Kerfissiec, le lech de Reuniou… La triple allée couverte de Keravel a été dynamitée par le propriétaire du terrain en 1942. La pointe de Bloscon a vraisemblablement été vers - 4 500 un tumulus tel celui de Barnenez, candidat à la place de plus vieux monument du monde, avant d'être réutilisé comme fort. Comme dans tout le pourtour de la baie de Morlaixnb 2, la toponymie témoigne toutefois d'un pôle important au néolithique, développement naturel de deux mille ans de présence des « pieds rouges » du mésolithique : Parc al lia (lia est le pluriel de lech) en retrait de la pointe de Bloscon au-dessus de l'actuel port en eau profonde, Parc an dolmen et Goarem an dolmen, noms de champs autour d'un hypothétique dolmen situé un peu plus au sud au lieu-dit Ruveic, etc. Roscogoz, quartier de la ville où se situait le premier port, était dans le souvenir de témoins du XIXe siècle le nom d'un dolmen51 peut être évoqué dans le nom de Rochgroum (pierre courbe) qui, à Santec, sert à en désigner un.

Macle de cassitérite du gisement de Saint Erc en Cornouailles.

 

La civilisation maritime du Wessex, celle qui construit au chalcolithique, vers 2100 av . J-C, le second Stonehenge, s'implante plus en amont (Cléder, Plouvorn, Saint-Vougay, Saint-Thégonnec) mais ses chefferies minières entretiennent un commerce intense de l'étain et ont nécessairement exploité les ports naturels tels que ceux que présentait la côte, alors plus basse, du futur Roscoff et de l'île de Batz réunis par la terre. Ce composant du bronze, fondu avec le cuivre de Cambrie et d'Espagne, affleure naturellement dans les sables alluviaires du gisement de l'actuel Saint-Renan et de son jumeau du Dartmoor, qui, parmi de nombreux autres dispersés dans l'ouest armoricain52 et le sud ouest britannique53, étaient les deux principaux fournisseurs de l'Occidentnb 3. L'imagination laissera rêver que le « promontoire du forgeron » qui a donné son nom à Roscoff était un site d'exportation de cette civilisation du bronze où le forgeron tenait un rôle magique.

 

Le lech de Reuniou (cf. infra "Vestiges mégalithiques") date de l'âge du fer, qui est tardif dans les Cassitérides, soit au plus tôt - 700. Comme il ne marque pas une fontaine, il correspond peut-être, comme certains autres lechs, à un ancien cimetière, ici détruit, et marque certainement un lieu fréquenté par les Osismes.

Antiquité

 

Vers - 100, les Celtes, soucieux après la défaîte de Bituit de maintenir les liens avec Carthage que Massilia ne permet plus, fondent en territoire armoricain la colonie de Vorganium, dont le site de Roscoff a été un des ports possibles. Lors de la reconstruction du fort de Bloscon en 1615 a été trouvée à dix mètres de profondeur la statue gauloise dite de Saint-Pyriec d'un enfant à l'oiseau, statue aujourd'hui disparue51. La construction du port en eau profonde a révélé un abri de l'époque gauloise, peut être en rapport avec les stèles funéraires de l'île de Batz qui était alors attachée au continent. L'île verte, qui se trouve au bord sud du chenal de l'île de Batz au bout de l'actuelle jetée piétonne, a en effet livré à la fin du XIXe siècle deux épées, huit haches, dont cinq portent un anneau, un torque, un fer de lance et un morceau de poignard51. Les navigateurs osismes, partenaires des tartessiens et de Carthage54 depuis au moins le voyage d'Himilcon, soit près de quatre cents ans, étaient un atout dans cette alliance contre Rome, qui se concrétisera militairement lors de l'expédition d'Hannibal.

 

Pol Potier de Courcy a trouvé près du même dolmen de Keravel des petits bronzes, traces d'une garnison du IIIe siècle51, probablement un des détachements des Mauri Osismaci que Carausius a dispersé pour surveiller les pirates le long de la nouvelle route côtière reliant Osismis, devenue capitale de la cité en 282, au gué du Mont Relaxe vers Aleth. De l'époque romaine, ont été également trouvées dans la ferme de Kergoff, une pièce d'or du VIe siècle51. D'autres monnaies romaines ont été retrouvées entre les deux guerres au Ruguel sur la presqu'île de Perharidy.

 

Une épave romaine datant du II ou IIIe siècle a été découverte à l'est de l'ilot Ti Saozon en 2014. Fouillée par la DRASSM sous le nom de Bloscon 1, elle a révélé des objets permettant de la dater ainsi que plus de 800 lingots d'étain ou d'alliage plomb-étain provenant probablement de l'actuelle Grande-Bretagne55.

Entre monastère et place militaire

La mer a submergé les mille trois mètres qui séparent aujourd'hui Roscoff, ici au fond, de l'Île de Batz, au premier plan, où l'église de Pol Aurélien est envahie par le sable.

 

Selon la légende hagiographique écrite au Bas Moyen Âge à partir d'un manuscrit daté de 88456, Saint Pol Aurélien, missioné par l'évêque de Guicastel, débarque en 510 à Ouessant puis est accueilli par son cousin à la forteresse de Saint-Pol, Castel Paol en breton. Des remparts, il a pu voir, selon les documents compilés par Albert Le Grand, le roi de Domnonée chasser en 513 les danois installés dans l'île Callotnb 4. Pol finit par s'installer à Batz alors rattachée au continent, y fonde un monastère et évangélise la région acquise au pélagianisme depuis plus d'un siècle comme en avaient attesté les missions de Saint Germain et son diacre Palladiusnb 5.

 

Nul doute que les rivages de Roscoff virent passer la voile blanche d'Iseut que Marie de France fait arriver trop tard pour sauver Tristan de Loonois.

 

Trois siècles plus tard, en 857, des Normands, suivant l'exemple d'Hasting, s'installent sur l'île de Batz et pillent toute la région. Leurs exactions récurrentes provoquent en 878 le transfert des reliques de Saint Pol à Fleury et celui de la population loin du rivage. Celui-ci ne sera réinvesti qu'à l'installation en 937, dans le sillage d'Alain Barbetorte rentré d'exil et vainqueur de Rognvald puis Håkon57, de la cour d'Even le Grand, comte de Léon, à Lesneven. Le vieux Roscoff, pillé, détruit, dépeuplé à plusieurs reprises, fut à chaque fois reconstruit, se cristallisant alors autour de deux pôles principaux, le port et l'église.

 

Au cours de l'hiver 1114-1115, la Manche gèle à quelques distances des côtes58, ce qui était déjà arrivé à l'hiver 763-76458,nb 6.

Ces Messieurs de Roscoff

Le Rosco goz de la fin du Moyen Âge

Article connexe : Minihy de Léon.

 

L'envasement progressif au Moyen Âge du port de Pempoul, au pied de la capitale de l'évêché-comté, oblige les navires à débarquer de l'autre côté de la péninsule, au lieu-dit Roscoff situé sur la plage orientale de Laber, appelé aujourd'hui Rosko Goz (vieux Roscoff en breton). L'actuelle pointe du Vil est un cul-de-sac où mène la route de Saint-Pol-de-Léon appelée au XVIIe rue Ker da Laez c'est-à-dire de la ville en passant par le haut, actuelle rue Albert de Mun59. La route partage alors le territoire entre la paroisse de Toussaints, à laquelle appartient Bloscon, à l'est de cette route, et la paroisse de Saint-Pierre, à laquelle appartient Santec, à l'ouest60. Ce sont deux des sept paroisses du minihy de Léon, chacune étant dirigée par un vicaire perpétuel et la cure primitive exercée directement par le chapitre cathédral de Léon.

 

Cette future rue de Ker da Laez, actuelle rue Albert de Mun, une fois arrivée au cul-de-sac de la pointe du Vil rebrousse chemin par ce qui deviendra la rue du Cap, actuelle rue Édouard-Corbière, le long de la côte vers Perharidy, ex-cap Ederi ou pointe Ederi, qui se dit Pen Ederi ou Pen ar Ederi59. L'endroit de la bifurcation est alors occupé par une auberge, à l'emplacement de l'actuel Hôtel de France59 aujourd'hui logement de la Station biologique de Roscoff. Le lieu est dit Croaz Vaz, c'est-à-dire la Croix de l'île de Batz59, croix qui donnera son nom au fort construit par Vauban trois siècles et demi plus tard. Comme en atteste une charte de 132361, cette auberge familiale est bâtie sur une concession féodale des seigneurs et propriétaires des terrains, le prieur de l'île de Batz et l'Abbaye de Saint-Mélaine à Rennes62.

 

Durant la Guerre de Succession de Bretagne, en 1363, soit quatorze ans après le début de la peste noire, le fort de Bloscon, au nord-est de l'actuel vieux portnb 7, pris par les Anglais, est repris par Bertrand du Guesclin. De 1374 à 1387, le port de Rosco lui-même est plusieurs fois de suite incendié par le gouverneur de Brest, Richard Fitzalan, que Richard II a choisi pour soutenir le parti montfortain. La population se réinstalle plus au nord au lieu-dit Golban60 pour former le quartier du Vil, c'est-à-dire du Moulin (Mil en moyen breton, féminin Vil)63. En juin 1403, mille deux cents hommes d'armes sous les ordres de Jean de Penhoët partent de l'anse de Laber dans trente vaisseaux vaincre les Anglais au large de la pointe Saint-Mathieu. Ils en ramènent quarante navires ennemis. Un an plus tard, Plymouth est pris et saccagé.

 

Le 19 décembre 1455, le Duc Pierre de Montfort, entérinant un état de faits générés par cette guerre de Cent Ans navale, ordonne que ne dérogent pas à la noblesse les gentilshommes « qui marchandent en gros et en plusieurs marchandises sans les détailler ni vendre par la main ». Cette singularité du droit breton fait naître un capitalisme d'armateurs à l'origine du développement économique de Saint-Malo et Morlaix ainsi que du port avancé de ce dernier, Roscoff64. Les cadets infortunés pouvaient ainsi, sans s'exposer au fouage, se livrer sur mer à une « vie de bourse commune » au terme de laquelle ils retrouvaient les privilèges et obligations de leur ordre. Pour cela, ils devaient donc mander aux ventes des intermédiaires, souvent des étrangers qui furent nombreux à s'installer à Roscoff. Inversement, l'affrètement offrait aux roturiers de s'élever au rang de la « noblesse dormante » et d'accéder parfois à la condition d' « annobliz »65.

 

Durant les années suivantes, la course est encouragée par Louis XI, personnellement impliqué dans la marine à travers la politique de son vice-amiral Guillaume de Casenove et très désireux depuis le traité de Caen de s'attacher des léonards ambitieux et éloignés, sinon opposésnb 8, au pouvoir ducal. C'est ainsi qu'il anoblit en 1480 l'armateur roscovite Tanguy Marzin.

Ar vil de la Renaissance

La construction de l'église fut à la fois une revendication d'autonomie politique et une ostentation ambivalente de richesses détournées des investissements.

 

En 1500, le nouveau Roscoff se construit sept cents mètres plus au nord de Roscoff goz où quelques puits66 permettent de débiter aux navires de l'eau douce. Le port prospère grâce à l'importation chaque hiver de Libau67 en Courlande via Anvers, principalement par des navires de Lübeck qui en ont le monopole dans la Baltique, des graines de lin récoltées au milieu de l'été en Lituanie et choisies exclusivementnb 9 par la « manufacture » toilière des créesnb 10 du Léon. Toutes celles des parties de l'arrière-pays qui sont impropres à la culture du blé forment alors une zone de production de renom international68, la seconde en France après la région de Rouen. Développée lentement durant la seconde moitié du XVe siècle, elle connait un boom à la Renaissance avec l'ouverture du marché anglais. La blancheurnb 11 de cette toile de lin est appréciée pour faire du linge et sa régulariténb 12 pour faire des voiles. Les toiles étaient réexportées du port de Morlaix, qui disposait d'un privilègenb 13, sur toute la côte atlantique jusqu'à l'Espagne d'où étaient importés au retour vin et huile, via Bilbaonb 14 puis à partir de 1530 Séville69, et au Portugalnb 15 ainsi que leurs nouvelles colonies70. C'est ainsi qu'en 1527 un navire armé pour le Brésil par le roscovite Jean Jarnet est coulé par la flotte portugaise en baie de Tous les Saints71. Dans ce réseau, Roscoff, à côté d'une activité interlope séculaire, devient le principal marché des semences de lin. Son bureau de contrôle, sous l'autorité du juge des Requaires, les fait distribuer par des commissionnaires dans le haut Léon qui produit la rosconne et sa marque finira par en monopoliser au XVIIIe siècle le réacheminement via les succursales installées dans les ports du Trégor, d'où sortent les gratiennes, et de Penthièvre, où sont produites les Bretagnes.

 

Comme partout en Léon, le capital accumulé est sacrifié à des constructions religieuses de prestige. Notre-Dame de Croaz Vaz est érigée entre 1522, année du saccage de Morlaix par les Anglo-Espagnols, et 1545nb 16. La chapelle Saint-Ninien est construite à l'initiative de l'évêquenb 17 et reçoit en 1538 l'assemblée capitulaire du minihy de Léon. Le 18 août 1548, la ville nouvelle accueille à son débarquement, le temps d'une prièrenb 18, Marie Stuart, reine d'Écosse âgée de cinq ans et promise au Dauphin François pour réactiver l'Auld Alliance.

 

Un an plus tard, le Parlement de Bretagne accède à la demande du bourg de devenir une paroisse indépendante du minihy de Léon (dont le siège se trouve à Saint-Pol-de-Léon) puis, en 1550, alors que les représentants de l'ordre ancien Claude de Coetlestremeur, seigneur de Penmarc'h, et Jean de Kermellecnb 19, commandant du château du Taureau, se livrent à la piraterie sur les côtes du Léon et que la Réforme est au cœur des préoccupations, le roi Henri II l'autorise à se doter d'une milice municipale d'arquebusiers. Simultanément, l'évêque du Léon concède aux paroissiens sécessionnistes le droit de faire baptiser leurs enfants dans leur église. Entre 1575 et 1576, la ville est dotée par Monseigneur de Neufville d'un hospice pour indigents, l'hôpital Saint Nicolas, actuelle maison de retraite où subsiste la chapelle construite en 1598. Accusé d'attirer les pauvres sur le territoire de la paroisse, l'hôpital sera en 1715 réservé aux seules personnes installées dans celle-ci depuis plus de dix ans. En 1559, mille huit cents livres sont consacrées à la chaussée du bourg.

La chapelle Sainte-Barbe.

Le XVIIe siècle, âge d'or des armateurs

 

De 1560nb 20 jusqu'à la fin du XVIIenb 21, les terrains autour de l'église sont lotis par l'évêque-comte à des investisseursnb 22 du Léon, tels François Jaffres, marchand et gouverneur de l'église de Roscoff, en 1561nb 23 ou Olivier Le Maigrenb 24, pour construire des hôtels de négoce qui deviendront des résidences au XVIIIe siècle. Ils sont construits pour la seule traite, tel l'hôtel de Mathieu Le Hir du Carpont et de Keramanach en 1582nb 25, ou pour servir en sous sol de magasin, voire de maison fortifiée, telle celle du corsaire Chrétien Le Pappe qui eut à se défendre en 1592 contre le régiment paysan de la Sainte Union de Morlaix conduit par Bras de Fer72. Ceux des bâtiments qui donnent, ou donnaient, sur le rivage participent au système défensif de la villenb 26.

 

Le 17 mai 1595, le Duc de Mercœur, prétendant baillistre militairement allié aux Espagnols contre le roi depuis cinq ans, rétablit par lettres patentes le commerce avec Bilbao et Séville, principaux débouchés des crées. Trois familles de marchands basques s'installent à Roscoffnb 27. Roscoff sert aussi de refuge à plusieurs familles anglaises catholiquesnb 28 fuyant les persécutions commencées sous le règne d'Élisabeth.

 

Le 12 juin 1600, après un terrible hiver, est posée, à l'emplacement du cimetière des victimes de l'épidémie de décembre 1593, la première pierre de la chapelle Saint Roch et Saint Sébastiennb 29, saints invoqués contre les épidémies et les persécutions religieuses. Cette double action de grâce décidée en décembre 1598 célébrait l'Édit de Nantes qui clôturait les cinq années de la guerre civile menée par La Fontenelle, pilleur de Roscoff en 1592nb 30, et visait simultanément à obtenir la fin de l'hécatombe causée par l'épidémie recrudescente qui se prolongea au cours de l'année 1599. Un décret municipal de 1632 transformera le lazaret en prison mouroir pour tous les individus suspects de peste.

 

Au tout début du siècle, Mgr de Neufville érige le nord de la paroisse de Toussaint, c'est-à-dire la péninsule de Bloscon à l'est de l'actuelle rue Albert de Mun, en trève. Désormais les paroissiens, devenus relativement nombreux, pourront recevoir les sacrements, célébrer les mariages et les enterrements, sans se rendre à la cathédrale, siège du minihy. Cependant, dès 1611, l'ecclésiastique ville de Saint-Pol obtient la suppression du député aux États de Bretagne de l'orgueilleux et bourgeois Roscoff. Les marchands de celui-ci s'organisent dès l'année suivante en la « confrérie de Sant Ninian », équivalent de l'actuel conseil municipal. En dépit de sa démographie croissante, Roscoff continue de ne députer qu'un seul représentant sur les douze que compte le conseil de la ville de Saint-Pol où sont décidés les aménagements vicinaux et les taxes afférentes, ce qui est source de contestations éternelles.

La chapelle Sainte-Anne, construite en 1640 sur fonds privés, achetée par la commune en 1967, sert aujourd'hui de lieu d'exposition.

 

Autour de 1619, la chapelle Sainte-Barbe, protectrice contre les pirates et intercessrice pour les âmes défuntes sans absolution, est érigée à son tournb 31. Deux ans plus tard, les Capucins sous la direction du Père Pacifique de Morlaix, ouvriront dans la paroisse, à la demande des habitants qui leur concèdent le terrain, un petit couvent dont le cloître sera achevé en 1682nb 32. Les Capucins, qui donnent des rudiments d'instruction à quelques enfants pauvres et soignent les malades, sont botanistes: ils acclimatent un figuier, qui deviendra une curiositénb 33, et introduisent d'autres plantes méditerranéennes dont en 1661 l'artichaut, qui deviendra la fortune de la région. En 1634, est inaugurée la chapelle des albâtres (cf. infra), qui vient remplacer le porche sud de Notre Dame de Croaz Vaz. En 1640, l'érection de la chapelle Sainte Anne, patronne de la Bretagne, grâce aux donations de Françoise Marzin, dame de Kerugantnb 34, et Louis Ronyant, son mari, marque la fin d'une quinzaine d'années de peste et en 1643 le quai du portnb 35 est achevé sur une longueur de cent quatre-vingt mètres après vingt-six ans de travaux.

 

En 1649, Roscoff obtient de la Régence gouvernée par Mazarin confirmation des lettres patentes signées en 1600 par Henri IV l'autorisant à tenir une foire six fois par an. Tant la conjoncture économique qu'une prétendue opposition de la ville de Saint-Pol empêcheront la tenue de celles ci. En mars 1649, l'église s'offre des orgues que Thomas Harrison, Anglais catholique installé à Roscoff, livre vingt mois plus tard. Le recensement de 1664 comptabilise quinze navires attachés au port de Roscoff. En 1665 monseigneur de Visdelou met en place un règlement, très modestenb 36, concernant les tavernes.

 

Roscoff est aussi à partir du XVIe siècle, avec Morlaix et Paimpol, un des premiers ports à armer à la pêche à la morue sur les bancs de Terre-Neuve, puis sur les côtes d'Islande. La morue salée était vendue en France et surtout en Espagne ; la Bretagne n'étant pas soumise à la gabelle, les pêcheurs picards et normands venaient à Roscoff s'approvisionner en sel à bon compte. Le trafic des faux-saulniers professionnels fut très actif jusqu'au XVIIIe siècle, assuré par une cinquantaine de bateaux de 50 à 100 tonneaux, venant principalement du port de Dieppe. Les armateurs de Roscoff prenaient leurs chargements de sel au Croisic. Avec le sel, les principales marchandises de mer étaient alors à la sortie les toiles de lin et le blé (à destination de ports comme Dunkerque, ainsi que vers l'Espagne et l'Angleterre), à l'entrée les vins et eaux-de-vie, l'huile d'olive, les merrains73 et le thé74.

Le lent déclin jusqu'au XIXe siècle

1665-1698 : taxes et smogleurs

 

La chute de Nicolas Fouquet marque le début de la destruction économique et politique de la province sous le règne absolutiste du Duc de Chaulnes. La politique de Louis XIV et les mesures protectionnistes de Charles II75 ferment les marchés anglais et hanséatique. La fiscalité imaginée par Pierre Deschien et la politique de manufactures d'étatnb 37 initiée par Colbert69 ruinent le commerce libre. La décroissance de la production de lin, désormais concurrencée par celle du coton des colonies dont le prix de revient est artificiellement baissé par l'esclavage, et la baisse de fréquentation du port, désormais hors du jeu commercial atlantique, ne sont pas compensées par l'activité militaire ni par la course, dont Morlaix profite presque exclusivementnb 38.

 

Roscoff devient pour presque trois siècles le premier port de la contrebande avec les Îles britanniques. L'origine de ce développement est le Navigation Act, première loi sur la navigation signée par Cromwell en 1651, qui interdit à tout navire d'importer en Grande Bretagne des marchandises qui ne viennent pas du pays auquel le navire appartient et qui assure le monopole de l'importation depuis les îles aux navires servis par des équipages au moins aux trois-quarts anglais et commandés par des capitaines anglais. Le trafic, qui connaitra son apogée au XVIIIe siècle en dépassant alors le volume des importations légales, profite de la proximité des Îles anglo-normandes et devient, malgré les risques encourus, une activité économique essentielle aux populations du littoral tant britannique que français, faisant progresser la construction navales, marquant des territoires d'une architecture qui bénéficie de ces progrès techniques, forgeant des caractères, suscitant des légendes, rapprochant des populations d'une même origine que les frontières ont séparées, affirmant des altérités76. Les bateaux pratiquant ce trafic sont dénommés « smogleurs », déformation du mot anglais smuggler qui signifie « contrebandier »77.

 

Régulièrement réprimé, mais officieusement encouragé par Colbert puis par les partisans d'un mercantilisme industriel pour ce qu'elle affaiblirait les économies rivales, cette contrebande maritime prospérera jusqu'en 1784 quand William Pitt, premier ministre du roi George III, décidera d'abaisser les droits de douane, qui passeront par exemple pour le thé de 127 % à 12 %, et signera deux ans plus tard un traité de libre-échange avec l'ancien ennemi. Elle périclitera rapidement quand Napoléon III signera, le 16 avril 1856, le traité de Paris, qui abolira l'activité connexe de course en mer. Elle ne survivra pas au chemin de fer ni au désenclavement de la Cornouaille qui s'ensuivra.

 

Le 30 novembre 1694, Vauban signe les plans de la transformation exécutée par La Renaudière, du fort de Bloscon en une importante batterie de treize canons fermée par un pont levis. Pour le financer, un impôt spécial est prélevé par la municipalité sur les habitants. Les merlons en gazon coûtent dix fois moins cher qu'une muraille et arrêtent les boulets sans dégâts. Le Bloscon devient le siège de la capitainerie de Saint-Pol-de-Léon qui s'étend de Ploujean à Cleder et dont la pièce maîtresse est le château du Taureau. La milice garde côtes était une corvée échue aux habitants regroupés en un bataillon sous le commandement d'un capitaine général. Sur le port lui-même, le fort de la Croix abritait une poudrièrenb 39 et un canon gardait la jetée face au rocher du Gran Quelennb 40.

1699-1789 : guerres et calamités climatiques

L'ancien port et son quai ouest prolongé d'un môle au XIXe puis d'une jetée piétonne au XXe. Les bateaux pouvaient, comme le montre une gravure du XVIIIe siècle, non pas venir à quai mais s'échouer sur les plages de Laber à Roscogoz et plus facilement sur celle qui est aujourd'hui le « vieux port ».

 

En 1699, une tempête ensable deux cent cinquante hectares de terres agricoles à Santec où l'ensablement a commencé dès 1666, favorisant l'aménagement de nouveaux lotissements. La guerre de Succession d'Espagne stoppe presque totalement pendant dix ans le commerce du linnb 41 mais permet de rançonner les navires ennemis, comme le fit pour deux cent cinquante livres le capitaine Lair le 1er septembre 1705 dans le port de Cork où il s'était introduit sous pavillon anglais.

La combat d'Ouessant de 1778 - Théodore Gudin (1848)

La bataille navale quasi permanente n'engage guère directement les lougres roscovites qui en sont réduits à la course et au commerce interlope.

 

En 1715, une autre tempête endommage le quai et en 1722 plus de cinquante centimètres de sable doivent être enlevés des rues de Roscoff. Le port a alors une capacité de cent vaisseaux de quatre à cinq cents tonneaux78 mais la flotte est considérablement réduite (en 1730, elle ne compte que trois bateaux de pêche hauturiers venus de Normandie) mêmes si certains bâtiments naviguent au long cours entre Terre Neuve, Saint-Domingue et l'Île-de-France. Il faudra attendre le 19 février 1743 et une souscription de huit mille livres auprès de la société des armateurs roscovites réunis autour de messieurs de Portenoire et Sioch'an de Kersabiec, en conflit avec la ville de Saint-Pol qui refuse de contribuer, pour que la reconstruction du quai sur une longueur double soit achevée, les pierres provenant du Petit-Quellen, de l'île de Batz et de l'île Callot.

 

Roscoff deviendra dès lors un chantier naval mineur mais recherché sous la marque de la dynastie Kerenfors, ce qu'il restera jusqu'à sa fermeture entre les deux guerres mondialesnb 42 et qui construira en particulier en 1779 le senau La Duchesse de Chartres79. Le 10 octobre 1746, deux siècles après son aïeule, Bonnie Prince Charlie, échappé de sa défaite à Culloden, y débarque d'un corsaire, L'Hermine escorté par le capitaine malouin du Fresne. À cette époque, les batailles navales entre Anglais et Français étaient constantesnb 43. En 1756, un ingénieur est dépêché pour mettre en place les moyens de lutte contre l'ensablement. La tempête du 4 octobre 1765 abat la flèche du clocher et endommage le toit et le porche de l'église.

 

Au tournant des années 1770, le port, qui avait perdu la plupart de ses marins durant la guerre de 1758nb 44, est sinistré par la disparition inexpliquée du maquereau qui abondait au large de Batz et dont les armateurs d'Honfleur et Fécamp s'étaient fait la spécialité en Bretagne80. La disparition de la « fortune de mer » et le déclin de la culture du lin sont palliés par la culture des pommes de terre initiée par Monseigneur de La Marche puis par le développement de celle des artichauts et autres primeurs, introduits un siècle plus tôt par les Capucins, qui est une agriculture spéculative basée sur la complémentarité des marchés saisonniersnb 45. Certains Roscovites sont ainsi poussés à les colporter en Maine, Anjou et Normandie.

Pauvreté et récolte du goémon à la fin du XVIIIe siècle et au début du XIXe siècle

 

Le recteur de la trève de Roscoff, dans une lettre écrite en 1774 adressée à l'évêque de Léon Jean-François de la Marche en réponse à son enquête sur la mendicité, proteste contre la déclaration du 30 octobre 1772 qui limite aux trois premiers mois de l'année la coupe du goémon. Il écrit (l'orthographe de l'époque a été respectée) :

 

« L'objet du gouesmon est très intéressant pour le païs. Les règlements qui en interdisent la coupe pendant le mois d'août ou de septembre augmente beaucoup la misère d'une partie du bas-peuple et des riverains. Cette coupe, qui s'est faite de tous tems, sur cette côte, dans cette saison, sert presque uniquement au chauffage, et il l'est le seul pour ces pauvres gens. Point de bois sur la côte, d'aucune espèce. Celui qu'on y porte est d'une cherté exorbitante. Les landes y sont maigres, rares ; point de fougères. Cette coupe ne doit pas nuire aux trempes [utilisation du goémon comme engrais], car notre côte hérissée de rochers fournit abondamment de cet herbage [goémon]. La trempe a pour elle la coupe presque entière de février et tous les gouesmons de marée [goémon échoué] pendant l'année. Ces derniers ne peuvent servir au feu81. »

 

À la suite d'une enquête organisée par une circulaire du 8 juin 1819 du Préfet du Finistère, le conseil municipal de Roscoff répond (l'orthographe de l'époque a été respectée) : « Ceux qui ne se servent que de paniers doivent être autorisés à commencer la récolte du goëmon deux ou trois jours avant les cultivateurs pourvus de chevaux et de voitures » et souhaite que « chaque voiture de transport ne doit être accompagnée que de huit personnes, et chaque cheval de quatre, à moins que lé ménage ne soit plus nombreux. Il doit être défendu d'enlever pendant la nuit le goëmon apporté par les flots »82.

1789-1818: de la Révolution à la famine

 

À la Révolution, le cahier de doléances du 29 mars 1789 dénonce la concurrence déloyale des ports francs de Guernesey et d'Aurigny, l'insuffisance de l'entrepôt du port, l'incurie de la ville de Saint-Pol, les dîmes prélevées par celle-ci sans qu'elle n'aménage de route facilitant le transport des marchandises du port, les taxes décidées par la même ayant ruiné l'exportation vers l'Irlande et l'ouest de l'Angleterre ainsi que l'importation de thé et de rhum des Amériques. Il dit entre autres qu'il faut supprimer « les octrois ruineux obtenus pour des embellissements frivoles à Saint-Pol-de-Léon » et demande de bénéficier de « la liberté d'entreposer les eaux-de-vie d'Espagne, le rhum ou le tafia de l'étranger, comme Sa Majesté a accordé pour le genièvre de Hollande et le tafia de ses colonies (...) S'il est nécessaire de lever quelque droit sur l'exportation, qu'il soit assez modique, pour que le négociant pût le céder de ses bénéfices afin de le mettre en concurrence avec les îles de Guernesey et Origny (...) qui, par une exemption de tous droits (...), ont attiré chez eux tout ce commerce »83.

 

Le 31 janvier 1790, Roscoff se constitue unilatéralement en municipalité autonome de Saint-Pol-de-Léonnb 46 et se choisit pour maire un marchand, Gérard Mège, qui, le 14 juillet, conduira lui-même la prière devant le refus du recteur, monsieur Boutin, lequel démissionnera du conseil municipal dès l'automne. Le 2 août, à l'occasion du pardon de la Portioncule, deux cents soldats républicains cantonnés à Saint-Pol viennent saccager Roscoff et violenter la populationnb 47. La Constitution civile du clergé achève de faire de Roscoff un foyer de la résistance passivenb 48. Sous le Gouvernement Révolutionnaire, de septembre 1792 à mai 1793, puis durant le premier semestre 1794, Roscoff devient un centre de déportationnb 49. Le 11 octobre 1794 est enfin inaugurée une route entre Roscoff et Saint-Pol. La proclamation du 9 mars 1795 du député Bruc rétablit la liberté de cultenb 50 mais la constitution d'une Garde nationale le 9 juillet 1795 provoque la révolte dite des Pitiguetnb 51.

Le système continental, loin de relancer le commerce du lin et de ses semences, ferme le port et entraîne mécanisation et délocalisation.

 

Le Directoire fait fermer de nouveau tous les lieux de culte et retourner dans la clandestinité les deux prêtres restants de la paroisse. L'activité portuaire est alors réduite à celles de transitaires de légumes desservant Brest, Morlaix et Landerneau. Le Consulat n'apaise en rien le conflit entre la population et la nouvelle administration : la ville, suspectée de rébellion, est mise en état de siège à deux reprisesnb 52, et le maire est accusé d'organiser la liaison entre le clergé et son évêque déchu, Monseigneur de La Marche84, exilé à Londres. Finalement, le sous-préfet autorise de nouveau le clergé local le 2 mai 1800nb 53 et rend Notre-Dame de Croaz Vaz au culte catholique le 30 octobrenb 54

 

Tout en favorisant le « smoglage », contrebande aléatoire qu'exercent à Roscoff quatre naviresnb 55, le Premier Empire et son blocus continental ruinent toute chance de reprise du commerce si bien qu'en mai 1810, l'armateur et maire de Roscoff Picrel chute dans la faillite retentissante du morlaisien Philippe Deleville85.

 

Cette crise économique se prolonge de 1816 à 1818 par une famine climatique.

L'essor des cultures maraîchères

 

Ce n'est que vers 1790 que commença véritablement la culture maraîchère, même si antérieurement des jardins potagers existaient déjà, principalement aux alentours du port, pour approvisionner les habitants, mais aussi les navires en escale ; les pères Capucins furent les premiers à faire en grand la culture des légumes dans une propriété leur appartenant à partir de 162286. Les conditions naturelles étaient favorables à la culture des légumes en raison du climat, de la fertilité naturelle des sols, de la fumure des champs en goémon et de la correction de la pauvreté des sols en calcaire grâce au maërl. Au début du XIXe siècle, durant la saison, les paysans de Roscoff chargeaient chaque jour de 10 à 12 charrettes de légumes qu'ils allaient vendre à Morlaix, à Brest, à Landivisiau, à Landerneau, voire à Quimperlé et à Lorient.

 

L'oignon rose de Roscoff est une variété importée au XVIe siècle du Portugal, vendue au XVIIe siècle jusqu'en Su-de et en Russie ; au XVIIIe siècle et au début du XIXe siècle, durant la saison, les paysans de Roscoff chargeaient chaque jour de 10 à 12 charrettes de légumes qu'ils allaient vendre à Morlaix, à Brest, à Landivisiau, à Landerneau, voire à Quimperlé et à Lorient, et même jusqu'à Paris vers 1830. Jacques Cambry qualifie la région roscovite de « jardin de la Bretagne », écrivant qu'elle « produit une incroyable quantité de légumes de toute espèce (...) : oignons, choux, navets, panais, choux-fleurs, asperges, artichauts ». Dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle, la navigation à vapeur facilite l'expédition vers la Hollande et la Grande-Bretagne : des groupes de roscovites vont, sur leurs vélos surchargés, vendre des oignons au Payas de galles, en Angleterre et jusqu'en Écosse.

Article détaillé : Oignon de Roscoff.

 

En 1828, le surpeuplement, conjugué au caractère saisonnier de l'activité agricole, déclenche l'histoire des Johnnies, marchands ambulants souvent roscovites partant vendre, entre fin juillet et l'Avent, leurs oignons rosés de Roscoff en Angleterre (Henry Olivier87 en fut l'initiateur). Désormais, l'agriculture cesse d'être une activité vivrière et renoue avec la vocation marchande de la cité.

 

Roscoff : l'arrivée des voitures d'oignons au port vers 1920 (carte postale)

 

Roscoff : l'embarquement des oignons pour l'Angleterre (vers 1920)

 

Cliquez sur une vignette pour l’agrandir.

 

Roscoff et le Léon ayant le privilège de récolter les primeurs quatre, cinq et même six semaines avant l'Angleterre et l'Irlande et les Anglais cherchant en dehors de leur île l'appoint indispensable à leur subsistance, des services de cabotage à vapeur furent créés, facilitant l'exportation des légumes. À partir du 10 juillet 1839, une troisième génération d'agriculteurs-colporteurs roscovites, déjà habitués aux marchés de l'ouest de la France, bénéficie, grâce à l'initiative de la Chambre de Commerce et d'Édouard Corbière, de la liaison hebdomadaire Morlaix-Le Havre assurée par les steamers de la Compagnie du Finistèrenb 56. Les liens établis pour affaires et par mariages entre ces colporteurs et leurs interlocuteurs normands finissent par faire passer une grande part de l'épicerie de cette province aux mains d'immigrés bretons. La liaison au Havre relance la pêche88. En 1854, une campagne de travaux décidée par le département et renouvelée en 1870, rectifie la route qui mène à Morlaix, principal marché aux légumes de la région.

 

En juillet 1858, 28 passeports sont délivrés à Roscoff pour l'Angleterre et le Pays de Galles, ce qui témoigne de l'amorce d'exportations légumières vers ces destinations89.

1818-1860 : surpopulation et émigration

 

De 1817 à son décès, le 2 octobre 1820, Dorothée Silburne, qui avait hébergé et secouru Monseigneur de La Marche durant son exil à Holborn, est recueillie par le comte de la Fruglayenb 57 dans sa maison près de l'église d'où elle dépense la pension qu'elle a reçu de Louis XVIII à ses œuvres de bienfaisancenb 58.

 

Du 1er novembre au 6 décembre 1832, l'épidémie de choléra, qui sévit dans toute la France, tue quatre vingt-six roscovites. Devant l'incompétence des médecins locaux, deux médecins de la Marine sont dépechés de Brest et mettent un terme à la surmortalité90. Le 8 avril suivant, la municipalité est contrainte par une loi d'assainissement votée par l'Assemblée d'ouvrir, en sus des cimetières de l'enclos paroissial et de l’hospice ainsi que celui de Santec, un quatrième cimetière, le cimetière du Vil. Cette même année 1831, des investisseurs brestois, espérant valoriser un polder de cent hectares, construisent la digue à écluse qui ferme le fond de l'anse de Laber, espérance déçue par l’opposition de la commune favorable aux goémoniers et à la libre pâture pratiquée par les santéquoisnb 59.

Les vapeurs à aubes de Corbière font entrer les colporteurs dans la modernité et convertit Roscoff en port pêche.

 

Le bourg compte alors de nombreux indigents91, journaliers et matelots au chômage entre deux emplois. L'alphabétisme est l'exception y compris chez les hommes d'affaires les plus expérimentés. Le budget de la commune, réduit à quelque quatre mil francs92 issus principalement de l'octroi et des taxes sur le smoglage (importation de whisky), peine à l'entretien de la digue du Vil et des pavés, à la rémunération d'une dame des Postes, d'un cantonnier et, depuis 1831, de deux instituteurs, l'un à Roscoff même, l'autre à Santec. La commune s'en remet souvent à la tutelle du préfet93. Vers le milieu du XIXe siècle l'ossuaire désaffecté servit d'école94.

La réinvention de la station maritime

Roscoff : vue prise de la petite jetée (dessin publié dans Félix Benoist, "La Bretagne contemporaine", tome "Finistère", 1867).

Le port de Roscoff en 1873.

Roscoff vers 1900 (lithographie d'Albert Robida).

Machines à vapeurs et mode des bains de mer

 

La phase libérale du Second Empire puis, avec bien plus d'ampleur, la IIIe République voit Roscoff, dont le budget des années 1870 a plus que doublé en quarante ans66, s'équiper de nouvelles infrastructures et entrer dans la modernité par étapes.

 

En 1860, Claude Chevalier construit les Viviers de Roscoff sur une concession.

Le 12 février 1867 est ouverte une des premières stations de la Société Centrale de Sauvetage des Naufragés, un an après la fondation d'une succursale locale. Elle compte deux équipes de dix rameurs et leurs chefs d'équipage.

En 1869, grâce à une souscription abondée par emprunt et subvention, sont mises en service au port six pompes à eau douce66,nb 60.

En juin 1873, Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers ouvre par souscription un laboratoire de l'Institut, la Station biologique de Roscoff, dans deux hôtels de négoce mitoyens de la fin du XVIe siècle qu'Édouard Corbière avait acquis en 1860.

En 1877, le port s'équipe de la digue Pen ar Vil en face de la Station biologique de Roscoff. Elle lui sert de port pour ses expéditions maritimes et devient l'embarcadère pour l'île de Batz.

Le 10 juin 188395, l'inauguration de la ligne de Morlaix à Roscoff par le viaduc de la Penzé et de la gare de Roscoff permet l'affluence de touristes empruntant les directs de Paris et ouvre le débouché des halles de Paris aux primeurs et à la marée96.

En 1890 est construit le château de Labernb 61 par l'héritière d'un marchand lorientais.

En 1899, le docteur Louis Bagot, dix ans après que le docteur Henry Abélanet a mis au point le dispositif dans sa villa de Saint Gilles Croix de Vie pour soigner son fils atteint du mal de Pott puis quelques autres patients, invente le premier établissement médical de thalassothérapie ouvert en Europe au public, l'institut Rockroum, en complétant les traditionnels bains de mer, lancés par la duchesse de Berry à Dieppe en 1829, d'un système de chauffage et de distribution de l'eau de mer.

En juillet de l'année suivante, la marquise de Kergariou97 fonde sur la presqu'île de Perharidy un sanatorium héliomarin confié aux sœurs qui soignent les malades atteints de tuberculose ; lors du décès de sa bienfaitrice en 1915, 180 malades sont hébergés.

En 1912, commence la construction de l'actuel port qui sera achevé en 1932. La chapelle Saint-Ninien, siège en ruine de l'ex-confrérie, y est sacrifiée.

 

Le transport de masse ne va pas sans catastrophes. Les naufrages de 1897 et 1899, plus encore celui du Hilda en 190598, donnent lieu à d'émouvantes commémorations au cimetière du Vil qui en conserve le souvenir. Plus souvent, les accidents (une charrette à l'eau, une chaloupe renversée…) ne sont que matériels mais ruinent en une saison deux générations d'une même famille.

Le XXe siècle

Le port au début du XXe siècle

 

« Au début du XXe siècle le port de Roscoff connaît un trafic important grâce, en particulier, aux liaisons transmanches. Nombre de caboteurs et de longs-courriers y font régulièrement escale. La flottille se compose en majorité de cotres spécialisés dans la pêche aux filets et aux cordes (ou lignes de fond) ». Jacques de Thézac y inaugure l'Abri du marin, financé par une brestoise, Mme Kernéis, le 19 décembre 1909. L' Abri ferma en 195299.

 

Au début du XXe siècle environ 1 300 léonard embarquent de Roscoff la seconde quinzaine de juillet100. De nombreux Johnnies originaires de Roscoff et des communes avoisinantes trouvèrent la mort lors du naufrage du Hilda le 17 novembre 1905101 ; la liste des victimes, membres des cinq compagnies Pichon102, Quiviger103, Jaouen104, Calarnou105 et Tanguy106, est fournie par le journal L'Univers du 26 novembre 1905107. Le journal L'Ouest-Éclair décrit l'arrivée des victimes en gare de Roscoff et les scènes poignantes lors de leurs obsèques108.

Article détaillé : SS Hilda.

La Première Guerre mondiale

 

Début août 1914, la mobilisation puis l'entrée en guerre de l'Empire britannique provoque des défilés patriotiques accompagnant les soldats à la gare ou au port dans lequel la population fraternise avec les touristes et habitants « grands bretons »109. Ceux qui ne sont pas mobilisés pour la défense de l'île de Batz ou le front forment spontanément une milice qui dès la fin de la Grande Retraite se dissout en même temps que l'enthousiasme109. La guerre reporte le projet de phare qui ne sera construit qu'en 1934.

 

Le monument aux morts de Roscoff porte les noms de 159 marins et soldats morts pour la France pendant la Première Guerre mondiale ; parmi eux, 6 sont des marins morts ou disparus en mer, Étienne Le Saout est un marin mort à Bizerte (Tunisie), 5 (Joseph Daridon, Jean Le Gad, Paul Le Guen, Paul Prigentnb 62, Louis Roignant) des soldats morts sur le front belge, 6 lors de l'expédition de Salonique (Félix Kerenfors à Moudros (Grèce) en 1916, Henri Creignou à Salonique en 1916, François Le Fur à Argostóli (Grèce) en 1917, Jean Pichon et Henri Daniélou en Serbie en 1918, Tanguy Le Bihan en Macédoine en 1918), Jacques Daridon en Turquie lors de la bataille de Sedd-Ul-Bahr ; deux (François Guivarch et Olivier Tanguy) alors qu'ils étaient prisonniers en Allemagne ; la plupart des autres sont décédés sur le sol français (parmi eux Jean Boutouiller a été décoré de la Médaille militaire, Henri Guyader et Expédit Noirot de la Médaille militaire et de la Croix de guerre, Yves Poder de la Légion d'honneur et de la Croix de guerre)110.

 

Par ailleurs Jean Daridon, canonnier au 1er régiment d'artillerie coloniale, est mort de maladie en 1919 lors de la Guerre civile russe à Tchéliabinsk (Russie).

L'Entre-deux-guerres

La jetée piétonne construite en 1967.

 

En 1920, la commune de Santec, paroisse autonome depuis 1840, est créée sur une partie des terres de Roscoff, de Saint-Pol-de-Léon, et de Plougoulm. Attendue depuis près d'un siècle par les roscovites111,112, l'inauguration en 1927 du pont de la Corde, doublant par la route le viaduc de la Penzé, améliore considérablement l'accès au marché de Morlaix. Cette route est celle du second plus important trafic du Finistère.

 

Le sanatorium hélio-marin de Perharidy est décoré au début de la décennie 1930 par des grands panneaux muraux peints par le peintre autodidacte Kerga et des œuvres de style Art déco du mosaïste Isidore Odorico.

 

En 1937, les capucins se réinstallent dans leur couvent vendu en 1793. L'année suivante commence la construction de l'aquarium, initialement destiné aux seuls chercheurs de la SBR.

La Seconde Guerre mondiale

Article connexe : Réseau Centurie.

 

Le monument aux morts de Roscoff porte les noms de 41 personnes mortes pour la France pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale ; parmi elles, Olivier Cabiochnb 63, résistant mort en déportation ; Eugène Le Sauxnb 64, marin qui mourut de ses blessures en Angleterre après que son bateau le Vauquois ait été victime d'une mine le 18 juin 1940 ; plusieurs autres, par exemple Yves Dirounb 65sont des marins disparus en mer ou comme François Fournisnb 66, victime de l'attaque anglaise contre la flotte française à Mers el-Kébir110.

 

Une plaque commémorative située à la gare commémore la mémoire de deux cheminots (Jean Braouézec et Jean Le Coz) tués lors du mitraillage de leur train par la RAF à la bifurcation de Roscoff sur la ligne Morlaix-Roscoff le 6 juin 1943113.

 

Le 18 avril 1943, l'occupant décide de détruire quelques parties du fort du Bloscon construit par Vauban pour y aménager sept blockhaus, quatorze casemates de tir et quelques autres ouvrages en béton, le tout accueillant une batterie de soixante hommes114. Début janvier 1944, c'est par cet élément du mur de l'Atlantique qu'Erwin Rommel commence sa tournée d'inspection jusqu'à Plérin115.

 

Un témoignage d'un roscovite illustre la vie des prisonniers français au stalag [le Stalag IX-B] de Bad Orb entre 1940 et 1943 : « Je suis prisonnier au stalag à Bad Orb. Sacré pays ! Le camp est construit sur une ancienne carrière. Que du caillou. Ici rien ne pousse. Pourtant Pauline, ma petite femme, m'a fait parvenir des graines de tomates dans son dernier colis. Alors, avec des copains, on s'organise. Chaque matin, pour rejoindre le travail à l'extérieur du camp, on enfile notre lourde capote, et nos deux musettes en bandoulière. Même par grand soleil. On crève de chaud, et çà fait sourire les Allemands. Mais, chaque soir, on revient avec nos musettes chargées de terre, et de tout ce qu'on a pu chaparder à l'extérieur du camp. (...) C'est comme çà qu'on a pu cultiver une magnifique plate bande de tomates, sous l'œil amusé de nos gardiens »116.

 

Le lundi 19 juin 1944, l'enterrement interdit par l'occupant de Franck Mac Dowell William Stout, aviateur néozélandais abattu la veille par la DCA de l'île de Batz, rassemble au chant du Libera deux à trois mille personnes de Roscoff, Saint-Pol et Santec117 dont une centaine d'enfants portant des fleursnb 67. La manifestation sera renouvelée le lendemain au cimetière du Vil.

 

Plusieurs roscovites sont morts pour la France dans les décennies d'après-guerre : Auguste Quéré, Henri Corre, Joseph Grall, Paul Montagnies de La Roque, Robert Merrien, Jean Lebian, Paul Autret, Robert Le Mat et G. Veillard en Indochine ; Alain Castel et Jean Velly pendant la Guerre d'Algérie110.

Développement et défis écologiques

 

En 1953, l'institut de thalassothérapie Rockroum, détruit pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, rouvre et la station de la Société Centrale de Sauvetage des Naufragés ferme118. L'aquarium Charles Pérez est achevé et ouvert au public, et le CNRS, dans une nouvelle aile, ajoute à la SBR des laboratoires d'océanographie dotés de leur premier navire, le Pluteus II. À partir du début des années soixante, le centre dirigé par Georges Tessier, jusqu'alors station estivale pour étudiants et chercheurs étrangers limités à la zone intertidale, accueille des équipes permanentes. Une seconde aile est construite en 1968. Pendant quelques semaines de mai, un comité de grève occupe les laboratoires.

 

En août 1969, la je

 

The Picos de Europa (literally: "Peaks of Europe", often abbreviated in English to the Picos) is a range of mountains 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, forming part of the Cantabrian Mountains. A widely accepted origin for the name is that they were the first sight of Europe for ships arriving from the Americas.

 

The range consists of three major massifs: Central (also known as Urrieles), Eastern (Ándara) and Western (also known as the Picos de Cornión). The Central and Western massifs are separated by the 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) deep Cares Gorge (Garganta del Cares), with the village of Caín at its head.

 

Almost all of the rock in the Picos is limestone, and glacial action has contributed to create an impressive area of alpine karst. The highest peak is Torre de Cerredo, with an altitude of 2,650 metres. The area is popular with mountaineers, climbers and mountain walkers. There is a good network of well-established mountain refuges.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

-----

 

In a group of three, we visited and explored the area during late autumn (beginning of November), escaping crowds and enjoying bearable weather suitable for hiking; the weather could hardly be any better: we got a week full of splendid sunshine, and just after we left, first snow started to fall in high altitude areas of the Picos.

 

Instead of a week-long circular hike with heavy backpacks, we opted for three-night stays in the mountains (Refugio de Urriellu) and in the valley (Casa Cuevas in Caín); from these “base camps”, we were setting out on day-long day trips, going as much as light as possible. Picos de Europa are formed by a VERY rugged mountain terrain; daily altitude gains of 2000+ meters were not an exception during our hikes.

 

During the fifth day, we visited the small outpost of Cordiñanes high in the Cares gorge valley on a short day trip from Caín, hiking in a really relaxed pace and enjoying the warm autumn atmosphere.

Curse of the Pharaohs, the third major expansion for Assassin's Creed Origins, takes Bayek to find a mysterious artifact in Thebes, where he immediately runs into much more than he bargained for. Instead of the mortal and deceitful Order of the Ancients, he finds undead pharaohs materializing in the streets and slaughtering civilians. The Pharaoh's Curse, as the locals call it, likely has something to do with all the grave robbers treating the Valley of the Kings like a strip mine for antiquities, forcing Bayek to hunt down key artifacts linked to each pharaoh in order to put them to rest.

Millport owes its origins in the 1700s to the people who attempted to smuggle contraband into the Clyde and to those who tried to stop them! Garrison House in Millport was built in 1745 as the residence of the Captain and officers of the Revenue Sailing Ship the ‘Royal George’. Stationed at Millport, the Royal George played a key role in the Revenue (customs) ‘hot pursuit’ of smugglers.Throughout the 19th century various amendments were made to the original Garrison House which is an excellent example of early 19th century gothic battlement architecture. In 1908, the arts and crafts architect Robert Weir Schultz remodelled both the house and gardens, including the sunken garden to the front of the house. It is one of the few examples of the architect’s work in Scotland and has significant historical merit.

 

Following a major fire in 2001, the building then sadly became a derelict eyesore. However, the community stepped in and last year celebrated the opening of Garrison House following a two year restoration project of this landmark building.

 

The end result is a complete transformation providing a vibrant hub of activities in Millport for locals and visitors alike. Garrison House now boasts the local GP surgery, a state of the art Library, the Museum of the Cumbraes, the Garrison Café, North Ayrshire local council services office and rooms available for community use. The building itself has been remodelled over two floors. The historic exterior of the house has been refurbished and the stonework completely restored. The interior has been opened up to create a modern facility, making full use of light and space.

  

www.millport.org/garrison-house/

  

www.garrisonhousecumbrae.org.uk/

Played a lot of Arkham Origins Lately. Enjoy

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She is a very Experienced Masseuse who know how to apply the correct strength at the right spot to press on your back, massage you fully to soothe and relief fatigue for you!

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In an era of instant, fingertip access to everything one could ever need, it's sometimes hard to imagine getting by without our hordes of amenities and conveniences.

 

Imagine you're living in a small town in the 18th century; your kitchen table is rotting from the extreme humidity and lack of "air conditioning" to maintain its form. You save up money to buy a new table, hop in your car, and drive to Ikea where you'll get a concise package of tools and instructions for assembling a brand new table -- wait. None of that exists yet!

 

You have to sacrifice time preparing and caring for crops and livestock to gather what is required to create a new table. If you don't already have an axe and hammer, you'll need to trade massive amounts of gold or food to buy the toos, or you can purchase metal rods, shave down wood handles, and make them yourself.

 

Then you head out to the forest to find large, sturdy trees that you can fell and painstakingly saw and sand into (relatively) straight and flat boards suitable for holding plates and other containers. After spending countless hours creating tools and physically felling and lugging trees back to your house, you need to actually assemble the table.

 

That's the easy part, right? Get out your little allen key, match routed edges in various labeled and colored pieces, and spin pre-measured screws and washers into carefully arranged holes, and you're done -- ah, right. Doesn't exist.

 

Instead, you purchase or smith some nails or screws, find pieces that are straight enough to fit alongside each other, and finally, if you're thinking long-term, either purchase or make some sort of varnish out of (fat or something?) so that the table doesn't rot again in a year.

 

It's really hard to imagine having to do this -- but when you reason out any trivial task that we do today as if you were living 200 years ago, it becomes quite apparent: we're stupid, lazy bums! And if our constant supply of services and conveniences someday collapses, I think it's safe to say that we're royally screwed. Done for.

 

My table's broken -- and I can't make an Amazon single-click order to have a new one delivered tomorrow morning?! WHAT DO I DO?!

Voitures du Minirail de La Station Village (2004)

 

Le Minirail La Ronde

1. Identification

1.0 Nom d’origine : Le Minirail La Ronde

avec les stations «Pioneerland » et «Village».

1.1 Nom usuel : Le Minirail

avec l’embarcadère Fort et l’embarcadère Village.

1.2 Adresse : Secteur La Ronde (voire circuit Fig.1).

Plan-repère de la Station Pioneerland : No. 515

Plan-repère de la Station Village : No. 543

1.3 Ville : Montréal

1.4 Type de bâtiment : circuit de rail et deux stations simples

1.5 Particularité du bâtiment : Permanent

1.6 Superficie et dimensions :

Longueur du circuit fermé : 6585’ (1,24 milles)

Longueur d’un train : 105 pieds (pour 60 passagers max.)

1.7 Protection/statut :

1.8 Propriétaire initial (maître d'ouvrage) :

Compagnie canadienne de l’Exposition universelle de 1967

1.9 Propriétaire actuel :

Six Flags Inc. (La Ronde)

_____________________________________________________

2. Données historiques

2.1 Description de la commande : Prévoir un mode de transport

secondaire sur un circuit tracé de manière à ce que les passagers

puissent admirer les pavillons et les divers secteurs de l’Expo. Inscrit

dans le plan directeur de Fiset, ce système de transport lent, léger, et

silencieux, devait assurer, avec l’Expo-Express, le lien physique entre

les différents secteurs. Il était cependant prévu que le circuit de La

Ronde soit indépendant. La Ronde étant réalisation permanente, il

était probablement prévu que le Minirail La Ronde soit également

permanent.

2.2 Dates importantes :

projet initié : 1966

fin des travaux : 1967

2.3 Concepteurs :

Dessin des tracés : Steven Staples, urbaniste (Montréal)

Structure mécanique et électrique : Hurter, Todd & Meyer/Habegger,

Maschinenfabrik Habegger (Suisse)

2.4 Autres spécialistes :

Entrepreneurs :

Matériel roulant : Von Roll Habegger Ingénieur

Carrosseries : Hawker-Siddeley Canada Ltd.

Voies : Mojan Ltée & Dominion Bridge Co. Ltd

Électricité : Britton Electric Ltd.

Rack Construction Co. Ltd. (Stations La Ronde)

 

Le circuit du Minirail La Ronde a été légèrement modifié. Le Lac

des Dauphins a été remblayé au nord-ouest, à la hauteur du

Cirque marin. Le circuit du Minirail survole le terre-plein pour

ensuite bifurquer directement vers le «Village» sans faire une

boucle (comme il le faisait auparavant).

Depuis 1967

Réfections des voitures:

- Peinture et surélévation des garde corps

- Remplacement et surélévation des caissons

Vers 1995

- Peinture des piliers en acier.

Station du Fort (1997)

- Modification de l’escalier de sortie de l’embarcadère du Fort.

Station du Village (1993-94)

- Réfection de la toiture en bardeaux d’asphalte

- Changement de la fenêtre du 1er étage pour un style médiéval,

réfection escalier arrière, démolition passerelle, réfection sortie

du Minirail et nouvel aménagement

- Remplacement des piliers en pierre du rez-de-chaussée

(entrée)

2.6 Usage actuel :

Le circuit du Minirail avec ses deux stations est toujours utilisé

pour la promenade des visiteurs de La Ronde.

2.7 État physique actuel :

La structure du Minirail, ses piliers et ses rails, sont, à première

vue, en bon état. Les voitures (ou convois) du Minirail sont

stationnées à la Station Village de La Ronde. Mis à part les

modifications mentionnées plus haut, elles semblent bien

entretenues. La Station Pioneerland semble, selon nos

observations, en bon état. La Station Village qui a subi avec le

temps quelques altérations semble également en bon état.

 

3. Description

3.1 Description synthèse :

Les Minirails sont des trains sur rail surélevé qui promènent les visiteurs sur le site de l’Expo 67. Ils sont répartis sur trois réseaux

indépendants, un système secondaire par rapport à celui de l’Expo-Express. Les autres types de transport secondaires

comprenaient : gondoles, vaporettos, hovercrafts, pousse-pousse et autobus. Avec ses convois bleus et jaunes transportant jusqu’à

soixante personnes, le Minirail offrait une promenade en hauteur entièrement automatisée et une excellente vue d’ensemble du site.

Les voies ferrées et le matériel roulant (le Minirail jaune) du circuit de La Ronde et de l’île Sainte-Hélène, sont du matériel d’occasion

acheté de l’Exposition Nationale Suisse de Lausanne de 1964. Par contre, le réseau neuf (le Minirail bleu) a été installé à l’île Notre-

Dame. Le Minirail était composé d’une douzaine de convois chacun composé d’environ16 voitures découvertes. Chaque convoi

offrait un service rapide (2,500 personnes assises à l’heure) entre les principales attractions de La Ronde.

Le Minirail était idéal pour donner un premier coup d’oeil du parc de La Ronde. Les voies ferrées constituent un circuit d’un mille de

longueur qui serpente à travers le site, formant une boucle autour du Lac des Dauphins. Situées de chaque côté du Lac des

Dauphins, les stations avaient leur identité propre, l’une évoquant la forme des ponts couverts, l’autre évoquant l’architecture

vernaculaire des campagnes québécoises. La station Pioneerland est faite d’une charpente en bois, sur pilotis, recouverte de

planches de cèdre. Les deux stations ont été conçues afin de faciliter la montée et la descente des passagers grâce à un système

de quai de montée et quai de descente. Ainsi, la Station Pioneerland se caractérise par sa plate-forme surélevée sous laquelle se

trouvent les toilettes publiques, les bureaux, et les salles de transformateurs.

3.2 Construction :

Le rail du Minirail est composé de deux poutres (de type « I beam ») en acier qui reposent sur des piliers en acier de quarante pieds

de hauteur, en forme de «A». Le Minirail est doté d’un dispositif de traction, un rail sous tension fixé à la voie qui alimente le convoi

en courant alternatif triphasé. Dans la voiture avant, un générateur fournit du courant continu aux moteurs qui assurent la traction.

Les roues sont montées sur des bogies, et les transformateurs qui alimentent le convoi sont situés dans chacune des stations

(«Rapport Général», 1433). Grâce à leurs roues de caoutchouc, les convois se déplacent de manière silencieuse. Le Minirail

pouvait aller à une vitesse atteignant 7 miles de l’heure.

3.3 Contexte :

Partant de la Station Pioneerland (non loin de l’Expo-Express), le circuit longe le Lac des Dauphins et la rive nord de l’île jusqu’à la

Station Village. De là, il repart vers la Marinière en passant derrière le Carrefour international, puis longe les abords de la Spirale,

de la Lanterna Magika, passe devant le Gyrotron, pour ensuite terminer son circuit, en passant par le Monde des Petits, jusqu’à la

Station Pioneerland.

 

4. Évaluation

A. Valeur documentaire / histoire de Montréal, du Québec, et internationale :

Un des symboles de l’Exposition universelle de Montréal, le Minirail est un témoin d’une époque de l’histoire de la Ville marquée (ou

fascinée) par la technologie, et la science. Notons que son importance historique se justifie également par la rareté de ce mode de

transport au Québec. Les stations de Minirail ont une valeur documentaire dans la mesure où ils font partie d’un ensemble

architectural (voir fiche Fort Edmonton & Village).

B. Valeur documentaire / histoire de l’architecture :

Le Minirail n’est pas unique à l’Expo 67. De nombreuses Expositions universelles et parcs d’attractions ont eu leur Minirail (ou

monorail). Le plus vieux Minirail remonte à 1901, en Allemagne. Il fut appelé le «Schwebebahn» qui se traduit par voies ferrées

suspendues. Il y a eu en Amérique du Nord, le monorail AMF de l’Exposition de 1964 à New York, l’Expo 1984 en Nouvelle

Orléans, l’Expo 1986 à Vancouver, et bien sûr celui de Walt Disney, pour n’en nommer que quelques-uns. De plus, dans le cas du

Minirail jaune de La Ronde, il fut acheté à l’Exposition Nationale Suisse de Lausanne, en 1964.

Le professeur James Ackland, de l’école d’architecture de l’Université de Toronto disait que c’était la meilleure construction de toute

l’Exposition et qu’il n’en avait aucun semblable dans le monde. Si on ne peut pas à proprement parler d’innovation technique, il est

important de mentionner, toutefois, que de grands efforts ont été déployés afin de réadapter l’ensemble du Minirail importé à un

nouveau territoire. Par exemple, l’urbaniste Steven Staples qui dessina les méandres du trajet du Minirail favorisa un concept de

parcours fantaisiste avec un système de rails s’élevant à 20 pieds du sol à certains endroits et rasant le niveau de l’eau à d’autres

endroits. Il dessina des méandres caractérisés par des détours, des virages, et des serpentins, permettant d’encercler certains

pavillons, et procurant plus de plaisir, plutôt que le choix de la ligne droite, qui fût la préférence des autres ingénieurs. Les voitures

pouvaient ainsi monter des pentes de 10 pour cent et tourner sur un rayon de 50 pieds.

C. Intégrité

Objet : L’ensemble du réseau Minirail est bien entretenu. Les charpentes métalliques semblent en bon état et le circuit est

toujours en fonction. Lors de notre visite, nous n’avons vu qu’un seul convoi, alors qu’à l’époque de l’Expo, il y en avait sept.

Contexte : La relation du Minirail avec son contexte a été modifiée puisque la plupart des manèges de La Ronde ont été

remplacés. Par conséquent, bien que le circuit soit pratiquement d’origine, l’expérience de la promenade est très différente. Le

Minirail ne passe plus par le Gyrotron, ni le Safari, ni le Quartier International, mais par de nouveaux types de manèges. Le contexte

du Minirail n’est donc plus tout à fait le même.

D. Authenticité

Objet : Le Minirail ayant toujours pour fonction d’offrir une promenade aérienne sur le site du parc d’amusement, il a conservé son

authenticité.

Contexte : Par essence, le Minirail était conçu pour serpenter à travers un parc d’attraction et ses manèges en vue d’offrir une

promenade aérienne aux visiteurs. Bien que la relation visuelle avec le site ait quelque peu changée, la fonction principale du

Minirail est restée la même. À ce titre, le Minirail a conservé son authenticité. (2004)

 

Kartikeya, also known as Skanda, Murugan and Subramaniyan, is the Hindu god of war. He is the commander-in-chief of the army of the devas (gods) and the son of Shiva and Parvati.

 

Murugan is often referred to as "Tamil Kadavul" (meaning "God of Tamils") and is worshiped primarily in areas with Tamil influences, especially South India, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Malaysia, Singapore and Reunion Island. His six most important shrines in India are the Arupadaiveedu temples, located in Tamil Nadu. In Sri Lanka, Hindus as well as Buddhists revere the sacred historical Nallur Kandaswamy temple in Jaffna and Katirkāmam Temple situated deep south.[1] Hindus in Malaysia also pray to Lord Murugan at the Batu Caves and various temples where Thaipusam is celebrated with grandeur.

 

In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, Kartikeya is known as Subrahmanya with a temple at Kukke Subramanya known for Sarpa shanti rites dedicated to Him and another famous temple at Ghati Subramanya also in Karnataka. In Bengal and Odisha, he is popularly known as Kartikeya (meaning 'son of Krittika').[2]

Other names[edit]

Like most Hindu deities, Subrahmanya is known by many other names, including Senthil, Vēlaṇ, Kumāran (meaning 'prince or child or young one'), Swaminatha (meaning 'smart' or 'clever'), Saravaṇa, Arumugam or Shanmuga (meaning 'one with six faces'), Dhandapani (meaning God with a Club), Guhan or Guruguha (meaning 'cave-dweller'), Subrahmanya, Kartikeya and Skanda (meaning 'that which is spilled or oozed).[3][4] He was also known as Mahasena and the Kadamba Dynasty kings worshiped him by this name.[5]

Vedas[edit]

The Atharva Veda describes Kumaran as 'Agnibhuh' because he is form of 'Agni' (Fire God) & Agni hold in his hand when kumaran born. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to him as the son of Rudra and the six faces of Rudra. The Taittiriya Aranyaka contains the Gayatri mantra for Shanmukha. The Chandogya Upanishad refers to Skanda as the "way that leads to wisdom". The Baudhayana Dharmasutra mentions Skanda as 'Mahasena' and 'Subrahmanya.' The Aranya Parva canto of the Mahabharata relates the legend of Kartikeya Skanda in considerable detail. The Skanda Purana is devoted to the narrative of Kartikeya.[6] The Upanishads also constantly make a reference to a Supreme Being called Guha, the indweller.

The first elaborate account of Kartikeya's origin occurs in the Mahabharata. In a complicated story, he is said to have been born from Agni and Svaha, after the latter impersonated the six of the seven wives of the Saptarishi (Seven Sages). The actual wives then become the Pleiades. Kartikeya is said to have been born to destroy the Asura Mahisha.[7] (In later mythology, Mahisha became the adversary of Durga.) Indra attacks Kartikeya as he sees the latter as a threat, until Shiva intervenes and makes Kartikeya the commander-in-chief of the army of the Devas. He is also married to Devasena, Indra's daughter. The origin of this marriage lies probably in the punning of 'Deva-sena-pati'. It can mean either lord of Devasena or Lord of the army (sena) of Devas. But according to Shrii Shrii Anandamurti, in his master work on Shiva[8] and other works, Kartikeya was married to Devasenā and that is on the ground of his name as Devasena's husband, Devasenāpati, misinterpreted as Deva-senāpati (Deva's general) that he was granted the title general and made the Deva's army general.[9]

 

The Ramayana version is closer to the stories told in the Puranas discussed below.

Tolkappiyam, possibly the most ancient of the extant Sangam works, dated between the 3rd century BCE and 5th century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils."[10] The Sangam poetry divided space and Tamil land into five allegorical areas (tinai) and according to the Tirumurugarruppatai ( c. 400–450 AD) attributed to the great Sangam poet Nakkiirar, Murugan was the presiding deity the Kurinci region (hilly area). (Tirumurugaruppatai is a deeply devotional poem included in the ten idylls (Pattupattu) of the age of the third Sangam). The other Sangam era works in Tamil that refer to Murugan in detail include the Paripaatal, the Akananuru and the Purananuru. One poem in the Paripaatal describes the veneration of Murugan thus:

 

"We implore thee not for boons of enjoyment or wealth,

But for thy grace beatific, love and virtuous deeds."

 

According to the Tamil devotional work, Thiruppugazh, "Murugan never hesitates to come to the aid of a devotee when called upon in piety or distress". In another work, Thirumurukkarrupatai, he is described as a god of eternal youth;

 

His face shines a myriad rays light and removes the darkness from this world.[11]

The references to Murugan can be traced back to the first millennium BCE. There are references to Murugan in Kautilya's Arthashastra, in the works of Patanjali, in Kalidasa's epic poem the Kumarasambhavam. The Kushanas, who governed from what is today Peshawar, and the Yaudheyas, a republican clan in the Punjab, struck coins bearing the image of Skanda. The deity was venerated also by the Ikshvakus, an Andhra dynasty, and the Guptas.[6] The worship of Kumāra was one of the six principal sects of Hinduism at the time of Adi Shankara. The Shanmata system propagated by him included this sect. In many Shiva and Devi temples of Tamil Nadu, Murugan is installed on the left of the main deity. The story of His birth goes as follows:

 

Sati immolated herself in a pyre as her father King Daksha had insulted Shiva, her Lord. She was reborn as Parvathi or Uma, daughter of the King of Himalayas, Himavan. She then married her Lord Shiva. The Devas were under onslaught from the Asuras whose leader was Soorapadman. He had been granted boons that only Lord Shiva or his seed could kill him. Fearless he vanquished the Devas and made them his slaves. The Devas ran to Vishnu for help who told them that it was merely their fault for attending Daksha's yagna, without the presence of Lord Shiva. After this, they ran to Shiva for help. Shiva decided to take action against Soorapadman's increasing conceit. He frowned and his third eye- the eye of knowledge- started releasing sparks. These were six sparks in total. Agni had the responsibility to take them to Saravana Lake. As he was carrying them, the sparks were growing hotter and hotter that even the Lord of Fire could not withstand the heat. Soon after Murugan was born on a lotus in the Saravana Lake with six faces, giving him the name Arumukhan. Lord Shiva and Parvati visited and tears of joy started flowing as they witnessed the most handsome child. Shiva and Parvathi gave the responsibility of taking care of Muruga to the six Krittika sisters. Muruga grew up to be a handsome, intelligent, powerful, clever youth. All the Devas applauded at their saviour, who had finally come to release them from their woes. Murugan became the supreme general of the demi-gods, then escorted the devas and led the army of the devas to victory against the asuras.

Legends[edit]

Given that legends related to Murugan are recounted separately in several Hindu epics, some differences between the various versions are observed. Some Sanskrit epics and puranas indicate that he was the elder son of Shiva. This is suggested by the legend connected to his birth; the wedding of Shiva and Parvati being necessary for the birth of a child who would vanquish the asura named Taraka. Also, Kartikeya is seen helping Shiva fight the newborn Ganesha, Shiva's other son, in the Shiva Purana. In the Ganapati Khandam of the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, he is seen as the elder son of Shiva and Ganesha as the younger. In South India, it is believed that he is the younger of the two. A Puranic story has Ganesha obtain a divine fruit of knowledge from Narada winning a contest with Murugan. While Murugan speeds around the world thrice to win the contest for the fruit, Ganesha circumambulates Shiva and Parvati thrice as an equivalent and is given the fruit. After winning it, he offers to give the fruit to his upset brother. After this event, Ganesha was considered the elder brother owing as a tribute to his wisdom. Many of the major events in Murugan's life take place during his youth, and legends surrounding his birth are popular. This has encouraged the worship of Murugan as a child-God, very similar to the worship of the child Krishna in north India. He is married to two wives, Valli and Devasena. This lead to a very interesting name : Devasenapati viz. Pati (husband) of Devsena and/or Senapati (commander in chief) of Dev (gods)

Kartikeya symbols are based on the weapons – Vel, the Divine Spear or Lance that he carries and his mount the peacock. He is sometimes depicted with many weapons including: a sword, a javelin, a mace, a discus and a bow although more usually he is depicted wielding a sakti or spear. This symbolizes his purification of human ills. His javelin is used to symbolize his far reaching protection, his discus symbolizes his knowledge of the truth, his mace represents his strength and his bow shows his ability to defeat all ills. His peacock mount symbolizes his destruction of the ego.

 

His six heads represent the six siddhis bestowed upon yogis over the course of their spiritual development. This corresponds to his role as the bestower of siddhis.

In Tamil Nadu, Murugan has continued to be popular with all classes of society right since the Sangam age. This has led to more elaborate accounts of his mythology in the Tamil language, culminating in the Tamil version of Skanda Purana, called Kandha Purānam, written by Kacchiappa Sivachariyar (1350–1420 AD.) of Kumara Kottam in the city of Kanchipuram. (He was a scholar in Tamil literature, and a votary of the Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy.)

 

He is married to two deities, Valli, a daughter of a tribal chief and Deivayanai (also called Devasena), the daughter of Indhra. During His bachelorhood, Lord Murugan is also regarded as Kumaraswami (or Bachelor God), Kumara meaning a bachelor and Swami meaning God. Muruga rides a peacock and wields a bow in battle. The lance called Vel in Tamil is a weapon closely associated with him. The Vel was given to him by his mother, Parvati, and embodies her energy and power. His army's standard depicts a rooster. In the war, Surapadman was split into two, and each half was granted a boon by Murugan. The halves, thus turned into the peacock (his mount) and the rooster his flag, which also "refers to the sun".[12]

 

As Muruga is worshipped predominantly in Tamil Nadu, many of his names are of Tamil origin. These include Senthil, the red or formidable one; Arumugam, the six-faced one; Guhan and Maal-Marugan, the son-in-law of Vishnu. Murugan is venerated throughout the Tamil year. There is a six-day period of fast and prayer in the Tamil month of Aippasi known as the Skanda Shasti. He is worshipped at Thaipusam, celebrated by Tamil communities worldwide near the full moon of the Tamil month Thai. This commemorates the day he was given a Vel or lance by his mother in order to vanquish the asuras. Thirukarthigai or the full moon of the Tamil month of Karthigai signifies his birth. Each Tuesday of the Tamil month of Adi is also dedicated to the worship of Murugan. Tuesday in the Hindu tradition connotes Mangala, the god of planet Mars and war.

 

Other parts of India[edit]

Historically, God Kartikeya was immensely popular in the Indian subcontinent. One of the major Puranas, the Skanda Purana is dedicated to him. In the Bhagavad-Gita (Ch.10, Verse 24), Krishna, while explaining his omnipresence, names the most perfect being, mortal or divine, in each of several categories. While doing so, he says: "Among generals, I am Skanda, the lord of war."

 

Kartikeya's presence in the religious and cultural sphere can be seen at least from the Gupta age. Two of the Gupta kings, Kumaragupta and Skandagupta, were named after him. He is seen in the Gupta sculptures and in the temples of Ellora and Elephanta. As the commander of the divine armies, he became the patron of the ruling classes. His youth, beauty and bravery was much celebrated in Sanskrit works like the Kathasaritsagara. Kalidasa made the birth of Kumara the subject of a lyrical epic, the Kumaarasambhavam. In ancient India, Kartikeya was also regarded as the patron deity of thieves, as may be inferred from the Mrichchakatikam, a Sanskrit play by Shudraka, and in the Vetala-panchvimshati, a medieval collection of tales. This association is linked to the fact that Kartikeya had dug through the Krauncha mountain to kill Taraka and his brothers (in the Mrichchakatikam, Sarivilaka prays to him before tunnelling into the hero's house).

 

However, Kartikeya's popularity in North India receded from the Middle Ages onwards, and his worship is today virtually unknown except in parts of Haryana. There is a very famous temple dedicated to Him in the town of Pehowa in Haryana and this temple is very well known in the adjoining areas, especially because women are not allowed anywhere close to it. Women stay away from this temple in Pehowa town of Haryana because this shrine celebrates the Brahmachari form of Kartikeya. Reminders of former devotions to him include a temple at Achaleshwar, near Batala in Punjab, and another temple of Skanda atop the Parvati hill in Pune, Maharashtra. Another vestige of his former popularity can be seen in Bengal and Odisha, where he is worshipped during the Durga Puja festivities alongside Durga. Lord Subramanya is the major deity among the Hindus of northern Kerala. Lord Subramanya is worshipped with utmost devotion in districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi in the state of Karnataka. Rituals like nagaradhane are unique to this region.

Kartikeya also known as Kartik or Kartika is also worshipped in West Bengal, and Bangladesh on the last day of the Hindu month of 'Kartik'. However, the popularity of Kartik Puja (worshipping Kartik) is decreasing now, and Lord Kartik is primarily worshipped among those who intend to have a son. In Bengal, traditionally, many people drop images of Kartik inside the boundaries of different households, who all are either newly married, or else, intend to get a son to carry on with their ancestry. Lord Kartik is also associated to the Babu Culture prevailed in historic Kolkata, and hence, many traditional old Bengali paintings still show Kartik dressed in traditional Bengali style. Also, in some parts of West Bengal, Kartik is traditionally worshipped by the ancestors of the past royal families too, as in the district of Malda. Kartik Puja is also popular among the prostitutes. This can probably be linked to the fact that, the prostitutes mostly got clients from the upper class babu-s in old Kolkata, who all, in turn, had been associated to the image of Kartik (as discussed above). In Bansberia (Hooghly district) Kartik Puja festival is celebrated like Durga puja of Kolkata, Jagadhatri puja in Chandannagar for consecutive four days. The festival starts on 17 November every year and on 16 November in case of Leap year.[13] Some of the must see Puja committees are Bansberia Kundugoli Nataraj, Khamarapara Milan Samity RadhaKrishna, Kishor Bahini, Mitali Sangha, Yuva Sangha, Bansberia Pratap Sangha and many more.

 

In Durga Puja in Bengal, Kartikeya is considered to be a son of Parvati or Durga and Shiva along with his brother Ganesha and sisters Lakshmi and Saraswati.[14]

Kartikeya is worshiped during Durga Puja in Odisha as well as in various Shiva temples throughout the year. Kartik puja is celebrated in Cuttack along with various other parts of the state during the last phases of Hindu month of Kartik. Kartik purnima is celebrated with much joy and in a grand fashion in Cuttack and other parts in the state.

Murugan is adored by both Tamil Hindus and Sinhalese Buddhists in Sri Lanka. Numerous temples exist throughout the island. He is a favorite deity of the common folk everywhere and it is said he never hesitates to come to the aid of a devotee when called upon. In the deeply Sinhalese south of Sri Lanka, Murugan is worshipped at the temple in Katirkāmam, where he is known as Kathiravel or Katragama Deviyo (Lord of Katragama) . This temple is next to an old Buddhist place of worship. Local legend holds that Lord Murugan alighted in Kataragama and was smitten by Valli, one of the local aboriginal lasses. After a courtship, they were married. This event is taken to signify that Lord Murugan is accessible to all who worship and love him, regardless of their birth or heritage. The Nallur Kandaswamy temple, the Maviddapuram Kandaswamy Temple and the Sella Channithy Temple near Valvettiturai are the three foremost Murugan temples in Jaffna. The Chitravelayutha temple in Verukal on the border between Trincomalee and Batticaloa is also noteworthy as is the Mandur Kandaswamy temple in Batticaloa. The late medieval-era temple of the tooth in Kandy, dedicated to the tooth relic of the Buddha, has a Kataragama deiyo shrine adjacent to it dedicated to the veneration of Skanda in the Sinhalese tradition. Almost all buddhist temples house a shrine room for Kataragama deviyo(Murugan)reflecting the significance of Murugan in Sinhala Buddhism,

 

Based on archeological evidence found, it is believed that the Kiri Vehera was either renovated to build during the 1st century BCE. There are number of others inscriptions and ruins.[15]

 

By the 16th century the Kathiravel shrine at Katirkāmam had become synonymous with Skanda-Kumara who was a guardian deity of Sinhala Buddhism.[16] The town was popular as a place of pilgrimage for Hindus from India and Sri Lanka by the 15 the century. The popularity of the deity at the Kataragama temple was also recorded by the Pali chronicles of Thailand such as Jinkalmali in the 16th century. There are number of legends both Buddhist and Hindu that attribute supernatural events to the very locality.[16] Scholars such as Paul Younger and Heinz Bechert speculate that rituals practiced by the native priests of Kataragama temple betray Vedda ideals of propitiation. Hence they believe the area was of Vedda veneration that was taken over by the Buddhist and Hindus in the medieval period.[17]

Lord Murugan is one of the most important deities worshipped by Tamil people in Malaysia and other South-East Asian countries such as Singapore and Indonesia. Thai Poosam is one of the important festivals celebrated. Sri Subramanyar Temple at Batu Caves temple complex in Malaysia is dedicated to Lord Murugan.

The main temples of Murugan are located in Tamil Nadu and other parts of south India. They include the Aru Padaiveedu (six abodes) — Thiruchendur, Swamimalai, Pazhamudircholai, Thirupparangunram, Palani (Pazhani), Thiruthani and other important shrines like Mayilam, Sikkal, Marudamalai, Kundrathur, Vadapalani, Kandakottam, Thiruporur, Vallakottai, Vayalur, Thirumalaikoil, Pachaimalai and Pavalamalai near Gobichettipalayam. Malai Mandir, a prominent and popular temple complex in Delhi, is one of the few dedicated to Murugan in all of North India apart from the Pehowa temple in Haryana.

There are many temples dedicated to Lord Subramanya in Kerala. Amongst them are Atiyambur Sri Subramanya Temple in Kanhangad Kasaragod, Payyannur Subramanya Swamy temple in Payyanur, Panmana Subramanya Swamy temple in Panmana and the Subramanya temple in Haripad. There is a temple in Skandagiri, Secunderabad and one in Bikkavolu, East Godavari district in the state of Andhra Pradesh. In Karnataka there is the Kukke Subramanya Temple where Lord Murugan is worshiped as the Lord of the serpents. Aaslesha Bali, Sarpa Samskara with nagapathista samarpa are major prayers here. There is a temple called Malai Mandir in South Delhi. Malai means hill in Tamil. Mandir means temple in Hindi.

 

The key temples in Sri Lanka include the sylvan shrine in Kataragama / (Kadirgamam) or Kathirkamam in the deep south, the temple in Tirukovil in the east, the shrine in Embekke in the Kandyan region and the famed Nallur Kandaswamy temple in Jaffna. There are several temples dedicated to Lord Murugan in Malaysia, the most famous being the Batu Caves near Kuala Lumpur. There is a 42.7-m-high statue of Lord Murugan at the entrance to the Batu Caves, which is the largest Lord Murugan statue in the world. Sri Thandayuthapani Temple in Tank Road, Singapore is a major Hindu temple where each year the Thaipusam festival takes place with devotees of Lord Muruga carrying Kavadis seeking penance and blessings of the Lord.

 

In the United Kingdom, Highgate Hill Murugan temple is one of the oldest and most famous. In London, Sri Murugan Temple in Manor park is a well-known temple. In Midlands, Leicester Shri Siva Murugan Temple is gaining popularity recently. Skanda Vale in West Wales was founded by Guruji, a Tamil devotee of Subramaniam, and its primary deity is Lord Murugan. In Australia, Sydney Murugan temple in Parramatta (Mays Hill), Perth Bala Muruguan temple in Mandogalup and Kundrathu Kumaran temple in Rockbank, Melbourne are major Hindu temples for all Australian Hindus and Murugan devotees. In New Zealand, there is a Thirumurugan Temple in Auckland and a Kurinji Kumaran Temple in Wellington, both dedicated to Lord Murugan. In the USA, Shiva Murugan Temple in Concord, Northern California and Murugan Temple of North America[18] in Maryland, Washington DC region are popular. In Toronto, Canada, Canada Kanthasamy Temple is known amongst many Hindus in Canada. In Dollard-des-Ormeaux, a suburb of the city of Montreal in Canada, there is a monumental temple of Murugan. The Sri Sivasubramaniar Temple, located in the Sihl Valley in Adliswil, is the most famous and largest Hindu temple in Switzerland.[19]

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!

  

Some background:

Although the performance increases of jet-powered aircraft introduced towards the end of World War II over their piston-powered ancestors were breathtaking, there were those at the time who believed that much more was possible. As far back as 1943, the British Ministry of Aircraft Production had issued a specification designated "E.24/43" for a supersonic experimental jet aircraft that would be able to achieve 1,600 KPH (1,000 MPH).

 

Beginning in 1946, a design team at English Electric (EE) under W.E.W. "Teddy" Petter began design studies for a supersonic fighter, leading to award of a Ministry of Supply (MoS) contract in 1947 under specification "ER.103" for a design study on an experimental aircraft that could achieve Mach 1.2.

The MoS liked the EE concepts, and in early 1949 awarded the company a contract under specification "F.23/49" for two flying prototypes and one ground-test prototype of the "P.1".

 

The P.1 was defined as a supersonic research aircraft, though the design had provisions for armament and a radar gunsight. It incorporate advanced and unusual design features, such as twin turbojet engines mounted one above the other to reduce aircraft frontal area; and strongly swept wings, with the wingtip edges at a right angle to the fuselage, giving a wing configuration like that of a delta wing with the rear inner corners cut out. The aircraft featured an elliptical intake in the nose.

 

The P.1's performance was so outstanding that the decision was quickly made to proceed on an operational version that would be capable of Mach 2. In fact, the second P.1 prototype featured items such as a bulged belly tank and fit of twin Aden Mark 4 30 millimeter revolver-type cannon, bringing it closer to operational specification.

 

Orders were placed for three "P.1B" prototypes for a production interceptor and the original P.1 was retroactively designated "P.1A". The P.1B featured twin Rolls-Royce Avon afterburning engines and a larger tailfin. An airborne intercept (AI) radar was carried in the air intake shock cone, which was changed from elliptical to circular. The cockpit was raised for a better field of view and the P.1B was armed with two Aden cannon in the upper nose, plus a pack under the cockpit that could either support two De Havilland Blue Jay (later Firestreak) heat-seeking AAMs or 44 Microcell 5 centimeter (2 inch) unguided rockets.

 

The initial P.1B prototype performed its first flight on 4 April 1957 and the type entered RAF service as EE Lightning F.1. RAF Number 74 Squadron at Coltishall was the first full service unit, with the pilots acquiring familiarization with the type during late 1960 and the squadron declared operational in 1961.

 

However, while the Lightning was developed further into more and more advanced versions. Its concept was also the basis for another research aircraft that would also be developed into a high performance interceptor: the P.6/1, which later became the “Levin” fighter.

 

P.6 encompassed a total of four different layouts for a Mach 2+ research aircraft, tendering to ER.134T from 1952. P.6/1 was the most conservative design and it relied heavily on existing (and already proven) P.1 Lightning components, primarily the aerodynamic surfaces. The most obvious difference was a new fuselage of circular diameter, housing a single Rolls Royce RB.106 engine.

 

The RB.106 was a two-shaft design with two axial flow compressors each driven by its own single stage turbine and reheat. It was of similar size to the Rolls-Royce Avon, but it produced about twice the thrust at 21,750 lbf (96.7 kN) in the initial version. The two-shaft layout was relatively advanced for the era; the single-shaft de Havilland Gyron matched it in power terms, while the two-spool Bristol Olympus was much less powerful at the then-current state of development. Apart from being expected to power other British aircraft such as those competing for Operational Requirement F.155, it was also selected to be the powerplant for the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow and led to the Orenda Iroquois engine, which even reach 30.000 lbf (130 kN).

 

The P.6/1 was eventually chosen by the MoS for further development because it was regarded as the least risky and costly alternative. Beyond its test bed role for the RB.106 the P.6/1 was also seen as a potential basis for a supersonic strategic air-to-ground missile (similar to the massive Soviet AS-3 ‘Kangaroo’ cruise missile) and the starting point for an operational interceptor that would be less complex than the Lightning, but with a comparable if not improved performance but a better range.

 

In 1955 English Electric received a go ahead for two P.6/1 research aircraft prototypes. Despite a superficial similarity to the Lightning, the P.6/1’s internal structure was very different. The air duct, for instance, was bifurcated and led around on both sides of the cockpit tub and the front wheel well instead of below it. Further down, the duct ran below the wing main spar and directly fed the RB.106.

The rear fuselage was area-ruled, the main landing gear retracted, just like the Lightning’s, outwards into the wings, while the front wheel retracted backwards into a well that was placed further aft than on the Lightning. The upper fuselage behind the main wings spar carried fuel tanks, more fuel was carried in wing tanks.

 

Both research machines were ready in 1958 and immediately started with aerodynamic and material tests for the MoS, reaching top speeds of Mach 2.5 and altitudes of 60.000 ft. and more.

In parallel, work on the fighter version, now called “Levin”, had started. The airframe was basically the same as the P.6/1’s. Biggest visible changes were a wider air intake with a bigger central shock cone (primarily for a radar dish), a shorter afterburner section and an enlarged fin with area increased by 15% that had become necessary in order to compensate instability through the new nose layout and the potential carriage of external ordnance, esp. under the fuselage. This bigger fin was taken over to the Lightning F.3 that also initially suffered from longitudal instability due to the new Red Top missiles.

 

The Levin carried armament and avionics similar to the Lightning, including the Ferranti-developed AI.23 monopulse radar. The aircraft was to be fully integrated into a new automatic intercept system developed by Ferranti, Elliot, and BAC. It would have turned the fighters into something like a "manned missile" and greatly simplified intercepts.

 

Anyway, the Levin’s weapon arrangement was slightly different from the Lightning: the Levin’s armament comprised theoretically a mix of up to four 30mm Aden cannons and/or up to four of the new Red Top AAMs, or alternatively the older Firestreak. The guns were mounted in the upper nose flanks (similar to the early Lightning arrangement, but set further back), right under the cockpit hatch, while a pair of AAMs was carried on wing tip launch rails. Two more AAMs could be carried on pylons under the lower front fuselage, similar to the Lightning’s standard configuration, even though there was no interchangeable module. Since this four-missile arrangement would not allow any cannon to be carried anymore and caused excessive drag, the typical payload was limited to two Aden cannons and the single pair of wing-tip missiles.

 

Despite its proven Lightning ancestry, the development of the Levin went through various troubles. While the RB.106 worked fine in the research P.6/1, it took until 1962 that a fully reliable variant for the interceptor could be cleared for service. Meanwhile the Lightning had already evolved into the F.3 variant and political discussions circled around the end of manned military aircraft. To make matters even worse, the RAF refused to buy the completely automatic intercept system, despite the fact that it had been fully engineered at a cost of 1.4 million pounds and trialed in one of the P.1Bs.

 

Eventually, the Levin F.1 finally entered service in 1964, together with the Lightning F.3. While the Lightning was rather seen as a point defense interceptor, due to the type’s limited range: If a Lightning F.3 missed its target on its first pass, it almost never had enough fuel to make a second attempt without topping off from a tanker, which would give an intruder plenty of time to get to its target and then depart… The Lightning’s flight endurance was less than 2 hours (in the F.2A, other variants even less), and it was hoped that the Levin had more potential through a longer range. Anyway, in service, the Levin’s range in clean configuration was only about 8% better than the Lightning’s. The Levin F.1’s flight endurance was about 2 ½ hours – an improvement, but not as substantial as expected.

 

In order to improve the range on both fighters, English Electric developed a new, stiffened wing for the carriage of a pair of jettisonable overwing ferry tanks with a capacity of 1,182 liters (312 US gallons / 260 Imperial gallons, so-called “Overburgers”). The new wing also featured a kinked leading edge, providing better low-speed handling. From mid 1965 onwards, all Levins were directly produced in this F.2 standard, and during regular overhauls the simpler F.1 machines were successively updated. The Lightning introduced the kinked wing with the F.3A variant and it was later introduced with the F.2A and F.6A variants.

 

Levin production comprised 21 original F.1 airframes, plus 34 F.2 fighters, and production was stopped in 1967. A trainer version was not produced, the Lightning trainers were deemed sufficient for conversion since the Levin and the Lightning shared similar handling characteristics.

The Levin served only with RAF 29 and 65 Squadron, the latter re-instated in 1970 as a dedicated fighter squadron. When in November 1984 the Tornado squadrons began to form, the Levin was gradually phased out and replaced until April 1987 by the Tornado F.3.

  

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length w/o pitot: 51 ft 5 in (15,70 m), 55 ft 8 in (16.99 m) overall

Wingspan incl. wingtip launch rails: 34 ft 9 in (10.54 m)

Height: 19 ft 7 in (5.97 m)

Wing area: 474.5 ft² (44.08 m²)

Empty weight: 8937 kg (lb)

Loaded weight: 13,570 kg (29,915)

Max. takeoff weight: 15,210 kg (33,530 lb)

 

Powerplant:

1× Rolls-Royce RB.106-10S afterburning turbojet,

rated at 20,000 lbf (89 kN) dry and 26,000 lbf (116 kN) with afterburning

 

Performance:

Maximum speed:

- 1,150 km/h (620 kn, 715 mph, Mach 0.94) at sea level

- 2,230 km/h (1.202 kn, 1,386 mph, Mach 2.1;), clean with 2× Red Top AAMs at high altitude

- Mach 2.4 absolute top speed in clean configuration at 50.000 ft.

Range: 1,650 km (890 nmi, 1,025 mi) on internal fuel

Combat radius: 500 km (312 mi); clean, with a pair of wing tip Red Top AAMs

Ferry range: 1,270 mi (1.100 NM/ 2.040 km) with overwing tanks

Service ceiling: 16,760 m (55,000 ft)

Rate of climb: 136.7 m/s (27,000 ft/min)

Wing loading: 76 lb/ft² (370 kg/m²)

Thrust/weight: 0.78

Takeoff roll: 950 m (3,120 ft)

Landing roll: 700 m (2,300 ft)

 

Armament:

2× 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannons with 120 RPG in the upper front fuselage

2× wing tip hardpoints for mounting air-to-air missiles (2 Red Top of Firestreak AAMs)

2× overwing pylon stations for 260 gal ferry tanks

Optional, but rarely used: 2× hardpoints under the front fuselage for mounting air-to-air missiles

(2 Red Top of Firestreak AAMs)

  

The kit and its assembly:

Another contribution to the Cold War GB at whatifmodelers.com, and the realization of a project I had on the agenda for long. The EE P.6/1 was a real project for a Mach 2+ research aircraft, as described above, but it never went off the drawing board. Its engine, the RB.106, also never saw the light of day, even though its later career as the Canadian Orenda Iroquois for the stillborn CF-105.

 

Building this aircraft as a model appears simple, because it’s a classic Lightning (actually a F.1 with the un-kinked wing and the small fin), just with a single engine and a rather tubular fuselage. But creating this is not easy at all…

 

I did not want to replicate the original P.6/1, but rather a service aircraft based on the research aircraft. Therefore I used parts from a Lightning F.6 (a vintage NOVO/Frog kit). For the fuselage I settled for a Su-17, from a MasterCraft kit. The kit’s selling point was its small price tag and the fuselage construction: the VG mechanism is hidden under a separate spine piece, and I wanted to transplant the Lightning’s spine and cockpit frame, so I thought that this would make things easier.

 

Nope.

 

Putting the parts from the VERY different kits/aircraft together was a major surgery feat, with several multiple PSR sessions on the fuselage, the air intake section (opened and fitted with both an internal splitter and a bulkhead to the cockpit section), the wings, the stabilizers, the fin… This model deserves the title “kitbash” like no other, because no major sections had ever been intended to be glued together, and in the intended position!

 

The landing gear was more or less taken OOB, but the main struts had to be elongated by 2mm – somehow the model turned out to be a low-riding tail sitter! The cockpit interior was improvised, too, consisting of a Su-17 cockpit tub, a scratched dashboard and a Martin Baker ejection seat from an Italeri Bae Hawk trainer.

 

Since most of the fuselage surface consists of various materials (styrene and two kinds of putty), I did not dare to engrave panel lines – after all the PSR work almost any surface detail was gone. I rather went for a graphic solution (see below). Some antennae and air scoops were added, though.

 

The overwing tanks come OOB from the NOVO kit, as well as the Red Top missiles, which ended up on improvised wing tip launch rails, based on design sketches for Lightning derivatives with this layout.

 

Colors and markings:

There are several “classic” RAF options, but I settled for a low-viz Eighties livery taken from BAC Lightnings. There’s a surprising variety of styles, and my version is a mix of several real world aircraft.

 

I settled for Dark Sea Grey upper surfaces (Modelmaster Authentic) with a high waterline, a fuselage completely in Medium Sea Grey (Humbrol 165 – had to be applied twice because the first tin I used was obviously old and the paint ended up in a tone not unlike PRU Blue!) and Light aircraft Grey underwing surfaces (Humbrol 166). The leading edges under the wings are Dark Sea Grey, too.

 

The cockpit interior was painted in dark grey (Humbrol 32 with some dry-brushing), while the landing gear is Aluminum (Humbrol 56).

 

Once the basic painting was done I had to deal with the missing panel lines on the fuselage and those raised lines that were sanded away during the building process. I decided to simulate these with a soft pencil, after the whole kit was buffed with a soft cotton cloth and some grinded graphite. This way, the remaining raised panel lines were emphasized, and from these the rest was drawn up. A ruler and masking tape were used as guidance for straight lines, and this worked better than expected, with good results.

 

As a next step, the newly created panels were highlighted with dry-brushed lighter tones of the basic paints (FS 36492 and WWII Italian Blue Grey from Modelmaster, and Humbrol 126), more for a dramatic than a weathered effect. The gun ports and the exhaust section were painted with Modelmaster Metallizer (Titanium and Magnesium).

 

The decals come from several Xtradecal aftermarket sheets, including a dedicated Lightning stencils sheet, another Lightning sheet with various squadron markings and a sheet for RAF Tornado ADVs.

The code number “XS970” was earmarked to a TSR.2, AFAIK, but since it was never used on a service aircraft it would be a good option for the Levin.

 

The kit received a coat of matt acrylic varnish from the rattle can – jn this case the finish was intended to bear a slight shine.

  

This was a project with LOTS of effort, but you hardly recognize it – it’s a single engine Lightning, so what? But welding the Lightning and Su-17 parts together for something that comes close to the P.6/1 necessitated LOTS of body work and improvisation, carving it from wood would probably have been the next complicated option. Except for the surprisingly long tail I am very happy with the result, despite the model’s shaggy origins, and the low-viz livery suits the sleek aircraft IMHO very well.

This 19th century oil painting titled The Holy Family is of Italian origins but whose artist is unknown. It was painted on a cotton-based canvas and as cotton itself is highly flammable, its miraculous survival in the intense fire has baffled everyone. Many would say it was a miracle. The painting survived intact and needed no more than a clean.

 

The 18th century marble surround and alter originally came from a Dominican Convent in Rome. Fortunately, these also survived the fire and have been restored.

 

St Mel’s of Longford town is the cathedral church for the diocese of Ardagh and Clonmacnoise. Ambitious plans for a fine church building in Longford began to take form after the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 and became a reality when sufficient funds had been collected. Construction began in 1840 with the laying of the foundation stone which was taken from the original cathedral of St. Mel at Ardagh, only a few miles from Longford. The main body of the new cathedral was completed in 1856 to a neo-classical design by the architect Joseph Benjamin Keane, work having been delayed during the period of the Great Famine (1846 and recommenced 1853). After Joseph’s death in 1849, work was continued after by his assistant John Bourke (d.1871) who was also responsible for the belfry tower completed in 1860, but with major alterations to its original design. The neo-classical portico was designed by George Coppinger Ashlin (1837-1921) and completed in 1889 with its pediment and sculpted tympanum depicting the enthronement of St. Mel as Bishop of Ardagh along with three statues above the pediment. By this time, the cathedral building has taken on its definitive form with no further major alterations until its refurbishment after the devastating fire of 2009.

 

On 25th December 2009, the entire building was gutted by a fire which accidently started within the boiler chimney flue at the rear and quickly spread. The alarm was raised just after 5am but fire-fighting attempts were hampered by frozen pipes as the country was in the grip of one of its worst and prolonged periods of freezing temperatures for decades. By daylight, the entire building had been reduced to a burnt-out shell with the loss of all its furnishing, fittings and diocesan museum. The museum contained many priceless artefacts that included the Crozier of Saint Mel and the book-shrine of St. Caillin (1536), the latter damaged beyond restoration but it may be possible to conserve some of the remnants. The 28 supporting columns were also damaged beyond repair and had to replaced anew. Very little was recoverable that survived the worst of the 1,000 deg.C fire and even these suffered some degree of fire damage such as The Bell of Fenagh which is undergoing conservation treatment at the National Museum of Ireland and the original baptismal font with its brass fittings and surrounding mosaic floor. But the most puzzling of all and described by many as nothing short of a miracle was the survival of the Holy Family painting in the northern transept and the undamaged Eucharistic Host still inside the fire damaged tabernacle. The Holy Family oil painting on a cotton-based canvas should have readily gone up in flames due to its highly combustible materials but somehow survived relatively unscathed despite the intense fire around it. This painting was of Italian origins by an unknown artist and is now back on display requiring little more than a cleaning!

 

After five years of work by many expert disciplines using traditional methods, the cathedral building has been totally refurbished and which included quarried blue-limestone for 28 columns with hand-carved capitals that support the roof. Both Harry Clarke Studio windows were salvaged from the transepts and restored to their former glory by Abbey Stained Glass Ltd of Dublin, a company with much experience in the restoration of stained glass windows. Other replacements such as the wooden pews, alter, stained glass, Stations of the Cross tablets, pipe-organ, fixtures and fitting were all made in a modern style to the best materials and craftsmanship available. It is also planned to open a diocesan museum in the cathedral’s new crypts. The total cost of refurbishment and fitting out came to around €30 million, funded mostly from the insurance cover and after five years of hard work the cathedral was reopened for services at Christmas 2014.

 

Photos taken Thursday 22nd January 2015.

  

References:

 

www.facebook.com/StMelsRestoration (St Mel’s Cathedral restoration – Facebook page).

 

www.rte.ie/news/special-reports/2014/1215/667007-longford... (RTE News article about TV program The Longford Phoenix).

 

www.longfordtourism.ie/event/st-mels-cathedral-rise-from-...

 

irishcatholic.ie/sites/default/files/styles/large/public/... (Sculptor Ken Thompson working on one of his Stations of the Cross panels).

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mel%27s_cathedral,_Longford

 

l7.alamy.com/zooms/5e9904767cdb4317b39e15ee189488c3/shrin... (Image of St. Caillin book shrine created in 1536 before it was damaged beyond repair in the 2009 fire at St. Mel’s cathedral).

 

www.alamy.com/stock-photo-st-mels-crozier-longford-cathed... (Image of the 10th century St. Mel’s Crozier and sadly, completely destroyed in the cathedral fire of 2009).

 

Historicamente, a Pateira deve ser considerada como um antigo braço marinho onde desaguavam, independentemente uns dos outros, os rios Cértima, Águeda e Vouga, antes da constituição da Ria de Aveiro. Aquele braço que os aluviões dos três rios fecharam originou um só curso de água - o rio Vouga - passando a foz a situar-se muito mais a noroeste, como actualmente (Almeida, 2006).

 

Pinho et al. (1988) cit Gomes Andrade escreve, em relação à Pateira, que o vale do Certoma, naquele ponte era dantes terreno firme, coberto de espessos arvoredos, por entre os quais o rio mansamente deslizava.

 

Também Morais em Sousa Batista (1945) cita um excerto de uma carta do almoxarife de Aveiro a D. Manuel em que fala da Mata de Perrães (eventualmente compreendida entre Perrães e a frente da freguesia de Fermentelos) dizendo que esta sempre fora coutada para nela se colherem porcos (provavelmente javalis) e veados, referindo ainda que era apaúlada.

 

Aliás, segundo Pinho et al, 1988, parece admissível supor que se trataria de uma zona bastante rica do ponto de vista faunístico e florístico, muito embora as referências à flora e fauna sejam escassas.

 

A Pateira ter-se-ia começado a formar em finais do século XV, provavelmente ainda na Idade Média, devido às sucessivas inundações dos rios Certoma e Águeda, e alagamento dos campos ribeirinhos.

 

Presentemente, a Pateira corresponde ao assoreamento e espraiamento do rio Cértima, perto do local onde desagua no rio Águeda.

 

A maior lagoa natural da Península Ibérica ocupa actualmente uma área de superfície e profundidade variáveis, de acordo com a estação do ano, que, no seu expoente máximo, atinge mais de 5 Km2. Estes, estendem-se, maioritariamente, pelo concelho de Águeda, abrangendo também o concelho de Aveiro e Oliveira do Bairro.

 

O termo “Pateira” encerra a especificidade da região do Vouga e afluentes designando, por si só, abundância de patos.

 

Em termos hidrográficos, a lagoa está compreendida na bacia hidrográfica do rio Cértima a qual, por sua vez, se insere na bacia hidrográfica do rio Águeda e esta, na bacia do rio Vouga.

 

A lagoa é alimentada pelo rio Cértima (a montante), pela ribeira do Pano (a poente), pontualmente por outras escorrências, e por água subterrânea (sistema aquífero Cretácico de Aveiro), sendo o rio Cértima o principal curso a condicionar a hidrologia.

 

No que diz respeito ao relevo, a zona envolvente da Pateira apresenta um relevo suave, a oeste, registando-se uma zona com altitude superior a 50 metros em Fermentelos (concelho de Águeda).

 

A este, na zona de Espinhel, ocorre uma elevação que atinge os 78 metros, revelando declives com relativo significado dadas as características da área envolvente. A noroeste, sensivelmente entre a Oliveirinha e Requeixo (concelho de Aveiro) destaca-se uma faixa com altitude entre os 50 e os 70 metros, com declive suave em direcção à Pateira.

 

A sudoeste, as áreas de cultivo, na margem esquerda do rio Cértima e de Perrães ladeiam a Pateira com relevos suaves de cotas mínimas.

  

Estatatuto de Protecção

 

A Pateira de Fermentelos apresenta características de um sistema semi-lêntico que integra a Zona de Protecção Especial da Ria de Aveiro (PTZPE0004) e, como tal, incluída na Rede Natura 2000.

   

Protegida pela Directiva Aves, está ainda classificada como “Zona Sensível” de acordo com o Decreto-lei n.º 152/97, de 19 de Julho, Anexo II, tratando-se de uma importante e extensa zona húmida (cit. ICN, 2006).

   

Por definição as Zonas Húmidas (ZH) são áreas de sapal, paul, turfeiras ou águas, naturais ou artificiais, permanentes ou temporárias, estáticas ou correntes, doces , salobras ou salgadas, incluindo extensões de água do mar, cuja profundidade na maré baixa não exceda os 6 metros e zonas costeiras e ribeirinhas (Convenção Ramsar).

   

Estas ZH, onde se inclui a Pateira, desempenham importantes funções nos ecossistemas como a regularização hídrica e climática, a purificação da água, contrariam o efeito de estufa, protegem a costa, alimentam reservatórios naturais subterrâneos, suportando uma elevada biodiversidade, entre outras.

   

As zonas húmidas são, aliás, áreas de grande produtividade primária da Terra (a par com as florestas tropicais), suportando assim uma fauna e flora riquíssimas.

   

Biodiversidade Faunística

No que diz respeito à diversidade faunística, a Pateira e zonas envolventes destacam-se, particularmente, pela importante componente ornitológica. Nestas áreas ocorrem espécies com estatutos de protecção a nível nacional e internacional — classificadas pela Directiva Aves (Directiva 79/409/CEE), Convenção de Bona, Convenção de Berna.

 

Surgem espécies de importância comunitária, como:

 

O Garçote (Ixobrychus minutus) frequenta normalmente zonas com abundante vegetação palustre, sendo difícil a sua observação. Não necessita de grandes áreas para nidificar, sendo uma espécie essencialmente solitária durante a reprodução. Os ninhos são construídos no meio do caniçal, acima da água. Alimenta-se essencialmente de insectos e por vezes de pequenos peixes, anfíbios, moluscos, crustáceos, ovos e crias de outras aves, entre outros.

 

A Garça-vermelha (Ardea purpurea) prefere zonas húmidas com áreas de vegetação densa de caniçais, procurando águas ricas em nutrientes (eutróficas), pouco profundas, paradas ou com pouca corrente. Os ninhos são construídos junto ou sobre a água, geralmente em caniçais inundados, não voltando a ocupar ninhos de anos anteriores. Alimenta-se principalmente de peixes e insectos (larvas e adultos). Segundo observações realizadas ao longo dos últimos anos, a população de Garça-vermelha tem aumentado na Pateira.

 

A Águia-sapeira (Circus aeruginosus) também designada como Tartaranhão-ruivo-dos-pauis, nidifica em zonas húmidas onde ocorra uma vegetação aquática emergente abundante, preferencialmente manchas de caniçal, onde são construídos os ninhos. Nestas áreas procura ainda alimento, bem como em águas pouco profundas e com vegetação aquática, caçando frequentemente em campos agrícolas nas imediações. Alimenta-se de animais de pequeno e médio porte, nomeadamente aves, mamíferos (roedores), e, em menor proporção, insectos, sapos, cobras e peixes.

 

O Milhafre-preto (Milvus migrans) frequenta um número diversificado de habitats embora apareça, principalmente, associado a massas de água. Nidifica nos pinhais e matas ripícolas associadas à lagoa, construindo o ninho nas árvores. Procura alimento em áreas abertas ou semi-abertas, alimentando-se de presas de pequeno porte, como roedores, lagomorfos, aves terrestres e ouriços-cacheiros, especialmente indivíduos jovens, doentes ou feridos mas também répteis, peixes, anfíbios e insectos.

 

Ocorrem ainda espécies como o Perna-longa (Himantopus himantopus), o Guarda-rios (Alcedo athis), a Petinha-dos-campos (Anthus campestris), a Garça-branca-pequena (Egretta garzetta), entre outras, incluídas no Anexo I da Directiva 79/409/CEE.

 

Estas e outras espécies, ocorrem na ZPE da Ria de Aveiro, fazendo a Pateira, assim, parte do sistema que “suporta, regularmente, mais de 1% da população biogeográfica de Alfaiate (Recurvirostra avosetta), de Negrola (Melanitta nigra), de Borrelho-grande-de-coleira (Charadrius hiaticula) e de Borrelho-de-coleira-interrompida (Charadrius alexandrinus)” (ICN, 2006).

 

Refere-se ainda a ocorrência de vários passeriformes migradores de matos e bosques, assim como passeriformes de caniçais e galerias ripícolas. A diversidade de biótopos é propícia à reprodução, refúgio e alimento de aves invernantes, nidificantes e migradoras, sendo a Pateira cada vez mais procurada pelos observadores de aves - Birdwatching - e amantes da natureza para a realização de actividades.

 

As condições biofísicas propiciam também a diversidade de peixes que se encontra na Pateira. Inserida na bacia hidrográfica do Rio Vouga, ocorrem, ou têm potencial para ocorrer, espécies como o Barbo-do-Norte (Barbus bocagei), a Boga (Chondrostoma polylepis), a Boga–portuguesa (Chondrostoma lusitanicum), o Ruivaco (Rutilus macrolepidotus ), o Bordalo (Rutilus alburnoides ) - com estatuto de protecção comunitário (pelo Anexo II e/ou V da Directiva Habitats).

 

Ocorrem ainda espécies como a Tainha (Chelon labrosus), a Carpa (Cyprinius carpio), o Escalo-do-norte (Leucistus carolitertii), o Lúcio (Esox lucius), a Enguia (Anguilla anguilla), a Pardelha (Cobitis calderoni), o Achigã (Micropterus salmoides ), etc.

 

Tratam-se de animais sobretudo nocturnos e que, alimentando-se de larvas de insectos, crustáceos e peixes mortos, podem atingir cerca de 1 metro.

 

A fauna piscícola encontra na Pateira e sistema hídrico adjacente as condições ecológicas que permitem a vitalidade e subsistência das diversas comunidades, condições que permitem o refúgio e a desova em tempo de reprodução. Surgem então na lagoa áreas que são identificadas, pelas gentes locais, como “verdadeiras maternidades” de peixe.

 

Entre as várias espécies de bivalves que se observam na Bacia Hidrográfica do Vouga, ocorre na lagoa um, cujas dimensões o transformam numa espécie emblemática - a Anodonta.

 

Este molusco bivalve de água doce, comummente designado como Mexilhão-do-rio, passa despercebido à maioria da população, devido aos seus hábitos ecológicos discretos, que privilegiam o substrato lodoso, onde se enterram.

 

É muito importante para o ecossistema, uma vez que se alimenta através da filtração de um grande volume de água (de que retira detritos e plâncton), sendo apontada como um indicador da qualidade da água. A degradação das condições ambientais afecta negativamente a população destes bivalves.

 

Associada aos habitats de zonas húmidas está também uma elevada diversidade de répteis e anfíbios, característicos destes sistemas e que se localizam sobretudo no interface terra-água e cuja ocorrência potencial se lista de seguida.

 

Ainda neste interface, bem como nas zonas mais secas adjacentes à lagoa, ocorrem diversas espécies de mamíferos. Destas, destaca-se a Lontra (Lutra lutra), emblemática pelos afectos (e desafectos) que provoca na população, mas também por se tratar de uma espécie protegida pelos anexos II e IV do Decreto-lei nº 49/2005 de 24 de Fevereiro.

 

A Lontra (Lutra lutra) procura de forma selectiva os locais de descanso e abrigo, sendo possível encontrar os seus refúgios nas margens mais tranquilas da lagoa e onde abunda vegetação. Esta espécie solitária alimenta-se sobretudo de fauna piscícola, embora possa alimentar-se também de anfíbios e crustáceos (como o lagostim-do-Louisiana). Pode reproduzir-se durante todo o ano, dependendo da disponibilidade de recursos alimentares, nascendo as crias (uma a quatro) ao fim de 61—63 dias em tocas dissimuladas na vegetação.

 

Surgem ainda espécies como o Ouriço-cacheiro (Erinaceus europaeus), a Raposa (Vulpes vulpes), o Coelho-bravo (Oryctolagus cuniculus), o Javali (Sus scrofa), vários roedores, entre outras, que encontram protecção no Direito Comunitário, e Nacional.

 

Assim, a diversidade de biótopos existentes na região (juncais, caniçais, arrozais, margens com vegetação ripícola, etc.) transforma esta região num complexo ecossistema e, por conseguinte, num importante refúgio para a vida animal..

 

Biodiversidade Florística

Na zona húmida, que engloba as águas livres e a vegetação alagada das margens e linhas, dominam habitats com povoamentos de Caniço (Phragmites communis), juntamente com a Tabúa (Typha sp.) e o Bunho (Scirpus lacustris). Ocorrem ainda comunidades (ou mosaicos de comunidades) de plantas vasculares com macrófitas flutuantes, enraizadas ou suspensas entre o fundo e a superfície: a Erva-pinheirinha (Myriophyllum sp.), os Nenúfares (Nymphaea sp., Nuphar luteo ) ou mesmo o Jacinto-de-água (Eichhornia crassipes).

 

Em algumas zonas marginais ao longo da Pateira, verifica-se a ocorrência de diversas espécies arbóreas e arbustivas como:

 

Salgueiros (Salix alba, Salix sp.), Choupos (Populus canescens, Populus nigra, Populus sp.), Amieiros (Alnus glutinosa), Amieiro-negro (Frangula alnus), Freixos (Fraxinus angustifolia), Pilriteiros (Crataegus monogyna), Sabugueiros (Sambucus nigra), Borrazeiras (Salix atrocinerea ), pontualmente Carvalhos (Quercus robur), Loureiros (Laurus nobilis ), Ulmeiros (Ulmus sp.) ...

 

Entre as espécies alóctones encontra-se o Eucalyptus globulus (predominante no coberto florestal das áreas adjacentes à lagoa), e outras árvores dos géneros Acacia e Hakea , estas com comportamento infestante e que se encontram disseminadas pelas imediações da lagoa.

 

Do grupo das herbáceas e sub-arbustivas refere-se apenas a presença do Lírio-amarelo-dos-pântanos (Íris pseudacorus), do Agrião (Nasturtium officinale), do Embude (Oenanthe crocata), da Erva-pessegueira (Polygonum persicaria), Hortelã-de-água (Mentha aquatica), entre tantas outras. Ocorrem espécies com estatuto de protecção como a Gilbardeira (Ruscus aculeatus ) pelo anexo V, e a Marsilea quadrifolia.

 

Peculiar, e pouco divulgado, é o facto de, em áreas adjacentes à lagoa, ocorrerem ainda espécies de plantas carnívoras como a Pinguicula lusitanica; potencialmente poderão ocorrer ainda outras espécies, embora sejam cada vez mais difíceis de encontrar.

 

Esta carnívora ocorre sobretudo em sítios húmidos, por vezes turfosos das margens da lagoa (e rios), florescendo entre Março e Maio. É nas folhas que é libertado o muco adesivo que aprisiona os insectos, que se aproximam atraídos pelo odor libertado. Assim que detectam a presa, as folhas começam a enrolar-se de forma a envolver a presa nas enzimas digestivas libertadas.

 

Um aspecto que se encontra ainda pouco desenvolvido diz respeito à diversidade micológica. Assim, a variedade de fungos que ocorre começa agora a ser inventariada e estudada de forma mais exaustiva, apresentando-se nas imagens laterais alguns exemplos.

 

Na breve resenha biológica apresentada, ainda que incompleta, fica patente a vasta diversidade biológica e potencial natural (e conservacionista) da Pateira, como é referido para as demais Zonas Húmidas. Não obstante, são alguns os problemas que afectam esta área, entre os quais a infestação com Jacinto-de-água.

 

Jacinto-de-água

O jacinto-de-água (Eichhornia crassipes) é uma espécie infestante originária da bacia do Amazonas (Brasil), encontrando-se actualmente disseminado nos cinco continentes. Alastra-se pelos sistemas aquáticos de climas tropicais e temperados, causando rapidamente a ruptura dos sistemas naturais infestados. É considerada por muitos autores como “uma das piores pragas de plantas aquáticas a nível global” (HOLM et al., 1977).

 

Como tal, a ocorrência e disseminação desta espécie exótica infestante na Pateira constitui um dos principais factores que contribui para a degradação das condições ecológicas, económicas e sociais desta zona húmida que urge recuperar e preservar.

 

A ceifeira-aquática

Dada a área em questão e a dimensão da infestação, as metodologias a adoptar e tecnologias de apoio foram seleccionadas de acordo com a avaliação do risco sobre a ZPE, do efeito ambiental das diferentes metodologias e a eficácia da remoção a curto, médio e longo prazo.

 

A gravidade do problema da infestação de sistemas aquáticos ao nível global levou ao desenvolvimento de tecnologia específica para a sua resolução e/ou controlo.

 

Assim sendo, recorreu-se à remoção mecânica, sendo a extracção feita com recurso a uma máquina – ceifeira-aquática – que começou a laborar na lagoa a 13 de Dezembro de 2006.

 

Com um tapete incorporado, e movido por um motor, extrai as massas de jacintos-de-água. Controlada por um operador, a ceifeira-aquática possui um sistema simples e eficaz: duas rodas de pás com um funcionamento hidráulico independente que garantem a grande manobrabilidade do equipamento.

 

Em apenas dois meses e meio, foi possível melhorar as condições ecológicas e hidrológicas do sistema aquático, recuperar o espelho de água, melhorar a capacidade para suportar actividades lúdicas e de lazer na área, bem como melhorar as condições para a prática das actividades tradicionais no espelho da lagoa.

 

Requalificação Ambiental e Paisagística da Pateira

A remoção do jacinto-de-água da lagoa foi apenas a 1ª fase de um vasto e complexo processo, que engloba várias outras medidas e acções que visam o desenvolvimento sustentável, a conservação e protecção da Natureza e, consequentemente, a Requalificação Ambiental e Paisagística da maior lagoa natural da Península Ibérica, a Pateira de Fermentelos.

 

Após o levantamento topo-hidrográfico realizado, concluiu-se que o leito da lagoa se encontra fortemente assoreado, em particular na zona mais a jusante da Pateira.

 

Desta forma, ficou patente a necessidade de, a curto prazo, se proceder à normalização do leito natural da Pateira, pela remoção (dragagem) do excesso de sedimentos entretanto acumulados, bem como à reconstrução do pequeno açude localizado na confluência da Pateira e rio Águeda.

 

Numa área classificada como a Pateira, englobada numa importante bacia hidrográfica (bacia hidrográfica do Rio Vouga), com valores paisagísticos e a nível da conservação da natureza, que se traduzem na elevada diversidade biológica, alguma com estatuto de protecção a nível nacional e internacional, é importante dotar o espaço com infra-estruturas adequadas que permitam a conservação, mas também a observação e a interpretação da natureza.

 

Neste âmbito, são desenvolvidas várias acções de educação ambiental, como a organização de palestras e acções de sensibilização ambiental, observação de aves, realização de percursos interpretativos, workshops para a construção de ninhos, entre outras actividades promovidas pela Autarquia ou por outras entidades como a SPEA (Sociedade Portuguesa para o Estudo das Aves), a UA (Universidade de Aveiro), a QUERCUS (Associação Nacional de Conservação da Natureza).

 

A definição de percursos com temas e finalidades várias (educação ambiental, prática de desporto, observação de aves, etc.) está a ser estudada numa perspectiva intermunicipal.

 

A Pateira é, desta forma, vista como um todo, onde o objectivo é conduzir o visitante pelo espaço natural dando-lhe a conhecer os valores naturais da área (com descritores de paisagem, de espécies), bem como dotar estes percursos do mobiliário adequado (observatórios de aves, pontos de encontro e descanso, material de apoio à prática desportiva, etc) e que dê ao visitante o conforto, a segurança e o equilíbrio natural que procura neste local.

 

São várias as propostas de actividades que o visitante encontra ao seu dispor na lagoa ou nas áreas adjacentes e que o levam ao contacto quer com a natureza, quer com as dinâmicas culturais e tradições locais. Desde os momentos de descontracção que pode passar nos parques de lazer, a uma travessia nas tradicionais bateiras, a uma viagem nas bicicletas aquáticas, de um passeio a cavalo, de bicicleta ou a pé, a uma tarde de pesca, um dia desportivo, ou simplesmente um momento de pausa a vislumbrar a paisagem, só ou em família, são algumas das ideias já praticáveis na Pateira de Fermentelos.

 

Considerações finais

Numa época em que o ambiente se assume no contexto nacional e internacional como tema prioritário e se procura evitar a continuação da degradação dos recursos hídricos, surge a Directiva-Quadro da Água (DQA) – 2000/60/CE – transposta para a ordem jurídica nacional pela Lei nº 58/2005, de 29 de Dezembro. Esta vem estabelecer como objectivo a alcançar, até 2015, “o bom estado ecológico ou o bom potencial ecológico e químico de todas as massas de água”.

Como tal, “proteger e melhorar o estado dos ecossistemas aquáticos e também dos ecossistemas terrestres e zonas húmidas, directamente dependentes dos ecossistemas aquáticos”, constitui uma atribuição das entidades públicas e um dever dos particulares.

 

Não obstante, e tal como referido no início deste documento, além da dimensão ambiental, prevalece uma forte componente social, sendo incalculável a importância que a Pateira e ecossistemas associados representam para as populações limítrofes desta área.

 

Assim, torna-se premente assegurar a continuidade deste projecto, com o desenvolvimento e implementação das acções previstas para a requalificação ambiental e paisagística da Pateira. Pretende-se pois que a Pateira de Fermentelos volte a ser um ex libris natural da região, motivo de referência e orgulho nacional.

   

Texto retirado do livro

Pateira de Fermentelos: Paisagem a proteger

Célia Laranjeira (CMA) www.cm-agueda.pt/PageGen.aspx?WMCM_PaginaId=28901

M50 Goldwing

St John the Baptist Church, Kirk Hammerton is a Grade I listed Church of England church located in the village of Kirk Hammerton, North Yorkshire, England. It is notable for its complete, mid tenth century Anglo-Saxon tower, and parts of the 9th century church (the original Anglo-Saxon chancel and nave) which now form the south aisle of the present church, the remainder of which dates from later periods (Norman and beyond). It lies within the Diocese of Leeds in the Lower Nidderdale Parish. The church has links with Kirk Hammerton Church of England Primary School in the village.

 

The church is Anglo-Saxon in origin, and was originally dedicated to St Quentin.

 

The Saxon part of the church, which now forms the Lady Chapel, is believed to have been built in the 9th century, with the tower being added in around 950 AD. This older section was largely constructed from blocks of millstone grit taken from the ruins of the Roman city of Eboracum.

 

There were alterations carried out around 1150 and 1834. In 1892 the building was significantly extended. The latter works were undertaken by Mr H. Fowler of Durham on behalf of the then Lord of the Manor, E. W. Stanyforth. The church was listed as a Grade I building in 1966.

 

Due to the alterations and extensions, there is mixture of architectural styles and effects within the interior. The walls of the south aisle are whitewashed, whereas the north aisle is bare stone. Both arcades area also of varying styles and height. The vaulting is timber. The interior is richly decorated in a Pre-Raphaelite style that was added at the time of the Victorian extension. The door to the chapel is of Saxon origin and there is evidence of another doorway that has been filled. The west door is Saxon in origin, but the south door has had the right side restored, though the remainder is Saxon. The font dates from the reign of King Charles II. Some of the stained glass windows were made by Charles Kempe.

 

There are a mix of styles within the chapel as demonstrated by the small, but deep set lancet windows that are early English, compared to the large Norman window that is dated around 1150. There is also a sedilla and a piscina on one of the walls.

 

The square tower on the south side of the church remains largely as built around 950 AD. There are two sets of Mullioned windows on each side (except the east), one above the other, below the stone coursing that marks the belfry. There are two bells in the belfry and the roof is a shallow pyramid.

 

The Church lies atop a small mound located at the junction of Chapel Street, Church Street and Old Church Green. The boundary is made of brick with two entrances and contains many established trees. The one on Church Street is not gated, whereas the entrance on Chapel Street has a Lychgate. Amongst the graves in the churchyard are those of village men that died during the nearby Battle of Marston Moor. There are approximately 166 marked graves listing 367 names in the Churchyard.

 

Kirk Hammerton is a village and civil parish in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is near the River Nidd and the A59 road, 10 miles (16 km) west of York. The village suffix refers to the Hamerton family who owned the land until the 16th century.

 

The village was historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire until 1974.

 

(H)ambretone, a place-name reflected now in both Kirk Hammerton ("Hammerton with the church", from the Old Norse kirkja = "church") and Green Hammerton ("Hammerton with the green", from Middle English grene), is first attested in the Domesday Book of 1086. The name seems to derive from the Old English plant-name hamor (whose meaning is not certain but might include hammer-sedge or pellitory of the wall) + tūn 'settlement, farm, estate'. The course of Rudgate, a Roman road, passes the village.

 

The lands of the parish used to be held by the Hamerton family of Hellifield Peel Castle, part of their estate stretching from Slaidburn to York. Sir Stephen Hamerton was executed for treason at Tyburn in 1536 for participating in the Pilgrimage of Grace. Being of knightly rank, Sir Stephen was hanged and beheaded, but not drawn and quartered, and his lands seized by the crown. His son Henry died on 3 August 1537, and was buried in York Minster. Joan, the widow of Henry, died on 3 January 1538, leaving two infant children; Elizabeth, the widow of Sir Stephen, died on 3 May 1538, and was buried at Slaidburn. The Hellifield estates were held by the Crown until 1546, when they were granted out to George Brown, Esq., to be held by the King, in capita, for the sum of £292-9-2. In 1553 Sir Arthur Darcy, knight, bought the manor of Hellified and 12 messuages and a watermill, from George Brown and his wife. In 1556-7 the property passed into the hands of Anthony Watson and John Redman, both of whom were connected with the Hamertons by marriage. After much legal procedure, the Hellifield estates were alienated in 1561, and following a fine levied at Westminster, they were returned to the Hamertons in the person of John Hamerton, Esq., nephew of Sir Stephen. The village and nearby Green Hammerton still bear their name.

 

On 6 July 2014, Stage 2 of the 2014 Tour de France from York to Sheffield, passed through the village.

 

The 2001 Census recorded a parish population of 517 people in 195 households. The village is mostly south of the A59 York – Liverpool road between York and Knaresborough. The River Nidd meanders to the south and east of the village. The parish also includes the small hamlet of Wilstrop.

 

The parish is served by Hammerton railway station on the Harrogate Line which links York and Leeds. Cattal railway station is also within the parish boundary. Kirk Hammerton is 10 miles (16 km) west of York, 1 mile (1.6 km) south of Green Hammerton and 7 miles (11 km) east of Knaresborough. The parish has an area of 2,008 acres (813 ha).

 

The parish is in the Selby and Ainsty parliamentary constituency. It is in the Ainsty ward of the North Yorkshire County Council and the Ribston Ward of Harrogate Borough Council.

 

The village Parish Council has six members.

 

The village has one primary school, Kirk Hammerton Church of England Primary School. it also has a playgroup across the grounds of the school. Most pupils go on to get their secondary education at Boroughbridge High School.

 

The Church of England parish church of St John the Baptist, was originally dedicated to Saint Quentin. The original Anglo-Saxon church is on the south side of the church and now forms the Lady Chapel following a major enlargement of the building in 1892. The interior of the church is richly decorated in a pre-Raphaelite style; the decorations were added at the time of the Victorian extension to the building.

 

There is also a Wesleyan chapel that was established in 1821, and moved to a larger building in 1899.

 

North Yorkshire is a ceremonial county in the Yorkshire and the Humber and North East regions of England. It borders County Durham to the north, the North Sea to the east, the East Riding of Yorkshire to the south-east, South Yorkshire to the south, West Yorkshire to the south-west, and Cumbria and Lancashire to the west. Northallerton is the county town.

 

The county is the largest in England by land area, at 9,020 km2 (3,480 sq mi), and has a population of 1,158,816. The largest settlements are Middlesbrough (174,700) in the north-east and the city of York (152,841) in the south. Middlesbrough is part of the Teesside built-up area, which extends into County Durham and has a total population of 376,663. The remainder of the county is rural, and the largest towns are Harrogate (73,576) and Scarborough (61,749). For local government purposes the county comprises four unitary authority areas — York, Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland, and North Yorkshire — and part of a fifth, Stockton-on-Tees.

 

The centre of the county contains a wide plain, called the Vale of Mowbray in the north and Vale of York in the south. The North York Moors lie to the east, and south of them the Vale of Pickering is separated from the main plain by the Howardian Hills. The west of the county contains the Yorkshire Dales, an extensive upland area which contains the source of the River Ouse/Ure and many of its tributaries, which together drain most of the county. The Dales also contain the county's highest point, Whernside, at 2,415 feet (736 m).

 

North Yorkshire non-metropolitan and ceremonial county was formed on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972. It covered most of the North Riding of Yorkshire, as well as northern parts of the West Riding of Yorkshire, northern and eastern East Riding of Yorkshire and the former county borough of York. Northallerton, as the former county town for the North Riding, became North Yorkshire's county town. In 1993 the county was placed wholly within the Yorkshire and the Humber region.

 

Some areas which were part of the former North Riding were in the county of Cleveland for twenty-two years (from 1974 to 1996) and were placed in the North East region from 1993. On 1 April 1996, these areas (Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland and Stockton borough south of the River Tees) became part of the ceremonial county as separate unitary authorities. These areas remain within the North East England region.

 

Also on 1 April 1996, the City of York non-metropolitan district and parts of the non-metropolitan county (Haxby and nearby rural areas) became the City of York unitary authority.

 

On 1 April 2023, the non-metropolitan county became a unitary authority. This abolished eight councils and extended the powers of the county council to act as a district council.

 

The York and North Yorkshire Combined Authority held its first meeting on 22 January 2024, assumed its powers on 1 February 2024 and the first mayor is to be elected in May 2024.

 

The geology of North Yorkshire is closely reflected in its landscape. Within the county are the North York Moors and most of the Yorkshire Dales, two of eleven areas in England and Wales to be designated national parks. Between the North York Moors in the east and the Pennine Hills. The highest point is Whernside, on the Cumbrian border, at 2,415 feet (736 m). A distinctive hill to the far north east of the county is Roseberry Topping.

 

North Yorkshire contains several major rivers. The River Tees is the most northerly, forming part of the border between North Yorkshire and County Durham in its lower reaches and flowing east through Teesdale before reaching the North Sea near Redcar. The Yorkshire Dales are the source of many of the county's major rivers, including the Aire, Lune, Ribble, Swale, Ure, and Wharfe.[10] The Aire, Swale, and Wharfe are tributaries of the Ure/Ouse, which at 208 km (129 mi) long is the sixth-longest river in the United Kingdom. The river is called the Ure until it meets Ouse Gill beck just below the village of Great Ouseburn, where it becomes the Ouse and flows south before exiting the county near Goole and entering the Humber estuary. The North York Moors are the catchment for a number of rivers: the Leven which flows north into the Tees between Yarm and Ingleby Barwick; the Esk flows east directly into the North Sea at Whitby as well as the Rye (which later becomes the Derwent at Malton) flows south into the River Ouse at Goole.

 

North Yorkshire contains a small section of green belt in the south of the county, which surrounds the neighbouring metropolitan area of Leeds along the North and West Yorkshire borders. It extends to the east to cover small communities such as Huby, Kirkby Overblow, and Follifoot before covering the gap between the towns of Harrogate and Knaresborough, helping to keep those towns separate.

 

The belt adjoins the southernmost part of the Yorkshire Dales National Park, and the Nidderdale AONB. It extends into the western area of Selby district, reaching as far as Tadcaster and Balne. The belt was first drawn up from the 1950s.

 

The city of York has an independent surrounding belt area affording protections to several outlying settlements such as Haxby and Dunnington, and it too extends into the surrounding districts.

 

North Yorkshire has a temperate oceanic climate, like most of the UK. There are large climate variations within the county. The upper Pennines border on a Subarctic climate. The Vale of Mowbray has an almost Semi-arid climate. Overall, with the county being situated in the east, it receives below-average rainfall for the UK. Inside North Yorkshire, the upper Dales of the Pennines are one of the wettest parts of England, where in contrast the driest parts of the Vale of Mowbray are some of the driest areas in the UK.

 

Summer temperatures are above average, at 22 °C. Highs can regularly reach up to 28 °C, with over 30 °C reached in heat waves. Winter temperatures are below average, with average lows of 1 °C. Snow and Fog can be expected depending on location. The North York Moors and Pennines have snow lying for an average of between 45 and 75 days per year. Sunshine is most plentiful on the coast, receiving an average of 1,650 hours a year. It reduces further west in the county, with the Pennines receiving 1,250 hours a year.

 

The county borders multiple counties and districts:

County Durham's County Durham, Darlington, Stockton (north Tees) and Hartlepool;

East Riding of Yorkshire's East Riding of Yorkshire;

South Yorkshire's City of Doncaster;

West Yorkshire's City of Wakefield, City of Leeds and City of Bradford;

Lancashire's City of Lancaster, Ribble Valley and Pendle

Cumbria's Westmorland and Furness.

 

The City of York Council and North Yorkshire Council formed the York and North Yorkshire Combined Authority in February 2024. The elections for the first directly-elected mayor will take place in May 2024. Both North Yorkshire Council and the combined authority are governed from County Hall, Northallerton.

 

The Tees Valley Combined Authority was formed in 2016 by five unitary authorities; Middlesbrough, Redcar and Cleveland Borough both of North Yorkshire, Stockton-on-Tees Borough (Uniquely for England, split between North Yorkshire and County Durham), Hartlepool Borough and Darlington Borough of County Durham.

 

In large areas of North Yorkshire, agriculture is the primary source of employment. Approximately 85% of the county is considered to be "rural or super sparse".

 

Other sectors in 2019 included some manufacturing, the provision of accommodation and meals (primarily for tourists) which accounted for 19 per cent of all jobs. Food manufacturing employed 11 per cent of workers. A few people are involved in forestry and fishing in 2019. The average weekly earnings in 2018 were £531. Some 15% of workers declared themselves as self-employed. One report in late 2020 stated that "North Yorkshire has a relatively healthy and diverse economy which largely mirrors the national picture in terms of productivity and jobs.

 

Mineral extraction and power generation are also sectors of the economy, as is high technology.

 

Tourism is a significant contributor to the economy. A study of visitors between 2013 and 2015 indicated that the Borough of Scarborough, including Filey, Whitby and parts of the North York Moors National Park, received 1.4m trips per year on average. A 2016 report by the National Park, states the park area gets 7.93 million visitors annually, generating £647 million and supporting 10,900 full-time equivalent jobs.

 

The Yorkshire Dales have also attracted many visitors. In 2016, there were 3.8 million visits to the National Park including 0.48 million who stayed at least one night. The parks service estimates that this contributed £252 million to the economy and provided 3,583 full-time equivalent jobs. The wider Yorkshire Dales area received 9.7 million visitors who contributed £644 million to the economy. The North York Moors and Yorkshire Dales are among England's best known destinations.

 

York is a popular tourist destination. A 2014 report, based on 2012 data, stated that York alone receives 6.9 million visitors annually; they contribute £564 million to the economy and support over 19,000 jobs. In the 2017 Condé Nast Traveller survey of readers, York rated 12th among The 15 Best Cities in the UK for visitors. In a 2020 Condé Nast Traveller report, York rated as the sixth best among ten "urban destinations [in the UK] that scored the highest marks when it comes to ... nightlife, restaurants and friendliness".

 

During February 2020 to January 2021, the average property in North Yorkshire county sold for £240,000, up by £8100 over the previous 12 months. By comparison, the average for England and Wales was £314,000. In certain communities of North Yorkshire, however, house prices were higher than average for the county, as of early 2021: Harrogate (average value: £376,195), Knaresborough (£375,625), Tadcaster (£314,278), Leyburn (£309,165) and Ripon (£299,998), for example.

 

This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added for North Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British pounds sterling.

 

Unemployment in the county was traditionally low in recent years, but the lockdowns and travel restrictions necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative effect on the economy during much of 2020 and into 2021. The UK government said in early February 2021 that it was planning "unprecedented levels of support to help businesses [in the UK] survive the crisis". A report published on 1 March 2021 stated that the unemployment rate in North Yorkshire had "risen to the highest level in nearly 5 years – with under 25s often bearing the worst of job losses".

 

York experienced high unemployment during lockdown periods. One analysis (by the York and North Yorkshire Local Enterprise Partnership) predicted in August 2020 that "as many as 13,835 jobs in York will be lost in the scenario considered most likely, taking the city's unemployment rate to 14.5%". Some critics claimed that part of the problem was caused by "over-reliance on the booming tourism industry at the expense of a long-term economic plan". A report in mid June 2020 stated that unemployment had risen 114 per cent over the previous year because of restrictions imposed as a result of the pandemic.

 

Tourism in the county was expected to increase after the restrictions imposed due the pandemic are relaxed. One reason for the expected increase is the airing of All Creatures Great and Small, a TV series about the vet James Herriot, based on a successful series of books; it was largely filmed within the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The show aired in the UK in September 2020 and in the US in early 2021. One source stated that visits to Yorkshire websites had increased significantly by late September 2020.

 

The East Coast Main Line (ECML) bisects the county stopping at Northallerton,Thirsk and York. Passenger service companies in the area are London North Eastern Railway, Northern Rail, TransPennine Express and Grand Central.

 

LNER and Grand Central operate services to the capital on the ECML, Leeds Branch Line and the Northallerton–Eaglescliffe Line. LNER stop at York, Northallerton and on to County Durham or spur over to the Tees Valley Line for Thornaby and Middlesbrough. The operator also branch before the county for Leeds and run to Harrogate and Skipton. Grand Central stop at York, Thirsk Northallerton and Eaglescliffe then over to the Durham Coast Line in County Durham.

 

Northern operates the remaining lines in the county, including commuter services on the Harrogate Line, Airedale Line and York & Selby Lines, of which the former two are covered by the Metro ticketing area. Remaining branch lines operated by Northern include the Yorkshire Coast Line from Scarborough to Hull, York–Scarborough line via Malton, the Hull to York Line via Selby, the Tees Valley Line from Darlington to Saltburn via Middlesbrough and the Esk Valley Line from Middlesbrough to Whitby. Last but certainly not least, the Settle-Carlisle Line runs through the west of the county, with services again operated by Northern.

 

The county suffered badly under the Beeching cuts of the 1960s. Places such as Richmond, Ripon, Tadcaster, Helmsley, Pickering and the Wensleydale communities lost their passenger services. Notable lines closed were the Scarborough and Whitby Railway, Malton and Driffield Railway and the secondary main line between Northallerton and Harrogate via Ripon.

 

Heritage railways within North Yorkshire include: the North Yorkshire Moors Railway, between Pickering and Grosmont, which opened in 1973; the Derwent Valley Light Railway near York; and the Embsay and Bolton Abbey Steam Railway. The Wensleydale Railway, which started operating in 2003, runs services between Leeming Bar and Redmire along a former freight-only line. The medium-term aim is to operate into Northallerton station on the ECML, once an agreement can be reached with Network Rail. In the longer term, the aim is to reinstate the full line west via Hawes to Garsdale on the Settle-Carlisle line.

 

York railway station is the largest station in the county, with 11 platforms and is a major tourist attraction in its own right. The station is immediately adjacent to the National Railway Museum.

 

The main road through the county is the north–south A1(M), which has gradually been upgraded in sections to motorway status since the early 1990s. The only other motorways within the county are the short A66(M) near Darlington and a small stretch of the M62 motorway close to Eggborough. The other nationally maintained trunk routes are the A168/A19, A64, A66 and A174.

 

Long-distance coach services are operated by National Express and Megabus. Local bus service operators include Arriva Yorkshire, Stagecoach, Harrogate Bus Company, The Keighley Bus Company, Scarborough & District (East Yorkshire), Yorkshire Coastliner, First York and the local Dales & District.

 

There are no major airports in the county itself, but nearby airports include Teesside International (Darlington), Newcastle and Leeds Bradford.

 

The main campus of Teesside University is in Middlesbrough, while York contains the main campuses of the University of York and York St John University. There are also two secondary campuses in the county: CU Scarborough, a campus of Coventry University, and Queen's Campus, Durham University in Thornaby-on-Tees.

 

Colleges

Middlesbrough College's sixth-form

Askham Bryan College of agriculture, Askham Bryan and Middlesbrough

Craven College, Skipton

Middlesbrough College

The Northern School of Art, Middlesbrough

Prior Pursglove College

Redcar & Cleveland College

Scarborough Sixth Form College

Scarborough TEC

Selby College

Stockton Riverside College, Thornaby

York College

 

Places of interest

Ampleforth College

Beningbrough Hall –

Black Sheep Brewery

Bolton Castle –

Brimham Rocks –

Castle Howard and the Howardian Hills –

Catterick Garrison

Cleveland Hills

Drax Power Station

Duncombe Park – stately home

Eden Camp Museum –

Embsay & Bolton Abbey Steam Railway –

Eston Nab

Flamingo Land Theme Park and Zoo –

Helmsley Castle –

Ingleborough Cave – show cave

John Smith's Brewery

Jorvik Viking Centre –

Lightwater Valley –

Lund's Tower

Malham Cove

Middleham Castle –

Mother Shipton's Cave –

National Railway Museum –

North Yorkshire Moors Railway –

Ormesby Hall – Palladian Mansion

Richmond Castle –

Ripley Castle – Stately home and historic village

Riverside Stadium

Samuel Smith's Brewery

Shandy Hall – stately home

Skipton Castle –

Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications –

Studley Royal Park –

Stump Cross Caverns – show cave

Tees Transporter Bridge

Theakston Brewery

Thornborough Henges

Wainman's Pinnacle

Wharram Percy

York Castle Museum –

Yorkshire Air Museum –

The Yorkshire Arboretum

Played a lot of Arkham Origins Lately. Enjoy

I'm pretty sure those little hand mirrors started it all......

 

Model: Jessica Manuel

HMUA: Jessica Manuel

Outfit: Connie Chung & Jessica Manuel

Location: Union Station Depot

KARR (Knight Automated Roving Robot) is the name of a fictional, automated, prototype vehicle featured as a major antagonist in two episodes of the television series Knight Rider and was part of a multi-episode story arc in the 2008 revived series.

 

Origin and background

 

KARR is the prototype version of KITT, originally designed by Wilton Knight and built by his company Knight Industries. Upon completion of the vehicle, KARR's CPU was installed and activated. However, a programming error made the computer unstable and potentially dangerous. The project was put on hold and KARR was placed in storage until a solution could be found.

 

Unlike KITT, whose primary directive is to protect human life, KARR was programmed for self-preservation, making him a ruthless and unpredictable threat. He does not appear as streetwise as KITT, being very naive and inexperienced and having a childlike perception of the world. This has occasionally allowed people to take advantage of his remarkable capabilities for their own gain; however, due to his ruthless nature he sometimes uses people's weaknesses and greed as a way to manipulate them for his own goals. Despite this, he does ultimately consider himself superior (always referring to KITT as "the inferior production line model") as well as unstoppable, and due to his programming the villains don't usually get very far. KARR demonstrates a complete lack of respect or loyalty - on one occasion ejecting his passenger to reduce weight and increase his chances of escape.

 

KARR first appeared in the Season One episode "Trust Doesn't Rust" aired on NBC on November 19, 1982, where he seemingly met his demise at the end. However, he was so popular with viewers that he was brought back again in the Season Three episode "K.I.T.T. vs. K.A.R.R.", aired on NBC on November 4, 1984 (marking him as one of the very few villains in the original series to make a return appearance).

 

Appearances in the original series

 

"Trust Doesn't Rust" - Season 1, Episode 9

 

Once KITT was constructed, it was presumed that his prototype KARR had been deactivated and dismantled. However, the latter did not occur and KARR was placed in storage and forgotten following the death of Wilton Knight. When two thieves, Tony (Michael MacRae) and The Rev (William Sanderson), break into the warehouse where KARR is "sleeping", they unwittingly reactivate him, and he escapes.

 

When the two thieves realize how useful the vehicle could be, they use KARR to go on a crime spree, whilst Michael and KITT frantically try to catch up with KARR and stop him before anyone is seriously hurt. Bonnie devises a high-powered laser, the only known way to stop KARR, which must be fired from KITT directly into KARR's scanner. However, when KARR needs maintenance, Tony kidnaps Bonnie before the laser can fully be calibrated. Although Michael rescues Bonnie, she is unable to get a clear shot at KARR with the laser and he escapes.

 

KARR's only weakness is his primary directive of self-preservation and Michael uses this to his advantage. When KARR threatens to destroy KITT in a head-on collision, Michael plays chicken with him, on a hunch that KARR will veer out of KITT's path in order to protect himself. KARR indeed swerves out of the way, but unable to stop in time, he drives off a cliff and seemingly explodes in the ocean (using footage of the climactic scene from the 1977 film The Car, footage that was also used for KITT on a couple of other occasions). KARR was voiced by well known Canadian voice actor, Peter Cullen.

 

Trust Doesn't Rust was also printed in book form, written by Roger Hill and Glen A. Larson, following the story and general script of the original television episode, expanding some areas of the plot and adding several extra secondary characters.

 

"K.I.T.T. vs. K.A.R.R." - Season 3, Episode 6

 

KARR was only believed to have been destroyed. He was damaged and ended up buried in the sand on the beach below the cliffs. When the tide had gone out, a young couple, John and Mandy, stumble upon the partially buried car, dig him out, and reactivate him. This time, KARR is furious and has only one clear motive: revenge against Michael and KITT.

 

KARR is still damaged after the last encounter with KITT and forces John to serve as his driver, and also to carry out some cosmetic modifications to his paintwork. In a ravine, KARR challenges Michael and KITT to a final showdown. After releasing the young couple, KARR fires a stolen laser and damages KITT. However, Michael and KITT destroy KARR's laser by reflecting the beam back to the emitter. Damaged, KARR prepares for another attack. KITT and KARR both turbo boost and collide in mid-air. KARR is blown to pieces, but Michael and KITT survive the impact. At the end of the episode, however, KARR's motherboard — i.e. KARR himself — can be seen lying undamaged on the ground amongst the wreckage, its LED's still blinking - suggesting to the viewer that KARR is still "alive."

 

Production changes[edit]

Originally, KARR appeared identical to KITT, with a red light scan bar, and the only physical difference was a greenish-yellow LED voice modulator on his dash (for the first half of the first season, KITT's voice modulator is a red square that blinks on and off as he talks; KARR's voice modulator is the prototype to the one seen on KITT from the mid first season onwards, after it was received well by viewers). When KARR returns in "K.I.T.T. vs. K.A.R.R.", KARR's scan bar is now amber.

 

KARR later gets a two-tone paint job incorporating a silver lower body into his familiar all-black finish. KARR's scanner originally made a low droning noise, but in the comeback episode it sounds similar to KITT's but with a slight reverb audio effect added to it. The sound of KARR's engine, originally sounding rough and "fierce", here sounds similar to KITT's, again effected by a reverb. In "Trust Doesn't Rust," KARR had no license plates. In KARR's second appearance, he had a California license plate that read "KARR". Despite various other changes, KARR's dashboard remains correct with continuity - he still has the earlier version of the dash as previously seen on KITT, whereas by the time of 'KITT Vs KARR', Bonnie had updated KITT's dash and various functions at the start of the third season.

 

KARR's personality is also somewhat different in the comeback episode. His childlike perceptions are diminished into a more devious personality, completely cold and bent on revenge. His self-preservation directive is no longer in play when KARR is close to exploding after receiving severe damage; he willingly turbo-jumps into a mid-air collision with KITT hoping that his own destruction would also spell his counterpart's. Even KARR's modus operandi is different; serviceful enough in the first episode, he aims to actually make use of other persons, anyone, to serve his own needs. One explanation of this change could be as a result of the damage he received after falling over the cliff at the end of "Trust Doesn't Rust", which further malfunctioned his programming. Indeed, KITT himself is seen to malfunction and suffer change of personality as a result of damage in several other episodes.

 

In "Trust Doesn't Rust" and the 2008 series, the voice of KARR was provided by voice actor Peter Cullen, better known as the voice of Optimus Prime in the Transformers cartoon series, and whom had a previous working relationship with series creator Glen A. Larson after voicing several Cylon characters in the original Battlestar Galactica. In "K.I.T.T. vs K.A.R.R.", KARR was voiced by Paul Frees, best known as the voice of Boris Badenov in the popular series The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show and as the voice of Ludwig Von Drake in the popular anthology series, Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color. As with William Daniels, the voice of KITT, who was never credited on-screen, Frees was uncredited on-screen for his role, leading Cullen to sometimes be mistakenly credited as providing KARR's voice in "K.I.T.T. vs K.A.R.R." Peter Cullen reprised his role as the voice of KARR in the 2009 Knight Rider episode, "Knight to King's Pawn."

 

[Text from Wikipedia]

 

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KARR_%28Knight_Rider%29

 

As corny as Knight Rider seems now, this show well and truley captured the imagination of my 11-year old self. Many of the 'futuristic' technologies incorporated into K.I.T.T. are now becoming commonplace.

 

This miniland-scale Lego Pontiac 1982 Firebird Trans Am 'K.A.R.R.' (Knight Rider TV Series - 1984) has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 91st Build Challenge, - "Anger Management", - all about cars with some link to being angry.

Michelangelo Merisi, called Caravaggio (1571-1610), active, among others, in Rome, Naples, Malta, Sicily

Rosary Madonna, around 1603

The Madonna requests Saint Dominic to spread rosaries to the people. The Saint Peter Martyr points to the origin of all graces, the Christ Child. The founder asks the viewer to go under the protection of the Dominic as well. Caravaggio probably painted the altarpiece in Rome, in 1620, it came as a donation of an artists' group (among them Rubens and Jan Brueghel) to the Dominican church in Antwerp and was bought by the Imperial Painting Gallery in 1781.

 

Michelangelo Merisi, genannt Caravaggio (1571-1610), tätig, unter anderen, in Rom, Neapel, Malta, Sizilien

Rosenkranzmadonna, um 1603

Die Madonna fordert den Heiligen Dominikus auf, Rosenkränze an das Volk zu verteilen. Der Heilige Petrus Martyr verweist zeigend auf den Ursprung aller Gnaden, den Christusknaben. Der Stifter fordert den Betrachter auf, sich ebenfalls unter den Schutz des Dominikus zu begeben. Caravaggio malte das Altarbild wahrscheinlich in Rom - 1620 kam es als Stiftung einer Künstlergemeinschaft (unter ihnen Rubens und Jan Brueghel) in die Dominikanerkirche nach Antwerpen und wurde 1781 von der kaiserlichen Gemäldegalerie angekauft.

 

Austria Kunsthistorisches Museum

Federal Museum

Logo KHM

Regulatory authority (ies)/organs to the Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Culture

Founded 17 October 1891

Headquartered Castle Ring (Burgring), Vienna 1, Austria

Management Sabine Haag

www.khm.at website

Main building of the Kunsthistorisches Museum at Maria-Theresa-Square

The Kunsthistorisches Museum (KHM abbreviated) is an art museum in Vienna. It is one of the largest and most important museums in the world. It was opened in 1891 and 2012 visited of 1.351.940 million people.

The museum

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is with its opposite sister building, the Natural History Museum (Naturhistorisches Museum), the most important historicist large buildings of the Ringstrasse time. Together they stand around the Maria Theresa square, on which also the Maria Theresa monument stands. This course spans the former glacis between today's ring road and 2-line, and is forming a historical landmark that also belongs to World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Vienna.

History

Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in his Gallery

The Museum came from the collections of the Habsburgs, especially from the portrait and armor collections of Ferdinand of Tyrol, the collection of Emperor Rudolf II (most of which, however scattered) and the art collection of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm into existence. Already In 1833 asked Joseph Arneth, curator (and later director) of the Imperial Coins and Antiquities Cabinet, bringing together all the imperial collections in a single building .

Architectural History

The contract to build the museum in the city had been given in 1858 by Emperor Franz Joseph. Subsequently, many designs were submitted for the ring road zone. Plans by August Sicard von Sicardsburg and Eduard van der Null planned to build two museum buildings in the immediate aftermath of the Imperial Palace on the left and right of the Heroes' Square (Heldenplatz). The architect Ludwig Förster planned museum buildings between the Schwarzenberg Square and the City Park, Martin Ritter von Kink favored buildings at the corner Währingerstraße/ Scots ring (Schottenring), Peter Joseph, the area Bellariastraße, Moritz von Loehr the south side of the opera ring, and Ludwig Zettl the southeast side of the grain market (Getreidemarkt).

From 1867, a competition was announced for the museums, and thereby set their current position - at the request of the Emperor, the museum should not be too close to the Imperial Palace, but arise beyond the ring road. The architect Carl von Hasenauer participated in this competition and was able the at that time in Zürich operating Gottfried Semper to encourage to work together. The two museum buildings should be built here in the sense of the style of the Italian Renaissance. The plans got the benevolence of the imperial family. In April 1869, there was an audience with of Joseph Semper at the Emperor Franz Joseph and an oral contract was concluded, in July 1870 was issued the written order to Semper and Hasenauer.

Crucial for the success of Semper and Hasenauer against the projects of other architects were among others Semper's vision of a large building complex called "Imperial Forum", in which the museums would have been a part of. Not least by the death of Semper in 1879 came the Imperial Forum not as planned for execution, the two museums were built, however.

Construction of the two museums began without ceremony on 27 November 1871 instead. Semper moved to Vienna in the sequence. From the beginning, there were considerable personal differences between him and Hasenauer, who finally in 1877 took over sole construction management. 1874, the scaffolds were placed up to the attic and the first floor completed, built in 1878, the first windows installed in 1879, the Attica and the balustrade from 1880 to 1881 and built the dome and the Tabernacle. The dome is topped with a bronze statue of Pallas Athena by Johannes Benk.

The lighting and air conditioning concept with double glazing of the ceilings made ​​the renunciation of artificial light (especially at that time, as gas light) possible, but this resulted due to seasonal variations depending on daylight to different opening times .

Kuppelhalle

Entrance (by clicking the link at the end of the side you can see all the pictures here indicated!)

Grand staircase

Hall

Empire

The Kunsthistorisches Museum was on 17 October 1891 officially opened by Emperor Franz Joseph I. Since 22 October 1891 , the museum is accessible to the public. Two years earlier, on 3 November 1889, the collection of arms, Arms and Armour today, had their doors open. On 1 January 1890 the library service resumed its operations. The merger and listing of other collections of the Highest Imperial Family from the Upper and Lower Belvedere, the Hofburg Palace and Ambras in Tyrol will need another two years.

189, the farm museum was organized in seven collections with three directorates:

Directorate of coins, medals and antiquities collection

The Egyptian Collection

The Antique Collection

The coins and medals collection

Management of the collection of weapons, art and industrial objects

Weapons collection

Collection of industrial art objects

Directorate of Art Gallery and Restaurieranstalt (Restoration Office)

Collection of watercolors, drawings, sketches, etc.

Restoration Office

Library

Very soon the room the Court Museum (Hofmuseum) for the imperial collections was offering became too narrow. To provide temporary help, an exhibition of ancient artifacts from Ephesus in the Theseus Temple was designed. However, additional space had to be rented in the Lower Belvedere.

1914, after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne, his " Estonian Forensic Collection " passed to the administration of the Court Museum. This collection, which emerged from the art collection of the house of d' Este and world travel collection of Franz Ferdinand, was placed in the New Imperial Palace since 1908. For these stocks, the present collection of old musical instruments and the Museum of Ethnology emerged.

The First World War went by, apart from the oppressive economic situation without loss. The farm museum remained during the five years of war regularly open to the public.

Until 1919 the K.K. Art Historical Court Museum was under the authority of the Oberstkämmereramt (head chamberlain office) and belonged to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. The officials and employees were part of the royal household.

First Republic

The transition from monarchy to republic, in the museum took place in complete tranquility. On 19 November 1918 the two imperial museums on Maria Theresa Square were placed under the state protection of the young Republic of German Austria. Threatening to the stocks of the museum were the claims raised in the following weeks and months of the "successor states" of the monarchy as well as Italy and Belgium on Austrian art collection. In fact, it came on 12th February 1919 to the violent removal of 62 paintings by armed Italian units. This "art theft" left a long time trauma among curators and art historians.

It was not until the Treaty of Saint-Germain of 10 September 1919, providing in Article 195 and 196 the settlement of rights in the cultural field by negotiations. The claims of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Italy again could mostly being averted in this way. Only Hungary, which presented the greatest demands by far, was met by more than ten years of negotiation in 147 cases.

On 3 April 1919 was the expropriation of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine by law and the acquisition of its property, including the "Collections of the Imperial House" , by the Republic. Of 18 June 1920 the then provisional administration of the former imperial museums and collections of Este and the secular and clergy treasury passed to the State Office of Internal Affairs and Education, since 10 November 1920, the Federal Ministry of the Interior and Education. A few days later it was renamed the Art History Court Museum in the "Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna State", 1921 "Kunsthistorisches Museum" . Of 1st January 1921 the employees of the museum staff passed to the state of the Republic.

Through the acquisition of the former imperial collections owned by the state, the museum found itself in a complete new situation. In order to meet the changed circumstances in the museum area, designed Hans Tietze in 1919 the "Vienna Museum program". It provided a close cooperation between the individual museums to focus at different houses on main collections. So dominated exchange, sales and equalizing the acquisition policy in the interwar period. Thus resulting until today still valid collection trends. Also pointing the way was the relocation of the weapons collection from 1934 in its present premises in the New Castle, where since 1916 the collection of ancient musical instruments was placed.

With the change of the imperial collections in the ownership of the Republic the reorganization of the internal organization went hand in hand, too. Thus the museum was divided in 1919 into the

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection (with the Oriental coins)

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Collection of ancient coins

Collection of modern coins and medals

Weapons collection

Collection of sculptures and crafts with the Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Picture Gallery

The Museum 1938-1945

Count Philipp Ludwig Wenzel Sinzendorf according to Rigaud. Clarisse 1948 by Baroness de Rothschildt "dedicated" to the memory of Baron Alphonse de Rothschildt; restituted to the Rothschilds in 1999, and in 1999 donated by Bettina Looram Rothschild, the last Austrian heiress.

With the "Anschluss" of Austria to the German Reich all Jewish art collections such as the Rothschilds were forcibly "Aryanised". Collections were either "paid" or simply distributed by the Gestapo at the museums. This resulted in a significant increase in stocks. But the KHM was not the only museum that benefited from the linearization. Systematically looted Jewish property was sold to museums, collections or in pawnshops throughout the empire.

After the war, the museum struggled to reimburse the "Aryanised" art to the owners or their heirs. They forced the Rothschild family to leave the most important part of their own collection to the museum and called this "dedications", or "donations". As a reason, was the export law stated, which does not allow owners to perform certain works of art out of the country. Similar methods were used with other former owners. Only on the basis of international diplomatic and media pressure, to a large extent from the United States, the Austrian government decided to make a change in the law (Art Restitution Act of 1998, the so-called Lex Rothschild). The art objects were the Rothschild family refunded only in the 1990s.

The Kunsthistorisches Museum operates on the basis of the federal law on the restitution of art objects from the 4th December 1998 (Federal Law Gazette I, 181 /1998) extensive provenance research. Even before this decree was carried out in-house provenance research at the initiative of the then archive director Herbert Haupt. This was submitted in 1998 by him in collaboration with Lydia Grobl a comprehensive presentation of the facts about the changes in the inventory levels of the Kunsthistorisches Museum during the Nazi era and in the years leading up to the State Treaty of 1955, an important basis for further research provenance.

The two historians Susanne Hehenberger and Monika Löscher are since 1st April 2009 as provenance researchers at the Kunsthistorisches Museum on behalf of the Commission for Provenance Research operating and they deal with the investigation period from 1933 to the recent past.

The museum today

Today the museum is as a federal museum, with 1st January 1999 released to the full legal capacity - it was thus the first of the state museums of Austria, implementing the far-reaching self-financing. It is by far the most visited museum in Austria with 1.3 million visitors (2007).

The Kunsthistorisches Museum is under the name Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum with company number 182081t since 11 June 1999 as a research institution under public law of the Federal virtue of the Federal Museums Act, Federal Law Gazette I/115/1998 and the Museum of Procedure of the Kunsthistorisches Museum and Museum of Ethnology and the Austrian Theatre Museum, 3 January 2001, BGBl II 2/ 2001, in force since 1 January 2001, registered.

In fiscal 2008, the turnover was 37.185 million EUR and total assets amounted to EUR 22.204 million. In 2008 an average of 410 workers were employed.

Management

1919-1923: Gustav Glück as the first chairman of the College of science officials

1924-1933: Hermann Julius Hermann 1924-1925 as the first chairman of the College of the scientific officers in 1925 as first director

1933: Arpad Weixlgärtner first director

1934-1938: Alfred Stix first director

1938-1945: Fritz Dworschak 1938 as acting head, from 1938 as a chief in 1941 as first director

1945-1949: August von Loehr 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of the historical collections of the Federation

1945-1949: Alfred Stix 1945-1948 as executive director of the State Art Collections in 1949 as general director of art historical collections of the Federation

1949-1950: Hans Demel as administrative director

1950: Karl Wisoko-Meytsky as general director of art and historical collections of the Federation

1951-1952: Fritz Eichler as administrative director

1953-1954: Ernst H. Buschbeck as administrative director

1955-1966: Vincent Oberhammer 1955-1959 as administrative director, from 1959 as first director

1967: Edward Holzmair as managing director

1968-1972: Erwin Auer first director

1973-1981: Friderike Klauner first director

1982-1990: Hermann Fillitz first director

1990: George Kugler as interim first director

1990-2008: Wilfried Seipel as general director

Since 2009: Sabine Haag as general director

Collections

To the Kunsthistorisches Museum are also belonging the collections of the New Castle, the Austrian Theatre Museum in Palais Lobkowitz, the Museum of Ethnology and the Wagenburg (wagon fortress) in an outbuilding of Schönbrunn Palace. A branch office is also Ambras in Innsbruck.

Kunsthistorisches Museum (main building)

Picture Gallery

Egyptian and Near Eastern Collection

Collection of Classical Antiquities

Vienna Chamber of Art

Numismatic Collection

Library

New Castle

Ephesus Museum

Collection of Ancient Musical Instruments

Arms and Armour

Archive

Hofburg

The imperial crown in the Treasury

Imperial Treasury of Vienna

Insignia of the Austrian Hereditary Homage

Insignia of imperial Austria

Insignia of the Holy Roman Empire

Burgundian Inheritance and the Order of the Golden Fleece

Habsburg-Lorraine Household Treasure

Ecclesiastical Treasury

Schönbrunn Palace

Imperial Carriage Museum Vienna

Armory in Ambras Castle

Ambras Castle

Collections of Ambras Castle

Major exhibits

Among the most important exhibits of the Art Gallery rank inter alia:

Jan van Eyck: Cardinal Niccolò Albergati, 1438

Martin Schongauer: Holy Family, 1475-80

Albrecht Dürer : Trinity Altar, 1509-16

Portrait Johann Kleeberger, 1526

Parmigianino: Self Portrait in Convex Mirror, 1523/24

Giuseppe Arcimboldo: Summer 1563

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary 1606/ 07

Caravaggio: Madonna of the Rosary (1606-1607)

Titian: Nymph and Shepherd to 1570-75

Portrait of Jacopo de Strada, 1567/68

Raffaello Santi: Madonna of the Meadow, 1505 /06

Lorenzo Lotto: Portrait of a young man against white curtain, 1508

Peter Paul Rubens: The altar of St. Ildefonso, 1630-32

The Little Fur, about 1638

Jan Vermeer: The Art of Painting, 1665/66

Pieter Bruegel the Elder: Fight between Carnival and Lent, 1559

Kids, 1560

Tower of Babel, 1563

Christ Carrying the Cross, 1564

Gloomy Day (Early Spring), 1565

Return of the Herd (Autumn), 1565

Hunters in the Snow (Winter) 1565

Bauer and bird thief, 1568

Peasant Wedding, 1568/69

Peasant Dance, 1568/69

Paul's conversion (Conversion of St Paul), 1567

Cabinet of Curiosities:

Saliera from Benvenuto Cellini 1539-1543

Egyptian-Oriental Collection:

Mastaba of Ka Ni Nisut

Collection of Classical Antiquities:

Gemma Augustea

Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós

Gallery: Major exhibits

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum