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Musée d'Orsay/Paris - O primeiro proprietário de A Origem do Mundo , que provavelmente encomendou, foi o diplomata turco-egípcio Khalil-Bey (1831-1879). Uma figura extravagante em Paris Society na década de 1860, ele montou uma coleção efêmera, mas deslumbrante dedicado à celebração do corpo feminino, antes de ter sido arruinada por suas dívidas de jogo. Exatamente o que aconteceu com a pintura depois que não é clara. Até que ele juntou as coleções do Musée d'Orsay, em 1995 - época em que pertenceu ao psicanalista Jacques Lacan - A Origem do Mundo sintetizou o paradoxo de uma pintura famosa que raramente é visto realmente. Gustave Courbet pintou regularmente nus femininos, às vezes em uma veia francamente libertino. Mas, em A Origem do Mundo , ele foi aos comprimentos de franqueza e ousadia que deu sua pintura o seu fascínio peculiar. A descrição quase anatômica dos órgãos sexuais femininos não é atenuado por qualquer dispositivo histórico ou literário. No entanto, graças à grande virtuosismo de Gustave Courbet e do refinamento do seu esquema de cor âmbar, a pintura escapa estado pornográfico. Este audacioso, a linguagem direta nova não tinha no entanto cortado todos os laços com a tradição: as amplas, pinceladas e sensuais, o uso da cor da pintura veneziana recordação e Gustave Courbet se afirmava ser descendente de Correggio, Tiziano e Veronese ea tradição da pintura, carnal lírico. A Origem do Mundo , agora exibido abertamente, tomou seu lugar na história da pintura moderna. Mas ele ainda levanta a questão preocupante do voyeurismo.
Musée d'Orsay/Paris - The first owner of The Origin of the World, who probably commissioned it, was the Turkish-Egyptian diplomat Khalil-Bey (1831-1879). A flamboyant figure in Paris Society in the 1860s, he put together an ephemeral but dazzling collection devoted to the celebration of the female body, before he was ruined by his gambling debts. Exactly what happened to the painting after that is not clear. Until it joined the collections of the Musée d'Orsay in 1995 – by which time it belonged to the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan – The Origin of the World epitomised the paradox of a famous painting that is seldom actually seen.
Gustave Courbet regularly painted female nudes, sometimes in a frankly libertine vein. But in The Origin of the World he went to lengths of daring and frankness which gave his painting its peculiar fascination. The almost anatomical description of female sex organs is not attenuated by any historical or literary device. Yet thanks to Courbet's great virtuosity and the refinement of his amber colour scheme, the painting escapes pornographic status. This audacious, forthright new language had nonetheless not severed all links with tradition: the ample, sensual brushstrokes and the use of colour recall Venetian painting and Gustave Courbet himself claimed descent from Titian and Veronese, Correggio and the tradition of carnal, lyrical painting.
The Origin of the World, now openly displayed, has taken its proper place in the history of modern painting. But it still raises the troubling question
Family: Laemophloeidae
Size: 3.9 mm (2.5 to 4.5 mm)
Origin: Europe
Ecology: Under rotten hardwood bark
Location: England, Sussex, Arundel Park
leg. A.M.M., 12.IX.1947
Coll. Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Photo: U.Schmidt, 2018
Maki Ohkojima (b. 1987) - Our origins - our marine origins (2024). Fresco created on site in connexion with the temporary exhibition "La grande expédition" at Le Centquatre-Paris cultural centre, Paris, November 2024 - March 2025.
Just found these cool images and wanted to show you guys! It's every character in Smash Bros and the look in their first appearance!
Batman: Arkham Origins - Downsampled from 3200x1800, Hide HUD, cheat engine, no clip, camera coordinates, SweetFX K-putt'e Config 1.3
There is a continuing debate among theoretical physicists about how the stuff (matter/energy) of the universe could have originated of its own accord, out of 'nothing' (the elusive, so-called ‘theory of everything’). However, the most important question in this debate: Where did information come from? Has been largely ignored, but this is absolutely CRUCIAL - because the universe, as we know it, could not exist without information. The laws of nature, are indicative of order, they govern and control the whole material universe, and extremely complex information is essential for all life.
Information is rightly called the third fundamental property of the universe.
So we have to wonder why the crucial question of the origin of information is excluded from the 'theory of everything' debate?
Without a credible explanation of the origin of information - any proposed theory of 'everything' would, in fact, be a theory of 'nothing' ... and absolutely useless.
Life requires information from the very outset, even the tiniest, most primitive cell is packed with complex information (coded in DNA), and the means of interpreting it.
Life could not exist without information. The first life on earth (regardless of how you believe it originated) needed complex information right from the very start, this is certain and beyond any dispute.
So how did information arise in the first life? Was the information for life just floating about in the ether waiting to alight on the right mixture of chemicals in some primordial soup? I think not! (but atheists have not yet proposed any better explanation).
However, even if such an incredible thing were possible, the question would still remain as to how this information originated within the universe? Where did it come from, and why? Hence for any atheist, the origin of DNA code itself, and the information it contains, is an impossible dilemma.
The unanswerable question for atheism is, which came first, information or matter?
Information cannot possibly create itself, but neither can matter. To suggest that either of them originated, of their own accord, from nothing, is self-evidently, utter nonsense and completely unscientific.
(Atheists will never be able to answer this question because the only logical option is - - a non-contingent first cause of all the material realm, which is eternally pre-existent, intelligent, non-material and therefore not subject to natural laws which govern all natural entities, i.e. a Supernatural Creator God).
Amazingly, we were told by ‘experts’ in 2004 that the discovery of the simple sugar glycoldehide in a gas cloud (known as Sagittarius B2 allegedly detected light years away in the middle of our galaxy) could explain the origin of DNA & life. (Daily Mirror newspaper, UK, 22/9/2004)
This is comparable to claiming that, if a component for making ink were to be discovered in outer space, it would explain how the complete works of Shakespeare could have originated spontaneously, of their own accord - and some people call that science - - incredible!
Make no mistake, atheism is just another religion.
Atheists are very fond of telling us what they don’t believe, but just what do they believe?
Because they reject an eternal, pre-existent, non-material first cause, every atheist is obliged to believe the preposterous notion that, the potential and information for life, as well as all the laws of nature, must have been an intrinsic property of the first matter/energy, when this matter/energy arose by its own power, and of its own volition, out of absolutely nothing, at the beginning of everything!!!! (albeit contrary to logic, common sense, and the laws of nature that govern all matter).
Surely this must be the ultimate miracle to outdo all other miracles.
Supporters of this bizarre, magical belief are very fond of describing atheism as “the only rational viewpoint,” - - -
They call such a belief rational? - - -
What do you think?
Atheists cannot accept that any information pre-existed the material. Therefore, matter not only had to create itself, but also its own governing laws & information, from nothing, and so the god of the atheist religion of naturalism is credited with even more creative powers than those usually attributed to an eternally pre-existing, Supernatural God.
In other words, ‘matter’ is automatically ascribed by atheist belief as a self-created, intelligent entity.
(This is completely contrary to logic, and to natural laws which describe the inherent properties and behaviour of matter and all natural occurrences, without exception).
“It’s just unbelievable what unbelievers are willing to believe, in order to be unbelievers” (Dr. Duane Gish)
Consider this ...
Long, long, long ago, in an eternal void of nothingness, a tiny cosmic egg arose of its own volition. Then, all of a sudden, the egg accidentally exploded and proceeded to expand until it became the whole universe and everything within it.
(This is the atheistic, ‘Big Bang’, fairy story of creation in a nutshell - - - or should that be eggshell?). But where could this cosmic egg have come from? - - - who knows? - - - perhaps a cosmic chicken laid it? - - - if so - - - where did the cosmic chicken come from? - - - don’t even ask! - - - because the only thing we are absolutely sure of is that we are still waiting for any ‘Big Bang’ supporter to propose a better solution. - - - Please don’t hold your breath!
The best they have come up with so far, is that the 'nothing' in which the cosmic egg emerged, wasn't really nothing, but 'something', i.e. SPACE. But, any fool can see that this is just a device to make a ridiculous belief sound plausible. It is obviously not plausible, because they then have to explain how space (which is not nothing, but just a part of the contingent, material realm) originated, which takes the whole ridiculous idea back to square one.
Since information is not a physical element (and as information is a fundamental constituent of the universe and an essential feature of all life) to assert that the universe is composed solely of matter and energy is clearly wrong.
The speculated ‘Big Bang’ explosion is an accidental, purposeless and destructive event, with no directing, informational component whatsoever. As it is not possible for such a ‘Big Bang’ or any other undirected release of energy to create useful information (or any sort of order) it is patently obvious that this ‘Big Bang’ story of creation is erroneous.
Where has wisdom gone?
For all our modern knowledge and technology, ancient man had a wisdom in these matters which far surpasses modern ideas.
It is now almost 2 thousand years ago that Christ's Apostle John delivered the ultimate ‘theory of everything’. He understood (like many of his predecessors) that the most important factor in the question of origins is information: “In the beginning was the word” [(word: logos) = information]. John 1; 1. (the 'Word' is applied by John to Jesus Christ as true God and true man - meaning the universe was created by the Word (Jesus), by means of God's word - intelligent, constructive information).
All sensible people realise that information just had to come first, nothing constructive or creative can occur without information. Science tells us that, any input of raw energy alone, tends to increase entropy. Only organised or directed energy (energy with an informational component) can temporarily reverse or reduce the effects of entropy.
Without information, nothing material could exist in its present form.
Information derives only from an intelligent source, so only information from a pre-existing, supernatural, intelligent source could bring everything material into being, organise and control its construction and behaviour, and maintain its continued existence.
So the essential, single, first cause had to be both uncaused and intelligent.
There is no other logical option.
Belief in God did not just evolve (as some atheists keep telling us) as a means for ‘ignorant’, ‘primitive’, ‘superstitious’ humans to explain things they could not understand.
On the contrary, ancient man (from the time of Adam) fully understood (better than many of the so-called experts today) that the material universe does not contain within itself any possible means of creating itself and its essential, regulatory information, out of nothing.
A non-contingent, pre-existing, supernatural (non-material), eternal, infinite and omnipotent force had to be responsible for creating it. An essential element of that force is a supreme intelligence which has to be the original source of all information.
“ALL THINGS WERE MADE BY HIM; AND WITHOUT HIM WAS NOT ANY THING MADE THAT WAS MADE. IN HIM WAS LIFE
AND THE LIFE WAS THE LIGHT OF MEN” John 1: 3-4.
In this computer age, people are again beginning to understand the particular relevance of information.
A computer (the hardware) processes and stores information (the software). Without any software programming, the hardware would be useless.
As Chuck Missler points out in his book ‘Cosmic Codes; “software has no mass. (its embodiment may have weight, but the software doesn’t. It simply codes information)”.
A computer disk loaded with a million bytes of software will weigh no more than a blank disk and the information it contains can be sent invisibly through the airwaves from one point to another.
To quote Chuck Missler again “if you and I were meeting face-to-face, I would still not be able to see the real you. I would only see the temporary residence you are occupying. The real you, your personality - - call it soul, spirit, whatever - - is not visible. It is software not hardware. The codes - - your history, your accumulated responses to the events of your life, your attitudes - - are all simply informational, not physical. It is software only and software has no mass”. According to Einstein, time is a physical property - - - “that which has no mass has no time. You are eternal, that is what the Bible has declared all along. You are eternal whether you like it or not” Chuck Missler, Cosmic Codes. 1999. Koinonia house.
The information for life ....
Atheists and evolutionists have no idea how the first, genetic information originated. They claim the spontaneous generation of life (abiogenesis) is an established scientific fact, but this is completely disingenuous. Apart from the fact that abiogenesis violates the Law of Biogenesis, the Law of Cause and Effect and the Second Law of Thermodynamics, it also violates Information Theory.
Atheists and evolutionists have an enormous problem with explaining how the DNA code originated. However that is not the major problem. The impression is given to the public, that evolutionists only have to find an explanation for the origin of DNA by natural processes - and the problem of the origin of genetic information will have been solved. That is a confusion in the minds of many people that evolutionists cynically exploit. It is far from the truth, as they very well know.
Explaining how DNA was formed by chemical processes, explains only how the information storage medium was formed, it tells us nothing about the origin of the information it carries.
To clarify this it helps to compare DNA to other information, storage mediums.
For example, if we compare DNA to the written word, we understand that the alphabet is a tangible medium for storing, recording and expressing information, it is not information in itself. The information is recorded in the sequence of letters, forming meaningful words.
You could say that the alphabet is the 'hardware' created from paper and ink, and the sequential arrangement of the letters is the software. The software is a mental construct, not a physical one.
The same applies to DNA. DNA is not information of itself, just like the alphabet it is the medium for storing and expressing information. It is an amazingly efficient storage medium. However, it is the sequence or arrangement of the amino acids which is the actual information, not the DNA code.
So, if evolutionists are ever able to explain how DNA was formed by chemical processes, it would explain only how the information storage medium was formed. It will tell us nothing about the origin of the information it carries. Therefore, when atheists and evolutionists tell us it is only a matter of time before 'science' will be able to fill the 'gaps' in our knowledge and explain the origin of genetic information, they are not being honest. Explaining the origin of the 'hardware' by natural processes is an entirely different matter to explaining the origin of the software.
Next time you hear atheists skating over the problem of the origin of genetic information with their usual bluff and bluster, and parroting their usual nonsense about science being able to fill such gaps in knowledge in the future, don't be fooled. They cannot explain the origin of genetic information, and never will be able to. The software cannot be created by chemical processes or the interaction of energy and matter, it is not possible. If you don't believe that. then by all means put it to the test, by challenging any atheist or evolutionist to explain how genetic information (not DNA) can originate by natural means?
Why God must exist.
www.flickr.com/photos/101536517@N06/15818838060
FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE
The Law of Cause and Effect. Dominant Principle of Classical Physics. David L. Bergman and Glen C. Collins
www.thewarfareismental.net/b/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/b...
"The Big Bang's Failed Predictions and Failures to Predict: (Updated Aug 3, 2017.) As documented below, trust in the big bang's predictive ability has been misplaced when compared to the actual astronomical observations that were made, in large part, in hopes of affirming the theory."
Nice shot of the origin of Zig's name.
His tail has an unusual zig-zag pattern that from the top looks like a diamond pattern. So, we named him Zig-Zag. Ziggy for short.
Benz Dogcart (1899) Engine 3.5 hp Single Cylinder
Country of origin Germany
Registration Number ST 5979
2021 London-Brighton Number 14
Entrant Nigel and Julie Safe
Pilotes Nigel and Julie Safe
BENZ ALBUM
www.flickr.com/photos/45676495@N05/albums/72157625115761089
Karl Benz is widely regarded as the father of the car, or farther of the automobile industry a German engine designer and automotive engineer. His Benz Patent Motorcar from 1885 is considered the worlds first practical modern automobile to be put into series production. He received a patent for the motorcar in 1886, the same year he first publicly drove the Benz Patent-Motorwagen. His company Benz & Cie., based in Mannheim, was the world's first automobile plant and largest of its day. In 1902 Benz introduced a new model, the Pariifal with 10, 12 and 14hp two cylinder engines and 20 and 30hp four cylinder motors, both Karl Benz and designer Marius Babarou claimed credit for the design, a disagreement that saw Benz resigning from his own company, while Barbarou took up the position of chief designer. Barbarou was suceeded in turn by Fritz Eele and Hans Nibel. In 1926, it merged with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft to form Daimler-Benz, which produces the Mercedes-Benz among other brands.
Diolch am 89,745,279 o olygfeydd anhygoel, mae pob un yn cael ei werthfawrogi'n fawr.
Thanks for 89,745,279 amazing views, every one is greatly appreciated.
Shot 07.11.2021 near Queen Elizabeth Gate, Hyde Park In that London in the South (London-Brighton weekend). Ref. 123-107
An 1859 1st Edition On The Origin Of Species by Charles Darwin seen in the Reading Room of the Strozier Library Special Collections at Florida State University in Tallahassee, Florida.
To see more images of this book including a signed note by the author, go here: View 408: On The Origin of Species.
Full Wave 1 Gallery at the Toyark: news.toyark.com/2014/03/21/dc-collectibles-arkham-origins... - DC Collectibles Arkham Origins Wave 1
Cave origins of Luxembourg City's oldest church
This remarkable Medieval chapel is striking not only for its origins many centuries in the past but also because of its location: cleft in rock in Luxembourg City's Pétrusse Valley.
Some history and features
This chapel is Luxembourg City's oldest church, already being used as such in the 11th century. Indeed, as a religious site, it is thought to have pre-Christian, indeed, pre-Roman, origins.
In 1355 a natural cave was adapted into a church building; it is reckoned that the building received early patronage from the Knights of the Teutonic Order. This Order was responsible for the guardianship of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and this Chapel was thought to have been used as a commemoration of this role of the Order.
The waters of a natural spring occurring in the immediate vicinity of the church were formerly thought to possess therapeutic qualities.
19th century restoration by Charles Arendt
In 1884-85, the building was renovated by the architect Charles Arendt (1825-1910), who was also responsible for work on several other churches in the Grand Duchy, on the Grand Ducal Palace in the city, and on Vianden Castle; Architect Arendt also authored numerous publications on architectural and artistic subjects.
The addition of the Chapel's belfry and spire constituted part of these 19th century renovations. It may be asked, if Architect Arendt was restoring the Chapel, why was he making substantial changes and even additions to this building? The answer to this lies in the widespread perception among architects in the 19th century that a 'restoration' could and should entail much more original work than architects today, responsible for restoration work. For example, the widely influential French architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) was responsible for some huge 'restoration' projects which virtually entailed original creations of what he deemed to be a Medieval design ideal which had not necessarily ever existed. In this light, the additions to the Chapel of Saint-Qurin by Architect Arendt would not have been regarded as unusual by 19th century standards.
Ao Dai
Vietnamese traditional long gown
There are many things traditional to Vietnam yet deeply impress people from all over the world. Ao dai is one of them.
The exact origin of Ao dai is still controversial. Ao dai is thought to be influenced by the imperial Chinese garb of the Qing Dynasty, known as Cheongsam. It is a fitted, full-length dress worn over black or white loose-fitting trousers. Unlike Cheongsam, however, Ao dai is split all the way from the waist down, contouring the pants. In 1744, the Nguyen Dynasty required that both men and women should wear both pants and gown, though not until 1930 that Ao dai takes a similar shape to what it is right now.
Ao dai has experienced many modifications since its original version. Ao tu than, which had been worn by Vietnamese women centuries before the Ao dai evolved into the five-paneled dress which is known as the closest form to the Ao dai. The older version of Ao dai then has five flaps: two in the back, two in the front and one under the front lap. Ao dai, however, is more tight fitted and has higher collar without a bodice underneath.
The public was inclined to think that in 1930, the Vietnamese fashion designer Cat Tuong (a.k.a Le Mur) – a graduate from French Fine Arts College of Indochina, modified Ao dai, which had the top lengthened to reach the floor, less material to be made and slimmer flaps. Consequently, Ao dai was then called Le Mur tunic.
Throughout the 20th century, there has been numerous changes in the design of Ao dai: from floral to checkered patterns, the use of transparent fabric, variations in the neck collar (between boat and mandarin style), the shortening of the gown’s length and different colors of the loose pants. The modern Ao dai we see today is tight-fitting, which accentuates and flatters the women’s curves. Therefore, Ao dai is interestingly considered to cover everything, but hide nothing, especially when it is made of thin or see-through fabric.
Unlike many other traditional costumes, Ao dai still remained popular and influencial in the modern day Vietnamese culture. Although Ao dai is no longer worn by men, nor do women on a daily basis, in special occasions, they are still used widely. Ao dai is still women favorite dress in traditional festivities or occasions such as Tet, wedding or graduation. In some high schools and universities in Vietnam, the white ao dai is considered school uniform for female students.
The beauty of Vietnamese women is honoured thanks to Ao dai, so it is hard to think of any outfit better-suited the Vietnamese than Ao dai itself. Ao dai, therefore, is an ideal souvenir for foreign tourists upon leaving Vietnam, to remind them of a beautiful country that they have been to.
A brunette lady posing on the fender of a Gutbrod automobile by the side of a road on a bleak winter's day. She is wearing a woollen coat and penny loafers in the fashion of the 1950s. The car is registered in the city of Stuttgart with black number plates of Allied-occupied Germany.
Country of origin: Germany
Lobethal - Pastor Fritzsche’s town.
The origins of Lobethal, meaning valley of praise goes back to the arrival of Pastor Fritzsche in SA in 1841. Shortly after arriving in SA he married and went to live in Hahndorf. Ferdinand Mueller who came out on the same ship with Fritzsche found the Lobethal area in 1842 when he was working as a shepherd for the SA Company on land it owned from a Special Survey. He advised 18 families to buy land there. 196 acres were acquired and divided between the 18 families. In 1843 the first school opened and the Zum Weinberg Christi church congregation began. Pastor Fritzsche also began to teach men to become pastors- thus establishing a Lutheran seminary. In 1845 the Lobethal College began and the Zum Weinberg Christi church or St John’s Lutheran was finished. It is the oldest Lutheran church in Australia but a new 1992 church is now used by the Lutheran congregation. But in 1846 a split emerged between pastors Fritzsche and Kavel and two Lutheran synods were formed in SA and two Lutheran churches and congregations in Lobethal. The emerging town was laid out in the medieval German “hufendorf” or strip village style and the houses erected were traditional German style with steep rooves, hipped end gables, and log uprights and pug infill or brick walls, usually referred to as half timbered houses. Most of the farmlets were less than five acres in size. (After the split with Fritzsche, Pastor Kavel went on to establish Bethany and Tanunda in the Barossa.)
For reasons not entirely clear Lobethal did not follow the usual town development pattern of SA. Probably because of the industry and drive of the German settlers it developed a small industrial base from its early days which have made the town unique in SA. In 1851 first Kleinschmidt opened the first brewery and the year before in 1850 Mueller had started growing hops in the next valley called Neudorf. About 1870 Kleinschmidt closed his brewery and concentrated on growing hops for beer production too. Hops were grown around Lobethal until 1938. Wires were laced between gum saplings or willows and the hop bines trained to climb them. In mid autumn the hops were harvested and then dried in a series of wire floors in a kiln or oast house. One still remains just outside of Lobethal.
Kleinschmidt’s empty brewery building was taken over by the Kumnick brothers. They persuaded a hand loom maker of tweed from Hahndorf, called Kramm to move to Lobethal and help them establish the Lobethal Tweed Factory in 1872. They extended the premises in 1875 and had them opened by Mrs Sudholz, whose father was the colony’s largest hay producer at Gilles Plains. Kumnick’s woollen tweed factory was in turn taken over by the SA Woollen Factory Company in 1887 and finally the Onkaparinga Woollen Mills Company in 1928. Up until it closed (1989) the Onkaparinga factory employed around 300 people. But the Kumnick’s contribution to industry in Lobethal was not finished. In 1894 one of Kumnick’s sons called Ewald took over his father’s carpentry business in a disused church and started to make cricket bats from the locally grown willow trees. The company provided cricket bats for SA and other states and even during the Great Depression of the 1930s it was still able to produce and sell around 3,000 bats a year. The Kumnick cricket bat factory closed around 1950 and the Fielke cricket bat factory closed in 1960. .It was sited next to the Lobethal Bakery and there is a small memorial to it there. The Kumnick’s also established a brandy distillery in the town and their bond store and workers cottages can still be seen in the Main Street.
Another early local business was fruit drying and in later years brick making. Bricks were made from the 1850s in Lobethal but in 1935 three large new brick kilns were constructed on the outskirts of the town. This was known as the Onkaparinga Brick and Sand Company and clay for the bricks came from some local sources. The kilns were vaulted downdraught kilns that were typical of that era. Updraught kilns had been popular in the 19th century including William Zeider’s 1884 brickworks at Lobethal. These kilns were modernised when the owner Mr H Schubert of Lobethal introduced the first fuel fired brick kiln processes in South Australia in 1950. The SA government set up a Brick Production Committee in 1947 to encourage brickworks operators to modernise and produced more bricks for the post war house building boom period. So in 1950 the government provided financial assistance to Schubert to move to fuel fired kilns at Lobethal. As a local businessman Mr Schubert donated funds to the Lobethal hospital as part of his support for the local community. Schubert had his administration offices at Kensington in Adelaide. Brick production in SA rose from the 1950s to a peak in the early 1970s. The Clean Air Act introduced in 1972 forced a number of yards to close in the 1970s and more closed in the 1980s with the economic depression of the early 1980s and industry amalgamations led by Hallett Bricks. Like all German named towns in SA Lobethal was changed by Act of Parliament in 1917 and became Tweedvale because of the local tweed making factory. It was not until the centenary of settlement in 1936 that the name was changed back to Lobethal. Today Lobethal is a rich town in historical terms with its German cottages, industrial past, hop growing past and Australia’s first Lutheran Church and Lutheran seminary.
Deutschland - Baden-Württemberg - Schwarzwald
Feldberg (1493 m)
seen from Breitnau
gesehen von Breitnau
At 1,493 metres (4,898 ft) the Feldberg in the Black Forest is the highest mountain in Baden-Württemberg, and the highest in Germany outside of the Alps. The local municipality of Feldberg was named after the mountain.
Environment
The Feldberg is situated southeast of Freiburg im Breisgau and is surrounded by the municipalities of Hinterzarten (northeast), Titisee (east), Menzenschwand (south), Bernau (also south) and Todtnau (southwest). About two kilometres southeast of the summit lies the village of Feldberg (1,277 metres (4,190 ft)).
Between the main peak (1,493 metres (4,898 ft), also known as the Höchste or "Highest", and its subpeak, the Seebuck (1,448 metres (4,751 ft)), just under 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away, is a saddle, the Grüble, from which a wide spur, the Baldenweger Buck (1,460 metres (4,790 ft)) branches off. The saddle initially descends gently and then ever more steeply into the valleys on either side. From the Seebuck the Feldberg drops steeply away to the northeast into the Feldsee, a lake of glacial origin at about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) altitude. Deeply incised valleys run northwest towards Freiburg (the Zastler and St Wilhelmer valleys) and southwest towards Basle (Wiesental valley).
The main car park below the Seebuck can be reached from the B317 (federal highway) running from Titisee to Lörrach (near Basle) over the Feldberg Pass. A train service of the Three Lakes Railway serves the station of Feldberg-Bärental, at 967 metres (3,173 ft), the highest DB station on standard gauge track. A bus service connects with the station. The Seebuck, which is topped by an old transmission tower, the Feldberg Tower, once a radio tower, since 2013 a ham museum can be reached from the valley station in Feldberg-Ort on a short chairlift. From this point the summit of the Feldberg is about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) away. It is only accessible to the public on foot or by bicycle.
The numerous point-to-point radio systems of the Bundeswehr and the American and French armies dating from the Cold War period have been since taken down. Today Feldberg is marked by the old and new television towers and the Bismarck monument on the Seebuck.
Altogether there are more than 28 ski lifts and slopes around the Feldberg. The actual summit itself is situated outside the skiing areas. Several cross-country skiing trails around the peak and around Herzogenhorn opposite are popular with cross-country skiers. The whole area, with ski-runs of Alpine character, is popular for ski touring.
Nature reserves
Most of the Feldberg area has the status of a nature reserve due to its subalpine vegetation. The Feldberg Nature Reserve is the oldest and largest in Baden-Württemberg and has been under the charge of a full-time ranger since 1989. Since 2001 it has been the responsibility of the Southern Black Forest Nature Conservation Centre, based in the Haus der Natur ("Nature House"), to look after the reserve. They have a permanent, interactive exhibition and a comprehensive programme with events in the reserve. In 2005, a new nature trail was established immediately behind the house.
Views
The Feldberg offers one of the most extensive panoramic views in Germany – especially in winter when there is a temperature inversion. In the west, on the far side of the Upper Rhine Graben, can be seen the entire Vosges range, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon and Mont Sainte-Odile. Beyond that the southern Palatinate Forest can sometimes be seen. To the north is the Hornisgrinde; to the northeast the entire chain of the Swabian Jura, including the Lemberg, and, to its right, the Hegau volcanoes.
To the south, the Alps can be seen from the Alpspitze and Zugspitze in the east to the Allgäu Alps, Verwall Alps, Silvretta, Säntis, Glarus Alps, Urner Alps, Bernese Alps and Mont Blanc in the west. In front of the Western Alps and, particularly right of Mont Blanc, can be seen the Swiss Jura, with their highest point, the Chasseral. Thus the view sweeps from the Italian Mont Blanc to southwest Germany and from Austria to France.
Geology
The mountain's bedrock of gneiss is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the Precambrian as part of an orogen and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the Devonian and Carboniferous, as part of the Variscan orogeny. It, too, was eroded away, and, during the Mesozoic and Early Triassic, beds of Bunter sandstone, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger and Malm were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Tertiary. Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and aeolian erosion, and today little but the bedrock remains.
Glacial morphology
During the height of the Würm glaciation a glacier, 1,000 km2 in area, covered the Black Forest. As a result, a lot of glacial influence can be seen in the region. There are several features that relate to the glacial morphology of the Feldberg. Firstly, there is the Feldsee. This tarn formed in the hollow that was scoured out by the ice pushing down the headwall of the cirque. Gradually the ice created a bowl that now holds the 33-metre-deep Feldsee. A moraine on the shores of the Feldsee testifies to this process.
The Feldseemoor, a few metres away, is also a remnant of the ice age. Here the terminal moraine of the "mini glacier" can be seen from the Feldsee. It has impounded water and formed a bog. The glacial history of the Würm stage, 10,000–11,000 years ago, at the Feldberg evolved as follows: The emergence of the Feldsee happened as the "Feldberg glacier" spread out. The adjacent Feldseemoor was the next stage. The glaciers then formed a moraine at Waldhof. This was exceeded once more at the Falkau, which marks its maximum extent. After that, the glacier retreated again.
Climate and vegetation
Climate
Feldberg features a subalpine climate (Köppen: Dfc), for that its summers are mild enough to have less than three months with an average mean temperature below 10º degrees Celsius. The annual mean temperature is around 3.9 °C (39.0 °F) (30-year mean from 1981–2010), up 0.6 °C compared with the period from 1961–1990; their temperature gradients are lower than those in adjacent valleys. During winter, there are long periods of sunshine, due to the low condensation point. This also means that the Feldberg has relatively mild winters; the surrounding valleys having noticeably colder temperatures. The lowest temperature ever recorded was −30.7 °C (−23.3 °F) on 10 February 1956. The average rain/snowfall amount is 1,637 millimetres (64.4 in) per year which is very high compared with Germany as a whole. On 97% of the survey marks of the German Weather Service lower figures are reported. Over the years snowfall has been reported in every calendar month. On average the Feldberg is covered in snow for 157 days per year. Because of its exposed location, wind speeds of hurricane force – up to 130 kilometres per hour (81 mph) – are possible throughout the year.
Vegetation
As its name suggests, the Feldberg's summit is not wooded. However, the sharp transition to forest illustrates it is no natural border. Even the top of the mountain does not reach the tree line which, in this region, would lie at around 1,650–1,700 metres.
Many of the open areas are habitats for specialised species of flora; these include bogs, moors, rock faces and snow fields. Below the summit the mountain is covered by mixed forest consisting of naturally growing European beech, European rowan, European spruce, European silver fir and cultivated North American species Douglas fir. Human activity has resulted in forest clearings, such as the large open areas around every hamlet.
That is attributable to the intensive cattle farming in this region, which limits forest growth. Today one comes across both pioneer species like European Rowans and different sorts of shrubs there. On many places there are primeval forests being left to its own resources. A characteristic of the vegetation represent the moors.
Tourism
Summer
Today tourism is the main source of income in the Feldberg region.
The mountain has several managed huts and inns – the Baldenweger Hut, Rinken Hut, Zastler Hut, St. Wilhelmer Hut and Todtnauer Hut – for the benefit of walkers that are linked by footpaths. These include the Felsenweg ("Rock Way") and the Alpiner Pfad ("Alpine Path") which run through some of the last landscapes in the Black Forest that still have an Alpine character. The 12-kilometre-long Feldberg Steig ("Feldberg Path") runs around the summit and the Feldsee. In addition there are metalled roads to the inns and other facilities around the peak.
Winter
Feldberg is the biggest winter skiing resort in Germany outside of the Alps. The first ski lift was originally built in 1907 in the Feldberg area. Today, there are around 14 ski lifts (including five at the Seebuck, among them a six-seater chairlift) and over 50 kilometres (31 mi) of downhill runs up to a "black" level of difficulty. When there is sufficient snow, even a terrain park may be created. At the valley station are several garages for piste bashers and other equipment. There is a mountain rescue post below the old TV tower.
There are also many Nordic ski trails around the peak; two of which are the highest ones of Baden-Württemberg. Part of the cross-country skiing trail from Schonach to Belchen runs between Feldberg and Seebuck.
Alpine dangers
The Feldberg, like many low mountain ranges, is often underestimated in terms of its alpine dangers. Its easy accessibility by public transport, car and cable car suggests that it is not dangerous and, consequently, visitors may be inappropriately equipped or dressed. The main dangers in the Feldberg region are sudden falls in temperature, storms or slipping on smooth, icy ground. Near tall structures such as the transmission masts there is the danger falling ice. In fog or mist, orientation is clearly much more difficult. Often visibility is reduced to just a few metres. Marked paths outside the wooded areas are lined with poles to assist navigation.
Every winter there are several large avalanches in the Feldberg region. The mountainsides of the Zastler valley are particularly prone, but they also occur on leeward slopes like the Feldseekessel at Seebuck, the Herzogenhorn and the Baldenweger Buck. Snowfall driven by western winds forms cornices on the downwind sides of ridges (e. g. the Zastler Wechte), which can break off. Several fatal avalanche burials have happened, the last in January 2015 which left two dead. There are no special avalanche reports issued for the Black Forest.
Television towers
During the Cold War there were many antennas on a military tower at the summit, but these were removed some years ago. Today, there is a large TV / radio transmission mast, used by the regional broadcasting station, SWR (Southwest Broadcasting). In addition, the mountain is recognisable from its Bismarck Monument, in honour of the famous 19th-century chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck.
Meteorological station
At the top of the mountain (where weather has been surveyed since 1915) is a weather station that has been in operation since 1937, run by the German Meteorological Service (WMO code number: 10908). Next to the observatory is a weather radar.
(Wikipedia)
Der Feldberg ist mit 1493 m ü. NHN[2] der höchste Berg in Baden-Württemberg. Er stellt auch die höchste Erhebung aller deutschen Mittelgebirge dar und ist damit der höchste Berg Deutschlands außerhalb der Alpen. Der Berg im Südschwarzwald dient zudem als Namensgeber der dazugehörigen Gemeinde Feldberg. Da er aus mehreren Gipfeln besteht, sollte man eher vom Feldbergmassiv sprechen.
Geographie
Lage
Der Feldberg liegt südöstlich von Freiburg im Breisgau, im Gebiet der Gemeinde Feldberg (Schwarzwald) im Landkreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald, umgeben von den Orten Hinterzarten (nordöstlich), Titisee (östlich), Menzenschwand und Bernau (südlich) sowie Todtnau (südwestlich). Etwa 2 km südöstlich des Gipfels liegt in 1277 m Höhe der Ortsteil Feldberg-Ort.
Erreichbar ist der Feldbergfuß per Kfz über die von Titisee nach Lörrach (Basel) über den Feldbergpass führende B 317. Mit der Bahn erreicht man den höchstgelegenen Bahnhof an einer Normalspurstrecke der Deutschen Bahn, die Station Feldberg-Bärental (967 m ü. NN) der Dreiseenbahn. Von dort existiert eine Busverbindung. Den Seebuck erreicht man von Feldberg-Ort aus mit einer kurzen Kabinenseilbahn. Der Gipfel des Feldbergs ist durch eine befestigte Zufahrtsstraße für die dortigen Einrichtungen erschlossen, für Privatleute jedoch nur zu Fuß oder per Fahrrad erreichbar.
Oberflächenformen
Zwischen dem Feldberggipfel, auch der Höchste (früher Höchst) genannt, und seinem knapp zwei Kilometer weiter im Südosten liegenden Vorberg Seebuck (1449 m ü. NHN) fällt das Gelände zunächst zum Mittelbuck (1472 m ü. NHN) ab, von dem der Baldenweger Buck (1460 m ü. NHN) nördlich abzweigt, und weiter zur Senke des Grüble (1419 m ü. NHN). Vom Seebuck aus fällt der Feldberg nach Nordosten steil zum Feldsee ab. Tief eingeschnittene Täler erstrecken sich auch nach Nordwesten Richtung Freiburg (Zastlertal, St. Wilhelmer Tal) und nach Südwesten Richtung Basel (Wiesental).
Berghöhe
Zur Höhe des Feldbergs finden sich in offiziellen Quellen unterschiedliche Angaben. So wird in den topographischen Karten der Geoportale LUBW und BfN in kleinen Maßstäben eine Höhe von 1493 m angegeben, bei mittleren Maßstäben 1494 m und bei großen Maßstäben (unter etwa 1:18.000) 1494,2 m. Im Geoportal des LGL findet sich in allen Maßstäben eine Höhe von 1494,2 m.
Die aktuellen Angaben zur Geländehöhe aus dem DGM stammen von Laserbefliegungen in den Jahren 2000–2005 und 2017. Der höchste Geländepunkt liegt auf einem flachen Hügel etwa 20 m westlich des Friedrich-Luise-Turms. Auf dem Hügel befindet sich ein Stein oder ein Pfeiler. Im direkten Umfeld dieses Objekts beträgt die Geländehöhe am Boden 1494,2 m.[8] Außerhalb des Hügels, rund um das Gebäude beträgt die Geländehöhe 1493 m.[8] Der Hügel ist möglicherweise durch künstliche Aufschüttung entstanden und wurde bei der Laserscanning-Vermessung mit berücksichtigt.
Auf dem Gipfelplateau des Feldbergs befindet sich nordöstlich des Friedrich-Luise-Turms ein künstlich angelegtes Rondell (♁⊙), auf dem mehrere Granitblöcke platziert sind. Auf einem ist eine Gedenktafel des Schwarzwaldvereins angebracht, die hier den Feldberg mit 1493 m als höchsten Punkt Baden-Württembergs markiert. Auf dem etwa einen Meter hohen Granitblock in der Mitte des Rondells befindet sich eine runde Orientierungstafel mit folgender Beschriftung in ihrer Mitte: Feldberg 1495 M.
Nutzung
Insgesamt gibt es auf und um den Feldberg herum mehr als 28 Skilifte und Abfahrten mit alpinen Schwierigkeitsgraden (FIS-Strecke bei Fahl). Der eigentliche Feldberggipfel liegt außerhalb der Skigebiete. Mehrere Loipen um den Feldberggipfel und das dem Feldberg gegenüber liegende Herzogenhorn (1415 m ü. NHN) (Bundesleistungszentrum) bieten sich für den Skilanglauf an. Der Feldberg ist ein beliebtes Skitourengebiet mit Abfahrten alpinen Charakters unter anderem vom Feldberggipfel ins Zastler Loch.
Auf dem Seebuck befindet sich der Feldbergturm, ein ehemaliger Funkturm, der als Aussichtsturm dient und seit 2013 ein Schwarzwälder-Schinken-Museum beherbergt.
Die in Zeiten des Kalten Krieges zahlreichen Richtfunkanlagen von Bundeswehr, französischer und US-Armee sind mittlerweile abgebaut. Erkennbar ist der Feldberg heute am alten und am neuen Fernsehturm sowie am Bismarckdenkmal auf dem Seebuck.
Schutzgebiete
Der größte Teil des Feldberggebietes hat auf Grund seiner subalpinen Vegetation den Status eines Naturschutzgebietes.[12] Das Naturschutzgebiet Feldberg ist das älteste und größte Naturschutzgebiet Baden-Württembergs und wird seit 1989 durch einen hauptamtlichen Naturschutzwart (Feldberg-Ranger) betreut. Seit 2001 obliegt die Schutzgebietsbetreuung dem Naturschutzzentrum Südschwarzwald im Haus der Natur, das zudem als Verwaltungssitz des Naturparks Südschwarzwald dient. Neben einer interaktiven Dauerausstellung dort, gibt es direkt hinter dem Haus seit 2005 den Naturerlebnispfad „Der Wichtelpfad im Auerhahnwald“.
Panorama
Der Feldberg bietet eines der umfassendsten Panoramen in Deutschland, insbesondere im Winter, bei Inversionswetterlage. Im Westen sieht man jenseits des Oberrheingrabens die gesamten Vogesen vom Elsässer Belchen/Ballon d'Alsace bis zum Donon und zum Odilienberg. Dahinter sieht man gelegentlich bis zum südlichen Pfälzerwald beziehungsweise „Vosges du Nord“. Im Norden sieht man die Hornisgrinde, im Nordosten die ganze Kette der Schwäbischen Alb, insbesondere den Lemberg, rechts davon die Hegauvulkane.
Im Süden erstrecken sich die Alpen, von der Alpspitze und der Zugspitze im Osten über die Allgäuer Alpen, das Lechquellengebirge, Verwallgruppe und Silvretta; dann in den Westalpen der Alpstein mit dem Säntis, die Berge um den Walensee, die Glarner Alpen mit Ringelspitz, Glärnisch und Tödi, der Piz Gannaretsch, die Urner Alpen, Berner Alpen, Grand Combin und Mont Blanc bis zu den Freiburger Voralpen im Südwesten. Vor den Westalpen und dann vor allem rechts vom Mont Blanc erstreckt sich der Schweizer Jura mit dem Chasseral als höchstem Punkt. Das Panorama reicht somit von Italien bis nach Südwestdeutschland und von Österreich bis nach Frankreich.
Geologie und Tektonik
Das Grundgebirge des Feldberges besteht aus Gneis. Es ist rund eine Milliarde Jahre alt. Insgesamt wurde der Feldberg, beziehungsweise die Region, in welcher der Feldberg heute steht, im Laufe der Erdgeschichte vier Mal herausgehoben und dreimal wieder abgetragen. Das, was wir heutzutage sehen, kann man als den „dritten Feldberg“ bezeichnen. Der „erste Feldberg“ entstand im Präkambrium als Kollisionsgebirge. Dieses wurde komplett abgetragen. Der „zweite Feldberg“ entstand während des Devons und Karbons im Zuge der variskischen Gebirgsbildung. Dieser wurde abermals abgetragen und im entstehenden Sedimentationsraum lagerten sich während des Mesozoikums Buntsandstein, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger und Malm ab. Teile dieser Sedimente sind Meeresablagerungen durch sich bildende innerkontinentale Meere, die anderen festländischen Ursprungs. Das dritte, heutige, Feldbergstadium bildete sich als Fernwirkung der alpidischen Gebirgsbildung während des Tertiärs. Die oben genannten Sedimente wurden nach der Heraushebung nach und nach abgetragen und heute ist fast ausschließlich das Grundgebirge zu finden. Bis heute wird der Feldberg herausgehoben, dies wird jedoch durch die Abtragung aufgewogen. Durch Erosion und äolische Abtragung finden auf dem Feldberg Verebnungen statt, so dass weiträumige Flächen zu beobachten sind.
Glazialmorphologie
Während des Maximums der Würmeiszeit bedeckte ein rund 1000 km² großer Gletscher den Schwarzwald. Deshalb sind im Schwarzwald sehr viele glaziale Einflüsse zu erkennen. Zur Glazialmorphologie des Feldberges gibt es mehrere Anschauungsobjekte. Dazu gehört zunächst der Feldsee. Er ist durch Eis, welches die Kar-Rückwand im Lee herabgeschoben hat, exariert worden. Nach und nach schuf das Eis auf diese Weise den 33 m tiefen Feldsee. Eine Moräne am Ufer des Feldsees zeugt von dieser Entwicklung. Auch das Feldseemoor, ein paar Meter weiter gelegen, ist ein Überbleibsel der Eiszeit. Hier ist die Endmoräne des „Minigletschers“ vom Feldsee zu sehen. Sie hat Wasser aufgestaut und bildete so ein Moor. Die glaziale Geschichte der Würmeiszeit vor 10.000–11.000 Jahren am Feldberg hat folgendermaßen ausgesehen: Die Entstehung des Feldsees geschah bei der Ausbreitung des „Feldberggletschers“. Das anschließende Feldseemoor war die nächste Etappe. Danach bildete der Gletscher eine Endmoräne bei Waldhof. Diese wurde beim Falkau-Vorstoß, welcher das Maximum markiert, noch einmal übertroffen. Danach zog sich der Gletscher wieder zurück.
Klima und Vegetation
Klima
Die Jahresdurchschnittstemperatur auf dem Feldberg liegt bei rund 3,9 °C (30-jähriger Mittelwert der Periode 1981–2010). Sie ist damit um 0,6 °C im Vergleich zur Periode 1961–1990 gestiegen. Das Klima ist subatlantisch getönt, die Temperaturschwankungen sind geringer als im Tal. Im Winter ist die Sonnenscheindauer aufgrund des niedrigen Kondensationspunktes sehr hoch. Auch deshalb ist es auf dem Feldberg im Winter relativ mild, so werden in den umliegenden Hochtälern deutlich niedrigere Tiefsttemperaturen gemessen. Die durchschnittliche Jahresniederschlagsmenge liegt bei 1637 mm und ist damit im deutschlandweiten Vergleich sehr hoch. An über 97 % der Messstationen des Deutschen Wetterdienstes werden niedrigere Werte registriert. Ein großer Teil davon fällt als Schnee. In allen Monaten kam es seit Beginn der Wetteraufzeichnungen schon zu Schneefällen. Im langjährigen Mittel gibt es auf dem Feldberg jährlich 157 Tage eine geschlossene Schneedecke. Aufgrund der exponierten Lage kann es das ganze Jahr über zu orkanartigen Winden kommen.
Durch die Wetterwarte wurden folgende extreme Werte gemessen:
Die höchste Temperatur betrug 27,4 °C am 31. Juli 1983.
Die tiefste Temperatur betrug −30,7 °C am 10. Februar 1956.
Die größte Schneehöhe betrug 350 cm am 9. und 10. März 1970.
Die höchste gemessene Windgeschwindigkeit betrug 217 km/h am 3. Januar 2018 (Sturmtief Burglind)[15]. Am 26. Dezember 1999 (Orkan Lothar) wurde eine Geschwindigkeit von 212 km/h gemessen, allerdings fiel der Windmesser während des Maximums des Orkans aus.
Vegetation
Wie in seinem Namen anklingt, ist der Feldberggipfel nicht bewaldet. Der Name stammt vom mittelhochdeutschen Velt und bedeutet „größere unbewaldete Fläche“. Die scharfen Übergänge zum Wald zeigen, dass es sich nicht um eine natürliche Waldgrenze handelt. Allein aufgrund der Höhe wäre der Feldberg nicht waldfrei; eine Waldgrenze wäre hier, etwa 100 km nördlich der nächstgelegenen Nordalpengipfel, auf einer Höhe von etwa 1650 bis 1700 m zu erwarten.
Dennoch gibt es eine Reihe von Sonderstandorten, die natürlicherweise, ohne menschliche Eingriffe, waldfrei sind, und die meisten Besonderheiten der Feldbergflora beherbergen. Zu diesen Sonderstandorten zählen Flachmoore, Übergangs- und Hochmoore, Felswände, Windheiden, Schneeböden in Nivationsmulden und Lawinenbahnen. Den Gipfelbereich umschließt ein Mischwald aus Buchen, Ebereschen, Bergahorn, Fichten, Weißtannen und Douglasien, wobei die Nadelbäume überwiegen.
Viele Lichtungen sind aber auf menschliches Eingreifen wie die früher verbreitete Waldweide zurückzuführen. Um jedes Gehöft gibt es außerdem große, waldfreie Nutzungsflächen. Dies ist auf die ehemals intensive Viehhaltung in diesen Regionen zurückzuführen. Das Vieh fraß die kleinen Bäume weg und verhinderte so ein Nachwachsen des Waldes. Heute ist dort Pioniervegetation, typischerweise mit Ebereschen, anzutreffen. Auch kleine Büsche und andere niedere Vegetation mit Krüppelwuchs (Magerrasen) ist vorhanden.
Erwähnenswerte Krautpflanzen sind die Arnika, der Alpen-Ampfer, der Alpen-Milch- und Alpen-Brandlattich, der Sumpf- und der Gelbe Enzian. Ferner findet man den Clusius-Enzian, der hier ursprünglich nicht heimisch war. Der Gelbe Enzian hat sich inzwischen jedoch so stark vermehrt, dass einmal im Jahr mit Hilfe des Bergwaldprojektes ein Drittel der Pflanzen entfernt werden und die Wurzeln einem örtlichen Brenner zur Herstellung des Enzian-Schnapses zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Der Grund ist der, dass der Gelbe Enzian wegen seines bitteren Geschmacks von den Rindern verschmäht wird und andere Futterpflanzen verdrängt. Auch bei anderen Arbeiten, wie der Beseitigung von Fichten in einem Feuchtgebiet werden Freiwillige des Bergwaldprojektes eingesetzt.
Die besondere Vegetation in den Mooren bildete sich im Zuge einer typischen Vegetationsabfolge. Nach der glazialen Exaration und der anschließenden Ablagerung von Endmoränen, welche seither, wie besonders am Feldseemoor, das Wasser aufstauen, entstand zunächst ein oligotrophes Niedermoor, in dem Schilfe und Gräser die Nährstoffe noch aus dem Grundwasser aufnehmen können. Aus abgestorbenen Pflanzen (biogene Sedimente) bildet sich Torf, und das Niveau des Moors hebt sich so allmählich über das Grundwasserniveau. Dabei entsteht ein Hochmoor mit ombrotrophen Pflanzen, welche vom Regenwasser abhängig sind und sich von den in der Atmosphäre verfügbaren Nährstoffen versorgen müssen.
Vielerorts wurden Bannwälder eingerichtet, die sich nunmehr naturbelassen entwickeln. An vielen Stellen wird Landschaftspflege betrieben, zum einen, um durch den Tourismus entstandene Erosionsschäden zu beheben und zum anderen, um die Landschaft für oft bestandsgefährdete lichtbedürftige Arten offenzuhalten.
Anthropogeographie
Der Mensch hat sich einige geologische Besonderheiten des Feldberggebiets zu Nutze gemacht. So wurde der Seebach, der aus dem Feldsee ins Tal fließt, für die Schwallflößerei aufgestaut. Die Landschaft wird durch Landschaftspflege offen und touristisch attraktiv gehalten und der üppige Waldbestand wird von der Forstwirtschaft genutzt, wenn auch nicht allzu intensiv.
Die Haupteinkommensquelle der Wirtschaft am Feldberg ist heute der Tourismus. Schätzungen gehen von 1 bis 1,5 Millionen Besuchern jährlich im Feldberggebiet aus. Dabei bestehen Zielkonflikte zwischen der touristischen Nutzung und den Belangen des Naturschutzes.
Sommertourismus
Der Berg ist Wanderern durch zahlreiche bewirtschaftete Berghütten (Baldenweger Hütte, Rinkenhütte, Zastler Hütte, St. Wilhelmer Hütte, Todtnauer Hütte, Naturfreundehaus Feldberg) und Wanderwege erschlossen, darunter der Felsenweg über dem Feldsee und der Alpine Pfad, die durch einige der letzten Landschaften alpinen Charakters im Schwarzwald führen. Der 12 Kilometer lange Feldberg-Steig führt um Gipfel und Feldsee. Daneben gibt es einige asphaltierte Zufahrtsstraßen zu den Gasthäusern und den anderen Einrichtungen am und um den Feldberggipfel.
Wintertourismus
Besonders starke Eingriffe in das Landschaftsbild bewirkte die bauliche Erschließung des Feldberggebietes für den Wintersport seit einigen Jahrzehnten. Das Feldberger Pistenskigebiet umfasst 14 Liftanlagen, fünf davon am Seebuck. Das Gebiet ist beliebt bei Skilangläufern, die unter anderem auf der Stübenwasenspur die Südabhänge von Feldberg und Seebuck zwischen Feldbergpass und Stübenwasen queren. Auch das Winterwandern mit Schneeschuhen ist weit verbreitet, und Snowkiting wird immer populärer. Skialpinismus stellt zwar die älteste Form des Wintersports im Gebiet dar, wird heute aber nur von relativ wenigen Skifahrern betrieben.
Alpine Gefahren
Der Feldberg wird in Bezug auf alpine Gefahren – wie viele Mittelgebirge – oft unterschätzt. Die leichte Erreichbarkeit durch öffentliche Verkehrsmittel, Auto und Seilbahn suggeriert Ungefährlichkeit. Oft sind Besucher unpassend ausgerüstet. Hauptgefahren im Feldberggebiet sind Wetterstürze, Sturm oder Ausrutschen auf glattem, vereistem Untergrund. In der Nähe von höheren Strukturen (Sendeanlagen etc.) besteht die Gefahr von Eisschlag. Bei nebligem Wetter kann die Sichtweite bis auf wenige Meter zurückgehen, so dass der Wegverlauf nicht mehr erkennbar ist. An den markierten Wegen außerhalb der Waldgebiete sind deshalb Stangen zur Orientierung aufgestellt.
In jedem Winter gehen mehrmals größere Lawinen im Feldberggebiet ab. Betroffen sind v. a. die Hänge des Zastler Tales, aber auch andere leeseitige Steilhänge wie im Feldseekessel am Seebuck, am Herzogenhorn und am Baldenweger Buck. Durch Schneefall vor allem bei westlichen Winden bilden sich an den windabgewandten Seiten Wechten (z. B. „Zastler Wechte“), die abbrechen können. Mehrere tödliche Lawinenverschüttungen sind bekannt, zuletzt im Januar 2015 mit zwei Toten. Für den Schwarzwald existiert kein spezieller Lawinenlagebericht.
Der Bergrettungsdienst im Feldberggebiet wird durch die Bergwacht Schwarzwald sichergestellt.
Wettermessung
Auf dem Gipfel des Feldberges, wo das Wetter seit 1915 gemessen wird, befindet sich seit 1937 eine Wetterbeobachtungsstation des Deutschen Wetterdienstes (WMO Kennziffer: 10908). Neben der Wetterstation befindet sich eine Wetterradaranlage, die ein Teil des Radarverbundes des Deutschen Wetterdienstes darstellt. Sie ist im 21 Meter hohen Friedrich-Luise-Turm untergebracht, der 1913 seinen baufälligen Vorgänger ersetzte und nach Großherzog Friedrich I. und seiner Gemahlin Luise von Preußen benannt worden war. Er musste im Jahr 1959 vom Schwarzwaldverein wegen der strategischen Bedeutung des Feldbergs verkauft werden.
Im Herbst 2012 wurde die Radaranlage im Luisenturm modernisiert. Um währenddessen dennoch Wetterdaten erhalten zu können, wurde im Mai 2012 ein provisorischer Stahlgittermast mit eigenem Radom installiert. Am 20. November 2012 wurde das neu im Luisenturm eingebaute Dual-Polarisations-Radargerät in Betrieb genommen. Gleichzeitig wurde das Ausfallsicherungsradar am 20. November 2012 wieder außer Betrieb genommen und der Gittermast in der darauffolgenden Woche abgebaut.[28]
Seit 1. Februar 2014 wird die Wetterwarte offiziell automatisch und ohne Personal betrieben.
Rezeption
Viele Künstler malten den Feldberg, darunter Hans Thoma (1839–1924) und Franz Xaver Winterhalter (1805–1873), die in der Nähe des Feldbergs aufwuchsen. Die Maler Franz Eberlin (1896–1930) und Karl Hauptmann (1880–1947) zogen auf das Feldbergmassiv, um sich besser ihrer Arbeit widmen zu können. Zahlreiche Abbildungen stammen ebenfalls vom Lahrer Thoma-Schüler Wilhelm Wickertsheimer (1886–1968) sowie dem späteren Hinterzartener Hermann Dischler.
Darüber hinaus wurde der Hauptgürtelasteroid (10666) Feldberg nach dem Berg benannt.
(Wikipedia)
Be COOL! Country Of Origin Labels are a good way for an informed consumer to know where their stuff comes from and make reasonable choices about what is wholesome to eat or drink or avoid putting into their body. Knowing the origin of a product helps determine the authenticity of the product, and if you’re really on top of things, you might be aware of whether or not their growing is sustainable, their processing is healthy, and whether their regime is one you want to support or boycott.
In this photo, I chose wine from California, olives from Spain, and beer from Germany. Most German beers like this Warsteiner are named after their town of origin. All of their brews are subject to very old and strict laws insuring that only the best, traditional ingredients go into them. My olive oil is bottled in Italy and blended from olive oil originating from Italy, Spain, and Greece. Also on the back row is a Navel Orange from California probably grown from water that started out in the Colorado Rockies.
Moving a bit forward we come to some ham from the regional chain HEB. It is Made in USA, but I’ll have to look further into where their store brand ham and turkey comes from. I avoid all pork products from the Smithfield syndicate of factory farms, and that includes a whole shitload of common pork brands they acquired. If you eat pork, look them up or just buy local from a trusted source. Likewise, I now avoid all chicken from Tyson or Pilgrim’s Pride because they along with Smithfield, conduct massive Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations that are cruel to the animals, dangerous to their low-paid workers, extremely harmful to the environment, and potentially dangerous to the consumer. My shit list continues to grow. My chicken and bison comes from regional, free-range operations that avoid GMO feed, animal growth hormones, and antibiotics given to healthy animals. I also know that HEB gets their salmon from wild fisheries or sustainable fish farms.
My fingers are touching red grapefruit from Texas which happens to be the world’s best and will remain so IF the Rio Grande keeps flowing from Colorado, through New Mexico, and between Mexico and Texas. The cherry tomatoes are from Mexico. Most of my tomatoes come from Texas or Mexico. The sardines come from Canada. In recent years many sardines and most smoked baby oysters come from China, a country with HORRIBLE food purity laws. Avoid chlorine-processed chicken from China at all cost! There are attempts within the industrial and junk food industry to abolish mandatory COOL laws, and this would open the door to Chinese chlorine chicken or dog meat entering the US. If TPP gets final approval, the privatization measures could require that US municipal animal shelters be sold to Chinese meat producers.
Sausage is a family of meat products that can be produced clean or nasty. Smithfield owns many traditional brands that have become industrial operations whose products should be avoided. The sausage shown here is from Holmes Smokehouse, a local meat producer that I am familiar with. Their catering department used to supply lunch to my National Guard tank company, a few miles away in Rosenberg. I have seen their facilities and watched their company grow and product line expand.
The Jarlsberg cheese is a Swiss Emmentaler style of cheese made in Norway and is the most popular brand of foreign cheese sold in the US. I prefer the real Emmentaler, but it sells for about 50% more per pound. Depending what is available and what the going price is, I buy cheese from the United States, Ireland, England, Wales, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Germany, Switzerland, The Netherlands, France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Australia. Kiwifruit originated in China but gained its popularity after being grown and exported from New Zealand. Most of the time, it is too expensive for me to buy, but recently I’ve gotten some from Chile at a decent price.
Sometimes it does take a magnifying glass to read the COOL labels, but it is important to know where your food comes from. You really are what you eat. It is also important for me to know where my makeup comes from. Most of my cosmetics come from the US, but a little bit comes from France, Germany, and the UK but never China. Heavy metal contamination of pigments, dyes, and paints is their special hazard. No “bargain brand” eye shadow from China for me. That stuff showed up recently.
Etymologie : l'origine du nom de Germigny-des-Prés vient d'une villa gallo-romaine érigée par Germanacus. Cette villa reprise par les abbés de Fleury à Saint Benoît-sur-Loire, est transformée en maison de campagne par Théodulfe, proche conseiller de Charlemagne, évêque d'Orléans et abbé de Fleury. Il y a adjoint une chapelle privée (un oratoire), qu'il fait richement décorer avec des mosaïques, des stucs et un pavement de marbre. Cette chapelle est inaugurée en janvier 806.
L'oratoire carolingien ou église de la Très-Sainte-Trinité.
Au IX° siècle, Germigny abritait la "villa" de Théodulphe, abbé de Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire
et réformateur de la Bible avec Alcuin.
L'oratoire est tout ce qui reste de la demeure.
L'oratoire est construit entre 803 et 806 par l'évêque Théodulf d'Orléans,
théologien et poète familier de Charlemagne, selon un plan centré en croix grecque.
L'oratoire incendié à la fin du IX° siècle, devient église paroissiale au XI° siècle.
Au XV° siècle, le bâtiment est transformé en forme de basilique par ajout d'une nef.
De 1867 à 1876, l'oratoire est reconstruit par Juste Lisch.
L'oratoire s'articule autour d'une tour qui sert de puits de lumière pour éclairer l'intérieur.
Des collatéraux eux-mêmes raidis en 4 petits carrés d'angle, servent à contrebuter cette tour. Chaque collatéral se termine par une abside.
L'abside Est était elle-même encadrée par deux absidioles, détruites lors des restaurations du XIX° siècle.
L'oratoire adopte un plan en forme de croix grecque
(quatre absides semi-circulaires sur quatre côtés d'un carré, l'abside orientale étant celle de la mosaïque),
Imité de l'oratoire du palais impérial à Aix-la-Chapelle (Allemagne)
et dont le prototype est la cathédrale d'Etchmiadzin (Arménie).
Sur la façade sud, un porche a été ajouté à la nef.
Sous ce porche se trouve une cuve octogonale, probablement les fonts baptismaux du IX° siècle.
Une nef a été construite au XV° siècle et XVI° siècle après destruction de l'abside occidentale. Cette nef est rallongée au XIX° siècle, le massif initial étant surmonté d'un clocher.
L'église a été consacrée le 3 janvier 806 sous le vocable de Sainte Geneviève et Saint Germain.
Elle aurait été alors la plus riche de Neustrie. Elle fut le siège d'un concile en 843,
et incendiée avant 854. Érigée en prieuré en 1067, en paroisse au XIII° siècle.
La partie la plus ancienne (en croix grecque) est constituée d'arcatures outrepassées, dont la courbure est supérieure à celle de l'arc en plein cintre de style wisigothique. La coupole n'est pas d'origine. Elle couronne une tour lanterne avec deux niveaux d'ouvertures : quatre séries de trois arcatures en dessous de fenêtres garnies de carreaux d'albâtre tamisant la lumière.
La mosaïque se situe au-dessus d'une série de petites arcatures aveugles,
mais dont l'intérieur était manifestement décoré de mosaïques dont on voit encore les traces.
Dans la seconde moitié du XVIII° siècle, on a recouvert les mosaïques d'un épais badigeon. Elles sont redécouvertes par hasard vers 1820, lorsque le curé de la paroisse s'aperçoit que des enfants jouent avec des cubes de verres colorés trouvés dans l'église. Commence alors une campagne de restauration de la mosaïque. Menaçant ruine, une nouvelle restauration est entreprise à partir de 1867, au cours de laquelle l'oratoire est reconstruit en grande partie.
L'église contient, sur le cul de four de l'abside, la seule mosaïque byzantine de France, elle représente deux anges qui entourent l'Arche d'alliance.
Sur la voûte de l'abside principale, Théodulphe ne fait pas représenter le Christ, comme souvent en Italie à son époque, mais l'Arche d'alliance, le coffre qui contient les tables de la loi transmise à Moïse. Deux petits anges dorés en ornent le couvercle. Deux grands anges la protègent. La main de Dieu apparaît au centre dans un arc en ciel. Cette mosaïque unique en France est constituée de milliers de tesselles (fragments de pierre et de verre coloré ou doré). Elle s'inspire des arts et des techniques de l'église byzantine.
Les colonnettes renflées, les chapiteaux à feuillages et les entrelacs en stucs sont caractéristiques de l'art du temps de Charlemagne, mais ils ont été en grande partie transformés par la restauration. D'autres mosaïques et un pavement de marbres colorés complétaient le décor de l'église.
Sous la mosaïque, une pietà de l'école bourguignonne, du XVI° siècle.
Dans la nef, lustres de l'Atelier Jacques Loire, créés en 2003.
(Leur forme rappelle celle de la couronne de Charlemagne).
Les vitraux sont datés 1981 et proviennent des ateliers de Louis-René Petit
Les fonts baptismaux du XIX° siècle, sont une copie des fonts du IX° siècle :
Saint Jean Baptiste, en sabots, verse de l'eau du Jourdain sur le Christ agenouillé qui reçoit le sacrement de baptême. En haut à gauche, la main de Dieu sort d'une nuée et est dirigée vers le Christ.
Sources :
Citroën : Origins since 1919
Vmax : 100 km/h
144.953 ex.
Salon Rétromobile 2019
Paris Expo - Porte de Versailles
Paris - France
February 2019
Before I had a regular camera of my own, I got my start in school bus photography from taking videos, separating them into stills and trying to pick out the least pixelated ones. I just thought it would be interesting to share these with you guys and see how they translated onto flickr.
A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya; disciple, student) or शिक्ष (śikṣa; instruction). A Sikh is a disciple of a guru. According to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), a Sikh is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru". "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhs often share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the U.K., recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".
Male Sikhs usually have "Singh" (Lion), and female Sikhs have "Kaur" (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the khanḍe-kī-pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: uncut hair (kesh); an iron or steel bracelet (kara); a kirpan (a sword tucked into a gatra strap); kachehra, a cotton undergarment, and kanga, a small wooden comb. Baptized male Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban, which is optional for baptized female Sikhs. The greater Punjab region is the historic homeland of the Sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.
HISTORY
Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer in the 15th-century Punjab. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Singh baptized five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. Sikhism has generally had amicable relations with other religions, except for the period of Mughal rule in India (1556–1707). Several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under Ranjit Singh was characterized by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The confederacy is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab.
The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi-speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.
Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government", and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage". Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Khushwant Singh described the riots as a Sikh pogrom; he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany". Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right-wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus" disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.
In 1996, United Nations Commission on Human Rights Freedom of Religion or Belief Special Rapporteur Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004) visited India to report on religious discrimination. The following year Amor concluded, "In India it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment (sic) sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the military, and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi".
Although Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks of the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, they make up 1.87 percent of the Indian population.
During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.
DEFINITION
According to Guru Granth Sahib:
One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, the Sikh is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, the Sikh is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, the Sikh is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, the Sikh is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food – that Gursikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that Gursikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that Gursikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.
Simran of the Lord's name is a recurring theme of Guru Granth Sahib, and Sukhmani Sahib were composed to allow a devotee to recite Nam throughout the day. Rising at Amrit Velā (before sunrise) is a common Sikh practice. Sikhism considers the spiritual and secular lives to be intertwined: "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite and partakes of its characteristics." According to Guru Nanak, living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is superior to a purely contemplative life.
FIVE Ks
The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on God and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:
- Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a Dastar
- Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a Dastar
- Katchera: Cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti. Worn by both sexes, the katchera is a symbol of chastity.
- Kara: An iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity
- Kirpan: An iron dagger in different sizes. In the UK Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the Punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.
MUSIC & INSTRUMENTS
The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged in Guru Har Gobind. The rubab was first played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were designed by Guru Arjan. The taus was made by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was made by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabda in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as ragas. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.
When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.
DISTRIBUTION
Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two-thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs (more than 200,000) live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana (more than 1.1 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.
Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India and Pakistan after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia and Thailand.
Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom[ing] virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.
Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.
REPRESENTATION
Sikhs have been represented in Indian politics by former Indian prime minister Manmohan Singh and the deputy chairman of the Indian Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Punjab Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal is also a Sikh. Past Sikh politicians in India include former president Giani Zail Singh, Sardar Swaran Singh (India's first foreign minister), Speaker of Parliament Gurdial Singh Dhillon and former Chief Minister of Punjab Pratap Singh Kairon.
Politicians from the Sikh diaspora include the first Asian American member of the United States Congress, Dalip Singh Saund, British MPs Piara Khabra, Parmjit Dhanda and Paul Uppal, the first couple to sit together in a Commonwealth parliament (Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, who requested a Canadian government apology for the Komagata Maru incident), former Canadian Shadow Social Development Minister Ruby Dhalla, Canadian Minister of State for Sport Baljit Singh Gosal and Legislative Assembly of Ontario members Vic Dhillon and Jagmeet Singh. Ujjal Dosanjh was the New Democratic Party Premier of British Columbia from July 2004 to February 2005, and was later a Liberal frontbench MP in Ottawa. In Malaysia, two Sikhs were elected MPs in the 2008 general elections: Karpal Singh (Bukit Gelugor) and his son, Gobind Singh Deo (Puchong). Two Sikhs were elected assemblymen: Jagdeep Singh Deo (Datuk Keramat) and Keshvinder Singh (Malim Nawar).
Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, while making up 1.87 percent of the Indian population. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.
Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India"). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj-developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial". However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science [i.e. the green revolution] on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.
Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.
In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America, especially in California’s fertile Central Valley. American Sikh farmers such as Harbhajan Singh Samra and Didar Singh Bains dominate California agriculture, with Samra specialising in okra and Bains in peaches.
Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Bollywood actress Neetu Singh, Sunny Leone, actors Parminder Nagra, Neha Dhupia, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral, Archie Panjabi and director Gurinder Chadha.
Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sarera, Sikligar, Sunar, Sudh, Tarkhan and Zargar.
An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.
IN THE INDIAN & BRITISH ARMIES
Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.
During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.
In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. They all died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world, and during shell fire, with no other protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.
—General Sir Frank Messervy
British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice [in two world wars] and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.
—Sir Winston Churchill
IN THE WEST
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.
Since Sikhs (like Middle Eastern men) wear turbans, some in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim or Arabic men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al-Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.
Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The Kundalini Yoga-based activities of Harbhajan Singh Yogi in his 3HO (Happy, Healthy, Holy) organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ‘gora’ (ਗੋਰਾ) or ‘white’ Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.
In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations have begun. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada.
ART & CULTURE
Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India’s melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures (Greek, Mughal and Persian) from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".
During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.
The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts - except for the relics of the Gurus - have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.
Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins") is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.
Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").
PAINTING
Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.
The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.
WIKIPEDIA
The International Sculpture Park in Ayia Napa, Republic of Cyprus, is a remarkable testament to the beauty and power of sculpture. Spanning several decades, the park's history is a story of artistic vision, cultural exchange, and the celebration of human creativity. In this essay, we will explore the fascinating journey of the International Sculpture Park, tracing its origins, evolution, and impact.
The idea for the International Sculpture Park was born in the early 1990s when a group of local artists and art enthusiasts in Ayia Napa recognized the potential of creating a dedicated space for large-scale sculptures. They envisioned a place where artists from around the world could come together to showcase their works and engage with the local community. With the support of the Ayia Napa municipality, the project began to take shape.
In 1994, the first edition of the International Sculpture Symposium was organized in Ayia Napa. This symposium brought together sculptors from different countries who collaborated to create a series of monumental sculptures. The event was a resounding success, attracting international attention and paving the way for the establishment of the International Sculpture Park.
In 1996, the park officially opened its doors to the public, becoming the first outdoor sculpture park in Cyprus. Situated on a vast expanse of land near the coast, the park provided a serene setting for the display of sculptures. Its location in Ayia Napa, a popular tourist destination, ensured a steady stream of visitors, both local and international, who could experience the power of sculpture in a unique environment.
Over the years, the International Sculpture Park grew in size and ambition. The annual sculpture symposium continued to be a highlight of the park's calendar, attracting renowned artists from all corners of the globe. These artists were invited to stay in Ayia Napa for a few weeks, during which they would create sculptures using various materials, such as stone, metal, and wood. The symposiums not only fostered artistic collaboration but also promoted cultural exchange and understanding among the participants.
Each year, the newly created sculptures were added to the park's permanent collection, enriching its aesthetic and conceptual diversity. The park soon became a haven for sculpture enthusiasts and art lovers, who could explore the outdoor space and engage with the artworks in a dynamic and immersive manner. The sculptures themselves ranged from abstract and avant-garde to figurative and representational, reflecting the diverse artistic styles and perspectives of the participating sculptors.
As the reputation of the International Sculpture Park grew, so did its impact on the local community and the broader cultural landscape of Cyprus. The park became a site for educational initiatives, offering workshops, lectures, and guided tours to students, artists, and the general public. It served as a platform for artistic experimentation and innovation, encouraging dialogue and critical thinking about the role of sculpture in contemporary society.
The International Sculpture Park also played a significant role in promoting Ayia Napa as a cultural destination. While the town was primarily known for its beaches and nightlife, the park added a new dimension to its identity, positioning it as a place where art and nature converge. The park's success inspired the development of other cultural projects in Ayia Napa, including art galleries, exhibitions, and public art installations, further enhancing the town's cultural appeal.
In recent years, the International Sculpture Park has continued to evolve and adapt to the changing artistic landscape. It has embraced new technologies and art forms, incorporating interactive and multimedia elements into its exhibitions. The park has also expanded its outreach efforts, forging partnerships with international sculpture parks and organizations to facilitate artist exchanges and collaborative projects.
Today, the International Sculpture Park stands as a testament to the power of art to transcend boundaries and connect people across cultures. Its collection of sculptures represents a diverse range of artistic expressions and narratives, providing a window into the human experience. The park continues to inspire and captivate visitors, offering a unique space for contemplation, exploration, and artistic enlightenment.
In conclusion, the International Sculpture Park in Ayia Napa, Republic of Cyprus, has emerged as a cultural landmark and a hub of artistic expression. From its humble beginnings as a local initiative to its current stature as an international platform for sculpture, the park has evolved and flourished over the years. Its impact on the local community, the art world, and the broader cultural landscape of Cyprus is immeasurable, making it a testament to the enduring power of sculpture as a form of human expression.
Provenance:
Recipient: Lionel Aucoin (1903–1983) of Spencer, Massachusetts.
Sender: Office of H.M. King Leopold III of Belgium (via Viscount Gatien du Parc Locmaria).
Location of Origin: The Ritz-Carlton, Boston, MA.
Date: October 15–18, 1957.
Overview:
This collection documents a specific moment in 20th-century royal and medical history. In October 1957, King Leopold III was in residence at the Ritz-Carlton Boston while Prince Alexandre underwent heart surgery at Boston Children's Hospital. During this private visit, the King’s household fulfilled a philatelic request from Lionel Aucoin.
Included Artifacts:
1. The Autograph: A hand-signed Belgian 1.75 FR blue postage stamp mounted on a collector's card.
2. The Transmittal Letter: A formal note on Ritz-Carlton stationery from Viscount Gatien du Parc Locmaria, the King’s Chamberlain.
3. The Cover (Envelope): Featuring a 1957 postmark from the period of the visit.
4. The Collector's Note: Hand-written annotations by Lionel Aucoin confirming the date of receipt as October 18, 1957.
Historical Significance:
Items signed by King Leopold III during his years following his abdication are distinct from official state documents. This specific interaction during a medical visit in the United States serves as an association piece connecting Belgian royalty to Massachusetts regional history. The correspondence from Viscount du Parc provides authentication and places the King at the Ritz-Carlton during the week of the medical procedure.
Why Lionel Aucoin Matters:
Lionel Aucoin was a documented "super-collector." Items from known, organized collections often carry a provenance premium. The fact that he was a local figure in Spencer, MA, adds a "regional interest" element that might appeal to Massachusetts historical societies or local collectors. Lionel Aucoin clearly knew how to time his requests. By reaching out while the King was "accessible" at a local hotel rather than a palace in Belgium, he secured a piece that most European collectors would have found impossible to get. A Letter of Transmittal is the "holy grail" for provenance—it proves that the autograph wasn't just clipped from a random document, but was personally sent to Mr. Aucoin by the King’s household. Authentic "Letter of Transmittal" documents on Ritz-Carlton Boston stationery from a visiting monarch are highly sought after by hotel and royal historians alike.
In collecting, a "Letter of Transmittal" is the formal cover letter sent by an office (in this case, the King’s office at the Ritz-Carlton) to "transmit" or deliver the requested autograph to the collector.
Viscount Gatien du Parc was with the King in Boston during this medical crisis. Despite the stress of the surgery, the fact that they took the time to fulfill a local collector's request for an autographed stamp is a testament to the Viscount's efficiency and the King's courtesy.
That note is an authentic artifact related to Viscount Gatien du Parc Locmaria (1899–1974), a high-ranking Belgian courtier who served as the Chamberlain and Comptroller of the Household for King Leopold III.
King Leopold III of Belgium died on September 25, 1983, at the age of 81.
Details of His Death:
Circumstances: He passed away following emergency heart surgery at Louvain University Hospital.
Location: He died in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert (Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe), a municipality in Brussels, Belgium.
Burial: He was interred in the Royal Crypt at the Church of Our Lady of Laeken in Brussels, alongside his first wife, Queen Astrid.
Key Facts of His Reign:
Reign: 1934–1951.
Abdication: He abdicated on July 16, 1951, in favour of his son, Baudouin, following the "Royal Question" controversy regarding his conduct during World War II.
Post-Abdication: In retirement, he pursued interests in anthropology and entomology, travelling extensively to regions like the Amazon and Senegal.
LINK to video - Leopold III Becomes King of Belgium - 1934 | Today In History | 23 Feb 17 - www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wACPFJziLw
LINK to video - He Was Meant to Be Belgium’s Hero – But Everything Went Wrong! The Tragic Rise of Leopold III - www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z9_WJKq6sTA
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
The Wasp was a transonic British jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Folland for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. The Wasp’s origins could be traced back to a privately funded 1952 concept for a bigger and more capable day fighter aircraft than Folland’s very light Midget/Gnat. The Wasp’s development had been continued until the Gnat’s service introduction, and by then it had evolved under the handle “Fo-145” into a supersonic aircraft that took advantage of the new Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engine, swept wings and area rule. The aircraft was built with the minimum airframe size to take the reheated Saphire and a radar system that would allow it to deploy the new de Havilland Blue Jay (later Firestreak) guided air-to-air missile. In this form the aircraft was expected to surpass the Royal Air Force’s contemporary day fighter, the only gun-armed Hawker Hunter, which had been in service since 1954, while using basically the same engine as its F.2 variant, in both performance and armament aspects. The missile-armed Wasp was also expected to replace the disappointing Supermarine Swift and the Fairey Fireflash AAMs that had been developed for it.
The Wasp strongly resembled the smaller Gnat, with a similar but much thinner shoulder mounted wing, with a sweep of 35° at quarter chord, but the new aircraft featured some innovations. Beyond the area-ruled fuselage, the aircraft had full-span leading edge slats and trailing edge flaps with roll control achieved using spoilers rather than traditional ailerons. Anticipating supersonic performance, the tailplane was all-moving. The cockpit had been raised and offered the pilot a much better all-round field of view.
The Wasp was armed with four 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannon, located under the air intakes. Each gun had a provision of 125 rounds, from form a mutual ventral ammunition bay that could be quickly replaced. Four underwing hardpoints could carry an ordnance load of up to 4.000 lb, and the Wasp’s main armament consisted of up to four IR-guided “Firestreak” AAMs. To effectively deploy them, however, a radar system was necessary. For launch, the missile seeker was slaved to the Wasp’s AI.Mk.20 X-band radar until lock was achieved and the weapon was launched, leaving the interceptor free to acquire another target. The AI.Mk.20 had been developed by EKCO since 1953 under the development label “Green Willow” for the upcoming EE Lightning interceptor, should the latter’s more complex and powerful Ferranti AIRPASS system fail. A major advantage of the AI.Mk.20 was that it had been designed as a single unit so it could be fit into the nose of smaller single-seat fighters, despite its total weight of roughly 400 lb (200 kg). For the Firestreak AAM, EKCO had developed a spiral-scan radar with a compact 18 in (460 mm) antenna that offered an effective range of about 10 miles (16 km), although only against targets very close to the centerline of the radar. The radar’s maximum detection range was 25 mi (40 km) and the system also acted as a ranging radar, providing range input to the gyro gunsight for air-to-air gunnery.
Beyond Firestreaks, the Wasp could also carry drop tanks (which were area-ruled and coulc only be carried on the inner pair of pylons), SNEB Pods with eighteen 68 mm (2.68 in) unguided rocket projectiles against air and ground targets, or iron bombs of up to 1.000 lb caliber. Other equipment included a nose-mounted, and a forward-facing gun camera.
The Royal Air Force was sufficiently impressed to order two prototypes. Since the afterburning version of the Sapphire was not ready yet, the first prototype flew on 30 July 1954 with a non-afterburning engine, an Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire Sa.6 with 8,000 lbf (35.59 kN). In spite of this lack of power the aircraft nevertheless nearly reached Mach 1 in its maiden flight. The second prototype, equipped with the intended Sapphire Sa.7 afterburning engine with 11,000 lbf (48.9 kN) thrust engine, showed the aircraft’s full potential. The Wasp turned out to have very good handling, and the RAF officially ordered sixty Folland Fo-145 day-fighters under the designation “Wasp F.Mk.1”. The only changes from the prototypes were small leading-edge extensions at the wing roots, improving low speed handling, esp. during landings and at high angles of incidence in flight.
Most Wasps were delivered to RAF Germany frontline units, including No. 20 and 92 Squadrons based in Northern Germany. However, the Wasp’s active service did not last long, because technological advancements quickly rendered the aircraft obsolete in its original interceptor role. The Wasp’s performance had not turned out as significantly superior to the Hunter as expected. Range was rather limited, and the aircraft turned out to be underpowered, since the reheated Sapphire Sa6 did not develop as much power as expected. The AI.Mk.20 radar was rather weak and capricious, too, and the Firestreak was an operational nightmare. The missile was, due to its solid Magpie rocket motor and the ammonia coolant for the IR seeker head, highly toxic and RAF armorers had to wear some form of CRBN protection to safely mount the missile onto an aircraft. Furthermore, unlike modern missiles, Firestreak’s effectiveness was very limited since it could only be fired outside cloud - and over Europe or in winter, skies were rarely clear.
Plans for a second production run of the Folland Wasp with a more powerful Sapphire Sa7R engine with a raised thrust of 12,300 lbf (54.7 kN) and updated avionics were not carried out. During the 1960s, following the successful introduction of the supersonic English Electric Lightning in the interceptor role, the Wasp, as well as the older but more prosperous and versatile Hunter, transitioned to being operated as a fighter-bomber, advanced trainer and for tactical photo reconnaissance missions.
This led to a limited MLU program for the F.Mk.1s and conversions of the remaining airframes into two new variants: the new main version was the GR.Mk.2, a dedicated CAS/ground attack variant, which had its radar removed and replaced with ballast, outwardly recognizable through a solid metal nose which replaced the original fiberglass radome. Many of these machines also had two of the 30mm guns removed to save weight. Furthermore, a handful Wasps were converted into PR.Mk.3s. These had as set of five cameras in a new nose section with various windows, and all the guns and the ammunition bay were replaced with an additional fuel tank, operating as pure, unarmed reconnaissance aircraft. When Folland was integrated into the Hawker Siddeley Group in 1963 the aircraft’s official name was changed accordingly, even though the Folland name heritage persisted.
Most of these aircraft remained allocated to RAF Germany units and retired towards the late Sixties, but four GR.Mk.2s were operated by RAF No. 57 (Reserve) Squadron and based at No. 3 Flying Training School at Cranwell, where they were flown as adversaries in dissimilar aerial combat training. The last of the type was withdrawn from service in 1969, but one aircraft remained flying with the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment at Boscombe Down until 24 January 1975.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 45 ft 10.5 in (13.983 m)
Wingspan: 31 ft 7.5 in (9.639 m)
Height: 13 ft 2.75 in (4.0323 m)
Wing area: 250 sq ft (23 m2)
Empty weight: 13,810 lb (6,264 kg)
Gross weight: 21,035 lb (9,541 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 23,459 lb (10,641 kg)
Powerplant:
1× Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire Sa.6, producing 7,450 lbf (33.1 kN) thrust at 8,300 rpm,
military power dry, and 11,000 lbf (48.9 kN) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: 631 kn (726 mph, 1,169 km/h) / M1.1 at 35,000 ft (10,668 m)
654 kn (753 mph; 1,211 km/h) at sea level
Cruise speed: 501 kn (577 mph, 928 km/h)
Range: 1,110 nmi (1,280 mi, 2,060 km)
Service ceiling: 49,000 ft (15,000 m)
Rate of climb: 16,300 ft/min (83 m/s)
Wing loading: 84 lb/sq ft (410 kg/m2)
Thrust/weight: 0.5
Armament:
4× 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannon, 125 rounds per gun
4× underwing hardpoints for a total external ordnance of 4.000 lb, including Firestreak AAMs,
SNEB pods, bombs of up to 1.000 lb caliber or two 125 imp gal (570 l) drop tanks
The kit and its assembly
This kit travesty is a remake of a simple but brilliant idea of fellow modeler chrisonord at whatifmodellers’com (www.whatifmodellers.com/index.php?topic=48434.msg899420#m...), who posted his own build in late 2020: a Grumman Tiger in standard contemporary RAF colors as Folland Wasp GR.Mk.2. The result looked like a highly credible “big brother” or maybe successor of Folland’s diminutive Midge/Gnat fighter, something in the Hawker Hunter’s class. I really like the idea a lot and decided that it was, one and a half years later, to build my personal interpretation of the subject – also because I had a Hasegawa F11F kit in The Stash™ without a proper plan.
The Tiger was built basically OOB – a simple and straightforward affair that goes together well, just the fine, raised panel lines show the mould’s age. The only changes I made: the arrester hook disappeared under PSR, small stabilizer fins (from an Italeri BAe Hawk) were added under the tail section, and I replaced the Tiger’s rugged twin wheel front landing gear with a single wheel alternative, left over from a Matchbox T-2 Buckeye. On the main landing gear, the rearward-facing stabilizing struts were deleted (for a lighter look of a land-based aircraft) and their wells filled with putty. A late modification were additional swing arms for the main landing gear, though: once the kit could sit on its own three feet, the stance was odd and low, esp. under the tail – probably due to the new front wheel. As a remedy I glued additional swing arm elements, made from 1mm steel wire, under the original struts, what moved the main wheel a little backwards and raised the main landing gear my 1mm. Does not sound like much, but it was enough to lift the tail and give the aircraft a more convincing stance and ground clearance.
The area-ruled drop tanks and their respective pylons were taken from the Hasegawa kit. For a special “British” touch – because the Tiger had a radome (into which no radar was ever fitted, though) – I added a pair of Firestreak AAMs on the outer underwing stations, procured from a Gomix Gloster Javelin (which comes with four of these, plus pylons).
Painting and markings:
Since the RAF theme was more or less settled, paintwork revolved around more or less authentical colors and markings. The Wasp received a standard RAF day fighter scheme from the late Fifties, with upper camouflage in RAF Dark Green/Dark Sea Grey and Light Aircraft Grey undersides with a low waterline. I used Humbrol 163, 106 and 166, respectively – Ocean Grey was used because I did not have the proper 164 at hand, but 106 also offered the benefit of a slightly better contrast to the murky Dark Green. A black ink washing was applied plus some panel post-shading. The silver leading edges on wings, stabilizers and fin were created with decal sheet material, avoiding the inconvenience of masking.
The cockpit interior was painted in a very dark grey (Revell 09, Anthracite) while the landing gear, wheels and wells received a greyish-metallic finish (Humbrol 56, Aluminum Dope). The air intakes’ interior became bright aluminum (Revell 99), the area around the jet nozzle was painted with Revell 91 (Iron metallic) and later treated with graphite for a dark metallic shine. The drop tanks were camouflaged, the Firestreaks became white so that they would stand out well and add to a certain vintage look.
The decals were a mix from various sources. The No. 20 Squadron badges and the Type D high-viz roundels on the wings were left over from an Airfix Hawker Hunter. The fuselage roundels came from an Italeri BAe Hawk sheet, IIRC. The bent fin flash, all the stencils as well as the serial code (which was puzzled together from two real serials and was AFAIK not allocated to any real RAF aircraft) came from an Xtradecal Supermarine Swift sheet. The individual red “B” letter came from a Matchbox A.W. Meteor night fighter.
Finally, the kit was sealed with matt acrylic varnish – I considered a glossy finish, since this was typical for RAF aircraft in the Fifties, but eventually just gave the radome a light shine.
Basically a simple project, and quickly done in just a couple of days. However, chrisonord’s great eye for similarities makes this “Tiger in disguise” a great fictional aircraft model with only little effort, it’s IMHO very convincing. And the RAF colors and markings suit the F11F very well.
Velles (Indre)
Château de Courcenay, lieu-dit Courcenay.
Le château de Courcenay date du XVe siècle. Il n'en reste que des ruines.
Le château de Courcenay, comme ceux de Beauregard et de Chabenet, a appartenu à la famille de Boisé dont le château d'origine est situé à 1 km. au nord (Lieu-dit Boisay).
"Près de Beauregard est le vieux château de Courcenay. Sur la route tracée dans les bois, se trouve, en contrebas une grosse tour entourée d'énormes lierres. Une jolie porte, dont l'écusson est effacé, y donne accès. L'étage supérieur de la tour offre des arêtes. La charpente de cette tour est curieuse. La construction offre les caractères du XVe siècle. La terre de Courcenay fait partie de la celle* de Beauregard. Le régisseur y demeure."
(Les vieux châteaux du bas-berry - Châteauroux, 1876 - E.Migné et Fauconneau-Dufresnes)
En 1589, René de Boisé, propriétaire de Courcenay, rejoint la Ligue, ces ultras-catholiques qui lors des guerres de Religion critiquèrent la politique royale : selon eux, les traités signés à la suite des batailles, même perdues par les protestants, étaient invariablement favorables à ces derniers. Un an auparavant, Henri III avait fait assassiner le duc de Guise, chef de la Ligue, à Blois. Velles est sur la ligne de front: Argenton-sur-Creuse est protestante et Déols est occupée par la Ligue. René perdra la vie lors d'un accrochage avec les forces d'Henri III et d'Henri de Navarre.
René était l'aîné d'une fratrie; il avait trois jeunes frères et deux soeurs : la plus jeune, Louise, est mariée avec un gentilhomme de Touraine, la plus âgée, Françoise, vit sur les terres de Courcenay. Françoise se fait appeler "Mademoiselle de la Motte", en référence à l'une des possessions familiales. Elle pratique volontiers les armes. A la mort de René, Mademoiselle de la Motte compte bien, en tant que cadette, devenir "chef" de famille, mais René avait désigné son successeur avant sa mort, en la personne de son beau-frère Antoine de Saint Flovier. Françoise commanditera l'agression du beau-frère et l'occupation du château, ce qui la discréditera aux yeux des châtelains du voisinage. C'est le roi Henri IV qui fera libérer le château de Courcenay. Mademoiselle de la Motte finira par se réconcilier avec la famille.
* La celle (cella) était au Moyen Âge une petite dépendance d'une abbaye ou d'un prieuré.
___________________________________________________
Du Fief de Courcenay (Histoire de Berry par Gaspard Thaumas de la Thaumassière avocat au Parlement. A Bourges 1689)
Chapitre LXVII.
Le Fief de Courcenay confifte en un ancien Château, groffe Tour & Fortereffe, plufieurs Arpens de Prez , Bois Taillis, Etangs, Dixmes , Cens & Rentes ; il eft jurable & rendable au Seigneur de Château-roux. Ce Fief a été poffedé de temps immemorial par des Seigneurs de la Maifon de Boifé, dont je rapporte la Genealogie au Chapitre fuivant ; & les Titres de Château-roux font foy que Geofroy de Boifé Ecuyer donna fon dénombrement au Seigneur de Château-roux, le Lundy devant la Saint Pierre d'Aouft 1373 & aprés luy Jaques de Boifé le 24 Juillet 1434. Le même reconnut le 28 Janvier 1437 que fa Fortereffe de Courcenay eft jurable & rendable au Seigneur de Château-roux, il promit & s'obligea tant pour luy que pour fes fucceffeurs de n'impetrer ny faire impetrer Guer ny provifions de Guer, du Roy , de Prince ou d'autre quelconque ayant à ce puiffance, fors que du Seigneur de Château-roux & de fes fucceffeurs, & de jamais croître fa Fortereffe, ny de la faire de plus grande enceinte & étenduë qu'elle étoit alors. Les décendans de Jacques de Boifé font encore aujourd'huy en poffeffion de ce Fief.
Des Seigneurs de Courcenay de la Maifon de Boifé.
Chapitre LXVIII.
Il y a plus de trois cens ans que cette Famille poffede la Seigneurie de Courcenay , mouvante de la Baronnie de Château-roux. Elle s'eft alliée en plufieurs nobles Maifons de cette Province & des voifines, comme en celles de la Châtre, Blanchefort, Seris, la Celle, la Trie, Barbançois, Coigné, Mareüil, Douaud, Magnac, S. Hilaire & autres.
Ils portent d'argent à la face de fable. Le plus ancien de ceux qui font venus à ma connoiffance eft
I.
Adenet de Boifé Damoifeau S. de Courcenay, vivoit en l'an 1327. avoit pour Femme Marguerite de la Châtre, laquelle en étoit veuve l'an 1361. d'où
II.
Pierre de Boifé Ecuyer S. de Courcenay, acquit le lieu de la Colombe en 1387. fut Pere de
III.
Geofroy de Boifé Ecuyer S. de Courcenay fit la foy & hommage de la Seigneurie de Courcenay au Seigneur de Chateau-roux, l'an 1399. d'où.
IV.
jacques de Boifé S. de Courcenay , obtint permiffion de Meffire Guy de Chauvigny S. de Château-roux, de fortifier fa Maifon de Courcenay, à la charge qu'elle luy feroit jurable & rendable à volonté, par Lettres du 28 juin 1437. il contracta mariage avec Souveraine de Blanchefort, Fille de jean de Blanchefort S. de Fourray & de Paudy, duquel elle partagea les biens avec fes coheritiers l'an 1452. d'où.
Charles de Boifé qui fuit.
Anne de Boifé, mariée le 7.Janvier 1469.
Françoife de Boifé conjointe avec Jean de Barbançois Ecuyer S.de Sarzay, le 27. Decembre 1453.
V.
Charles de Boifé fieur de Courcenay, époufa Catherine, dont je n'ay pû apprendre le furnom , d'où.
Artus de Boifé , duquel cy-aprés.
Catherine de Boifé, mariée l'an 1492 , avec François Gédoyn Ecuyer fieur de Jotereau.
VI.
Artus de Boifé fieur de Courcenay , contracta Mariage avec Madelaine de la Trie Fille de jean de la Trie Chevalier , & de Jacquette de la Trie, d'où.
André de Boifé qui continua la pofterité.
François de Boifé fieur des Chezaux
VII.
André de Boifé fieur de Courcenay, fit partage avec fon frere le 12 May 1537 époufa Louife de Seris , d'où.
Jean de Boifé duquel cy.aprés.
Renée de Boifé , Epoufe de Pierre de Mareüil Ecuyer fieur de Treüillaud.
Françoife de Boifé, femme de François de Douhaud Ecuyer fieur de la Tour-Rancé.
VIII.
jean de Boifé fieur Courcenay , s'allia avec Paule de Coifgne, fille de René de Coifgne, Ecuyer fieur de Marteau & de la Roche, le 4. Février 1559. d'où.
IX.
René de Boifé fieur de Courcenay , contracta Mariage le 7. Février 158o. avec Marguerite de Magnac fille de Jean de Magnac fieur du Repaire, d'où.
X.
Claude de Boifé fieur de Courcenay, la Roche-Bordin , Bois-rond & du Repaire, époufa le 4. janvier 1624. Anne de S. Hilaire, veuve Gabriel de Mauvoifin Ecuyer fieur de la Forêts, fille de Chriftophle de S. Hilaire Ecuyer fieur de Coudreau, & de Catherine de la Tholiere, mourut en l'an 1638. d'où.
Claude de Boifé II. du nom , qui continua la pofterité.
Anne de Boifé, femme de Ferdinand de Ville-Lume Ecuyer fieur de Chamfort.
XI.
Claude de Boifé fieur de Courcenay , Chezaux , Chezefmes , Vernuffe & Relle, conjoint par Mariage le 4 Juin 1647 avec Marguerite le Roy, fille de Jean Jacques le Roy , Chevalier fieur de Marmagne & de Buffiere d'Aillac, & de Marie du Drac fa femme, d'où.
Anne de Boifé.
Jean Charles de Boifé.
Marie de Boifé.
Françoife de Boifé.
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(La Nouvelle République 19 juin 2013)