Snowdonia, or Eryri is a mountainous region and national park in North Wales. It contains all 15 mountains in Wales over 3000 feet high, including the country's highest, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which is 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) tall. These peaks are all part of the Snowdon, Glyderau, and Carneddau ranges in the north of the region. The shorter Moelwynion and Moel Hebog ranges lie immediately to the south.

 

The national park has an area of 823 square miles (2,130 km2) (the fourth-largest in the UK), and covers most of central and southern Gwynedd and the western part of Conwy County Borough. This is much larger than the area traditionally considered Snowdonia, and in addition to the five ranges above includes the Rhinogydd, Cadair Idris, and Aran ranges and the Dyfi Hills. It also includes most of the coast between Porthmadog and Aberdyfi. The park was the first of the three national parks of Wales to be designated, in October 1951, and the third in the UK after the Peak District and Lake District, which were established in April and May 1951 respectively. The park received 3.89 million visitors in 2015.

 

The name Snowdon means 'snow hill' and is derived from the Old English elements snāw and dūn, the latter meaning 'hill'. Snowdonia is simply taken from the name of the mountain.

 

The origins of Eryri are less clear. Two popular interpretations are that the name is related to eryr, 'eagle', and that it means 'highlands' and is related to the Latin oriri ('to rise'). Although eryri is not any direct form of the word eryr in the meaning 'eagle', it is a plural form of eryr in the meaning 'upland'.

 

Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, "Snowdonia" was generally used to refer to a smaller upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif. The national park covers an area more than twice that size, extending south into the Meirionnydd area.

 

This difference is apparent in books published before 1951. In George Borrow's 1907 Wild Wales he states that "Snowdon or Eryri is no single hill, but a mountainous region, the loftiest part of which is called Y Wyddfa", making a distinction between the summit of the mountain and the surrounding massif. The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925) defines "Eryri" as "composed of the two cantrefs of Arfon and Arllechwedd, and the two commotes of Nant Conwy and Eifionydd", which corresponds to Caernarfonshire with the exception of southwest Llŷn and the Creuddyn Peninsula. In Snowdonia: The National Park of North Wales (1949), F. J. North states that "When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper".

 

Snowdonia National Park, also known as Eryri National Park in English and Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri in Welsh, was established in October 1951. It was the third national park in the United Kingdom, following the Peak District and Lake District in April and May of the same year. It covers 827 square miles (2,140 km2) in the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, and has 37 miles (60 km) of coastline.

 

The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which has 18 members: 9 appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and 6 by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest. The authority's main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth.

 

The park authority used Snowdonia and Snowdon when referring to the national park and mountain in English until February 2023, when it resolved to primarily use the Welsh names, Eryri and Yr Wyddfa. There will be a transitional period of approximately two years in which the authority will continue to use the English names in parentheses — for example "Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon)" — where the context requires.

 

Unlike national parks in other countries, national parks in the UK are made up of both public and private lands under a central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership in the national park is as follows:

 

More than 26,000 people live within the park, of whom 58.6% could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is either open or mountainous land, there is a significant amount of agricultural activity within the park.

 

The national park does not include the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which forms a unique non-designated enclave within the park boundaries. The town was deliberately excluded from the park when it was established because of its slate quarrying industry. The boundaries of the Peak District National Park exclude the town of Buxton and its adjacent limestone quarries for a similar reason.

 

The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.

 

The principal ranges of the traditional Snowdonia are the Snowdon massif itself, the Glyderau, the Carneddau, the Moelwynion and the Moel Hebog range. All of Wales' 3000ft mountains are to be found within the first three of these massifs and are most popular with visitors. To their south within the wider national park are the Rhinogydd and the Cadair Idris and Aran Fawddwy ranges. Besides these well-defined areas are a host of mountains which are less readily grouped though various guidebook writers have assigned them into groups such as the 'Arenigs', the 'Tarrens' and the 'Dyfi hills'.

 

Snowdon's summit at 1085 metres (3560 feet) is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970 feet) Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia; Cadair Idris, at 893 metres (2930 feet), is next in line.

 

Rivers draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dyfi. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.

 

There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Bala Lake, a few lakes occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas, Llyn Gwynant, and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cadair Idris.

 

There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Ffestiniog Power Station's Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes. A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales. In 2023, the park standardised its Welsh language lake names, to be also used in English.

 

The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations have two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, the Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries, have large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife: see #Natural history. The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy, where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnels.

 

There are only three towns within the park boundary, though there are several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it, whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park; indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of the towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.

 

There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park: prominent amongst these are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdyfi on the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid), Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.

 

Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.

 

The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth. The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the Grade II* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.

 

Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.

 

The national park is served by a growing bus network, branded Sherpa'r Wyddfa (formerly Snowdon Sherpa). Together with the TrawsCymru network of buses this provides a car-free option to tourists and locals wishing to travel across the National Park.

 

The network was relaunched in July 2022 with a new brand, Sherpa'r Wyddfa, to reflect the National Park's new push for the promotion of Welsh place names. As such the publicity and websites for the newly branded service only use these Welsh names, even for English language users.

 

Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)

 

The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000–3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.

 

The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.

 

There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too. In the Middle Ages, the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia (Tywysog Cymru ac Arglwydd Eryri) was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd; his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.

 

The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.

 

The Snowdonia Society is a registered charity formed in 1967; it is a voluntary group of people with an interest in the area and its protection.

 

Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine.

 

The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.

 

The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.

 

Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.

 

One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.

 

Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.

 

Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.

 

There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Snowdonia, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.

 

The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park: Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog and Snowdon.

 

The twelve SACs are as follows: Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau, and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd, and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.

 

The three SPAs are Dovey Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.

 

The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).

 

The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.

 

The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.

 

Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.

 

The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.

 

Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.

 

Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.

 

Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.

 

The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.

 

The park has 1,479 miles (2,380 km) of public footpaths, 164 miles (264 km) of public bridleways, and 46 miles (74 km) of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.

 

The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path, which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy that stays almost entirely within the national park from Mallwyd northwards. It was officially recognised in 2019, and is now depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.

 

The use of the English names for the area has been divisive, with an increase in protests against their use since 2020; these led to the national park authority deciding to use Welsh names as far as legally possible in November 2022. An early example of pressure to deprecate Snowdon and Snowdonia was a 2003 campaign by Cymuned, inspired by campaigns to refer to Ayers Rock as Uluru and Mount Everest as Qomolangma.

 

In 2020 an e-petition calling for the removal of the English names was put forward to the Senedd, but rejected as responsibility lies with the national park authority. In 2021 an e-petition on the same topic attracted more than 5,300 signatures and was presented to the national park authority.

 

On 28 April 2021 Gwynedd councillor John Pughe Roberts put forward a motion to use the Welsh names exclusively, calling this a "question of respect for the Welsh language". The motion was not considered and delayed, as the national park authority already appointed a "Welsh Place Names Task and Finish Group" to investigate the issue. The park authority however cannot compel other bodies and/or individuals to stop using the English names, with the proposals facing some criticism.

 

In May 2021, following the dismissal of the motion, YouGov conducted a poll on Snowdon's name. 60% of Welsh adults supported the English name Snowdon, compared to 30% wanting the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa. Separating by language, 59% of Welsh speakers preferred the Welsh name, but 37% of these still wanted Snowdon to be used as well. 69% of non-Welsh speakers firmly supported Snowdon as the Mountain's name. The proposals to rename Snowdon are usually accompanied with proposals to rename Snowdonia.

 

On 16 November 2022, Members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority committee voted to use the Welsh names Yr Wyddfa and Eryri to refer to the mountain and the national park, rather than the English names, in materials produced by the authority. The national park authority described the decision as "decisive action" and the authority's head of culture heritage stated that Welsh place names were part of the area's "special qualities" and that other public bodies, English-language press and filming companies have used the Welsh-language names. Before the decision the park had already prioritised the Welsh names by using them first and giving the English names in parentheses. The name "Snowdonia" cannot be abandoned entirely, as it is set in law and so must be used in statutory documents. The authority announced a review of the authority's branding in 2023 to adapt to the new approach to Welsh place names.

 

Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.

 

The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).

 

The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.

 

In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.

 

Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.

 

The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.

 

The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.

 

The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.

 

A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.

 

The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.

 

There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.

 

The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.

 

Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.

 

The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.

 

Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.

 

The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.

 

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.

Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.

 

It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.

 

The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.

 

The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.

 

Notable people

Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth

Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon

Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle

Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University

Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.

Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog

Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy

Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas

Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion

Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.

Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI

Check out www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01tmq6c to see an excerpt from next Tuesday's episode of The Hill Farm. Starts Tuesday, 18 March at 7.30pm on BBC Two Wales. The farm where Laddie was born.

Available on Sky channel 971 outside Wales. It will be on the BBCi player so those of you without Sky or can't get BBC Wales will be able to watch it.

  

Syracuse is a historic city in Sicily, the capital of the province of Syracuse. The city is notable for its rich Greek history, culture, amphitheatres, architecture, and as the birthplace of the preeminent mathematician and engineer Archimedes.This 2,700-year-old city played a key role in ancient times, when it was one of the major powers of the Mediterranean world. Syracuse is located in the southeast corner of the island of Sicily, next to the Gulf of Syracuse beside the Ionian Sea.

 

The city was founded by Ancient Greek Corinthians and Teneans and became a very powerful city-state. Syracuse was allied with Sparta and Corinth and exerted influence over the entirety of Magna Graecia, of which it was the most important city. Described by Cicero as "the greatest Greek city and the most beautiful of them all", it equaled Athens in size during the fifth century BC. It later became part of the Roman Republic and Byzantine Empire. After this Palermo overtook it in importance, as the capital of the Kingdom of Sicily. Eventually the kingdom would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form the Two Sicilies until the Italian unification of 1860.

 

In the modern day, the city is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site along with the Necropolis of Pantalica. In the central area, the city itself has a population of around 125,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Siracusans. Syracuse is mentioned in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles book at 28:12 as Paul stayed there. The patron saint of the city is Saint Lucy; she was born in Syracuse and her feast day, Saint Lucy's Day, is celebrated on 13 December.

 

Syracuse and its surrounding area have been inhabited since ancient times, as shown by the findings in the villages of Stentinello, Ognina, Plemmirio, Matrensa, Cozzo Pantano and Thapsos, which already had a relationship with Mycenaean Greece.

 

Syracuse was founded in 734 or 733 BC by Greek settlers from Corinth and Tenea, led by the oecist (colonizer) Archias. There are many attested variants of the name of the city including Συράκουσαι Syrakousai, Συράκοσαι Syrakosai and Συρακώ Syrako. A possible origin of the city's name was given by Vibius Sequester citing first Stephanus Byzantium] in that there was a Syracusian marsh (λίμνη) called Syrako and secondly Marcian's Periegesis wherein Archias gave the city the name of a nearby marsh; hence one gets Syrako (and thereby Syrakousai and other variants) for the name of Syracuse, a name also attested by Epicharmus. The settlement of Syracuse was a planned event, as a strong central leader, Arkhias the aristocrat, laid out how property would be divided up for the settlers, as well as plans for how the streets of the settlement should be arranged, and how wide they should be. The nucleus of the ancient city was the small island of Ortygia. The settlers found the land fertile and the native tribes to be reasonably well-disposed to their presence. The city grew and prospered, and for some time stood as the most powerful Greek city anywhere in the Mediterranean. Colonies were founded at Akrai (664 BC), Kasmenai (643 BC), Akrillai (7th century BC), Helorus (7th century BC) and Kamarina (598 BC).

 

The descendants of the first colonists, called Gamoroi, held power until they were expelled by the Killichiroi, the lower class of the city. The former, however, returned to power in 485 BC, thanks to the help of Gelo, ruler of Gela. Gelo himself became the despot of the city, and moved many inhabitants of Gela, Kamarina and Megera to Syracuse, building the new quarters of Tyche and Neapolis outside the walls. His program of new constructions included a new theatre, designed by Damocopos, which gave the city a flourishing cultural life: this in turn attracted personalities as Aeschylus, Ario of Methymna, Eumelos of Corinth and Sappho, who had been exiled here from Mytilene. The enlarged power of Syracuse made unavoidable the clash against the Carthaginians, who ruled western Sicily. In the Battle of Himera, Gelo, who had allied with Theron of Agrigento, decisively defeated the African force led by Hamilcar. A temple dedicated to Athena (on the site of today's Cathedral), was erected in the city to commemorate the event.

 

Syracuse grew considerably during this time. Its walls encircled 120 hectares (300 acres) in the fifth century, but as early as the 470's BC the inhabitants started building outside the walls. The complete population of its territory approximately numbered 250,000 in 415 BC and the population size of the city itself was probably similar to Athens.

 

Gelo was succeeded by his brother Hiero, who fought against the Etruscans at Cumae in 474 BC. His rule was eulogized by poets like Simonides of Ceos, Bacchylides and Pindar, who visited his court. A democratic regime was introduced by Thrasybulos (467 BC).[13] The city continued to expand in Sicily, fighting against the rebellious Siculi, and on the Tyrrhenian Sea, making expeditions up to Corsica and Elba. In the late 5th century BC, Syracuse found itself at war with Athens, which sought more resources to fight the Peloponnesian War. The Syracusans enlisted the aid of a general from Sparta, Athens' foe in the war, to defeat the Athenians, destroy their ships, and leave them to starve on the island (see Sicilian Expedition). In 401 BC, Syracuse contributed a force of 3,000 hoplites and a general to Cyrus the Younger's Army of the Ten Thousand.

 

Then in the early 4th century BC, the tyrant Dionysius the Elder was again at war against Carthage and, although losing Gela and Camarina, kept that power from capturing the whole of Sicily. After the end of the conflict Dionysius built a massive fortress on Ortygia and 22 km-long walls around all of Syracuse. Another period of expansion saw the destruction of Naxos, Catania and Lentini; then Syracuse entered again in war against Carthage (397 BC). After various changes of fortune, the Carthaginians managed to besiege Syracuse itself, but were eventually pushed back by a pestilence. A treaty in 392 BC allowed Syracuse to enlarge further its possessions, founding the cities of Adranon, Tyndarion and Tauromenos, and conquering Rhegion on the continent. In the Adriatic, to facilitate trade, Dionysius the Elder founded Ancona, Adria and Issa. Apart from his battle deeds, Dionysius was famous as a patron of art, and Plato himself visited Syracuse several times.

 

His successor was Dionysius the Younger, who was however expelled by Dion in 356 BC. But the latter's despotic rule led in turn to his expulsion, and Dionysius reclaimed his throne in 347 BC. Dionysius was besieged in Syracuse by the Syracusan general Hicetas in 344 BC. The following year the Corinthian Timoleon installed a democratic regime in the city after he exiled Dionysius and defeated Hicetas. The long series of internal struggles had weakened Syracuse's power on the island, and Timoleon tried to remedy this, defeating the Carthaginians in the Battle of the Crimissus (339 BC).

 

After Timoleon's death the struggle among the city's parties restarted and ended with the rise of another tyrant, Agathocles, who seized power with a coup in 317 BC. He resumed the war against Carthage, with alternate fortunes. He was besieged in Syracuse by the Carthaginians in 311 BC, but he escaped from the city with a small fleet. He scored a moral success, bringing the war to the Carthaginians' native African soil, inflicting heavy losses to the enemy. The defenders of Syracuse destroyed the Carthaginian army which besieged them. However, Agathocles was eventually defeated in Africa as well. The war ended with another treaty of peace which did not prevent the Carthaginians from interfering in the politics of Syracuse after the death of Agathocles (289 BC). They laid siege to Syracuse for the fourth and last time in 278 BC. They retreated at the arrival of king Pyrrhus of Epirus, whom Syracuse had asked for help. After a brief period under the rule of Epirus, Hiero II seized power in 275 BC.

 

Hiero inaugurated a period of 50 years of peace and prosperity, in which Syracuse became one of the most renowned capitals of Antiquity. He issued the so-called Lex Hieronica, which was later adopted by the Romans for their administration of Sicily; he also had the theatre enlarged and a new immense altar, the "Hiero's Ara", built. Under his rule lived the most famous Syracusan, the mathematician and natural philosopher Archimedes. Among his many inventions were various military engines including the claw of Archimedes, later used to resist the Roman siege of 214 BC–212 BC. Literary figures included Theocritus and others.

 

Hiero's successor, the young Hieronymus (ruled from 215 BC), broke the alliance with the Romans after their defeat at the Battle of Cannae and accepted Carthage's support. The Romans, led by consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, besieged the city in 214 BC. The city held out for three years, but fell in 212 BC. The successes of the Syracusians in repelling the Roman siege had made them overconfident. In 212 BC, the Romans received information that the city's inhabitants were to participate in the annual festival to their goddess Artemis. A small party of Roman soldiers approached the city under the cover of night and managed to scale the walls to get into the outer city and with reinforcements soon took control, killing Archimedes in the process, but the main fortress remained firm. After an eight-month siege and with parleys in progress, an Iberian captain named Moeriscus is believed to have let the Romans in near the Fountains of Arethusa. On the agreed signal, during a diversionary attack, he opened the gate. After setting guards on the houses of the pro-Roman faction, Marcellus gave Syracuse to plunder.

 

Imperial Roman and Byzantine period include

 

The Roman amphitheatre

 

The Temple of Apollo

 

Piazza Duomo

 

The Cathedral

Though declining slowly through the years, Syracuse maintained the status of capital of the Roman government of Sicily and seat of the praetor. It remained an important port for trade between the Eastern and the Western parts of the Empire. Christianity spread in the city through the efforts of Paul of Tarsus and Saint Marziano, the first bishop of the city, who made it one of the main centres of proselytism in the West. In the age of persecutions by Christians massive catacombs were carved, whose size is second only to those of Rome.

 

After a period of Vandal rule, Syracuse and the island was recovered by Belisarius for the Byzantine Empire (31 December 535). From 663 to 668 Syracuse was the seat of Emperor Constans II, as well as metropolis of the whole Sicilian Church.

 

Emirate of Sicily.

The city was besieged by the Aghlabids for almost a year in 827–828, but Byzantine reinforcements prevented its fall. It remained the center of Byzantine resistance to the gradual Muslim conquest of Sicily until it fell to the Aghlabids after another siege on 20/21 May 878. During the two centuries of Muslim rule, the capital of the Emirate of Sicily was moved from Syracuse to Palermo. The Cathedral was converted into a mosque and the quarter on the Ortygia island was gradually rebuilt along Islamic styles. The city, nevertheless, maintained important trade relationships, and housed a relatively flourishing cultural and artistic life: several Arab poets, including Ibn Hamdis, the most important Sicilian Arab poet of the 12th century, flourished in the city.

 

In 1038, the Byzantine general George Maniakes reconquered the city, sending the relics of St. Lucy to Constantinople. The eponymous castle on the cape of Ortygia bears his name, although it was built under the Hohenstaufen rule. In 1085 the Normans entered Syracuse, one of the last Arab strongholds, after a summer-long siege by Roger I of Sicily and his son Jordan of Hauteville, who was given the city as count. New quarters were built, and the cathedral was restored, as well as other churches.

  

In 1194, Emperor Henry VI occupied the Sicilian kingdom, including Syracuse. After a short period of Genoese rule (1205–1220) under the notorious admiral and pirate Alamanno da Costa, which favoured a rise of trades, royal authority was re-asserted in the city by Frederick II. He began the construction of the Castello Maniace, the Bishops' Palace and the Bellomo Palace. Frederick's death brought a period of unrest and feudal anarchy. In the War of the Sicilian Vespers between the Angevin and Aragonese dynasties for control of Sicily, Syracuse sided with the Aragonese and expelled the Angevins in 1298, receiving from the Spanish sovereigns great privileges in reward. The preeminence of baronal families is also shown by the construction of the palaces of Abela, Chiaramonte, Nava, Montalto.

  

The city was struck by two ruinous earthquakes in 1542 and 1693, and a plague in 1729. The 17th century destruction changed the appearance of Syracuse forever, as well as the entire Val di Noto, whose cities were rebuilt along the typical lines of Sicilian Baroque, considered one of the most typical expressions of art of Southern Italy. The spread of cholera in 1837 led to a revolt against the Bourbon government. The punishment was the move of the province capital seat to Noto, but the unrest had not been totally choked, as the Siracusani took part in the Sicilian revolution of independence of 1848.

 

After the Unification of Italy of 1865, Syracuse regained its status of provincial capital. In 1870 the walls were demolished and a bridge connecting the mainland to Ortygia island was built. In the following year a railway link was constructed.

  

Heavy destruction was caused during World War II by both the Allied and German bombings in 1943. Operation Husky, the codename for the Allied invasion of Sicily, was launched on the night between 9–10 July 1943 with British forces attacking the west of the island. The British 5th Infantry Division, part of General Sir Bernard Montgomery's Eighth Army, captured Syracuse on the first day of the invasion almost unopposed. The port was then used as a base for the British Royal Navy. To the west of the city is a Commonwealth War Graves cemetery where about 1,000 men are buried. After the end of the war the northern quarters of Syracuse experienced a heavy, often chaotic, expansion, favoured by the quick process of industrialization.

 

Syracuse today has about 125,000 inhabitants and numerous attractions for the visitor interested in historical sites (such as the Ear of Dionysius). A process of recovering and restoring the historical centre has been ongoing since the 1990s. Nearby places of note include Catania, Noto, Modica and Ragusa.

  

Syracuse experiences a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa) with mild, wet winters and warm to hot, dry summers. Snow is infrequent but not rare at all; the last heavy snowfall in the city occurred in December but frosts are very rare, the last one happening in December

  

In 2016, there were 122,051[1] people residing in Syracuse, located in the province of Syracuse, Sicily, of whom 48.7% were male and 51.3% were female. Minors (children ages 18 and younger) totalled 18.87 percent of the population compared to pensioners who number 16.87 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Syracuse resident is 40 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Syracuse declined by 0.49 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The reason for decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and northern Italy.[18][19] The current birth rate of Syracuse is 9.75 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births.

 

As of 2006, 97.9% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from other European nations (particularly those from Poland, and the United Kingdom): 0.61%, North Africa (mostly Tunisian): 0.51%, and South Asia: 0.37%.

  

Since 2005, the entire city of Syracuse, along with the Necropolis of Pantalica which falls within the province of Syracuse, were listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. This programme aims to catalogue, name and conserve sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common heritage of humanity. The deciding committee which evaluates potential candidates described their reasons for choosing Syracuse because "monuments and archeological sites situated in Syracuse are the finest example of outstanding architectural creation spanning several cultural aspects; Greek, Roman and Baroque", following on that Ancient Syracuse was "directly linked to events, ideas and literary works of outstanding universal significance".

 

Buildings of the Greek period include,

The Temple of Apollo, at Piazza Emanuele Pancali, adapted to a church in Byzantine times and to a mosque under Arab rule.

The Fountain of Arethusa, on the Ortygia island. According to a legend, the nymph Arethusa, hunted by Alpheus, took shelter here.

The Greek Theatre, whose cavea is one of the largest ever built by the ancient Greeks: it has 67 rows, divided into nine sections with eight aisles. Only traces of the scene and the orchestra remain. The edifice (still used today) was modified by the Romans, who adapted it to their different style of spectacles, including also circus games. Near the theatre are the latomìe, stone quarries, also used as prisons in ancient times. The most famous latomìa is the Orecchio di Dionisio ("Ear of Dionysius").

The Roman amphitheatre. It was partly carved out from the rock. In the centre of the area is a rectangular space which was used for the scenic machinery.

The Tomb of Archimede, in the Grotticelli Nechropolis. Decorated with two Doric columns.

The Temple of Olympian Zeus, about 3 kilometres (2 miles) outside the city, built around 6th century BC.

   

The Cathedral of Syracuse (Italian: Duomo) was built by bishop Zosimo in the 7th century over the great Temple of Athena (5th century BC), on Ortygia island. This was a Doric edifice with six columns on the short sides and 14 on the long sides: these can still be seen incorporated in the walls of the current church. The base of the temple had three steps. The interior of the church has a nave and two aisles. The roof of the nave is from Norman times, as well as the mosaics in the apses. The façade was rebuilt by Andrea Palma in 1725–1753, with a double order of Corinthian columns, and statues by Ignazio Marabitti. The most interesting pieces of the interior are a font with marble basin (12th–13th century), a silver statue of St. Lucy by Pietro Rizzo (1599), a ciborium by Luigi Vanvitelli, and a statue of the Madonna della Neve ("Madonna of the Snow", 1512) by Antonello Gagini.

Basilica of Santa Lucia extra Moenia, a Byzantine church built, according to tradition, in the same place of the martyrdom of the saint in 303 AD. The current appearance is from the 15th-16th centuries. The most ancient parts still preserved include the portal, the three half-circular apses and the first two orders of the belfry. Under the church are the Catacombs of St. Lucy. For this church Caravaggio painted the Burial of St. Lucy, now housed in the Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa.

Our Lady of Tears Shrine (20th century).

Church of San Paolo (18th century).

Church of San Cristoforo (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century).

Church of Santa Lucìa alla Badìa, a Baroque edifice built after the 1693 earthquake. It houses the Burial of St. Lucy by Caravaggio

Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (13th century).

Church of the Spirito Santo (18th century).

Church of the Jesuit College, a majestic, Baroque building.

Church of St. Benedict (16th century, restored after 1693). It houses a painting of the Death of Saint Benedict by the Caravaggisti Mario Minniti.

Chiesa della Concezione (14th century, rebuilt in the 18th century), with the annexed Benedictine convent.

Church of San Francesco all'Immacolata, with a convex façade intermingled by columns and pilaster strips. It housed and ancient celebration, the Svelata ("Revelation"), in which an image of the Madonna was unveiled at dawn of 29 November.

Basilica of St. John the Evangelist, built by the Normans and destroyed in 1693. Only partially restored, it was erected over an ancient crypt of the martyr San Marciano, later destroyed by the Arabs. The main altar is Byzantine. It includes the Catacombs of San Giovanni, featuring a maze of tunnels and passages, with thousands of tombs and several frescoes.

  

Castello Maniace, constructed between 1232 and 1240, is an example of the military architecture of Frederick II's reign. It is a square structure with circular towers at each of the four corners. The most striking feature is the pointed portal, decorated with polychrome marbles.

The important Archaeological Museum, with collections including findings from the mid-Bronze Age to 5th century BC.

Palazzo Lanza Buccheri (16th century).

Palazzo Bellomo (12th century), which contains an art museum that houses Antonello da Messina's Annunciation (1474).

Palazzo Montalto (14th century), which conserves the old façade from the 14th century, with a pointed portal.

The Archbishop's Palace (17th century, modified in the following century). It houses the Alagonian Library, founded in the late 18th century.

The Palazzo Vermexio, the current Town Hall, which includes fragments of an Ionic temple of the 5th century BC.

Palazzo Francica Nava, with parts of the original 16th century building surviving.

Palazzo Beneventano del Bosco, originally built in the Middle Ages but extensively modified between 1779 and 1788. It has a pleasant internal court.

Palazzo Migliaccio (15th century), with notable lava inlay decorations.

The Senate Palace, housing in the court an 18th-century coach.

The Castle of Euryalos, built 9 kilometres (6 miles) outside the city by Dionysius the Elder and which was one of the most powerful fortresses of ancient times. It had three moats with a series of underground galleries which allowed the defenders to remove the materials the attackers could use to fill them.

The Mikveh: a bath used for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism, built during the Byzantine era. It is situated in the Giudecca: the ancient Jewish Ghetto of Syracuse.

Origin: Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

Year: 1978

Artist: A. Timofeev

D’origine sibérienne, la Grive litorne a atteint le sud-est de la France au terme de plusieurs vagues d’expansion vers l’ouest, colonisant faiblement Genève et le Tessin en raison de leur situation marginale, au sud-ouest de son aire de répartition actuelle. Idéalement, la Litorne niche dans des arbres isolés, cordons boisés ou lisières de forêt et se nourrit dans des prairies, pâturages ou champs voisins, plutôt humides et ras. Les densités de plus de 10 territoires/km2, pour partie dues à des colonies, concernent en priorité le Jura neuchâtelois, les Franches-Montagnes JU, le centre du Plateau et la région d’Urnäsch AR, mais la moitié des carrés kilométriques recensés dans le pays n’abritent que 1-2 territoires. Les effectifs se concentrent à 80 % au-dessous de 1200 m, même si la Litorne se rencontre jusqu’à la limite des arbres ; des cas de reproduction sont d’ailleurs connus jusqu’à 2300 m, récemment jusqu’à 2140 m à Zermatt VS (J. Duplain).

La population suisse a perdu environ 60 % de son volume de 2002 à 2006 et fluctue depuis lors à ce niveau, si bien que la progression de 1993-1996 dans le sud du pays s’est pratiquement arrêtée. Même si les pertes concernent surtout les Préalpes et le Plateau, elles sont sensibles à toutes altitudes et plus marquées en dessous de 1000 m. L’effectif a ainsi diminué de près de 50 % dans le canton de Zurich de 1988 à 2008 et de 75 % au lac de Constance de 1980 à 2010. Les tendances sont aussi négatives dans les pays voisins, ainsi qu’en Belgique et aux Pays-Bas, et s’opposent à la stabilité des effectifs européens et aux augmentations jusqu’au début du millénaire, puis à leur constance depuis lors en Pologne et en République tchèque.

 

En Suisse, les déclins majeurs touchent d’abord les versants pluvieux du nord des Alpes. Les variations d’effectifs ne sont toufefois guère corrélées à l’irruption d’épisodes secs en période de nourrissage, qui privent alors la Litorne de son principal aliment, les vers de terre. D’autres facteurs jouent sans doute un rôle plus important, comme, dans la plaine de l’Aar BE/SO, la diminution de la taille des colonies. La diversité des tendances en Europe pourrait traduire un large recul en marge ouest de distribution, dont les causes sont encore à clarifier.

 

Source : www.vogelwarte.ch/fr/atlas/especes#grive-litorne

Assassin's Creed Origins is an action-adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the tenth major installment in the Assassin's Creed series and the successor to 2015's Assassin's Creed Syndicate. It was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One on October 27, 2017. The game is set in Ancient Egypt during the Ptolemaic period and recounts the secret fictional history of real-world events. The story explores the origins of the centuries-long conflict between the Brotherhood of Assassins, who fight for peace by promoting liberty and The Order of the Ancients—forerunners to the Templar Order—who desire peace through the forceful imposition of order. Origins received positive reviews from critics, who praised the story, voice acting, immersive world of Egypt and visuals, while criticizing some of the pacing and technical issues. Despite this, some critics called it the best installment of the series since 2013's Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag.

 

Edited from the Victoria County History:

The parish church of St Edmund, Abbess Roding, consists of nave, chancel, west tower, north vestry, and south porch. The walls are of flint rubble, roughly coursed except where they have been restored, and the original dressings are of clunch. The plan indicates a 12th century origin and the dedication suggests that there was a church here before the Norman Conquest. The nave was probably rebuilt in the 14th century and the chancel in the 14th and 15th. The tower and porch were rebuilt in 1866-8 and the vestry was probably added before the end of the 19th century. The most interesting features of the church are the oak screen and the stained glass, both of the 15th century.

 

www.flickr.com/photos/barryslemmings/sets/72157629306452140/ to see the full set.

 

The position of the north and south doorways suggests that the nave was originally built in the 12th century. The font is of the late 12th century and is similar in type to others in the area. The square bowl, which is bound with iron, has vine ornament carved on two sides and conventionalized flowers on another. On the fourth side appear the disk, crescent, whorl, and stars which are characteristic of these fonts. The stem is circular and has small angle shafts. The nave was probably rebuilt in the 14th century. There are two pointed windows with tracery of this date. The doorways are also 14th-century in style but the south doorway has been completely rebuilt. West of the doorways are single-light windows which are either modern or very thoroughly restored. A 14th-century piscina in the south wall has an ogee head on a square drain.

 

The chancel arch, much restored, is of two moulded orders. The windows on the north side of the chancel have tracery of the 14th century, but the later rebuilding of the rear arches has blocked the spandrels. There is much 15th-century work in the chancel. The two south windows have moulded jambs and fourcentred heads. The east window, entirely rebuilt in the 19th century, has tracery in the style of the 15th century and may replace a similar window of that date. The late 15th-century south doorway has a fourcentred head with carved spandrels and a square label externally. The stonework has been partly renewed.

 

The chancel roof has two tie-beams and a deep moulded and embattled wall-plate. Below the east tie-beam are moulded wall-posts and arched braces springing from modern corbel brackets. The nave roof, of similar date, has two tie-beams with traceried spandrels between the arched braces and the moulded wall-posts. At the west end are indications of the former bell turret, 'a little wooden turret with a spire'. This is shown in an engraving of 1797. In the same picture appears a large timber-framed south porch, also probably of the 15th century, having seven pointed lights along the sides. The turret and porch were both rebuilt in 1867 but there is still a 15th-century stoup outside the south door.

 

The fine oak screen is of the late 15th century. It has evidently been brought from elsewhere and cut to fit the present chancel arch. There are three full bays, one of which forms the entrance to the chancel, and an extra half bay at the south end. The upper panels have four-centred heads and are filled with elaborately cusped perpendicular tracery. The principal mullions are carved with buttresses and crocketed finials. The rail is enriched with a running vine ornament and the lower panels have tracery carving. The cresting is modern.

 

In one of the 15th-century chancel windows is some painted glass of the same period. It includes tabernacle work and two figures, one being a bishop in mass vestments and the other a woman, probably St. Margaret. Above the pulpit is a fine early-18th-century sounding board with an inlaid soffit and an enriched cornice. It is supported on a fluted Doric pilaster in the angle between the south and east walls of the nave.

 

The octagonal oak pulpit may be partly of the same date, altered later. The wrought-iron hour-glass stand near the pulpit is probably also of the 18th century. In 1866-7 the church was restored and refitted at the expense of Capel Cure of Blake Hall. The work included the rebuilding of the tower and the south porch. The present tower is of flint rubble with freestone dressings and is of three stages surmounted by a castellated parapet. Its style is mainly of the 14th century. The south porch is of timber. At the same time the east wall of the chancel was completely rebuilt, there were repairs to windows and roofs, the nave was repaved and new seats and new stained glass were installed. The total cost of the restoration was about £2,000.

 

The carved oak reredos, which has traceried panels and other enrichments, is the work of the late Miss Capel-Cure and was added in 1938. There are three bells. Two are probably of the 15th century, one being by John Walgrave. The third is by John Hodson, 1665.

 

On the north wall of the nave is a fine carved and painted wall tablet of alabaster and black marble. It is in memory of Sir Gamaliel Capell (1613) and has figures of himself and his wife kneeling at a prayer desk. Below, also kneeling, are six sons and three daughters. The monument was formerly in the chancel. On the opposite wall of the nave is a tablet in similar materials but of very unusual design. It commemorates Mildred (Capell) wife of Sir William Lucklyn (1633) and shows a lady looking out from a curtained recess, the curtains being held back by cherubs. Behind her, angels are descending to place a crown on her head. Above is a segmental pediment and an achievement of arms.

 

During the Middle Ages the advowson of the parish church of Abbess Roding was held by Barking Abbey.

Scarborough is a town on the North Sea coast of North Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the town lies between 10-230 feet (3-70 m) above sea level, rising steeply northward and westward from the harbour onto limestone cliffs. The older part of the town lies around the harbour and is protected by a rocky headland.

 

With a population of around 50,000 Scarborough is the largest holiday resort on the Yorkshire coast. The town has fishing and service industries, including a growing digital and creative economy, as well as being a tourist destination.

 

Inhabitants of the town are known as Scarborians, or as Algerinos by people in Whitby. The origin of this nickname is thought to come from a ship called the Algerino which sunk off the bay of Scarborough; the locals at Scarborough refused to assist the ship in peril and fishermen took a more dangerous route in a lifeboat from Whitby, to the coast of Ravenscar, in a successful effort to save sailors of the Algerino. In an attempt to rid the town of the embarrassing story associated with the nickname, some inhabitants proposed that Algerino was a promiscuous individual of Italian descent who is supposed to have lain with many Scarborough females whilst their partners were at war.

   

October rainy day drive to the Badlands near Cuba NM

Origin is an interactive sound and light installation that functions through the use of the electricity naturally produced from the bodies of the participants. Through this we are given the opportunity to experience a world of light and sound created by our own physicality.

 

My Tumblr: dzunglephotographs.tumblr.com/

Performed by Drum Feng at the Esplanade Outdoor Theatre during Moonfest 2018 for the Mid-Autumn Festival celebrations.

Le origini del Teatro risalgono all’inizio del XVIII secolo quando Vittorio Amedeo II decise di commissionare all’architetto Filippo Juvarra la progettazione e la costruzione di un nuovo grande teatro nell’ambito del più generale riassetto urbano della Piazza Castello.

 

L’intento venne però perfezionato solo qualche anno più tardi da Carlo Emanuele III (incoronato re nel 1730) il quale, in seguito alla morte di Juvarra, scelse di affidare il progetto all’architetto Benedetto Alfieri con la richiesta di progettare un teatro di grande prestigio. Il «Regio Teatro» di Torino, edificato nel tempo record di due anni, venne inaugurato il 26 dicembre del 1740 con l’Arsace di Francesco Feo, diventando subito un punto di riferimento internazionale per la capienza – circa 2.500 posti tra platea e cinque ordini di palchetti –, le magnifiche decorazioni della sala fra le quali spiccava la volta dipinta da Sebastiano Galeotti, gli imponenti scenari e le attrezzature tecniche, nonché la qualità delle rappresentazioni.

 

Ogni stagione aveva inizio il 26 dicembre, si concludeva con la fine del Carnevale e comprendeva due nuove opere serie composte appositamente per il Teatro: nel corso del XVIII secolo scrissero per il Regio celebri compositori italiani come Galuppi, Jommelli, Cimarosa, Paisiello e autori stranieri come Gluck, Johann Christian Bach e Hasse; vi cantarono inoltre i più celebri castrati e prime donne dell’epoca, contribuendo in modo determinante al successo degli spettacoli. Non minore interesse suscitavano i danzatori, che si esibivano nei due balli entr’acte e nell’azione coreografica finale che corredavano ogni opera.

 

1790-1814

Manfiesto della Fête de la St. Napoleon, 1813 Par ordre de S.A.I. le Prince Camilleur, Dimanche 15 Août Théâtre Imperial Entrée gratis TurinIn seguito a cinque anni di chiusura (1792/1797) il Regio cambia nome più volte, rispecchiando gli eventi storici: nel 1798 diviene Teatro Nazionale, nel 1801 Grand Théâtre des Arts e nel 1804 Théâtre Impérial.

 

Nel clima moralizzatore degli anni repubblicani è abolito il gioco d’azzardo e viene proibito l’ingaggio dei castrati (che torneranno in epoca imperiale). In repertorio continuano a esserci opere italiane, con libretti rimaneggiati più o meno superficialmente in senso giacobino. Napoleone presenzia agli spettacoli in tre occasioni e giungono a Torino interpreti di prima grandezza, come il soprano Isabella Colbran, il tenore Nicola Tacchinardi e il coreografo Salvatore Viganò.

 

1815-1870

Architettura neoclassicaCon la Restaurazione, il teatro rientra in possesso dei Savoia. All’epoca di Carlo Felice, grande appassionato di musica, calcano le scene del Regio virtuosi come Giuditta Pasta e Domenico Donzelli, ma nell’Ottocento Torino perde importanza rispetto a Milano, Napoli e Venezia.

 

Sotto Carlo Alberto la sala riceve un’impronta neoclassica (sottolineata dai lavori di rifacimento affidati a Ernesto Melano e Pelagio Palagi). Alla metà del secolo vengono introdotte alcune novità nella programmazione: si passa alla stagione di Carnevale-Quaresima, articolata in cinque o più opere, ora prevalentemente di repertorio (e non più scritte appositamente per il Teatro). Inoltre a partire dal Barbiere di Siviglia rossiniano (1855), il Regio si apre all’opera buffa.

 

Un nuovo restauro, realizzato da Angelo Moja nel 1861, cancella le modifiche palagiane conferendo alla sala una veste “neobarocca”.

 

1870-1936

Programma illustrato del decimottavo Concerto Popolare sotto la direzione del Maestro Cavalier Carlo Pedrotti, Teatro Vittorio Emanuele, 1876Nel 1870 la proprietà del Regio passa al Comune di Torino; in questi anni la storia del Teatro si intreccia con quella dell’Orchestra Civica e dei Concerti Popolari ideati da Carlo Pedrotti, il quale apporta forti innovazioni nel repertorio introducendo nella programmazione la musica di Wagner e Massenet. Nel nome di Wagner è pure l’esordio in Teatro di Arturo Toscanini, che collabora con l’Orchestra dal 1895 al 1898 e che il 26 dicembre 1905, dopo i lavori di ristrutturazione guidati da Ferdinando Cocito, inaugura la nuova sala con il Sigfrido.

 

Altri autori significativi nella storia del Regio sono Giacomo Puccini, che tiene a battesimo a Torino Manon Lescaut (1893) e La bohéme (1896), e Richard Strauss, che nel 1906 dirige Salome in “prima” italiana. L’ultima grande “prima” ospitata dal Regio antico è Francesca da Rimini di Riccardo Zandonai, su libretto di Gabriele D’Annunzio (1914). Dopo la chiusura nel periodo bellico, il Teatro si dedica a opere di repertorio.

 

Nella notte tra l’8 e il 9 febbraio 1936 il Teatro viene distrutto da un violento incendio: saranno necessari quasi quarant’anni per la sua ricostruzione.

 

1936-1973

ConcorsoDopo l’incendio del 1936, si pone il problema di stabilire a chi affidare il progetto di ricostruzione del Teatro. Il bando di concorso, pubblicato nel 1937, viene vinto dagli architetti Aldo Morbelli e Robaldo Morozzo della Rocca.

 

Il loro progetto, tuttavia, non si sarebbe mai concretizzato: nel 1965, infatti, l’amministrazione civica promuove una nuova soluzione con l’affidamento dell’incarico all’architetto Carlo Mollino e all’ingegner Marcello Zavelani Rossi. I lavori hanno inizio nel settembre 1967 per concludersi nei primissimi mesi del 1973.

 

Dal 1973 a oggi

Cancello Teatro Regio, OdisseaIl nuovo Teatro Regio viene inaugurato il 10 aprile 1973 con l’opera di Giuseppe Verdi I vespri siciliani, per la regia di Maria Callas e Giuseppe Di Stefano. Da quella data l’attività produttiva si è progressivamente incrementata, fino alle ricorrenze che hanno segnato la storia degli ultimi anni del Regio: nel 1990 il 250° anniversario dalla sua fondazione, nel 1996 il centenario dalla “prima” assoluta della Bohème in diretta tv, nel 1998 i 25 anni del nuovo teatro (con un importante restauro acustico), nel 2006 la straordinaria avventura dei XX Giochi Olimpici Invernali e delle Olimpiadi della Cultura.

 

Alla Stagione d’Opera e Balletto, che prevede almeno dieci titoli da ottobre a giugno, si affiancano molte altre attività: concerti sinfonico-corali e cameristici che vedono impegnati l’Orchestra e il Coro del Teatro Regio; una serie di spettacoli allestiti al Piccolo Regio e destinati al nuovo pubblico e alle famiglie; manifestazioni organizzate in collaborazione con le istituzioni locali come Torino Settembre Musica, Torinodanza, RegioneInTour, Punto Verde Giardini Reali e altre; La Scuola all’Opera, fitto calendario di attività e spettacoli destinati a bambini e ragazzi; e poi conferenze, visite guidate e mostre. Tutte manifestazioni che pongono il Teatro Regio al centro della vita culturale e artistica di Torino e del Piemonte ma non solo.

   

42 SAINT ETIENNE Et Jean-Henri Manara, niçois d'origine, débute sa carrière en 1960 comme assistant de mathématiques à la Faculté des sciences de Paris-Jussieu, après avoir étudié à l'Ecole normale de Nice et celle de Montpellier, puis à l'Ecole normale supérieure de Saint-Cloud. II s'oriente vers l'informatique, accompagnant le rapide développement de cette nouvelle technologie qu'il enseigne comme maître de conférence, toujours sur le site de Jussieu (Université Paris 7-Diderot), jusqu'à sa retraite en 1998. Avec son premier appareil photo, un Agfa Silette, il commence par immortaliser ses vacances dans divers lieux touristiques. Ce sont les premières des plus de 50 000 diapositives qu'il possède aujourd'hui. Le déclic en faveur des transports provient, se souvient-il, de la couverture d'un numéro de La Vie du Rail qui met en vedette un tramway PCC de Saint-Etienne, alors que ce mode de transport disparaît à vitesse accélérée de nos villes. Jean-Henri Manara "mitraille" alors les tramways survivants en France et franchit les frontières pour photographier ceux de réseaux allemands, suisses, belges, portugais, norvégiens, autrichiens et italiens. Il s'intéresse ensuite aux trains à voie métrique, puis au trolleybus, aux autobus et enfin aux autocars (son premier cliché concernant le transport routier est celui d'un trolleybus niçois, pris en 1961). Parmi ces milliers de clichés consacrés aux transports, 371 ont donné naissance à ce livre ! Nicolas Tellier, originaire de Caen, se passionne depuis toujours pour les autocars et les autobus, avec une prédilection pour les premiers. Depuis ses débuts professionnels en 1979, il a toujours travaillé chez un constructeur, d'abord allemand, puis suédois et aujourd'hui italien, dans différents domaines : commercial, marketing, communication et relations presse. En parallèle, il s'est activement penché sur l'histoire de la profession en écrivant trois livres (La grande aventure des cars Chausson, Edijac 1988 . La fabuleuse aventure du S 45 ou 40 ans d'histoire de cars Renault, Massin 1993 . Les cars Isobloc, ETAI 1998) ainsi que de nombreux articles, pour la revue Charge Utile, sur de nombreux transporteurs et carrossiers français. Parmi ces derniers, on peut citer Amiot, Belle-Clot, Besset, la Carrosserie dauphinoise, Currus, Di Rosa, Gangloff, Gruau, Ravistre & Martel, dont on retrouve certaines réalisations illustrées dans ce livre. Nicolas Tellier prend autant de plaisir à évoquer l'histoire de nos vénérables véhicules qu'à les conduire. Ainsi, il possède depuis 1985 un car ancien, qui fut tout à tour un Chausson ANG de 1959 suivi d'un APH 522 du même millésime. puis un Renault R 4192 de 1956, un Berliet PHC Escapade de 1958, et, aukourd'hui, un Saviem S 53 M Luxe de 1975. De quoi passer de joyeux moments avec famille et amis dans l'ouest francilien où il réside ! les passionnés du monde automobile, et particulièrement ceux dont les autocars, les autobus et les trolleybus sont les véhicules de prédilection ! Ouvrez grand les yeux, 371 photos en couleurs, toutes plus belles les unes que les autres - prises par Jean-Henri Manara, photographe émérite de véhicules de transport en commun depuis 1961, et légendées par Nicolas Tellier, historien reconnu en la matière - permettent de profiter sans retenue de ces véhicules dans leur merveilleux environnement des Trente Glorieuses. Ce périple photographique nous transporte un peu partout en France pour découvrir de nombreux autocars d'entreprises privées ainsi que des autobus et des trolleybus de la RATP et de plusieurs réseaux urbains de province. Le panorama des marques qu'arborent tous ces véhicules témoigne de la richesse de notre industrie, à l'époque : Berliet, Chausson, Delahaye, Floirat, Isobloc, Saviem, Somua, Verney, Vetra, entre autres, sans oublier d'illustres carrossiers comme Amiot, Besset, Currus, Gangloff, MGT, pour en citer quelques-uns. Les matériels étrangers roulant dans notre pays sont tout aussi présents, provenant d'Allemagne, d'Angleterre, de Belgique et d'Italie. Circulez, il y a plein de choses à voir ! transporturbain.canalblog.com/pages/l-histoire-des-trolle... @ Tramways mis en service le 4 décembre 1881 amtuir.org/03_htu_cp/03_reseau_france_cp/saint_etienne_cp...

Trolleybus mise en service courant 1940

Compléments des services assurés par des autobus

La ville de Saint-Etienne est bâtie sur un long axe nord-sud sur lequel s'étendent d'interminables communes étirées tout au long d'étroites vallées. La vocation de la région a très tôt été tournée vers l'industrie. La topographie de la vile a déterminé la structure des réseaux de transports. Ainsi, les premiers tramways ont-ils été construits au fond des vallées sur des itinéraires à gros trafic. En complément de ces lignes, d'autres itinéraires ont été desservis vers les collines à partir de cet axe central.En 1883, la Compagnie des Chemins de Fer à Voie Etroite de Saint-Etienne, Firminy, Rive-de-Gier et Extensions (CFVE) fut constituée. Deux lignes de tramways furent mises en chantier, d'une part entre Saint-Etienne et Firminy et, d'autre part, entre Saint-Etienne et Rive-de-Gier. Le 4 décembre 1881, le premier tronçon urbain entre Bellevue et Terrasse, fut mis en service, suivi le 20 mars 1882 par un court prolongement à La Digonnière.Le réseau suburbain fut ensuite achevé et ouvert à l'exploitation le 23 février 1882 vers Firminy, le 1er juillet 1882 entre Saint-Etienne et Saint-Chamond et le 16 novembre suivant entre Saint-Chamond et Rive-de-Gier. Toutes les lignes étaient construites à voie métrique, unique avec des évitements.L'exploitation était assurée par des train à vapeur comportant trois ou quatre voitures. Le parc comportait en 1884, 34 locomotives Winterthur, Brown ou Tubize, 97 voitures et 12 fourgons.

En 1907, les CFVE procédèrent à des extensions de leur réseau :la ligne de Rive-de-Gier est prolongée de 2 km vers La Madeleine, le 14 septembre 1907 ;

un embranchement de la ligne est mis en service vers Saint-Jean-Bonnefond, le 4 décembre 1907 ;

la ligne de Firminy est envoyée vers Pertuiset, sur 4 km supplémentaires, le 18 juin 1907.

Toujours en 1907, deux nouvelles lignes furent construites, l'une vers La Fouillouse, sur 7 km ; l'autre vers Saint-Genest-Lerpt (12 avril et 4 décembre 1907). Enfin, un embranchement de cette dernière ligne vers Riche-la-Molière fut mis en service le 15 avril 1908.Mais à la fin du XIX° siècle, une nouvelle compagnie stéphanoise était apparue : la Compagnie des Tramways Eletriques de Saint-Etienne (TE). Le 7 avril 1897, elle mit en service deux lignes à voie métrique reliant Bellevue et La Rivière à la Gare de Châteaucreux et le Rond-Point au Marais. Les deux lignes, parallèles à celles des CFVE, les concurrençaient directement. En 1906, les TE mirent en service une nouvelle ligne entre Châteaucreux et l'Hôtel de Ville. L'exploitation était assurée par des motrices électriques à deux essieux, de construction assez sommaire, avec un accès frontal par les plates-formes. Leur gabarit en largeur était limité à 1,87 m. En plus des CFVE et des TE, la Société des Tramways Electriques de Saint-Chamond (TSC) mit en service, le 1er juillet 1906, une petite ligne de 2 km, entre Izieux et saint-Chamond, en correspondance avec la ligne CFVE de Rive-de-Gier. L'exploitation était assurée par de petites motrices à deux essieux.Devant la concurrence de ces deux nouvelles compagnies, les CFVE modernisèrent leur propre réseau. La totalité des services furent électrifiés entre août 1907 et juin 1914. Une série de lourdes motrices à essieux radiants, de type H assurèrent dès lors l'exploitation. Elles tractaient les anciennes remorques des trains vapeur. Les motrices étaient équipées du frein à air mais ne possédaient pas de compresseur : les réservoirs étaient remplis à chaque terminus à l'aide de prise d'air comprimé. Ce système restera une particularité stéphanoise jusqu'à l'arrivée des PCC, en 1959. Après la première guerre, les CFVE complétèrent leur parc par du matériel d'occasion provenant de Nancy (type R). A partir de 1920, les TE rencontrèrent de graves difficultés financières et tombèrent en faillite en 1930. Leurs lignes furent alors reprises par les CFVE. Mais la concurrence des autocars qui commencaient à apparaître, provoqua des difficultés importantes aux CFVE. Ces derniers abandonnèrent alors les lignes interurbaines vers Rive-de-Gier, Saint-Jean-Bonnefonds, La Fouillouse et Saint-Genest-Lerpt. En contrepartie, les CFVE obtinrent le monopole sur les lignes de Firminy et de Terrenoire. En 1935-38, une nouvelle série de 8 motrice de type J furent construites neuves et mises en service. Parallèlement quelques morices H furent modernisées. Enfin, en 1941, une petite série de 10 nouvelles motrices de type K fut mise en service. Mais le tracé défecteux des lignes des anciens TE provoqua une première mise sur route en 1938. Dès lors, il fut envisagé de convertir une partie du réseau pour l'exploitation par trolleybus. Dès 1940, les CFVE avaient entamé la transformation de tout l'ancien réseau des TE. A la fin de 1940, la ligne Tardy - Le Soleil vit appraître 6 trolleybus Vétra CS35 prévus à l'origine pour le réseau de Poitiers. A la fin de 1942, 7 Vétra CS45 de 45 places remplacent les CS35 qui furent envoyé à Poitiers.

En 1947, 22 trolleybus de type CS60 remplacèrent les tramways sur la ligne de Bellevue à Firminy. De décembre 1947 à 1954, 6 trolleybus VBD, 40 VCR et 50 ELR furent mis en service sur les anciennes lignes de TE dont les derniers tramways disparurent en 1949.

En 1954, seule la ligne de Bellevue à Terrasse restait exploitée par tramways. Bien qu'envisagée, sa conversion en trolleybus ou autobus paraissait impossible ; son important trafic (70 à 80.000 voyageurs par jour) et son tracé dans des rues étroites, rendait quasi impossible une exploitation par véhicule routier.

Après quelques années d'hésitation, la Ville de Saint-Etienne accepta le maintien des traways dans le centre - cas unique en France - et les CFVE passèrent commande de 30 motrices PCC de conception belge et construites à Strasbourg. Ces remarquables motrices étaient calquées pour la voie métrique sur celles circulant depuis 1951 à Bruxelles. Montées sur deux ogies à roues élastiques, elles comportaient quatre moteurs de 50 CV. Le confort intérieur était particulièrement soigné. Chaque motrice présente une caisse de 13,95 m de long.

En complément, les voies de la ligne furent réaménagée afin de permettre aux tramways de circuler sans être gênés par la circulation automobile.

La première motrice PCC fut livrée le 4 août 1958 et mise en service le 11 décembre suivant. Le 1er septembre 1959, le dernier tramway ancien fut retiré du service. Le succès fut complet : les critiques à l'encontre des anciens tramways s'évaporèrent et les Stéphanois pouvaient s'ennorgueillir de posséder la ligne urbaine la plus moderne de France.

En 1967, les CFVE commandèrent une nouvelle série de 5 motrices PCC articulées afin de renforcer la capacité de la ligne dont le tafic augmentait.

Parallèlement, le parc de trolleybus s'étoffa entre 1960 et 1970, de plusieurs séries de voitures Berliet ELR provenant de Nice et de quelques VA3B2 de Marseille. En 1972, le parc comprenait 35 motrices de tramways, 105 trolleybus et 80 autobus.

Contrairement à ce qui se rencontrait alors en France, le réseau de Saint-Etienne avait su conserver un grande qualité de service et une attractivité qui en faisait un des réseaux les plus efficaces. Cas rare, les CFVE réussissaient à maintenir l'équilibre de leurs comptes ...

Voir aussi :

les tramways de Saint-Etienne dans les années cinquante

le renouveau des tramways de Saint-Etienne

les trolleybus de Saint-Etienne

140 ans de tramway à Saint-Etienne – un record de longévité inégalé en France www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gv6hWmCaLq8&feature=emb_imp_woyt - 1881 – 2021. Cela fait 140 ans que le tramway circule à Saint-Étienne sans discontinuité. À travers ce record de longévité inégalé en France pour un tramway intramuros, c’est aussi des milliers d’hommes et de femmes qui se sont succédés pour assurer au quotidien le déplacement de plusieurs milliards de voyageurs.

140 ans jour pour jour après le lancement de son premier tramway, la Société de Transport de l’Agglomération Stéphanoise et Saint-Étienne Métropole ont décidé de célébrer l’événement comme il se doit.

La journée à débuté par la sortie de la motrice J74 du dépôt de la STAS qui a repris du service pour 200 heureux voyageurs, qui, tirés au sort parmi près de 1000 inscrits, pourront circuler à bord de cette motrice emblématique toute la journée entre les stations. Terrasse et Bellevue, tronçon historique du réseau exploité dès 1881 ! Les locomotives à vapeur du réseau CFVE (Chemin de Fer à Voie Etroite) 1881 – 1914

Rue Gambetta sur la ligne Terrasse-Bellevue: En décembre 1881 pour l’ouverture de la ligne; le service est limité à un tram toutes les 1/2 heures pour que les stéphanois s’habituent à la présence des tramways.

 

C’est en 1981 que le nom STAS apparait pour la première fois, remplaçant la CFVE.

 

Quatre murs et un toit 1953 - Le Corbusier, l'architecte du bonheur 1957 conceptions architecturales le modulor, l'architecture de la ville radieuse, Chandigarh, Marseille, Nantes www.dailymotion.com/video/xw8prl Un documentaire consacré aux conceptions architecturales et urbanistiques de Le Corbusier.

 

Exposées par l'architecte lui-même et étayées par des plans, dessins et images de ses réalisations en France et à l'étranger, ces théories témoignent d'une réflexion approfondie et originale sur la ville et sa nécessaire adaptation à la vie moderne, notamment Paris dont l'aménagement révolutionnaire rêvé par Le Corbusier est ici exposé. Un classique du documentaire.

 

Les premiers projets de Le Corbusier resteront à l'état de maquette : le plan de modernisation de la ville d'Alger. Certains seront réalisés par d'autres architectes : ministère de l'éducation à Rio de Janeiro, Palais de l'ONU à New York. Dès l'après-guerre en moins de 10 ans, Le Corbusier réalise de grandes unités d'habitation à Marseille, Nantes une chapelle à Ronchamps, une usine à Saint-Dié, une ville Chandigarh en Inde. Par des schémas, l'architecte présente sa théorie de la "ville radieuse", le modulor clef mathématique de son œuvre ainsi que son projet de réorganisation de la campagne, des cités industrielles et urbaine en un regroupement autour d'un système coopératif. Le film expose les conceptions architecturales de Le Corbusier, dans la ligne des précurseurs de l'architecture moderne comme Claude-Nicolas Ledoux. Paris et le désert français 1957 réalisation : Roger Leenhardt et Sydney Jezequel, résoudre le déséquilibre démographique ville campagne www.dailymotion.com/video/x177lrp Film réalisé par Roger Leenhardt et Sydney Jezequel en 1957, d'après le livre de Jean-François Gravier. Document d'information général proposant les solutions de l'époque pour éviter la désertification des campagnes et la folie concentrationnaire des villes. Dès 1957, la désertification des campagnes prend des proportions tragiques. L'exemple est donné pour le village de Gourdon dans le Quercy.

 

Quelles évolutions proposer pour éviter l'exode rural et le développement anarchique, qui s'amorce, des villes champignons, construites en plein champ sans urbanisme et sans âme ? Le commentaire propose les solutions de l'époque : modernisation de l'agriculture, adaptation de l'artisanat, implantations d'industries dans les provinces. Gazoducs dans le sud-ouest, barrage en Haute-Savoie, polder en Bretagne semblaient à l'époque pouvoir résoudre le déséquilibre ville campagne. Visages de la France 1957 Production - réalisation Atlantic-Film Marcel de Hubsch www.dailymotion.com/video/x19g59p Le film commence avec des vues de villages et d'architecture traditionnelle du Pays Basque, des Landes, de la Touraine, de la Normandie, de la Bretagne, d'Alsace. La voix off s'interroge : faut il transformer la France en un musée de ses vieilles demeures ? et poursuit : pourquoi des maisons de 10 à 15 mètres de hauteur à Honfleur n'ont elles que 3 à 5 mètres de large ? Le commentaire se pose la question du nombre de maisons individuelles dans les villes qui entrainent l'étalement urbain. Lorsque les villes ont bâtit des immeubles, le commentaire se demande que cachent ces façades ? Des coures étroites que le soleil ne visite jamais, un enchevêtrement inouï de constructions hétéroclites. L'époque de grande prospérité de la troisième république n'a rien su construire de grand poursuit la voix off. Ce document nous propose ensuite une animation de maquette pour l'aménagement d'une friche. Dans un premier temps à la façon d'avant avec la maison individuelle. La voix off s'exclame : ce n'est pas autrement que d'affreuses banlieues naquirent que tant de villes furent à jamais enlaidies, essayons autre chose. L'animation se met à empiler les maisons individuelles et propose des bâtiments collectifs dans des jardins. Le commentaire poursuit : maintenant c'est l'heure de l'urbaniste à lui de répartir les constructions dans la cité. Plusieurs organisation de logements collectifs sont proposées en maquettes. La voix off pointe les défauts d'un urbanisme des grands ensemble trop ennuyeux. Puis une solution émerge de l'animation : pour que la cité vive il faut mettre au place d'honneur école, dispensaire, bibliothèque, salle de réunion, puis viennent les deux pièces maîtresse deux grands immeubles puis les rues se glissent dans la composition et enfin les pelouse et les jardins apparaissent et voila conclue le commentaire. Le film montre ensuite de réalisation de grands ensemble et on entre dans un immeuble au sein d'une famille : air et lumière sont au rendes-vous. On voit des enfants faire du patin à roulette dans le parc de l'immeuble la voix off annonce : finit l'individualisme renfrogné de l'échoppe d'antan : la cité tout entière est un jardin, les jeux d'enfants se mêlent aux fleurs. Le film se termine sur des vues de réalisation de grands ensemble sur toute la France (vue entre autre de la cité radieuse de Le Corbusier à Marseille). Production Films Caravelle MRU (ministère de la reconstruction et de l'urbanisme) Scenario et réalisation : Pierre JaLLAUD

The Dakshinkali Temple is located 22 kilometers from Kathmandu next to the village of Pharping. It's one of the main temples in Nepal. Twice every week thousands of people come here to worship the goddess Kali by sacrificing life animals, particularly cockerels and uncastrated male goats.

 

GODDESS KALI

Kālī (/ˈkɑːli/; Sanskrit: काली & Bengali: কালী; IPA: [kɑːliː]), also known as Kālikā (Sanskrit: कालिका), is the Hindu goddess associated with empowerment, or shakti. She is the fierce aspect of the goddess Durga. The name of Kali means black one and force of time; she is therefore called the Goddess of Time, Change, Power, Creation, Preservation, and Destruction. Her earliest appearance is that of a destroyer principally of evil forces. Various Shakta Hindu cosmologies, as well as Shākta Tantric beliefs, worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman; and recent devotional movements re-imagine Kāli as a benevolent mother goddess. She is often portrayed standing or dancing on her husband, the god Shiva, who lies calm and prostrate beneath her. Worshipped throughout India but particularly South India, Bengal, and Assam, Kali is both geographically and culturally marginal.

 

ETYMOLOGY

Kālī is the feminine form of kālam ("black, dark coloured"). Kāla primarily means "time", but also means "black"; hence, Kālī means "the black one" or "beyond time". Kāli is strongly associated with Shiva, and Shaivas derive the masculine Kāla (an epithet of Shiva) from her feminine name. A nineteenth-century Sanskrit dictionary, the Shabdakalpadrum, states: कालः शिवः। तस्य पत्नीति - काली। kālaḥ śivaḥ। tasya patnīti kālī - "Shiva is Kāla, thus, his consort is Kāli".

 

Other names include Kālarātri ("black night"), as described above, and Kālikā ("relating to time"), and Kallie ("black alchemist"). Coburn notes that the name Kālī can be used as a proper name, or as a description of color.

 

Kāli's association with darkness stands in contrast to her consort, Shiva, whose body is covered by the white ashes of the cremation ground (Sanskrit: śmaśāna) where he meditates, and with which Kāli is also associated, as śmaśāna-kālī.

 

ORIGINS

Hugh Urban notes that although the word Kālī appears as early as the Atharva Veda, the first use of it as a proper name is in the Kathaka Grhya Sutra (19.7). Kali is the name of one of the seven tongues of Agni, the [Rigvedic] God of Fire, in the Mundaka Upanishad (2:4), but it is unlikely that this refers to the goddess. The first appearance of Kāli in her present form is in the Sauptika Parvan of the Mahabharata (10.8.64). She is called Kālarātri (literally, "black night") and appears to the Pandava soldiers in dreams, until finally she appears amidst the fighting during an attack by Drona's son Ashwatthama. She most famously appears in the sixth century Devi Mahatmyam as one of the shaktis of Mahadevi, and defeats the demon Raktabija ("Bloodseed"). The tenth-century Kalika Purana venerates Kāli as the ultimate reality.

 

According to David Kinsley, Kāli is first mentioned in Hinduism as a distinct goddess around 600 CE, and these texts "usually place her on the periphery of Hindu society or on the battlefield." She is often regarded as the Shakti of Shiva, and is closely associated with him in various Puranas. The Kalika Purana depicts her as the "Adi Shakti" (Fundamental Power) and "Para Prakriti" or beyond nature.

 

WORSHIP AND MANTRA

Kali could be considered a general concept, like Durga, and is mostly worshiped in the Kali Kula sect of worship. The closest way of direct worship is Maha Kali or Bhadra Kali (Bhadra in Sanskrit means 'gentle'). Kali is worshiped as one of the 10 Mahavidya forms of Adi Parashakti (Goddess Durga) or Bhagavathy according to the region. The mantra for worship is

 

Sanskrit: सर्वमङ्गलमाङ्गल्ये शिवे सर्वार्थसाधिके । शरण्ये त्र्यम्बके गौरि नारायणि नमोऽस्तु ते ॥

 

ॐ जयंती मंगल काली भद्रकाली कपालिनी । दुर्गा शिवा क्षमा धात्री स्वाहा स्वधा नमोऽस्तु‍ते ॥

 

(Sarvamaṅgalamāṅgalyē śivē sarvārthasādhikē . śaraṇyē tryambakē gauri nārāyaṇi namō'stu tē.

 

Oṃ jayantī mangala kālī bhadrakālī kapālinī . durgā śivā ksamā dhātrī svāhā svadhā namō'stu‍tē.)

 

YANTRA

Goddesses play an important role in the study and practice of Tantra Yoga, and are affirmed to be as central to discerning the nature of reality as are the male deities. Although Parvati is often said to be the recipient and student of Shiva's wisdom in the form of Tantras, it is Kali who seems to dominate much of the Tantric iconography, texts, and rituals. In many sources Kāli is praised as the highest reality or greatest of all deities. The Nirvana-tantra says the gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva all arise from her like bubbles in the sea, ceaselessly arising and passing away, leaving their original source unchanged. The Niruttara-tantra and the Picchila-tantra declare all of Kāli's mantras to be the greatest and the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra all proclaim Kāli vidyas (manifestations of Mahadevi, or "divinity itself"). They declare her to be an essence of her own form (svarupa) of the Mahadevi.In the Mahanirvana-tantra, Kāli is one of the epithets for the primordial sakti, and in one passage Shiva praises her:At the dissolution of things, it is Kāla [Time]. Who will devour all, and by reason of this He is called Mahākāla [an epithet of Lord Shiva], and since Thou devourest Mahākāla Himself, it is Thou who art the Supreme Primordial Kālika. Because Thou devourest Kāla, Thou art Kāli, the original form of all things, and because Thou art the Origin of and devourest all things Thou art called the Adya [the Primordial One]. Re-assuming after Dissolution Thine own form, dark and formless, Thou alone remainest as One ineffable and inconceivable. Though having a form, yet art Thou formless; though Thyself without beginning, multiform by the power of Maya, Thou art the Beginning of all, Creatrix, Protectress, and Destructress that Thou art. The figure of Kāli conveys death, destruction, and the consuming aspects of reality. As such, she is also a "forbidden thing", or even death itself. In the Pancatattva ritual, the sadhaka boldly seeks to confront Kali, and thereby assimilates and transforms her into a vehicle of salvation. This is clear in the work of the Karpuradi-stotra, a short praise of Kāli describing the Pancatattva ritual unto her, performed on cremation grounds. (Samahana-sadhana)He, O Mahākāli who in the cremation-ground, naked, and with dishevelled hair, intently meditates upon Thee and recites Thy mantra, and with each recitation makes offering to Thee of a thousand Akanda flowers with seed, becomes without any effort a Lord of the earth. Oh Kāli, whoever on Tuesday at midnight, having uttered Thy mantra, makes offering even but once with devotion to Thee of a hair of his Shakti [his energy/female companion] in the cremation-ground, becomes a great poet, a Lord of the earth, and ever goes mounted upon an elephant.The Karpuradi-stotra clearly indicates that Kāli is more than a terrible, vicious, slayer of demons who serves Durga or Shiva. Here, she is identified as the supreme mistress of the universe, associated with the five elements. In union with Lord Shiva, she creates and destroys worlds. Her appearance also takes a different turn, befitting her role as ruler of the world and object of meditation. In contrast to her terrible aspects, she takes on hints of a more benign dimension. She is described as young and beautiful, has a gentle smile, and makes gestures with her two right hands to dispel any fear and offer boons. The more positive features exposed offer the distillation of divine wrath into a goddess of salvation, who rids the sadhaka of fear. Here, Kali appears as a symbol of triumph over death.

 

BENGALI TRADITION

Kali is also a central figure in late medieval Bengali devotional literature, with such devotees as Ramprasad Sen (1718–75). With the exception of being associated with Parvati as Shiva's consort, Kāli is rarely pictured in Hindu legends and iconography as a motherly figure until Bengali devotions beginning in the early eighteenth century. Even in Bengāli tradition her appearance and habits change little, if at all.

 

The Tantric approach to Kāli is to display courage by confronting her on cremation grounds in the dead of night, despite her terrible appearance. In contrast, the Bengali devotee appropriates Kāli's teachings adopting the attitude of a child, coming to love her unreservedly. In both cases, the goal of the devotee is to become reconciled with death and to learn acceptance of the way that things are. These themes are well addressed in Rāmprasād's work. Rāmprasād comments in many of his other songs that Kāli is indifferent to his wellbeing, causes him to suffer, brings his worldly desires to nothing and his worldly goods to ruin. He also states that she does not behave like a mother should and that she ignores his pleas:

 

Can mercy be found in the heart of her who was born of the stone? [a reference to Kali as the daughter of Himalaya]

Were she not merciless, would she kick the breast of her lord?

Men call you merciful, but there is no trace of mercy in you, Mother.

You have cut off the heads of the children of others, and these you wear as a garland around your neck.

It matters not how much I call you "Mother, Mother." You hear me, but you will not listen.

 

To be a child of Kāli, Rāmprasād asserts, is to be denied of earthly delights and pleasures. Kāli is said to refrain from giving that which is expected. To the devotee, it is perhaps her very refusal to do so that enables her devotees to reflect on dimensions of themselves and of reality that go beyond the material world.

 

A significant portion of Bengali devotional music features Kāli as its central theme and is known as Shyama Sangeet ("Music of the Night"). Mostly sung by male vocalists, today even women have taken to this form of music. One of the finest singers of Shyāma Sāngeet is Pannalal Bhattacharya.

 

In Bengal, Kāli is venerated in the festival Kali Puja, the new moon day of Ashwin month which coincides with Diwali festival.

 

In a unique form of Kāli worship, Shantipur worships Kāli in the form of a hand painted image of the deity known as Poteshwari (meaning the deity drawn on a piece of cloth).

 

LEGENDS

SLAYER AND RAKTABIJA

In Kāli's most famous legend, Devi Durga (Adi Parashakti) and her assistants, the Matrikas, wound the demon Raktabija, in various ways and with a variety of weapons in an attempt to destroy him. They soon find that they have worsened the situation for with every drop of blood that is dripped from Raktabija he reproduces a clone of himself. The battlefield becomes increasingly filled with his duplicates. Durga, in need of help, summons Kāli to combat the demons. It is said, in some versions, that Goddess Durga actually assumes the form of Goddess Kāli at this time. The Devi Mahatmyam describes:

 

Out of the surface of her (Durga's) forehead, fierce with frown, issued suddenly Kali of terrible countenance, armed with a sword and noose. Bearing the strange khatvanga (skull-topped staff ), decorated with a garland of skulls, clad in a tiger's skin, very appalling owing to her emaciated flesh, with gaping mouth, fearful with her tongue lolling out, having deep reddish eyes, filling the regions of the sky with her roars, falling upon impetuously and slaughtering the great asuras in that army, she devoured those hordes of the foes of the devas.

 

Kali consumes Raktabija and his duplicates, and dances on the corpses of the slain. In the Devi Mahatmya version of this story, Kali is also described as a Matrika and as a Shakti or power of Devi. She is given the epithet Cāṃuṇḍā (Chamunda), i.e. the slayer of the demons Chanda and Munda. Chamunda is very often identified with Kali and is very much like her in appearance and habit.

  

DAKSHINA KALI

In her most famous pose as Daksinakali, popular legends say that Kali, drunk on the blood of her victims, is about to destroy the whole universe when, urged by all the gods, Shiva lies in her way to stop her, and she steps upon his chest. Recognizing Shiva beneath her feet, she calms herself. Though not included in any of the puranas, popular legends state that Kali was ashamed at the prospect of keeping her husband beneath her feet and thus stuck her tongue out in shame. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which goes into great depths about the goddess Kali, reveals the tongue's actual symbolism.

 

The characteristic icons that depict Kali are the following; unbridled matted hair, open blood shot eyes, open mouth and a drooping tongue; in her hands, she holds a Khadga (bent sword or scimitar) and a human head; she has a girdle of human hands across her waist, and Shiva lies beneath her feet. The drooping out-stuck tongue represents her blood-thirst. Lord Shiva beneath her feet represents matter, as Kali energy. The depiction of Kali on Shiva shows that without energy, matter lies "dead". This concept has been simplified to a folk-tale depicting a wife placing her foot

 

on her husband and sticking her tongue out in shame. In tantric contexts, the tongue is seen to denote the element (guna) of rajas (energy and action) controlled by sattva.

 

If Kali steps on Shiva with her right foot and holds the sword in her left hand, she is considered to be Dakshina Kali. The Dakshina Kali Temple has important religious associations with the Jagannath Temple and it is believed that Daksinakali is the guardian of the kitchen of the Lord Jagannath Temple. Puranic tradition says that in Puri, Lord Jagannath is regarded as Daksinakalika. Goddess Dakshinakali plays an important role in the 'Niti' of Saptapuri Amavasya.

 

One South Indian tradition tells of a dance contest between Shiva and Kali. After defeating the two demons Sumbha and Nisumbha, Kali takes up residence in the forest of Thiruvalankadu or Thiruvalangadu. She terrorizes the surrounding area with her fierce, disruptive nature. One of Shiva's devotees becomes distracted while performing austerities, and asks Shiva to rid the forest of the destructive goddess. When Shiva arrives, Kali threatens him, and Shiva challenges Kali to a dance contest, wherein Kali matches Shiva until Shiva takes the "Urdhvatandava" step, vertically raising his right leg. Kali refuses to perform this step, which would not befit her as a woman, and becomes pacified.

 

SMASHAN KALI

If the Kali steps out with the left foot and holds the sword in her right hand, she is the terrible form of Mother, the Smashan Kali of the cremation ground. She is worshiped by tantrics, the followers of Tantra, who believe that one's spiritual discipline practiced in a smashan (cremation ground) brings success quickly. Sarda Devi, the consort of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, worshipped Smashan Kali at Dakshineshwar.

 

MATERNAL KALI

At the time of samundra manthan when amrit came out, along with that came out poison which was going to destroy the world hence on the request of all the gods, Lord Shiva drank it to save the world but as he is beyond death he didn't die but was very much in pain due to the poison effect hence he became a child so that Kali can feed him with her milk which will sooth out the poison effect.

 

MAHAKALI

Mahakali (Sanskrit: Mahākālī, Devanagari: महाकाली), literally translated as Great Kali, is sometimes considered as a greater form of Kali, identified with the Ultimate reality of Brahman. It can also be used as an honorific of the Goddess Kali, signifying her greatness by the prefix "Mahā-". Mahakali, in Sanskrit, is etymologically the feminized variant of Mahakala or Great Time (which is interpreted also as Death), an epithet of the God Shiva in Hinduism. Mahakali is the presiding Goddess of the first episode of the Devi Mahatmya. Here she is depicted as Devi in her universal form as Shakti. Here Devi serves as the agent who allows the cosmic order to be restored.

 

Kali is depicted in the Mahakali form as having ten heads, ten arms, and ten legs. Each of her ten hands is carrying a various implement which vary in different accounts, but each of these represent the power of one of the Devas or Hindu Gods and are often the identifying weapon or ritual item of a given Deva. The implication is that Mahakali subsumes and is responsible for the powers that these deities possess and this is in line with the interpretation that Mahakali is identical with Brahman. While not displaying ten heads, an "ekamukhi" or one headed image may be displayed with ten arms, signifying the same concept: the powers of the various Gods come only through Her grace.

 

ICONOGRAPHY

Kali is portrayed mostly in two forms: the popular four-armed form and the ten-armed Mahakali form. In both of her forms, she is described as being black in color but is most often depicted as blue in popular Indian art. Her eyes are described as red with intoxication, and in absolute rage, her hair is shown disheveled, small fangs sometimes protrude out of her mouth, and her tongue is lolling. She is often shown naked or just wearing a skirt made of human arms and a garland of human heads. She is also accompanied by serpents and a jackal while standing on a seemingly dead Shiva, usually right foot forward to symbolize the more popular Dakshinamarga or right-handed path, as opposed to the more infamous and transgressive Vamamarga or left-handed path.

 

In the ten-armed form of Mahakali she is depicted as shining like a blue stone. She has ten faces, ten feet, and three eyes for each head. She has ornaments decked on all her limbs. There is no association with Shiva.

 

The Kalika Purana describes Kali as possessing a soothing dark complexion, as perfectly beautiful, riding a lion, four-armed, holding a sword and blue lotuses, her hair unrestrained, body firm and youthful.

 

In spite of her seemingly terrible form, Kali Ma is often considered the kindest and most loving of all the Hindu goddesses, as she is regarded by her devotees as the Mother of the whole Universe. And because of her terrible form, she is also often seen as a great protector. When the Bengali saint Ramakrishna once asked a devotee why one would prefer to worship Mother over him, this devotee rhetorically replied, "Maharaj", when they are in trouble your devotees come running to you. But, where do you run when you are in trouble?"

 

According to Ramakrishna, darkness is the Ultimate Mother, or Kali:

 

My Mother is the principle of consciousness. She is Akhanda Satchidananda;

indivisible Reality, Awareness, and Bliss. The night sky between the stars is perfectly black.

The waters of the ocean depths are the same; The infinite is always mysteriously dark.

This inebriating darkness is my beloved Kali.

—Sri Ramakrishna

This is clear in the works of such contemporary artists as Charles Wish, and Tyeb Mehta, who sometimes take great liberties with the traditional, accepted symbolism, but still demonstrate a true reverence for the Shakta sect.

 

POPULAR FORM

Classic depictions of Kali share several features, as follows:

 

Kali's most common four armed iconographic image shows each hand carrying variously a sword, a trishul (trident), a severed head, and a bowl or skull-cup (kapala) catching the blood of the severed head.

 

Two of these hands (usually the left) are holding a sword and a severed head. The Sword signifies Divine Knowledge and the Human Head signifies human Ego which must be slain by Divine Knowledge in order to attain Moksha. The other two hands (usually the right) are in the abhaya (fearlessness) and varada (blessing) mudras, which means her initiated devotees (or anyone worshipping her with a true heart) will be saved as she will guide them here and in the hereafter.

 

She has a garland consisting of human heads, variously enumerated at 108 (an auspicious number in Hinduism and the number of countable beads on a Japa Mala or rosary for repetition of Mantras) or 51, which represents Varnamala or the Garland of letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, Devanagari. Hindus believe Sanskrit is a language of dynamism, and each of these letters represents a form of energy, or a form of Kali. Therefore, she is generally seen as the mother of language, and all mantras.

 

She is often depicted naked which symbolizes her being beyond the covering of Maya since she is pure (nirguna) being-consciousness-bliss and far above prakriti. She is shown as very dark as she is brahman in its supreme unmanifest state. She has no permanent qualities - she will continue to exist even when the universe ends. It is therefore believed that the concepts of color, light, good, bad do not apply to her - she is the pure, un-manifested energy, the Adi-shakti.

 

Kali as the Symbol of Creation , Freedom , Preservation and Destruction

 

The head that hangs in Kali's hand is a symbol of Ego and the scimitar which she is holding represents power and energy.It is believed that Kali is protecting the human race by that scimitar and also destroying the negativity and ego within human being. The body lying under Kali symbolizes ruination, is actually a form of Shiva. Kali steps her leg on the chest of the body and suppress ruination . Since she is standing on the pure white chest of Lord Shiva who, as pure primal awareness, lays in a passive reclining position, peacefully lies with his eyes half open in a state of bliss. Her hair is long, black and flowing freely depicting Her freedom from convention and the confines of conceptualization. The white teeth which Kali has stands for conscience and her red tongue represents greed. By pressing her white teeth on her tongue Kali refers to control greed.The goddess may appear terrible from outside but every symbol in Kali signifies truth of life. Since the earth was created out of darkness, the dark black color of Kali symbolizes the color from which everything was born. Her right hand side arms she shows the Abhaya mudra(gesture of fearlessness) and Vara mudra (gesture of welcome and charity) respectively . But on the other arm in left side she holds a bloody scimitar and a severed head depicting destruction and end of ego.

Kali as the Symbol of Mother Nature

 

The name Kali means Kala or force of time. When there were neither the creation, nor the sun, the moon, the planets, and the earth, there was only darkness and everything was created from the darkness. The Dark appearance of kali represents the darkness from which everything was born. Her complexion is deep blue, like the sky and ocean water as blue. As she is also the goddess of Preservation Kali is worshiped as mother to preserve the nature.Kali is standing calm on Shiva, her appearance represents the preservation of mother nature. Her free, long and black hair represents nature's freedom from civilization. Under the third eye of kali, the signs of both sun, moon and fire are visible which represent the driving forces of nature.

 

SHIVA IN KALI ICONOGRAPHY

In both these images she is shown standing on the prone, inert or dead body of Shiva. There is a legend for the reason behind her standing on what appears to be Shiva's corpse, which translates as follows:

 

Once Kali had destroyed all the demons in battle, she began a terrific dance out of the sheer joy of victory. All the worlds or lokas began to tremble and sway under the impact of her dance. So, at the request of all the Gods, Shiva himself asked her to desist from this behavior. However, she was too intoxicated to listen. Hence, Shiva lay like a corpse among the slain demons in order to absorb the shock of the dance into himself. When Kali eventually stepped upon Shiva, she realized she was trampling and hurting her husband and bit her tongue in shame.

 

The story described here is a popular folk tale and not described or hinted in any of the puranas. The puranic interpretation is as follows:

 

Once, Parvati asks Shiva to chose the one form among her 10 forms which he likes most. To her surprise, Shiva reveals that he is most comfortable with her Kali form, in which she is bereft of her jewellery, her human-form, her clothes, her emotions and where she is only raw, chaotic energy, where she is as terrible as time itself and even greater than time. As Parvati takes the form of Kali, Shiva lies at her feet and requests her to place her foot on his chest, upon his heart. Once in this form, Shiva requests her to have this place, below her feet in her iconic image which would be worshiped throughout.

 

This idea has been explored in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana [28] and is most popular in the Shyama Sangeet, devotional songs to Kali from the 12th to 15th centuries.

 

The Tantric interpretation of Kali standing on top of her husband is as follows:

 

The Shiv tattava (Divine Consciousness as Shiva) is inactive, while the Shakti tattava (Divine Energy as Kali) is active. Shiva and Kali represent Brahman, the Absolute pure consciousness which is beyond all names, forms and activities. Kali, on the other hand, represents the potential (and manifested) energy responsible for all names, forms and activities. She is his Shakti, or creative power, and is seen as the substance behind the entire content of all consciousness. She can never exist apart from Shiva or act independently of him, just as Shiva remains a mere corpse without Kali i.e., Shakti, all the matter/energy of the universe, is not distinct from Shiva, or Brahman, but is rather the dynamic power of Brahman. Hence, Kali is Para Brahman in the feminine and dynamic aspect while Shiva is the male aspect and static. She stands as the absolute basis for all life, energy and beneath her feet lies, Shiva, a metaphor for mass, which cannot retain its form without energy.

 

While this is an advanced concept in monistic Shaktism, it also agrees with the Nondual Trika philosophy of Kashmir, popularly known as Kashmir Shaivism and associated most famously with Abhinavagupta. There is a colloquial saying that "Shiva without Shakti is Shava" which means that without the power of action (Shakti) that is Mahakali (represented as the short "i" in Devanagari) Shiva (or consciousness itself) is inactive; Shava means corpse in Sanskrit and the play on words is that all Sanskrit consonants are assumed to be followed by a short letter "a" unless otherwise noted. The short letter "i" represents the female power or Shakti that activates Creation. This is often the explanation for why She is standing on Shiva, who is either Her husband and complement in Shaktism or the Supreme Godhead in Shaivism.

 

To properly understand this complex Tantric symbolism it is important to remember that the meaning behind Shiva and Kali does not stray from the non-dualistic parlance of Shankara or the Upanisads. According to both the Mahanirvana and Kularnava Tantras, there are two distinct ways of perceiving the same absolute reality. The first is a transcendental plane which is often described as static, yet infinite. It is here that there is no matter, there is no universe and only consciousness exists. This form of reality is known as Shiva, the absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda - existence, knowledge and bliss. The second is an active plane, an immanent plane, the plane of matter, of Maya, i.e., where the illusion of space-time and the appearance of an actual universe does exist. This form of reality is known as Kali or Shakti, and (in its entirety) is still specified as the same Absolute Sat-Chit-Ananda. It is here in this second plane that the universe (as we commonly know it) is experienced and is described by the Tantric seer as the play of Shakti, or God as Mother Kali.

 

From a Tantric perspective, when one meditates on reality at rest, as absolute pure consciousness (without the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to this as Shiva or Brahman. When one meditates on reality as dynamic and creative, as the Absolute content of pure consciousness (with all the activities of creation, preservation or dissolution) one refers to it as Kali or Shakti. However, in either case the yogini or yogi is interested in one and the same reality - the only difference being in name and fluctuating aspects of appearance. It is this which is generally accepted as the meaning of Kali standing on the chest of Shiva.

 

Although there is often controversy surrounding the images of divine copulation, the general consensus is benign and free from any carnal impurities in its substance. In Tantra the human body is a symbol for the microcosm of the universe; therefore sexual process is responsible for the creation of the world. Although theoretically Shiva and Kali (or Shakti) are inseparable, like fire and its power to burn, in the case of creation they are often seen as having separate roles. With Shiva as male and Kali as female it is only by their union that creation may transpire. This reminds us of the prakrti and purusa doctrine of Samkhya wherein prakāśa- vimarśa has no practical value, just as without prakrti, purusa is quite inactive. This (once again) stresses the interdependencies of Shiva and Shakti and the vitality of their union.

 

Gopi Krishna proposed that Kali standing on the dead Shiva or Shava (Sanskrit for dead body) symbolised the helplessness of a person undergoing the changing process (psychologically and physiologically) in the body conducted by the Kundalini Shakti.

 

DEVELOPMENT

In the later traditions, Kali has become inextricably linked with Shiva. The unleashed form of Kali often becomes wild and uncontrollable, and only Shiva is able to tame her just as only Kali can tame Shiva. This is both because she is often a transformed version of one of his consorts and because he is able to match her wildness.

 

The ancient text of Kali Kautuvam describes her competition with Shiva in dance, from which the sacred 108 Karanas appeared. Shiva won the competition by acting the urdva tandava, one of the Karanas, by raising his feet to his head. Other texts describe Shiva appearing as a crying infant and appealing to her maternal instincts. While Shiva is said to be able to tame her, the iconography often presents her dancing on his fallen body, and there are accounts of the two of them dancing together, and driving each other to such wildness that the world comes close to unravelling.

 

Shiva's involvement with Tantra and Kali's dark nature have led to her becoming an important Tantric figure. To the Tantric worshippers, it was essential to face her Curse, the terror of death, as willingly as they accepted Blessings from her beautiful, nurturing, maternal aspect. For them, wisdom meant learning that no coin has only one side: as death cannot exist without life, so life cannot exist without death. Kali's role sometimes grew beyond that of a chaos - which could be confronted - to that of one who could bring wisdom, and she is given great metaphysical significance by some Tantric texts. The Nirvāna-tantra clearly presents her uncontrolled nature as the Ultimate Reality, claiming that the trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra arise and disappear from her like bubbles from the sea. Although this is an extreme case, the Yogini-tantra, Kamakhya-tantra and the Niruttara-tantra declare her the svarupa (own-being) of the Mahadevi (the great Goddess, who is in this case seen as the combination of all devis).The final stage of development is the worshipping of Kali as the Great Mother, devoid of her usual violence. This practice is a break from the more traditional depictions. The pioneers of this tradition are the 18th century Shakta poets such as Ramprasad Sen, who show an awareness of Kali's ambivalent nature. Ramakrishna, the 19th century Bengali saint, was also a great devotee of Kali; the western popularity of whom may have contributed to the more modern, equivocal interpretations of this Goddess. Rachel McDermott's work, however, suggests that for the common, modern worshipper, Kali is not seen as fearful, and only those educated in old traditions see her as having a wrathful component. Some credit to the development of Devi must also be given to Samkhya. Commonly referred to as the Devi of delusion, Mahamaya or Durga, acting in the confines of (but not being bound by) the nature of the three gunas, takes three forms: Maha-Kali, Maha-Lakshmi and Maha-Saraswati, being her tamas-ika, rajas-ika and sattva-ika forms. In this sense, Kali is simply part of a larger whole.

 

Like Sir John Woodroffe and Georg Feuerstein, many Tantric scholars (as well as sincere practitioners) agree that, no matter how propitious or appalling you describe them, Shiva and Devi are simply recognizable symbols for everyday, abstract (yet tangible) concepts such as perception, knowledge, space-time, causation and the process of liberating oneself from the confines of such things. Shiva, symbolizing pure, absolute consciousness, and Devi, symbolizing the entire content of that consciousness, are ultimately one and the same - totality incarnate, a micro-macro-cosmic amalgamation of all subjects, all objects and all phenomenal relations between the "two." Like man and woman who both share many common, human traits yet at the same time they are still different and, therefore, may also be seen as complementary.

 

Worshippers prescribe various benign and horrific qualities to Devi simply out of practicality. They do this so they may have a variety of symbols to choose from, symbols which they can identify and relate with from the perspective of their own, ever-changing time, place and personal level of unfolding. Just like modern chemists or physicists use a variety of molecular and atomic models to describe what is unperceivable through rudimentary, sensory input, the scientists of ontology and epistemology must do the same. One of the underlying distinctions of Tantra, in comparison to other religions, is that it allows the devotee the liberty to choose from a vast array of complementary symbols and rhetoric which suit one's evolving needs and tastes. From an aesthetic standpoint, nothing is interdict and nothing is orthodox. In this sense, the projection of some of Devi's more gentle qualities onto Kali is not sacrilege and the development of Kali really lies in the practitioner, not the murthi.

 

A TIME magazine article of October 27, 1947, used Kali as a symbol and metaphor for the human suffering in British India during its partition that year. In 1971, Ms. Magazine used an image of Kali, her multiple arms juggling modern tasks, as a symbol of modern womanhood on its inaugural issue.

 

Swami Vivekananda wrote his favorite poem Kali the Mother in 1898.

 

KALI IN NEOPAGAN AND NEW AGE PRACTICE

An academic study of Western Kali enthusiasts noted that, "as shown in the histories of all cross-cultural religious transplants, Kali devotionalism in the West must take on its own indigenous forms if it is to adapt to its new environment."[60] The adoption of Kali by the West has raised accusations of cultural appropriation:

 

A variety of writers and thinkers have found Kali an exciting figure for reflection and exploration, notably feminists and participants in New Age spirituality who are attracted to goddess worship. [For them], Kali is a symbol of wholeness and healing, associated especially with repressed female power and sexuality. [However, such interpretations often exhibit] confusion and misrepresentation, stemming from a lack of knowledge of Hindu history among these authors, [who only rarely] draw upon materials written by scholars of the Hindu religious tradition. The majority instead rely chiefly on other popular feminist sources, almost none of which base their interpretations on a close reading of Kali's Indian background. The most important issue arising from this discussion - even more important than the question of 'correct' interpretation - concerns the adoption of other people's religious symbols. It is hard to import the worship of a goddess from another culture: religious associations and connotations have to be learned, imagined or intuited when the deep symbolic meanings embedded in the native culture are not available.

 

INCARNATIONS OF KALI

Draupadi, Wife of Pandavas, was an avatar of Kali, who born to assist Lord Krishna to destroy arrogant kings of India. There is a temple dedicated to this incarnation at Banni Mata Temple at Himachal Pradesh. The vedic deity Nirriti or the Puranic deity Alakshmi is often considered as incarnations of Kali.

 

WIKIPEDIA

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Carol VanHook

Where I am From

 

I am from amusement parks and hula dancing in the streets

with cousins up North at Grandma's and Pa's

 

My memory treasure chest is filled with their shiny bush-coins

making playtime wealthy

 

I am from ancient pecans trees down South

bearing wheel barrow tree houses up high

 

Hearing the jingle

of the ice cream truck coming down the lane

 

I am from the Georgia - Florida line where a cold spring takes my breath away, dock fishing is a delight, and swimming in the seaweed is OK to do

 

I am from trips to the Piggly-Wiggly with Grand-papa and to the old pristine library in search of Nancy Drew

 

My home life featured a red Cocker, Flash, who would play hide and seek and a Siamese, Lucifer, who'd leave headless gifts in my closet

 

I am from country ham and biscuits, pecan pie, boiled peanuts, and pinto beans -- real soul food

 

I am from teenage shopping trips with Mom in search of Bobby Brooks

 

I am from big oaks and pines and rows of rainbow-colored flowers

 

I am from Daddy’s royal harvest of silver queen, red juicy tomatoes, and purple crowders just waiting for a scrumptious Sunday dinner

 

I am from visits to aunts and uncles who adored their nieces and nephews and offered words of wisdom to boost spirit and confidence

 

I am from the mindset that there is something good in everyone and that when you find your true love,

it's a 50/50 “give and take” relationship

 

I am from a family mix spanning all across America!

 

The memories are precious and give tribute to a happy childhood!

 

Today Friday 19th April 2019 I visited the beautiful fishing town of Buckie, on the Moray coast about 50 miles from my home, Scotland enjoyed magnificent weather and with 22 degrees of sunshine heat I made the most of my day , I packed my car early leaving for my adventure , I arrived back home at 2130pm , I had a great day .

 

Buckie (Scottish Gaelic: Bucaidh

is a burgh town (defined as such in 1888) on the Moray Firth coast of Scotland.

 

Historically in Banffshire, Buckie was the largest town in the county by some thousands of inhabitants before 1975, when the administrative county was abolished.

 

The town is the third largest in the Moray council area after Elgin and Forres and within the definitions of statistics published by the General Register Office for Scotland was ranked at number 75 in the list of population estimates for settlements in Scotland mid-year 2006.

 

Buckie lies virtually equidistant to Banff to the east and Elgin to the west with both communities being approximately 17 miles (27 kilometres) distant whilst Keith lies 12 mi (19 km) to the south by road.

 

Etymology

 

The origin of the name of the town has caused some debate and although the folk etymology is that Buckie is named after a seashell (genus buccinum) the reality is that the shared marine background is merely a coincidence.

 

The name Buckie would originally have occurred in identifying a place that was not immediately adjacent to the sea so we must seek alternative etymological sources.

 

Unfortunately, in one of the earlier books on Scottish place names, Buckie on the Moray Firth does not receive a mention although Buckie, spelt the same way, in the Balquhidder district of Perthshire is described as being derived from the Gaelic word boc or Welsh bowk, both meaning a buck or male deer, so this would suggest the meaning of Buckie as place where male deer gather and this specifically would most likely have been the valley of what is known today as the Buckie Burn.

 

In an article by a Dr Cramond in 1936[5] he speaks of the earliest mention of Buckie being in 1362 when the lands of Rove Bucky in le Awne were leased by John Hay to John Young, vicar of Fordyce.

 

The Hays, of whom the Rannes family have descended, had acquired through Royal favour a footing in the district at a still earlier age when the greater part from the Deveron to the Spey was embraced in the Forest of Awne or Ainie (now Enzie) and the Boyne. Rove Bucky is far from understandable and could be a scribe's error and should perhaps read Over Bucky as occurs in older title deeds, in contra distinction to Nether Buckie. It has been spelt in different ways, Robert Burns called it Bucky in his poem Lady Onlie - Lady Lucky. This was the form at the end of the 18th century.

 

Robert Gordon’s map Aberdeen, Banf, Murrey &c. to Inverness: [and] Fra the north water to Ross, which is dated at some time between 1636-1652, shows Buckie in its own right as a community some small distance from the coast with the community of Freuchny sitting nearer the shore to the north. Robert Gordon and Joan Blaeu’s Duo Vicecomitatus Aberdonia & Banfia, una cum Regionibus & terrarum tractibus sub iis comprehensis published in Amsterdam 1654 clearly shows Buckie and Freuchny with the addition of Nether Buckie.

 

James Robertson’s Topographical and military map of the counties of Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine,

 

London, 1822 seems geographically inaccurate in its relative positioning of Buckie, Nether Buckie and Freuchny, but is significant in that the new label of Rotten Slough is given equal importance in terms of size of community with Buckie; however, in Thomson’s Atlas of Scotland,

 

Edinburgh, 1832 Rotten Slough is fairly unimportant by size so one of these two reference publications is distorted, probably the former. This community, which would later come to be known as Portessie, was reportedly formed when "Porteasie.....became a fishing station in 1727, when 5 houses were built by the proprietor of Rannes for the accommodation of the original fishers from Findhorn" and the 1731 Rathven Session Minutes shows that Rotten Slough already has a population of 40 with ten households and subsequent minutes show the community growing until the 1791 entry records 177 souls in 44 households.

 

By the time of the publication of the 1891 First Series Ordnance Survey Map of Elgin, which reflects the 1866-1870 survey, Buckie has developed markedly with areas named Seatown, Newtown, Ianstown and Portessie.

 

The 19th century OS Six Inch series further shows Gordonsburgh, Craig Bow and Strathlene.

 

The 1910 OS 3rd Edition one-inch map of Elgin has settled on the name of Ianstown and all other parts of Buckie are named as they are known today but then, just to confuse the issue, the Bartholomew Survey Atlas of Scotland,

 

Edinburgh, 1912 uses the label Ianston. The conflicting nomenclature continued with the issue of the 1929 OS One-inch Popular edition and the 1933 JG Bartholomew & Son, Half-inch to the Mile maps of Scotland.

 

Layout today

 

Geographically, the town is, broadly speaking, laid out in a linear fashion, following the coastline. There is a lower shore area and an upper area. Fundamentally Buckie itself is the central part of the community lying between the Victoria Bridge under which flows the Buckie Burn at the western end of West Church Street, the eastern end of Cluny Harbour and above the shore area.

 

To the west of Victoria Bridge and the Buckie Burn is Buckpool, which was formerly known as Nether Buckie, and on the shoreline, west of Cluny Harbour, between Baron Street and the Buckie Burn mouth, there is The Yardie. Immediately above The Yardie on the Buckie side of the burn is The Seatown. To the west of The Yardie is Harbourhead. To the east of Cluny Harbour lie Ianstown, Gordonsburgh and Portessie also known locally as The Sloch (historically The Rotten Slough), which reaches towards Strathlene.

 

These communities were, to all intents and purposes, separate fishing settlements that gradually merged over the course of time. A new town was laid out above the shoreline in the 19th century and this is the rump of Buckie.

  

The 2001 UK Census reported that, from Buckie’s total population 92.11%, were born in Scotland with the largest single minority being those born in England (5.58%.) In terms of declared ethnic allegiance the Scottish figure rose to 93.61%.

 

As a port

Cluny Harbour is probably still the true heart of Buckie and this project was built by the Cluny family in 1877 to replace the town's first stone harbour in Nether Buckie, which was constructed in 1857 1 mile (2 km) or so to the west but had a tendency to silt up and become unusable.

 

The Laird of Letterfourie had contributed £5,000 of the construction costs at Nether Buckie but the main investor with the balance of £10,000 was the Board of Fisheries. The engineers were D.&T. Stevenson of Edinburgh, the family firm of the author Robert Louis Stevenson.

 

It was and remains a very sturdily built edifice with the main walls of considerable thickness being built of quartzite, quarried locally at Strathlene, capped with a very hard type of sandstone, which was also used to form the walls at the entrance and of the harbour proper.

 

As regards stability the harbour has remained a monument to engineering science with very little maintenance ever being necessary. It had a design fault, however, in that the entrance opened to the north east and was subject to infill with shingle, moving westwards by longshore drift.

 

Later known as Buckpool Harbour, this earlier port became something of an eyesore and eventually the silted basin became overgrown and dangerously swampy. The decision was taken to fill in the basin and this work was undertaken in the 1970s.

 

The resulting park includes a pebble beach and the original quartzite harbour walls remain completely intact.

 

Industry

Once a thriving fishing and shipbuilding port, these industries have declined. Indeed, although Peterhead and Aberdeen are more readily associated with the fishing industry in Northeast Scotland, by 1913 Buckie had the largest steam drifter fleet in Scotland.

 

Food processing remains important, with large fish factories and smoke houses found around the harbour. Buckie can properly be regarded as one of the main points of origin of the modern Scottish shellfish industry.

 

A Mancunian, Charles Eckersley, who moved to Buckie in the 1950s and started trading as a fish merchant, noticed that many of the varieties of shellfish that were regarded as economically useless by Buckie fishing vessels (prawns, scallops etc.) were in fact the same species that he had enjoyed whilst completing his National Service in Palestine. He seized the opportunity to exploit this gap in the market and he built a thriving processing and packing business, which eventually expanded to include factories as far afield as Barcelona and Alicante in Spain.

 

The Buckie Shipyard now repairs and refits RNLI lifeboats for much of the United Kingdom[26] and operates service contracts for various other clients including the MoD as well as building new vessels but boatbuilding was a major industry in the town for decades. Until recent years there were three quite separate boatyards building traditional wooden clinker fishing vessels. Leaving Cluny Square and heading down North High Street, also locally known as the Bowling Green Brae, the view of the sea would have been interrupted by a huge grey corrugated iron shed.

 

This was Thomsons and vessels were launched directly into the Moray Firth from a slipway. Heading east to Cluny Harbour it would have been impossible to miss Herd and Mackenzie on the fourth or lifeboat basin of the harbour. Directly behind their large sheds and across Blantyre Terrace was Jones with their private harbour into which they launched their vessels.

 

Thomsons is gone but the premises of Herd and McKenzie and Jones are part of the modern day Buckie Shipyard. It was Herd and McKenzie, a firm with its roots in Dunbartonshire from where Messrs Herd and Mackenzie sortied north, which built and launched the training schooner Captain Scott in 1972.

 

At the time of its launch, this vessel was the largest of its type in the world. In earlier years, there were further boat construction operations dotted along the shoreline from The Yardie to Ianstown and on to Portessie but these had mostly been amalgamated into the three main firms or had gone out of business by the interwar period.

 

A significant part of the population works in the offshore oil industry although Buckie somewhat missed the boat with the North Sea boom. In the late 1970s, there were extensive plans drawn up to extend Cluny Harbour out to the Mucks reef with the intention of serving oilfield supply vessels. Nothing came of this but every now and then the idea rears its head once more to be met with great enthusiasm before failing to get off the ground again.

 

Buckie was home to a specialist electric lamp factory of Thorn EMI until 1987 when it was closed and production moved to a new plant in Leicestershire. All of the predominantly female staff were offered jobs at the new facility in the East Midlands but, as the vast majority of the labour force were second wage earners in families, this offer was almost universally rejected.

 

Buckie is home to the Inchgower Distillery,which sits 1 mile (2 km) or so inland from the town and is best known for the Inchgower Single Malt.

  

Herd & McKenzie Shipbuilders

Type - Private

IndustryShipbuilding

Founded1903

FounderJames Herd & Thomas McKenzie

HeadquartersBuckie, UK

 

Services

 

Buckie Shipyard built, converted, refitted and repaired ferries, tugs, workboats, yachts, pilot boats, MOD vessels, small cruise vessels, diving vessels, lifeboats, fishing boats and fish farm cages. They slipped vessels up to 850 tonnes in displacement and 70 metres in length.

 

A new 1,600 sq. metres refit facility opened in 2003, including a state-of-the-art temperature and humidity controlled paint spray booth, capable of taking vessels up to 21m in length, 6m in beam and up to 50 tonnes.

 

A 50-ton hydraulic slipway hoist transported vessels directly from the inner basin at Buckie Harbour into the refit hall.

 

The Royal National Lifeboat Institution had been a major client for over 60 years, with all classes of RNLI lifeboat undergoing refit.

 

In its last few years the yard delivered two aluminium windfarm service catamarans, Penmon Point[6] and Lynas Point to Turbine Transfers, for work in Belgiu] and similar vessels followed.

From 8th to 31st January

 

Centre Villiot-Rapée

36 quai de la Rapée

75012 Paris

 

Join me for the opening reception from 7pm to 10pm on Monday, January 8th !

 

www.claje.asso.fr/expositions/expo-origines

From my Luminescent Motion series. This photograph was taken at the Albuquerque NM BioPark during an annual event called "River of Lights" which takes place during the winter holiday season.

 

This photo taken with the Olympus E-30 using the Zuiko 12-60 f2.8 Digital Zoom lens, 2 sec. @ f8. Night scene.

 

Processed using Camera Raw, Photoshop CS5, Topaz Adjust 5, and FastStone Editor.

 

This photo is © copyright-registered material and cannot be used for any purpose without the express written permission of the copyright holder, Kevin D. Renz!

 

My New Website is now ready and I would certainly appreciate your visits!

 

You can view my New Website with Galleries, Blog, Links, Personal and Contact Pages, by clicking here!

Picture taken by astrayn. (@astroghost001)

Follow astrayn on

twitter.com/astroghost001

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Linktree: linktr.ee/astrayn

Found at salvage store.

The origins of Neuchatel go back to the fortified castle built

on a hill overlooking the 38 km long Lake Neuchatel in 1011. It was a castle of the Orleans-Longueville family. It still stands overlooking the city which joined the Swiss Confederation in 1815. Today Neuchatel is the centre of Swiss watch and clock making. Thus the great Musee d’Art et d’ Histoire has an outstanding collection of time pieces and automata. Three automata figures on display made 1774. These incredible figures can draw a dog, another young man draws a human head and the young woman plays a piece of music on a tiny harpsichord. This is spellbinding stuff. The grand Museum was built and opened in 1884. The centre of the old town of the medieval period has two 16 th and 17th century water fountains. This was the site of the 1400s markets but the buildings around it now mainly date from the 1700 and 1800s. A house bearing the insignia of the Orleans family is at the lake end of the market place called Les Halles. Off the grand boulevard is the current DuPeyrou Hotel built for a local financier and friend of philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau. Pretty formal gardens are in front of the mansion built from 1765 to 1770. Boats ply the lake and in the sunshine it sparkles. The surrounding hillsides are planted in vines.

   

Expo : Origins since 1919

100 Years Citroën

 

Vmax : 65 km/4

500 kg

3.868.634 ex.

 

Salon Rétromobile 2019

Paris Expo - Porte de Versailles

Paris - France

February 2019

Assassins Creed origins

Henric Haukeland, Färjestads BK, 2020

La cathédrale Notre-Dame-de-l'Annonciation de Moulins est le siège épiscopal du diocèse de Moulins.

Remplaçant une chapelle de la fin du xe siècle, à l'origine dédiée à saint Pierre, la « collégiale des Bourbons » fut construite à la fin de l'époque médiévale. Partie la plus ancienne de l'édifice actuel, construite en style gothique flamboyant, sa première pierre fut posée en 1468 par Agnès de Bourgogne, mère de Jean II, duc de Bourbon, et veuve du duc Charles Ier de Bourbon. Les travaux s'achevèrent en 1550.

Miss Malaika UK Beauty Of African Origin Pageant Contest Ethnic Cultural Fashion London 2006

"Spanish bitches call a nigga papi"

Origin Roof Garden tunnel bench

Assassin's Creed® Origins

The Origins of Hull's Dry Docks

    

The 'Dry Dock'

 

The Greeks repaired ships in much the same way that Hull ship repairers did centuries later. Vessels were beached or dragged ashore at low tide beyond the high water mark and surrounded with earth or sand to support them and enable works to be carried out. The natural progression from this method was to prepare an area with wooden runners, set on an incline, to ease the job of hauling the vessel in. Another method, where the tides allowed, was to simply beach the vessel at a high tide in Spring. The repairs would be carried out, and the vessel left grounded until the next Spring. In situations where the ground allowed, a bed or ‘grave’ was dug, to receive the vessel at high tide, which was protected from the next tides by an artificial bank built at low tide, hence the first ‘graving’ docks. Later evolution of these ‘dry docks’ in tidal rivers, involved simple dug outs being made, usually lined with timbers with a brick or concrete floor. Gates or floating pontoons would then be used to exclude the tide. As the vessel entered at high tide the gates would be closed, the water emptying through a sluice leaving the vessel settled on blocks prepared especially. The practice of shoring the vessels with timbers horizontally to prevent them tippling over was adopted at this time, and some pumping out was necessary to prevent water rising during work. As ships increased in size, dry docks became more proficient, utilising solid masonry for their lining or bricks, usually in steps known as altars. These provided easier access and also provided firm bases at regular heights for shoring poles. Large scale pumping machinery was used to enable continuous operation, independent of the tides. The dry dock as we see it today is not far removed from the original design.

 

The Dry Dock in Hull

 

The following is a breif examination of the evidence relating to the shipbuilding and dry dock industries in the High Street area of Hull. As the author is not aware of any other works of note on the dry docks, the opinions expressed are his own and do not have the benefit of any previous works to build upon or update. The dry dock formed from the original lockpit to the former Queens Dock which was filled in c.1932 has been omitted from the research as its origins are obvious and have no bearing on this study.

 

Hull, or originally Wyke, was formed principally on its import and export trade, which required ships of some description. Consequently, ships have been built in or around Hull since at least the end of the 12th century, and a shipwrights craft guild was formed in 1369. By 1314 Hull was supplying military ships for expeditions to Scotland, a practice which carried on throughout the 14th and 15th Centuries, with Hull providing Henry V with many ships in 1414. Ships would be built on land initially and dragged to the waters edge at low tide, or on timbers which would enable the vessel to be dragged or pushed into the water independent of the tide. This method of launching by means of a slipway would almost certainly have been used in the area of Trippett (originally owned by the De La Pole family) just outside the North Gate, which was probably still mud or earth banks at this time. Recorded as a ‘dock’ as early as 1427, this area is shown in Gent's sketch of Hull in 1735 with ships shown ashore but not in docks. This site would later become the North Bridge Yard and dry dock, although still being described as ‘ways’ (slipways?) in a notice of 1787. Curiously Hollar’s plan of Hull c.1640 shows no shipyard in this area, even though reliable evidence proves it was there from at least 1427. One can only deduce it was made up of simple slipways, and not drawn.

  

The western side of High Street was only reclaimed from the river Hull after 1300, and the northern end of High Street did not have much in the way of buildings until after 1347. This would have left much room for similar slipways at this northern wall of the town; this area was also the site of the north ferry until the first north bridge was built in 1541 with the ferry taking defence from the town walls. Hollar’s plan of Hull of c.1640 shows what appear to be three separate ‘docks’ in this area, and we can speculate that these were being used as dry docks. Interestingly all three fall on almost exactly the same lines as merchants staithes built later, e.g. Blaydes Staithe, however what Hollar was showing may just have been the extended jetties of the merchants 'staithes'. The Blaydes had lived and worked in the area for many years by the time of Hollars plan. Evidence found during the excavations at Chapel Lane Staith in 1978 proved that vessels had been grounded whilst tied up to staithes on beds of stones and general infill, it was also the practice of some merchants to extend their land at the staithes by infilling and in some cases creating ‘more or less enclosed water between the staith and the land’ (R. Horrox). It seems plausible that the natural progression from this, as a shipbuilder owning a staith, is that you would use this process to form a dry dock. Indeed, as buildings are shown alongside these bays at the north end of High Street I would suggest this is the shipyard and dry docks of one of the early owners of that exclusive address, no.1 High Street. As the space between the majority of the staiths were eventually filled in, it seems likely that at least one was kept as a working dock, and may have formed the origins of the present Number 1 Dry Dock.

 

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26/9/2015 Langford Crossing

InterCity 225

Type and origin

Power typeElectric

BuilderBREL, GEC-Alsthom, Metro Cammell

Build date1988—1991 [1]

Total produced31 nine-carriage units [2]

Specifications

UIC classificationBo′Bo′+2′2′+...+2′2′+2′2′

Performance figures

Maximum speed140 mph (225 km/h) (Design)

125 mph (201 km/h) (Service)

161.7 mph (260.2 km/h) (Record)

Power output6,300 horsepower (4.7 MW)

Career

Operator(s)British Rail

GNER

National Express East Coast

East Coast

Virgin Trains East Coast

DispositionIn service

 

A refurbished First Class carriage

The InterCity 225 is an electric high speed train in the United Kingdom, comprising a Class 91 electric locomotive, nine Mark 4 coaches and a Driving Van Trailer. The Class 91 locomotives were built by BREL at Crewe works as a spin-off from the Advanced Passenger Train project, which was abandoned during the 1980s, whilst the coaches and DVT were constructed by Metro-Cammell in Birmingham and Breda (under sub-contract) in Italy — again borrowing heavily from the Advanced Passenger Train. The trains were designed to operate at up to 140 mph (225 km/h) in regular service, but are limited to 125 mph (200 km/h) due to a lack of cab signalling and the limitations of the current overhead line equipment (OLE). They are used on services from London King's Cross to Leeds, Edinburgh Waverley, Glasgow Central, Skipton, Bradford Forster Square, Newark North Gate, York and Newcastle.

Service history[edit]

The InterCity 225 entered service with British Rail on the East Coast Main Line in 1990. The units also operate on a small section of the West Coast Main Line between Glasgow and Carstairs. In 1996, as part of the privatisation of British Rail, all InterCity 225s were sold to Eversholt Rail Group, which currently leases them to the Virgin Trains East Coast.

 

The InterCity 225 has a top service speed of 140 mph (225 km/h); during a test run on Stoke Bank between Peterborough and Grantham an Intercity 225 reached 161.7 mph (260.2 km/h). However, except on High Speed 1, which is equipped with cab signalling, British signalling does not allow trains to exceed 125 mph (201 km/h) in regular service, due to the impracticality of correctly observing lineside signals at high speed.

 

The Advanced Passenger Train of the early 1980s used a new hydrokinetic braking system to allow it to brake from 155 mph (250 km/h) within existing signalling distances. It is believed[by whom?] that the InterCity 225 project was originally to be called APT-U, but this name was dropped after older APT-P trains were not considered[by whom?] a success and that APT branding would tarnish the reputation of the new High Speed Train.

 

Between 2001 and April 2006, HSBC Rail (IC225 owner, now Eversholt Rail Group) initiated and funded with support from GNER and Bombardier Transportation and Alstom and others a complete rebuilding and refurbishment programme for both the Class 91 and Mark 4 coaches, called Project Mallard. See British Rail Mark 4 for more details.

 

Capacity and Formation[edit]

The formation of the InterCity 225 sets is below:- [3]

 

Class 91 Electric Locomotive (North End)

Coach B - Standard Class - 76 Seats - WC

Coach C - Standard Class - 76 Seats - WC

Coach D - Standard Class - 76 Seats - WC

Coach E - Standard Class - 76 Seats - WC

Coach F - Standard Class - 72 Seats - Accessible Toilet

Coach H - Standard Class/Kitchen - 30 Seats - WC

Coach K - First Class - 43 Seats - WC + 2 Crew Areas

Coach L - First Class - 40 Seats - Accessible Toilet

Coach M - First Class - 46 Seats - WC

Driving Van Trailer (London End)

Total number of seats is 406 Standard and 129 First which when joined together, give the train a total capacity of 535 Seats.

 

Replacements[edit]

The finalised £4.5 billion contract for trains for the Great Western Main Line and East Coast Main Line (ECML) was announced in July 2012.[4] Capital costs for the vehicles are approximately £2.8 million per carriage for bi-mode versions and £2.4 million per carriage for electric versions.[5] Financial closure was reached on the first phase of the contract, valued at £2.4bn, consisting of 21 nine-car electric (Class 801[6]) and 36 five-car bi-mode trains (Class 800[6]), 369 carriages total, for use on Great Western routes.

 

The second phase of the contract consisted of 10 five-car and 13 nine-car bi-mode and 12 five-car electric units (227 carriages) for use on the ECML;[4] financial closure on the second phase was expected in 2013.[7][8] A £1.2bn option for further 30 nine-car electric trains (270 carriages) to replace Intercity 225 sets on the ECML was taken up on 18 July 2013.[6]

Brandon Halversen, New York Rangers, 2017