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On this day my dear friend Erica asked me to take a mould of her left breast before the mastectomy. After a first failed attempt we managed to take a cast of it. Another step in her journey that is breast cancer...... If you have been touched by cancer, or by the strength that Ericas story shows please donate to www.mcgrathfoundation.com or www.nbcf.org.au/
You will never know whose sister, mother, friend you will be helping....one day it may be yours!
Products used:
Magenta Cardstock
Lasting Impressions
- Limeade Dots
-Lemon Tart Checks
Hero Arts Stamps
Hero Arts Vintage Collection Art Flowers
Scallop Circle Punch
Buttons
A nice long sunset tonight. Final sun shines bright on the MSF (Mobile Science Facility.) Summit Station, Greenland... top of the ice sheetSep 23 12 4219
Dozens of leaders gathered for an exclusive reception focused on creating lasting change in our region at EdgeWild Restaurant and Winery in Chesterfield, MO on Wednesday, August 26, 2015. Guests heard firsthand from local leaders, including Rich McClure and Rev. Starsky Wilson on the work of the Ferguson Commission, Scott Schnuck on addressing local hunger and Connie Cunningham on Ready by 21 St. Louis, a process designed to help youth success in St. Louis County, St. Louis City and St. Charles County. Plenty of delicious hors d'oeuvres and drinks were provided courtesy of EdgeWild throughout the night.
During his 16 years at UMSL, Chancellor Tom George has overseen a physical transformation of the campus while also helping the university deepen its roots as an anchor institution in the St. Louis region. When he retires on Sept. 1, 2019, he'll leave UMSL as the longest-tenured chancellor in the university's history.
Lasting Impressions Dental Care 2465 Research Pkwy #100 Colorado Springs, CO 80920 (719) 425-2771 www.mylastingimpressionsdental.com
I set out to photograph couples, heterosexual and LGBTQ, with the goal to create a collection of photos that showed that Love is Love no matter how it is paired up.
This is Charlene and Sharoya's story:
Charlene and Sharoya were wonderful to shoot. I met them both at a networking event several years ago. And obviously when I started this project I wanted them to be part of it. They are beautiful and fun loving people who are so in love and so comfortable with each other.
Read below to learn more about them in their own words:
Sharoya:
How did you two meet?
“We met at a laundry mat, My best friend was dating her friend. We seen each other here and there, Two years later I asked her to be a actress on a shoot was working on and she said yes.”
What is the thing you love the most about her/him?
“What I love most about her is her resourcefulness, and her get up and go. That whatever she wants she goes after, that includes me."
What made you fall in love and/or how did you know this person was the one?
"I knew she was the one, because I knew, I always knew when I saw her the second time, my second time meeting her it was a feeling. and everything after that just proved right. Everything we went through in the beginning up to this day, just proves she is the one."
Charlene:
What is the thing you love the most about her?
"I love how she never tears me down for being me and has my back with all my million ideas and plans.”
What made you fall in love and/or how did you know this person was the one?
“I fell in love with her when she sang Al Green to me while softly touching my face. I felt like I was home."
What advice do you have for other couples who want to have a lasting relationship?
"I would tell other couples that it is not perfect and never will be. Always remember to consider the other even if you don’t agree.”
Thank you so much for posing for the project, you two are wonderful!
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Ethiopia has one of the highest child marriage rates in the world. 43% of girls in Ethiopia's Amhara region are married before the age of 15. In response, the United Nations Foundation (UNF) has established educational programs throughout Ethiopia that put girls and women through school, and challenge traditional thinking on child marriage. By investing in education, the UNF hopes to inspire a change in local sentiment surrounding this sensitive cultural issue.
A Lasting Impact focuses on the personal experiences of those who have had their lives changed due to the influence of these UNF sponsored programs. The video further explores the larger implications that reforms like these create.
Published: September 21, 2010
Third Thursday: Lasting Impressions on March 16, 2017 at The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art in Kansas City, MO. Photographer / Lauren Frisch Pusateri
This couple is crazy. They love each other soo much. She is one of my good friends and for three years I have heard her talk about him day in and day out.
Douglas Construction Number: 2202
US Civil Registration: N21798
From Wikipedia:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_DC-3
The Douglas DC-3 is a propeller-driven airliner which had a lasting effect on the airline industry in the 1930s/1940s and World War II. It was developed as a larger, improved 14-bed sleeper version of the Douglas DC-2. It is a low-wing metal monoplane with conventional landing gear, powered by two radial piston engines of 1,000–1,200 hp (750–890 kW). (Although most DC-3s flying today use Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp engines, many DC-3s built for civil service originally had the Wright R-1820 Cyclone.) The DC-3 has a cruise speed of 207 mph (333 km/h), a capacity of 21 to 32 passengers or 6,000 lbs (2,700 kg) of cargo, and a range of 1,500 mi (2,400 km), and can operate from short runways.
The DC-3 had many exceptional qualities compared to previous aircraft. It was fast, had a good range, was more reliable, and carried passengers in greater comfort. Before the war, it pioneered many air travel routes. It was able to cross the continental US from New York to Los Angeles in 18 hours and with only 3 stops. It is one of the first airliners that could profitably carry only passengers without relying on mail subsidies.
Following the war, the airliner market was flooded with surplus transport aircraft and the DC-3 was no longer competitive due to its size and speed. It was made obsolete on main routes by more advanced types such as the Douglas DC-4 and Lockheed Constellation, but the design proved adaptable and useful on less glamorous routes.
Civil DC-3 production ended in 1942 at 607 aircraft. Military versions, including the C-47 Skytrain (the Dakota in British RAF service), and Soviet- and Japanese-built versions, brought total production to over 16,000. Many continue to see service in a variety of niche roles: 2,000 DC-3s and military derivatives were estimated to be still flying in 2013; a 2017 article put the number at that time at more than 300.
Photo by Eric Friedebach
These are the current items I have on display at Memphis Cafe in Costa Mesa, CA until March 31st, 2010.
A U T H O R • I N N O V A T O R • E X P E R T
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Among her most recent publications, Dr. Lisa Christiansen contributed to the book 100 Ways to Enhance Your Career, which features wisdom from other well-known figures in the self-help world, including Jack Canfield, John Gray, and Richard Carlson. In 100 Ways to Enhance Your Career, Dr. Lisa Christiansen shares a step-by-step process for increasing job satisfaction, gaining more from one’s career, building wealth, and taking control of one’s destiny.
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6-in BL Gun Emplacement converted to 6-in Mk.VII Gun Emplacement.
An original concrete gun emplacement constructed in 1890, with several later phases, lasting until the end of World War Two. The southern part of the wall and sloping apron survives, as does part of the south-west wall of the gun pit with two shallow recesses, 1ft 1in wide x 3in deep x 11in high, containing heavy metal rings of 9in diameter. These were used for the installation or withdrawal of the gun by means of block and tackle and timber skidding. The south wing wall is also original and, outside the later casemate, the first recess (3ft 5in wide x 3ft 3in deep x 2ft 11in high) carried cartridges for early gun but was later adapted for shells. A fragment of the north wing wall, containing a battery recess (2ft 2in wide x 1ft 3in x 1ft10in) is also preserved under the later steps to the Mk.VII gun. Other than this, the original emplacement has been destroyed or concealed by the later conversions.
Emplacement for a 6-inch Mk.VII Gun.
A concrete emplacement comprising gun pit with a semi-circular gun floor to the rear with a sloping apron to the front. It partially re-uses the wall and south-western part of the pit of the earlier 6-in BL gun. The circular gun pit is 12ft 4in in diameter and 4ft 11in deep, with a shallow shell recess around the front face and three irregularly-shaped ready-use ammunition lockers under the gun floor to the rear, the holdfast was anchored by two concentric ring of bolts, slightly offset from one another, on average 7ft 6in in diameter. Set into the rear of the gun floor are three ready-use ammunition lockers, the southern two formerly with outward-opening double doors and measuring 3gt 6in, 2ft 10in deep x 2ft 20in high. The remaining recess appears to have been altered considerably, at one point extended through onto the gun pit, though it is now blocked by a brick wall.
The surface of the gun floor is scoured with gun quadrant arcs, there are two sets, as if the ac of fire was altered at some point. Also, at the southern end are two openings for ammunition lifts from the main magazine below, one in the gun floor for inclined band lift for shells, the other in the side of the emplacement, for a vertical lift for cartridges, the single outward-opening metal door survives. Metal staples around the rear edge of the gun floor supported uprights for a metal railing.
The apron rises 2ft 1.5in above the gun floor and contains the remains of fittings for secondary electric lighting. The rear wall of the emplacement, overlain by the casemate, is the wall of the gun pit for the earlier 6-in BL gun. It contains two ready-use ammunition lockers for the later gun, each 3ft 6in wide, 3ft 5in deep and 2ft 11in high, with frames for double doors, the eastern one has a small opening in its rear wall through which can be seen the blocked steps which provide direct access from the main magazine to the earlier gun pit. The northern locker was adapted from the original one. The steps into the emplacement are obstructed by the later casemate but there is a blocked door in the latter, indicating that the steps remained in use for a while after the casemates construction.
World War Two Casemate.
This is virtually identical to its southern neighbour excepting the following. The doorway in the rear wall is 4ft 9in wide and 9ft 2in high and the steps up to it are sheltered by a porch supported on concrete pillars. The roof, which is more severely damaged, did not support a Bofors gun.
Classy but sexy swimsuits with sculpted ruffles and ribbons now at the mainstore and some new colors.
All layers and resizer for prims (which are modify too!).
The Navy is on the Midnight Mania Board for a little time.
or on Marketplace
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During his 16 years at UMSL, Chancellor Tom George has overseen a physical transformation of the campus while also helping the university deepen its roots as an anchor institution in the St. Louis region. When he retires on Sept. 1, 2019, he'll leave UMSL as the longest-tenured chancellor in the university's history.
With a unique approach to lighting, Suna creates the ultimate in executive portraits: studio images that capture both your personality and professionalism. Suna will create a pleasant image catered to your specific field of expertise. Her executive clients include ambassadors, company CEOs, senators, and authors.
For executive portraits by award-winning photographer Suna Lee contact her staff at (703)760-4988. Our studio is conveniently located in downtown Mclean, VA, 15 minutes from Washington, DC and Bethesda, Maryland.
Graeme is one of my closest and long-lasting friends, although it had been over a year since we had last met. This weekend he and Tracy traveled the 217 miles from Glasgow to our house, to enjoy some beers and a night out in Mancunionland.
They pulled up outside the house in the last few of hours of Thursday night and after an informal greet at the door, meeting of the cats, bringing in of bags and round of bacon rolls we sat down and got stuck into a bottle of wine. Fortunately, the timing of G+T’s visit coincided impeccably with Graeme finishing his last dose of a course of antibiotics. Travel weary and mindful of the forthcoming Friday night frolics, we made the decision to sleep.
One might imagine that Graeme, having recently been ill and away from booze would take a gentle approach to his alcohol intake. Surprisingly though, once up and about Graeme and Tracy’s first port of call was the pub. After I finished work, I jumped on a bus and met them in ‘Electrik’, in Chorlton, for ‘lunch’*. Later we moved to ‘Oddest,’ where we were joined by Rachel and we began, what was to become the rest of the night. I took an opportunity to grab some shots of Graeme, which was no easy feat since his tendency to completely change position during conversation, meant that most of my shots came out blurred or caught him in mid facial spasm. Eventually we all went into town, met up with Morag, Martin and Yasmine and continued with the, now well established theme of the day; emptying the remaining dregs from our bank accounts into Manchester bar tills, in exchange for the promise of a headache morning. All in all, it was a great night and I’ll endeavor to get up to Glasgow to finish what we started.
* My lunch consisted of a small bowl of humus, sliced pitta and two pints of bitter.
2/21/08 - "Houston Real Estate TODAY!" goes on the air with Gregg Langford of Keller Williams Realty Clear Lake/NASA, Edward Griffin of Griffin Partners whose firm is actively developing the Clear Lake area, and Cory DeBaradino, VP of Marketing for urbanFINANICIAL (www.UrbanFinancial.com). You can review the archive at www.HoustonRealEstateTODAY.com
Show sponsored in part by urbanFINANCIAL
Media partners: Homes and Land magazine and Nuestra Casa
Show produced by Steven Kay Media (www.StevenKayLive.com)
Show Marketed by Marketing Dynamics
Show video and photos by Connie Parsons of Lasting Impressions Home Management (www.LastingImpressionsHomeManagement.com)
To advertise on the show or to be a guest call 832.419.2814
The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to reassert its dominant position in continental Europe, which appeared in question following the decisive Prussian victory over Austria in 1866.
According to some historians, Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on Prussia in order to induce four independent southern German states—Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt—to join the North German Confederation. Other historians contend that Bismarck exploited the circumstances as they unfolded. All agree that Bismarck recognized the potential for new German alliances, given the situation as a whole.
France mobilised its army on 15 July 1870, leading the North German Confederation to respond with its own mobilisation later that day. On 16 July 1870, the French parliament voted to declare war on Prussia; France invaded German territory on 2 August. The German coalition mobilised its troops much more effectively than the French and invaded northeastern France on 4 August. German forces were superior in numbers, training, and leadership and made more effective use of modern technology, particularly railways and artillery.
A series of hard-fought Prussian and German victories in eastern France, culminating in the Siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan, resulted in the capture of the French Emperor Napoleon III and the decisive defeat of the army of the Second Empire; a Government of National Defense was formed in Paris on 4 September and continued the war for another five months. German forces fought and defeated new French armies in northern France, then besieged Paris for over four months before it fell on 28 January 1871, effectively ending the war.
In the final days of the war, with German victory all but assured, the German states proclaimed their union as the German Empire under the Prussian king Wilhelm I and Chancellor Bismarck. With the notable exceptions of Austria and German Switzerland, the vast majority of German-speakers were united under a nation-state for the first time. Following an armistice with France, the Treaty of Frankfurt was signed on 10 May 1871, giving Germany billions of francs in war indemnity, as well as most of Alsace and parts of Lorraine, which became the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen).
The war had a lasting impact on Europe. By hastening German unification, the war significantly altered the balance of power on the continent, with the new German state supplanting France as the dominant European land power. Bismarck maintained great authority in international affairs for two decades, developing a reputation for Realpolitik that raised Germany's global stature and influence. In France, it brought a final end to imperial rule and began the first lasting republican government. Resentment over the French government's handling of the war and its aftermath triggered the Paris Commune, a revolutionary uprising which seized and held power for two months before its suppression; the event would influence the politics and policies of the Third Republic.
The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are rooted in the events surrounding the lead up to the unification of the German states under Otto von Bismarck. France had gained the status of being the dominant power of continental Europe as a result of the Franco-Austrian War of 1859. During the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Empress Eugénie, Foreign Minister Drouyn de Lhuys and War Minister Jacques Louis Randon were concerned that the power of Prussia might overtake that of France. They unsuccessfully urged Napoleon to mass troops at France's eastern borders while the bulk of the Prussian armies were still engaged in Bohemia as a warning that no territorial changes could be effected in Germany without consulting France.
As a result of Prussia's annexation of several German states which had sided with Austria during the war and the formation of the North German Confederation under Prussia's aegis, French public opinion stiffened and now demanded more firmness as well as territorial compensations. As a result, Napoleon demanded from Prussia a return to the French borders of 1814, with the annexation of Luxembourg, most of Saarland, and the Bavarian Palatinate. Bismarck flatly refused what he disdainfully termed France's politique des pourboires ("tipping policy"). He then communicated Napoleon III's written territorial demands to Bavaria and the other southern German states of Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, which hastened the conclusion of defensive military alliances with these states. France had been strongly opposed to any further alliance of German states, which would have threatened French continental dominance.
In Prussia, some officials considered a war against France both inevitable and necessary to arouse German nationalism in those states that would allow the unification of a great German empire. This aim was epitomized by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's later statement: "I did not doubt that a Franco-German war must take place before the construction of a United Germany could be realised."
Bismarck also knew that France should be the aggressor in the conflict to bring the four southern German states to side with Prussia, hence giving Germans numerical superiority. He was convinced that France would not find any allies in her war against Germany for the simple reason that "France, the victor, would be a danger to everybody—Prussia to nobody," and he added, "That is our strong point." Many Germans also viewed the French as the traditional destabilizer of Europe, and sought to weaken France to prevent further breaches of the peace.
The Ems telegram of 13 July 1870 had exactly the effect on French public opinion that Bismarck had intended. "This text produced the effect of a red flag on the Gallic bull”, Bismarck later wrote. Gramont, the French foreign minister, declared that he felt "he had just received a slap". The leader of the monarchists in Parliament, Adolphe Thiers, spoke for moderation, arguing that France had won the diplomatic battle and there was no reason for war, but he was drowned out by cries that he was a traitor and a Prussian. Napoleon's new prime minister, Emile Ollivier, declared that France had done all that it could humanly and honorably do to prevent the war, and that he accepted the responsibility "with a light heart". A crowd of 15,000–20,000 people, carrying flags and patriotic banners, marched through the streets of Paris, demanding war. French mobilization was ordered early on 15 July. Upon receiving news of the French mobilization, the North German Confederation mobilized on the night of 15–16 July, while Bavaria and Baden did likewise on 16 July and Württemberg on 17 July. On 19 July 1870, the French sent a declaration of war to the Prussian government. The southern German states immediately sided with Prussia.
Napoleonic France had no documented alliance with other powers and entered the war virtually without allies. The calculation was for a victorious offensive, which, as the French Foreign Minister Gramont stated, was "the only way for France to lure the wary Austrians, Italians and Danes into the French alliance". The involvement of Russia on the side of France was not considered by her at all, since Russia made the lifting of restrictions on its naval construction on the Black Sea imposed on Russia by the Treaty of Paris following the Crimean War a precondition for the union. But Imperial France was not ready to do this. "Bonaparte did not dare to encroach on the Paris Treaty: the worse things turned out in the present, the more precious the heritage of the past became".
The French Army consisted in peacetime of approximately 426,000 soldiers, some of them regulars, others conscripts who until March 1869 were selected by ballot and served for the comparatively long period of seven years. Some of them were veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, the Franco-Austrian War in Italy, and in the Mexican campaign. However, following the "Seven Weeks War" between Prussia and Austria four years earlier, it had been calculated that, with commitments in Algeria and elsewhere, the French Army could field only 288,000 men to face the Prussian Army, when potentially 1,000,000 would be required. Under Marshal Adolphe Niel, urgent reforms were made. Universal conscription and a shorter period of service gave increased numbers of reservists, who would swell the army to a planned strength of 800,000 on mobilisation. Those who for any reason were not conscripted were to be enrolled in the Garde Mobile, a militia with a nominal strength of 400,000. However, the Franco-Prussian War broke out before these reforms could be completely implemented. The mobilisation of reservists was chaotic and resulted in large numbers of stragglers, while the Garde Mobile were generally untrained and often mutinous.[31]
French infantry were equipped with the breech-loading Chassepot rifle, one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time, with 1,037,555 available in French inventories. With a rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet, the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of some 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) with a short reloading time.[32] French tactics emphasised the defensive use of the Chassepot rifle in trench-warfare style fighting—the so-called feu de bataillon.[33] The artillery was equipped with rifled, muzzle-loaded La Hitte guns.[34] The army also possessed a precursor to the machine-gun: the mitrailleuse, which could unleash significant, concentrated firepower but nevertheless lacked range and was comparatively immobile, and thus prone to being easily overrun. The mitrailleuse was mounted on an artillery gun carriage and grouped in batteries in a similar fashion to cannon.[32]
The army was nominally led by Napoleon III, with Marshals François Achille Bazaine and Patrice de MacMahon in command of the field armies.[35] However, there was no previously arranged plan of campaign in place. The only campaign plan prepared between 1866 and 1870 was a defensive one.[16]
Prussians/Germans
Prussian field artillery column at Torcy in September 1870
The German army comprised that of the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia, and the South German states drawn in under the secret clause of the preliminary peace of Nikolsburg, 26 July 1866,[36] and formalised in the Treaty of Prague, 23 August 1866.[37]
Recruitment and organisation of the various armies were almost identical, and based on the concept of conscripting annual classes of men who then served in the regular regiments for a fixed term before being moved to the reserves. This process gave a theoretical peace time strength of 382,000 and a wartime strength of about 1,189,000.[38]
German tactics emphasised encirclement battles like Cannae and using artillery offensively whenever possible. Rather than advancing in a column or line formation, Prussian infantry moved in small groups that were harder to target by artillery or French defensive fire.[39] The sheer number of soldiers available made encirclement en masse and destruction of French formations relatively easy.[40]
The army was equipped with the Dreyse needle gun renowned for its use at the Battle of Königgrätz, which was by this time showing the age of its 25-year-old design.[32] The rifle had a range of only 600 m (2,000 ft) and lacked the rubber breech seal that permitted aimed shots.[41] The deficiencies of the needle gun were more than compensated for by the famous Krupp 6-pounder (6 kg despite the gun being called a 6-pounder, the rifling technology enabled guns to fire twice the weight of projectiles in the same calibre) steel breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries.[42] Firing a contact-detonated shell, the Krupp gun had a longer range and a higher rate of fire than the French bronze muzzle loading cannon, which relied on time fuses.[43]
The Prussian army was controlled by the General Staff, under General Helmuth von Moltke. The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only such organisation in existence, whose purpose in peacetime was to prepare the overall war strategy, and in wartime to direct operational movement and organise logistics and communications.[44] The officers of the General Staff were hand-picked from the Prussian Kriegsakademie (War Academy). Moltke embraced new technology, particularly the railroad and telegraph, to coordinate and accelerate mobilisation of large forces.[45]
French Army incursion
Preparations for the offensive
Map of the German and French armies near the common border on 31 July 1870
On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for Metz and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed.[46] Marshal MacMahon took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near Wissembourg; Marshal François Canrobert brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through Belgium.[47]
A pre-war plan laid down by the late Marshal Niel called for a strong French offensive from Thionville towards Trier and into the Prussian Rhineland. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals Charles Frossard and Bartélemy Lebrun, which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive. As Austria, along with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the Bavarian Palatinate and proceed to "free" the four South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed.[48]
Unfortunately for Frossard's plan, the Prussian army mobilised far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still reeling after their defeat by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War, were treading carefully before stating that they would only side with France if the south Germans viewed the French positively. This did not materialize as the four South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France.[49]
Occupation of Saarbrücken
Main article: Battle of Saarbrücken
Course of the first phase of the war up to the Battle of Sedan on 1 September 1870
Napoleon III was under substantial domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke's forces was mobilized and deployed. Reconnaissance by Frossard's forces had identified only the Prussian 16th Infantry Division guarding the border town of Saarbrücken, right before the entire Army of the Rhine. Accordingly, on 31 July the Army marched forward toward the Saar River to seize Saarbrücken.[50]
General Frossard's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August, and began to force the Prussian 40th Regiment of the 16th Infantry Division from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks. The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the Dreyse rifle, with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken. However the Prussians resisted strongly, and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties. Saarbrücken also proved to be a major obstacle in terms of logistics. Only one railway there led to the German hinterland but could be easily defended by a single force, and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland.[51] While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin, General Edmond Le Bœuf and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to the southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast.[52]
Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area—the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men, commanded by General Karl von Steinmetz opposite Saarlouis, the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by Prince Friedrich Karl opposite the line Forbach-Spicheren, and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, poised to cross the border at Wissembourg.[53]
Prussian Army advance
Battle of Wissembourg
Main article: Battle of Wissembourg (1870)
Bavarian infantry at the Battle of Wissembourg, 1870
Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Prussian Crown Prince's Third Army was just 30 miles (48 km) north from Saarbrücken near the Rhine river town Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew his elements of the Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back across the river to Spicheren and Forbach.[54]
Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, spread his four divisions 20 miles (32 km) to react to any Prussian-Bavarian invasion. This organization was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out food and forage from the countryside and from the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to furnish them with provisions. What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot, commander of the 1st Division. He told General Abel Douay, commander of the 2nd Division, on 1 August that "The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive".[55] Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found "a single enemy post ... it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff". Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon tried to warn his other three division commanders, without success.[56]
The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. This battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch the border, attacked in overwhelming but uncoordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. During the day, elements of a Bavarian and two Prussian corps became engaged and were aided by Prussian artillery, which blasted holes in the city defenses. Douay held a very strong position initially, thanks to the accurate long-range rapid fire of the Chassepot rifles, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay was killed in the late morning when a caisson of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him; the encirclement of the town by the Prussians then threatened the French avenue of retreat.[57]
The fighting within the town had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite an unceasing attack from Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. The people of the town of Wissembourg finally surrendered to the Germans. The French troops who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind 1,000 dead and wounded and another 1,000 prisoners and all of their remaining ammunition.[58] The final attack by the Prussian troops also cost c. 1,000 casualties. The German cavalry then failed to pursue the French and lost touch with them. The attackers had an initial superiority of numbers, a broad deployment which made envelopment highly likely but the effectiveness of French Chassepot-rifle fire inflicted costly repulses on infantry attacks, until the French infantry had been extensively bombarded by the Prussian artillery.[59]
Battle of Spicheren
Main article: Battle of Spicheren
Map of the Prussian and German offensives, 5–6 August 1870
The Battle of Spicheren on 5 August was the second of three critical French defeats. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The aging General von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the Moselle. He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off Prince Frederick Charles from his forward cavalry units in the process.[60]
On the French side, planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore, the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other.[61]
While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the Battle of Wörth, the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires nearby and Frossard's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach.[62]
The French were unaware of German numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. Treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By the time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights.[63] Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked, as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties were relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the Chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain—Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights.[64]
Battle of Wörth
Main article: Battle of Wörth
The Battle of Wörth began when the two armies clashed again on 6 August near Wörth in the town of Frœschwiller, about 10 miles (16 km) from Wissembourg. The Crown Prince of Prussia's 3rd army had, on the quick reaction of his Chief of Staff General von Blumenthal, drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had been slowly reinforced and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered, the French defended their position just outside Frœschwiller. By afternoon, the Germans had suffered c. 10,500 killed or wounded and the French had lost a similar number of casualties and another c. 9,200 men taken prisoner, a loss of about 50%. The Germans captured Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any hope for victory and facing a massacre, the French army disengaged and retreated in a westerly direction towards Bitche and Saverne, hoping to join French forces on the other side of the Vosges mountains. The German 3rd army did not pursue the French but remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French garrisons in the vicinity.[65]
About 160,000 French soldiers were besieged in the fortress of Metz following the defeats on the frontier. A retirement from Metz to link up with French forces at Châlons was ordered on 15 August and spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. Next day a grossly outnumbered Prussian force of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General Constantin von Alvensleben, found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour.
Despite odds of four to one, the III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was shattered by incessant cavalry charges, losing over half its soldiers. The German Official History recorded 15,780 casualties and French casualties of 13,761 men.
On 16 August, the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defense, and to escape. Two Prussian corps had attacked the French advance guard, thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French. The French had lost the opportunity to win a decisive victory.
Although Austria-Hungary and Denmark had both wished to avenge their recent military defeats against Prussia, they chose not to intervene in the war due to a lack of confidence in the French. These countries did not have a documented alliance with France, and they were too late to start a war. After the rapid and stunning victories of Prussia, they preferred to abandon any plans to intervene in the war altogether. Napoleon III also failed to cultivate alliances with the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom, partially due to the diplomatic efforts of the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck had bought Tsar Alexander II's complicity by promising to help restore his naval access to the Black Sea and Mediterranean (cut off by the treaties ending the Crimean War), other powers were less biddable.
The United Kingdom saw nothing wrong with the strengthening of Prussia on the European continent, viewing France as its traditional rival in international affairs. Lord Palmerston, the head of the British cabinet in 1865, wrote: "The current Prussia is too weak to be honest and independent in its actions. And, taking into account the interests of the future, it is highly desirable for Germany as a whole became strong, so she was able to keep the ambitious and warlike nation, France, and Russia, which compress it from the West and the East". English historians criticize the then British policy, pointing out that Palmerston misunderstood Bismarck's policy due to his adherence to outdated ideas. Over time, Britain began to understand that the military defeat of France meant a radical change in the European balance of power. In the future, the development of historical events is characterized by a gradual increase in Anglo-German contradictions. "The colonial quarrels, naval rivalry and disagreement over the European balance of power which drove Britain and Germany apart, were in effect the strategical and geopolitical manifestations of the relative shift in the economic power of these two countries between 1860 and 1914".
After the Peace of Prague in 1866, the nominally independent German states of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt (the southern part that was not included in the North German Union) remained. Despite the fact that there was a strong opposition to Prussia in the ruling circles and in the war of 1866 they participated on the side of Austria against Prussia, they were forced to reckon with a broad popular movement in favor of German unity and were also afraid of angering their strong neighbor in the form of Prussia. After the diplomatic provocation in Bad Ems, these states had no room for maneuver, the war was presented by Bismarck as a war for national independence against an external enemy. All these states joined the Prussian war from the very beginning of hostilities. In January 1871, these states became part of the German Empire.
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