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La Porsche 911 è un'autovettura sportiva prodotta dalla Porsche a partire dal 1963. È tuttora in produzione, e nel corso degli anni ha avuto molti cambiamenti. Si possono, tuttavia, distinguere due serie fondamentali: le 911 con motore raffreddato ad aria (1963-1997) e le 911 "moderne" (dal 1998 ad oggi). Nella seconda metà degli anni cinquanta la Porsche 356 iniziava a sentire il peso degli anni. Il motore 4 cilindri boxer raffreddato ad aria era nato nel 1948 con cilindrata di 1.131 cm³ e 40 CV di potenza, ed era derivato, come altre componenti dell'auto, dalla Volkswagen Maggiolino. Il vecchio 4 cilindri aveva raggiunto il massimo del suo potenziale di sviluppo con la versione 2.0 Carrera GS da 130 CV. Per la progettazione della nuova vettura Ferry Porsche si occupò della parte tecnica, affidando l'innovazione stilistica al figlio Ferdinand Alexander Porsche soprannominato dai suoi familiari "Butzi". Le linee guida decise a priori comportavano il mantenimento dell'impostazione tecnico-stilistica della "356", con il motore boxer raffreddato ad aria e montato posteriormente, ma con un'abitabilità sufficiente a ospitare 4 persone. La costruzione in serie di una tale vettura, avrebbe consentito alla Porsche di entrare nel mercato delle Gran turismo "due litri", con un prezzo concorrenziale rispetto ai modelli costruiti artigianalmente da molti carrozzieri italiani, su meccaniche Alfa Romeo, Fiat e Lancia. Lo sviluppo tecnico non diede gravi difficoltà e la nuova meccanica, incluso l'inedito 6 cilindri boxer, era pronta già nel 1961. Problemi maggiori derivarono dalla definizione della carrozzeria. La soluzione trovata da Butzi alla fine del 1959, il prototipo "T7" (in seguito anche denominato "754"), non convinceva e le varie modifiche non riuscirono a trovare la giusta soluzione tra l'eleganza dell'aspetto e la necessità di ottenere il richiesto spazio per passeggeri dei sedili posteriori.
Un lungo lavoro di affinamento portò alle soluzioni più disparate e bizzarre, finché Butzi si vide costretto ad abbandonare l'iniziale punto programmatico dei 4 posti e ripiegare sulla configurazione 2+2, che consentiva di mantenere la linea di cintura iniziale, raccordando il padiglione con il cofano motore in una sola curva.
L'aspetto estetico risultò subito molto equilibrato e, ancor più la parentela stilistica con il modello "356". Per la nuova vettura venne scelta la sigla commerciale "901" e il primo esemplare costruito, di colore giallo, fu presentato al Salone dell'Automobile di Francoforte del 1963, ottenendo buoni apprezzamenti dal pubblico e dalla stampa specializzata. La commercializzazione della nuova "901", avviata all'inizio del 1964, fu subito ostacolata dalla diffida della Peugeot ad usare quella sigla, poiché depositaria di tutti i numeri a tre cifre con lo zero al centro da utilizzare per i suoi modelli. La Porsche fu quindi costretta a modificare la sigla in "911" a partire dal 10 novembre 1964. Marchiati "901" furono soltanto i primi 82 esemplari già venduti, quasi tutti allestiti in maniera artigianale, dato che la produzione di serie ebbe inizio il 14 settembre di quell'anno. Pur immediatamente ottenendo un buon successo di vendite, la "911" fu inizialmente investita da forti polemiche e contestazioni, soprattutto rivolte all'eccessivo prezzo di listino e alla problematica tenuta di strada. La questione del prezzo, provocò un vero e putiferio di rimostranze da parte della clientela Porsche, dato che il nuovo modello era proposto all'astronomica cifra di 23.900 DM, con un aumento di oltre 7.000 DM, rispetto alla "356". A seguito delle proteste, l'azienda decise di ridurre il prezzo della "911" a 22.400 DM. Inoltre propose una versione con finiture modeste e motore a 4 cilindri derivato dalla "356", al contenuto prezzo di 17.500 DM, poi divenuta "912" dall'aprile 1965. Di soluzione non altrettanto facile furono le carenze tecniche lamentate dalla clientela che si tramutarono, nel 1966, in un dimezzamento delle vendite, passando alle 1.709 vetture consegnate, contro le 3.389 dell'anno precedente. Venivano lamentate la scarsa ventilazione e l'eccessiva rumorosità nell'abitacolo, il comportamento nervoso della vettura e, soprattutto, l'instabilità direzionale oltre i 130 km/h e il notevole effetto sottosterzante. La 911 era una coupé 2+2 (gli affinamenti avevano ridotto lo spazio posteriore), con motore posteriore a sbalzo, trazione posteriore, sospensioni a 4 ruote indipendenti con barre di torsione, 4 freni a disco e cambio meccanico a 5 rapporti (spesso 4 per gli USA). Il 6 cilindri boxer raffreddato ad aria e alimentato da 2 carburatori Solex triplo corpo che la muoveva aveva una cilindrata di 1991 cm³ e una potenza massima di 130 CV. Nel 1966 venne lanciata anche la 911 S che, grazie ad una serie di modifiche all'albero motore, profilo dei pistoni, valvole maggiorate, raggiungeva una potenza di 160 CV. Su tutti i modelli si passò a carburatori Weber. Esternamente la S si riconosceva per i cerchi in lega Fuchs.
Sempre nel 1966 le coupé (standard e S) vennero affiancate dalle versioni Targa, con tetto rigido asportabile. Era la 911 T, con alimentazione a carburatori e motore meno prestante (110 CV); la 911 L manteneva il motore a carburatori da 130 CV ed aveva finiture di maggior pregio; la 911 S, ancora dotata di carburatori Weber, offriva 160 CV. Tutti i modelli erano disponibili sia in versione coupé che Targa.
Nel 1968, per rendere meno "nervoso" il comportamento stradale, venne allungato il passo di 6 cm (da 221 a 227 cm): il modello base era ancora la 911 T, con alimentazione a carburatori e motore da 110 CV; i modelli 911 E (140 CV) e 911 S (170 CV) erano dotati di iniezione meccanica Bosch. Nel 1969 fu cambiata la griglia posteriore e la cilindrata del motore: da 1991 a 2195 cm³. Le potenze salirono a 125 CV per la serie T (a carburatori), a 155 CV per la serie E (a iniezione) e a 180 CV per la serie S (pure a iniezione). Una serie S come si direbbe oggi "full optional" fu acquistata dalla Solar Film (casa produttrice statunitense che faceva capo a Steve McQueen) e usata nel film Le 24 Ore di Le Mans, con lo stesso Steve McQueen protagonista, che arriva sul circuito al volante proprio della 911 S grigia. Recentemente quest'auto, venduta dall'attore pochi anni dopo il film, e passata varie volte di mano, è stata battuta ad un'asta statunitense di auto d'epoca. Nel 1971 la cilindrata del boxer venne aumentata ulteriormente da 2195 cm³ a 2341 cm³ e le potenze crebbero a 130 CV (T), 165 CV (E) e 190 CV (S). La più potente 911 S ottenne anche uno spoiler anteriore per stabilizzare l'avantreno alle alte velocità. Nel 1972 fu proposta la 911 Carrera RS (RennSport), mossa da una versione di 2687 cm³ (210 CV) a iniezione meccanica del classico 6 cilindri boxer e carrozzeria alleggerita, con cofani e portiere in alluminio e lamiere non strutturali assottigliate. La Carrera RS era disponibile in una versione Touring con interno simile a quello delle 911 S e Sport, con allestimento interno semplificato per contenere ulteriormente il peso. Era riconoscibile per il celebre alettone posteriore "a coda d'anatra" (ducktail), le strip adesive sulla fiancata ed i cerchi (in lega) in tinta con le strip. Era disponibile nella sola versione coupé. Nel 1973 ne vennero creati otto esemplari da competizione denominati Carrera RSR. Utilizzando come base la RS, vennero montati nuovi freni ventilati a disco con quattro pistoncini e nuove sospensioni sportive irrigidite. I passaruota erano stati allargati per permettere il montaggio di pneumatici da competizione, più grandi rispetto a quelli di serie. Nella parte anteriore venne sistemato un nuovo radiatore dell'olio, mentre il propulsore impiegato era una versione 2.8 da 308 cv del motore della RS stradale. La sua gestione era affidata ad un cambio manuale a 5 rapporti. Questi modelli vennero affidati ai team Brumos e Penske per competere in alcune prove del Campionato Mondiale per vetture sport.
La prima prova fu alla 24 Ore di Daytona, dove i piloti Peter Gregg e Hurley Haywood del team Brumos ottennero la vittoria. Altre pregevoli conquiste furono La Targa Florio e la 12 Ore di Sebring. Nel 1974 le nuove norme USA sulla sicurezza e sull'inquinamento costrinsero i tecnici Porsche a rivedere la 911. Furono cambiati i paraurti, resi più grandi e ad assorbimento d'urto (i cosiddetti "impact bumpers"), con due pistoni idraulici al posto delle barre metalliche usate sul mercato europeo. I gruppi ottici posteriori vennero uniti da una fascia trasparente rossa inglobante i catarifrangenti. Dal punto di vista tecnico, invece, la cilindrata venne portata per tutte le versioni a 2687 cm³. Tutte adottarono l'alimentazione a iniezione meccanica, ma l'adozione di dispositivi antinquinamento ridusse la potenza utile. Anche gli interni furono aggiornati per migliorare comfort e sicurezza. La nuova gamma comprendeva la 911 standard (150 CV), la 911 S (177 CV) e la 911 Carrera (210 CV). Quest'ultima aveva la carrozzeria delle altre 911, senza alleggerimenti e variazioni estetiche, ed era disponibile anche in versione Targa (come pure la standard e la S), mentre il motore era lo stesso della Carrera RS della serie precedente: fu venduta solo sul mercato europeo ed in Sudafrica, ma non negli Stati Uniti. Nel 1975 venne introdotta la 911 Turbo, con motore portato a 2994 cm³ e sovralimentato con turbocompressore . La potenza cresceva così a 260 CV.
La 911 Turbo, disponibile solo in versione coupé, era facilmente riconoscibile per la carrozzeria allargata, l'ampio alettone posteriore (che incorporava l'intercooler), i cerchi sportivi con pneumatici maggiorati sui posteriori, lo spoiler anteriore più pronunciato e la verniciatura in nero opaco di tutte le parti cromate. Minime le modifiche all'interno. Lo stesso anno, data l'esigenza di proporla anche sul mercato statunitense, la cilindrata della Carrera crebbe a 2994 cm³, ma a causa dei dispositivi antinquinamento la potenza scese da 210 a 200 CV. Nel 1977 fu lanciata la 911 SC (SuperCarrera), che sostituiva tutte le altre versioni "non turbo" (standard, S e Carrera); aveva una cilindrata di 2994 cm³ e una potenza ridotta a 180 CV. Esteticamente le uniche modifiche riguardavano la verniciatura in nero opaco dei particolari prima cromati.
La SC, disponibile sia in versione coupé che Targa, venne lanciata in un momento in cui il management della Casa tedesca riteneva che la 911 fosse un modello superato, destinato ad essere gradualmente rimpiazzato dalla Porsche 928, lanciata proprio quell'anno e dotata di un nuovo motore V8 raffreddato ad acqua e meccanica transaxle. La 928 ebbe un buon successo di mercato, soprattutto negli USA, ma non riuscì mai a sostituire nel cuore degli appassionati la 911, che rimase sempre il modello Porsche più popolare. Nel 1978 la cilindrata della 911 Turbo crebbe da 2994 a 3299 cm³ e la potenza, grazie anche all'adozione dell'alimentazione a iniezione elettronica (anziché meccanica), raggiunse i 300 CV. Nel 1981 la potenza delle SC venne incrementata a 204 CV. Nel 1983 le versioni coupé e Targa vennero affiancate dalla 3.0 SC Cabriolet. Nel 1984 le 911 SC lasciarono il posto alle 911 Carrera 3.2, pressoché invariate esteticamente (a parte i piccoli fendinebbia rettangolari, ora integrati nello spoiler anteriore e non più solo opzionali, e il richiamo degli indicatori di posizione in posizione laterale), ma con importanti novità tecniche: cilindrata portata a 3164 cm³, alimentazione a iniezione elettronica anziché meccanica e potenza di 231 CV.
Fu realizzata anche in versione cabriolet. Nel 1987 venne proposta la nuova migliorata trasmissione G50 e la frizione idraulica. La fascia posteriore rossa ora comprende anche i retronebbia. Sono state prodotte due versioni commemorative della 3.2, chiamate comunemente, ma erroneamente, entrambe Giubileo.
Una del 1988 in occasione della 250.000ª 911 prodotta aveva un colore specifico (Diamantblau met cod. 697), la firma Ferry Porsche ricamata sugli appoggiatesta ed i cerchi ruota forgiati Fuchs con i "petali" nello stesso colore della carrozzeria anziché neri. Venne prodotta in tutte le varianti di carrozzeria, con motore catalizzato e non. Nell'anno seguente è stata realizzata una nuova versione commemorativa per i 25 anni di inizio di produzione della 911: in realtà erano 3 modelli con equipaggiamento molto completo e piuttosto rari, contraddistinti dai codici M097, M098 e M099. Rappresentavano una serie limitata di fine produzione del modello 3.2: M097 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione Germania, vernice blu profondo metallizzata, interni pelle totale colore grigio perla, tappetini in velluto effetto seta colore grigio perla, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta, cruscotto in radica; prodotta principalmente con carrozzeria coupé, ha avuto anche versioni Targa e Cabrio, molto rare; M098 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione USA vernice argento metallizzata, interni in pelle totale colore grigio effetto seta, tappetini in velluto colore grigio, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta; M099 modello Anniversario 1989 25 anni 911 versione Resto del mondo vernice blu metallizzata, pelle totale colore blu, tappetini in velluto colore argento-blu, consolle centrale speciale, cerchi Fuchs in tinta. Il Model Year 1989 rappresenta l'ultimo anno di produzione della 3.2 con la tipica carrozzeria Bumper e le "sospensioni a lame". Le vetture di quest'anno presentano tutta una serie di piccole evoluzioni tecniche e di dotazioni poi riprese dalla imminente 964. Sempre nel 1989 venne realizzata una piccola serie di 911 Speedster.
Si trattava di una cabriolet alleggerita con parabrezza più piccolo, calotta aerodinamica in plastica al posto dei sedili posteriori, carrozzeria slim o allargata "Turbo Look" e meccanica della normale derivata dalla Carrera 3.2. Nel giugno 1989 venne lanciata la 911 Carrera 4 (serie 964), con tantissime novità tecniche ed estetiche. Da punto di vista tecnico la novità principale era l'adozione della trazione integrale permanente e di un motore a cilindrata maggiorata da 3600 cm³ con doppia accensione e 250 CV. I freni ottennero l'ABS di serie, mentre lo sterzo era servoassistito. Esteticamente venivano adottati nuovi paraurti, diversi cerchi, inedito alettone posteriore retrattile e interni rivisti. Le versioni disponibili erano coupé, Targa e cabriolet.
Nel 1990 anche le versioni a trazione posteriore adottarono motore, freni e allestimento della Carrera 4. Il nome commerciale era 911 Carrera 2. Le versioni disponibili erano coupé, Targa e cabriolet. Anche le 964 Turbo (talvolta impropriamente indicate come 965) vennero aggiornate, prendendo i paraurti e gli interni delle Carrera 2/4. La potenza del motore 3,3 litri saliva a 320 CV. Lo stesso anno debuttò anche la Carrera 2 3.6 RS, alleggerita grazie ad un allestimento semplificato e potenziata a 260 CV. Nel 1987 per la prima volta venne proposta la 911 Turbo Cabriolet, e nel 1993 arrivarono la Carrera 2 Speedster e la Carrera 2 3.8 RS (con motore di 3,8 litri da 300 CV). La cilindrata della Turbo venne accresciuta a 3,6 litri con un conseguente aumento della potenza massima a 360 CV. I fari anteriori più inclinati ed il diverso taglio dei gruppi ottici posteriori costrinsero la Porsche a ridisegnare i parafanghi anteriori e alcune lamiere posteriori. Nuovi anche i paraurti e parte degli interni. Rilevanti anche le novità tecniche: nuova sospensione posteriore, denominata "LSA", acronimo che sta per "leggero, stabile, agile" (con traliccio che ingabbiava il motore) e 6 cilindri boxer con condotti di aspirazione a lunghezza variabile "Variocam" introdotta dal Model Year 1996 con conseguente aumento della potenza a 286 CV. Ulteriore novità tecnica fu l'adozione, per la prima volta su un'auto di serie, del fondo piatto, soluzione che migliorò l'aerodinamica e la stabilità della vettura.
La nuova sospensione garantiva un'eccellente tenuta di strada anche al cospetto dei 272 CV erogati dal 6 cilindri di 3,6 litri. Nuova anche la trazione integrale della Carrera 4. Sia le Carrera (a 2 ruote motrici) che le Carrera 4 erano disponibili in versione coupé o cabriolet. La versione Targa non venne inizialmente prodotta. La 911 Turbo della serie 993 venne potenziata con trazione integrale e sovralimentazione con 2 turbocompressori più intercooler, per un totale di 408 CV. Nel 1995, con il Model Year 1996, venne riproposta una versione denominata Targa: si trattava di una Carrera 2 con tetto apribile panoramico in cristallo azionato elettronicamente. Lo stesso anno vennero lanciate le Carrera S e Carrera 4 S, con carrozzeria "Turbo look". Nel 1996 entrarono in gamma la RS (motore di 3,8 litri da 300 CV, trazione posteriore e carrozzeria alleggerita di 100 kg) e la Turbo GT2 (trazione posteriore e motore biturbo da 450 CV). La serie delle 911 con motore raffreddato ad aria si chiuse nel 1997. Bisognava progettare un modello completamente nuovo, ma che mantenesse l'identità estetica e meccanica (motore 6 cilindri boxer posteriore a sbalzo) della 911, evitando gli errori commessi con le varie Porsche 944 e Porsche 968: evolute tecnicamente, ma fallimenti commerciali. Fu così che alla fine del 1997 nacque la 911 serie 996. Un modello completamente nuovo, sia tecnicamente che esteticamente, ma indubbiamente legato alla tradizione, in pratica una riedizione dei modelli tradizionali. Dal punto di vista tecnico le novità riguardarono soprattutto le sospensioni anteriori (comuni alla Porsche Boxster) a quadrilateri ed il motore, sempre sei cilindri boxer, ma con raffreddamento ad acqua e testata a 4 valvole per cilindro. Posteriormente venne riproposta una riedizione della sofisticata sospensione posteriore "LSA". L'ESP integrava il lavoro delle sospensioni ed erano disponibili due tipi di trazione: posteriore o integrale permanente a gestione elettronica.
Grazie alla distribuzione a 24 valvole con fasatura variabile il boxer, nonostante la cilindrata ridotta a 3387 cm³, era in grado di fornire 296 CV. Anche gli interni erano completamente nuovi. La gamma era composta dalle versioni coupé e cabriolet alle quali s'aggiunse successivamente la versione Targa con tetto in cristallo, come sulla 993. Nel 1999 arrivò la GT3, con motore aspirato di 3,6 litri da 360 CV e carrozzeria alleggerita.
Nel 2000 entrò in produzione la 911 Turbo con motore biturbo (420 CV) e trazione integrale che spinge la vettura da 0 a 100 km/h in soli 4,2 secondi. La carrozzeria, inizialmente solo coupé poi anche in versione cabrio, venne allargata rispetto alle "normali", ma era meno estrema rispetto alle edizioni precedenti. Nel frontale debuttarono fari diversi che anticiparono il restyling su tutta la gamma, e sono state introdotte due grosse prese d'aria laterali e feritoie sul paraurti posteriore più alettone (sdoppiato superati i 120 km/h) che ne aumentarono l'aggressività rispetto alla 911 standard, oltre che le prestazioni aerodinamiche. Nel 2002 è stato inoltre rilasciato il modello potenziato "Turbo S", una versione elaborata della 996 turbo che spinge il motore da 420 cv a 450 cv limando il 0-100 a 4,1 secondi, grazie alla rimappatura della centralina, e all'impiego di turbocompressori di maggiori dimensioni. Il tutto firmato Porsche. La carrozzeria è rimasta invariata, ad eccezione della S posteriore affiancata alla scritta turbo. Per i già possessori del turbo standard, la casa produttrice di Stoccarda ha rilasciato anche il KIT S, per poter rimanere al passo senza che i più esigenti abbiano dovuto rivendere il veicolo appositamente per avere la S. Infine, sempre nel 2002 venne lanciata la versione GT2, derivata dalla Turbo, ma potenziata a 462 CV, alleggerita e convertita in trazione posteriore. Quest'auto, particolarmente nervosa ed impegnativa da guidare, era priva di qualsiasi controllo di trazione e stabilità, proprio in nome della filosofia racing che Porsche adotta per le proprie versioni GT. Nel 2004 la GT2 venne leggermente aggiornata nella versione cosiddetta "Mark2", potenziata a 483 CV e modificata in alcuni particolari. Nel 2005 un restyling di fari anteriori, paraurti e interni ha dato vita alla serie 997. Rispetto alla precedente 996, la nuova versione oltre al ritorno dei fari anteriori circolari (oblunghi sulla serie precedente), riportava alcune novità tecniche, soprattutto riguardanti il motore con cilindrata di 3600 cm³ (325 CV) per le 911 Carrera standard e di 3800 cm³ (355 CV) per le 911 Carrera S.
Venne mantenuta disponibile la trazione integrale accanto a quella posteriore, sia per le versioni standard che S. Tutte sono disponibili con carrozzeria coupé, Targa o cabriolet. Nel 2006 hanno debuttato le versioni Turbo (3,6 litri biturbo, trazione integrale, turbine a geometria variabile e 480 CV), GT3 (3,6 litri aspirata da 415 CV), GT3 RS (con la stessa meccanica della GT3 standard, carrozzeria alleggerita e assetto ancora più esasperato) e Carrera 4 Targa (con tetto panoramico in cristallo ad azionamento elettrico e trazione integrale). Alla fine dell'autunno 2006 viene proposta la 911 997 Targa. Nella primavera del 2009 la Porsche annuncia una versione commemorativa che si chiama Sport Classic e si rifà alle 911 classiche: in primis la 2.7 Carrera RS, di cui riprende l'alettone a coda d'anatra e i cerchi "Fuchs style" da 19". La meccanica è quella della Carrera S potenziata a 408 CV, il tetto ha la doppia gobba; ne verranno prodotti solo 250 esemplari.Nel 2010 viene lanciata la GT2 RS: in pratica un'auto da corsa targata. L'abitacolo presenta un roll-bar, e il motore è biturbo con 620 CV, scaricati solo sull'assale posteriore: la più potente Porsche omologata per circolare per strada. Inoltre è stata creata la versione Speedster della 997: a livello meccanico e stilistico è uguale alla Sport Classic, la differenza è naturalmente il tetto ripiegabile nella calotta aerodinamica in plastica. Ne verranno prodotti solo 365 esemplari.
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"Calligraphy (from Greek κάλλος kallos "beauty" + γραφή graphẽ "writing") is a type of visual art related to writing.
Islamic calligraphy (calligraphy in Arabic is Khatt ul-Yad خط اليد) has evolved alongside the religion of Islam and the Arabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by the Muslim calligraphers from Morocco to China.
Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions.
Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'an, has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an are still sources for Islamic calligraphy.
It is generally accepted that Islamic calligraphy excelled during the Ottoman era. Turkish calligraphers still present the most refined and creative works. Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc."
from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calligraphy
Kukeldash Madrasah, Tashkent
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Using my Mamia Macro MF 120mm f/4, I had at it once more and experimented a little with incents.
strobist info:
Used two flashes 90° camera right for lower and upper area of the smoke.
Used expired film here that I had to rate at ISO25, which forced me to use a very large apperture and hence a very shallow depth of field, Nationaal Oldtimer Festival Zandvoort.
Using a second arduino as a graphics card generating B/W video out (PAL or NTSC) thanks to the amazing Batsocks code as used in the TellyMate shield. (See recent blog post.)
This makes me very, very happy! Apart from the duinos there are only FOUR components in there -- 2 diodes and 2 resistors.
Geek on...
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Ipê Amarelo, Tabebuia [chrysotricha or ochracea].
Ipê-amarelo em Brasília (UnB), Brasil.
This tree is in Brasília, Capital of Brazil.
Text, in english, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Trumpet tree" redirects here. This term is occasionally used for the Shield-leaved Pumpwood (Cecropia peltata).
Tabebuia
Flowering Araguaney or ipê-amarelo (Tabebuia chrysantha) in central Brazil
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Bignoniaceae
Tribe: Tecomeae
Genus: Tabebuia
Gomez
Species
Nearly 100.
Tabebuia is a neotropical genus of about 100 species in the tribe Tecomeae of the family Bignoniaceae. The species range from northern Mexico and the Antilles south to northern Argentina and central Venezuela, including the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti) and Cuba. Well-known common names include Ipê, Poui, trumpet trees and pau d'arco.
They are large shrubs and trees growing to 5 to 50 m (16 to 160 ft.) tall depending on the species; many species are dry-season deciduous but some are evergreen. The leaves are opposite pairs, complex or palmately compound with 3–7 leaflets.
Tabebuia is a notable flowering tree. The flowers are 3 to 11 cm (1 to 4 in.) wide and are produced in dense clusters. They present a cupular calyx campanulate to tubular, truncate, bilabiate or 5-lobed. Corolla colors vary between species ranging from white, light pink, yellow, lavender, magenta, or red. The outside texture of the flower tube is either glabrous or pubescentThe fruit is a dehiscent pod, 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in.) long, containing numerous—in some species winged—seeds. These pods often remain on the tree through dry season until the beginning of the rainy.
Species in this genus are important as timber trees. The wood is used for furniture, decking, and other outdoor uses. It is increasingly popular as a decking material due to its insect resistance and durability. By 2007, FSC-certified ipê wood had become readily available on the market, although certificates are occasionally forged.
Tabebuia is widely used as ornamental tree in the tropics in landscaping gardens, public squares, and boulevards due to its impressive and colorful flowering. Many flowers appear on still leafless stems at the end of the dry season, making the floral display more conspicuous. They are useful as honey plants for bees, and are popular with certain hummingbirds. Naturalist Madhaviah Krishnan on the other hand once famously took offense at ipé grown in India, where it is not native.
Lapacho teaThe bark of several species has medical properties. The bark is dried, shredded, and then boiled making a bitter or sour-tasting brownish-colored tea. Tea from the inner bark of Pink Ipê (T. impetiginosa) is known as Lapacho or Taheebo. Its main active principles are lapachol, quercetin, and other flavonoids. It is also available in pill form. The herbal remedy is typically used during flu and cold season and for easing smoker's cough. It apparently works as expectorant, by promoting the lungs to cough up and free deeply embedded mucus and contaminants. However, lapachol is rather toxic and therefore a more topical use e.g. as antibiotic or pesticide may be advisable. Other species with significant folk medical use are T. alba and Yellow Lapacho (T. serratifolia)
Tabebuia heteropoda, T. incana, and other species are occasionally used as an additive to the entheogenic drink Ayahuasca.
Mycosphaerella tabebuiae, a plant pathogenic sac fungus, was first discovered on an ipê tree.
Tabebuia alba
Tabebuia anafensis
Tabebuia arimaoensis
Tabebuia aurea – Caribbean Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia bilbergii
Tabebuia bibracteolata
Tabebuia cassinoides
Tabebuia chrysantha – Araguaney, Yellow Ipê, tajibo (Bolivia), ipê-amarelo (Brazil), cañaguate (N Colombia)
Tabebuia chrysotricha – Golden Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose – Gold Tree, "Prima Vera", Cortez blanco (El Salvador), San Juan (Honduras), palo blanco (Guatemala),duranga (Mexico)
A native of Mexico and Central Americas, considered one of the most colorful of all Central American trees. The leaves are deciduous. Masses of golden-yellow flowers cover the crown after the leaves are shed.
Tabebuia dubia
Tabebuia ecuadorensis
Tabebuia elongata
Tabebuia furfuracea
Tabebuia geminiflora Rizz. & Mattos
Tabebuia guayacan (Seem.) Hemsl.
Tabebuia haemantha
Tabebuia heptaphylla (Vell.) Toledo – tajy
Tabebuia heterophylla – roble prieto
Tabebuia heteropoda
Tabebuia hypoleuca
Tabebuia impetiginosa – Pink Ipê, Pink Lapacho, ipê-cavatã, ipê-comum, ipê-reto, ipê-rosa, ipê-roxo-damata, pau d'arco-roxo, peúva, piúva (Brazil), lapacho negro (Spanish); not "brazilwood"
Tabebuia incana
Tabebuia jackiana
Tabebuia lapacho – lapacho amarillo
Tabebuia orinocensis A.H. Gentry[verification needed]
Tabebuia ochracea
Tabebuia oligolepis
Tabebuia pallida – Cuban Pink Trumpet Tree
Tabebuia platyantha
Tabebuia polymorpha
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) DC.[verification needed] (= T. pentaphylla (L.) Hemsley) – Pink Poui, Pink Tecoma, apama, apamate, matilisguate
A popular street tree in tropical cities because of its multi-annular masses of light pink to purple flowers and modest size. The roots are not especially destructive for roads and sidewalks. It is the national tree of El Salvador and the state tree of Cojedes, Venezuela
Tabebuia roseo-alba – White Ipê, ipê-branco (Brazil), lapacho blanco
Tabebuia serratifolia – Yellow Lapacho, Yellow Poui, ipê-roxo (Brazil)
Tabebuia shaferi
Tabebuia striata
Tabebuia subtilis Sprague & Sandwith
Tabebuia umbellata
Tabebuia vellosoi Toledo
Ipê-do-cerrado
Texto, em português, da Wikipédia, a enciclopédia livre.
Ipê-do-cerrado
Classificação científica
Reino: Plantae
Divisão: Magnoliophyta
Classe: Magnoliopsida
Subclasse: Asteridae
Ordem: Lamiales
Família: Bignoniaceae
Género: Tabebuia
Espécie: T. ochracea
Nome binomial
Tabebuia ochracea
(Cham.) Standl. 1832
Sinónimos
Bignonia tomentosa Pav. ex DC.
Handroanthus ochraceus (Cham.) Mattos
Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson
Tabebuia hypodictyon A. DC.) Standl.
Tabebuia neochrysantha A.H. Gentry
Tabebuia ochracea subsp. heteropoda (A. DC.) A.H. Gentry
Tabebuia ochracea subsp. neochrysantha (A.H. Gentry) A.H. Gentry
Tecoma campinae Kraenzl.
ecoma grandiceps Kraenzl.
Tecoma hassleri Sprague
Tecoma hemmendorffiana Kraenzl.
Tecoma heteropoda A. DC.
Tecoma hypodictyon A. DC.
Tecoma ochracea Cham.
Ipê-do-cerrado é um dos nomes populares da Tabebuia ochracea (Cham.) Standl. 1832, nativa do cerrado brasileiro, no estados de Amazonas, Pará, Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Pernambuco, Bahia, Espírito Santo, Goiás, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo e Paraná.
Está na lista de espécies ameaçadas do estado de São Paulo, onde é encontrda também no domínio da Mata Atlântica[1].
Ocorre também na Argentina, Paraguai, Bolívia, Equador, Peru, Venezuela, Guiana, El Salvador, Guatemala e Panamá[2].
Há uma espécie homônima descrita por A.H. Gentry em 1992.
Outros nomes populares: ipê-amarelo, ipê-cascudo, ipê-do-campo, ipê-pardo, pau-d'arco-do-campo, piúva, tarumã.
Características
Altura de 6 a 14 m. Tronco tortuso com até 50 cm de diâmetro. Folhas pilosas em ambas as faces, mais na inferior, que é mais clara.
Planta decídua, heliófita, xerófita, nativa do cerrado em solos bem drenados.
Floresce de julho a setembro. Os frutos amadurecem de setembro a outubro.
FloresProduz grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em menos de 90 dias após coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978). As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%. As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 72 000 sementes em cada quilo.
O desenvolvimento da planta é rápido.
Como outros ipês, a madeira é usada em tacos, assoalhos, e em dormentes e postes. Presta-se também para peças torneadas e instrumento musicais.
Tabebuia alba (Ipê-Amarelo)
Texto, em português, produzido pela Acadêmica Giovana Beatriz Theodoro Marto
Supervisão e orientação do Prof. Luiz Ernesto George Barrichelo e do Eng. Paulo Henrique Müller
Atualizado em 10/07/2006
O ipê amarelo é a árvore brasileira mais conhecida, a mais cultivada e, sem dúvida nenhuma, a mais bela. É na verdade um complexo de nove ou dez espécies com características mais ou menos semelhantes, com flores brancas, amarelas ou roxas. Não há região do país onde não exista pelo menos uma espécie dele, porém a existência do ipê em habitat natural nos dias atuais é rara entre a maioria das espécies (LORENZI,2000).
A espécie Tabebuia alba, nativa do Brasil, é uma das espécies do gênero Tabebuia que possui “Ipê Amarelo” como nome popular. O nome alba provém de albus (branco em latim) e é devido ao tomento branco dos ramos e folhas novas.
As árvores desta espécie proporcionam um belo espetáculo com sua bela floração na arborização de ruas em algumas cidades brasileiras. São lindas árvores que embelezam e promovem um colorido no final do inverno. Existe uma crença popular de que quando o ipê-amarelo floresce não vão ocorrer mais geadas. Infelizmente, a espécie é considerada vulnerável quanto à ameaça de extinção.
A Tabebuia alba, natural do semi-árido alagoano está adaptada a todas as regiões fisiográficas, levando o governo, por meio do Decreto nº 6239, a transformar a espécie como a árvore símbolo do estado, estando, pois sob a sua tutela, não mais podendo ser suprimida de seus habitats naturais.
Taxonomia
Família: Bignoniaceae
Espécie: Tabebuia Alba (Chamiso) Sandwith
Sinonímia botânica: Handroanthus albus (Chamiso) Mattos; Tecoma alba Chamisso
Outros nomes vulgares: ipê-amarelo, ipê, aipê, ipê-branco, ipê-mamono, ipê-mandioca, ipê-ouro, ipê-pardo, ipê-vacariano, ipê-tabaco, ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-dourado, ipê-da-serra, ipezeiro, pau-d’arco-amarelo, taipoca.
Aspectos Ecológicos
O ipê-amarelo é uma espécie heliófita (Planta adaptada ao crescimento em ambiente aberto ou exposto à luz direta) e decídua (que perde as folhas em determinada época do ano). Pertence ao grupo das espécies secundárias iniciais (DURIGAN & NOGUEIRA, 1990).
Abrange a Floresta Pluvial da Mata Atlântica e da Floresta Latifoliada Semidecídua, ocorrendo principalmente no interior da Floresta Primária Densa. É característica de sub-bosques dos pinhais, onde há regeneração regular.
Informações Botânicas
Morfologia
As árvores de Tabebuia alba possuem cerca de 30 metros de altura. O tronco é reto ou levemente tortuoso, com fuste de 5 a 8 m de altura. A casca externa é grisáceo-grossa, possuindo fissuras longitudinais esparas e profundas. A coloração desta é cinza-rosa intenso, com camadas fibrosas, muito resistentes e finas, porém bem distintas.
Com ramos grossos, tortuosos e compridos, o ipê-amarelo possui copa alongada e alargada na base. As raízes de sustentação e absorção são vigorosas e profundas.
As folhas, deciduais, são opostas, digitadas e compostas. A face superior destas folhas é verde-escura, e, a face inferior, acinzentada, sendo ambas as faces tomentosas. Os pecíolos das folhas medem de 2,5 a 10 cm de comprimento. Os folíolos, geralmente, apresentam-se em número de 5 a 7, possuindo de 7 a 18 cm de comprimento por 2 a 6 cm de largura. Quando jovem estes folíolos são densamente pilosos em ambas as faces. O ápice destes é pontiagudo, com base arredondada e margem serreada.
As flores, grandes e lanceoladas, são de coloração amarelo-ouro. Possuem em média 8X15 cm.
Quanto aos frutos, estes possuem forma de cápsula bivalvar e são secos e deiscentes. Do tipo síliqua, lembram uma vagem. Medem de 15 a 30 cm de comprimento por 1,5 a 2,5 cm de largura. As valvas são finamente tomentosas com pêlos ramificados. Possuem grande quantidade de sementes.
As sementes são membranáceas brilhantes e esbranquiçadas, de coloração marrom. Possuem de 2 a 3 cm de comprimento por 7 a 9 mm de largura e são aladas.
Reprodução
A espécie é caducifólia e a queda das folhas coincide com o período de floração. A floração inicia-se no final de agosto, podendo ocorrer alguma variação devido a fenômenos climáticos. Como a espécie floresce no final do inverno é influenciada pela intensidade do mesmo. Quanto mais frio e seco for o inverno, maior será a intensidade da florada do ipê amarelo.
As flores por sua exuberância, atraem abelhas e pássaros, principalmente beija-flores que são importantes agentes polinizadores. Segundo CARVALHO (2003), a espécie possui como vetor de polinização a abelha mamangava (Bombus morio).
As sementes são dispersas pelo vento.
A planta é hermafrodita, e frutifica nos meses de setembro, outubro, novembro, dezembro, janeiro e fevereiro, dependendo da sua localização. Em cultivo, a espécie inicia o processo reprodutivo após o terceiro ano.
Ocorrência Natural
Ocorre naturalmente na Floresta Estaciobal Semidecicual, Floresta de Araucária e no Cerrado.
Segundo o IBGE, a Tabebuia alba (Cham.) Sandw. é uma árvore do Cerrado, Cerradão e Mata Seca. Apresentando-se nos campos secos (savana gramíneo-lenhosa), próximo às escarpas.
Clima
Segundo a classificação de Köppen, o ipê-amarelo abrange locais de clima tropical (Aw), subtropical úmido (Cfa), sutropical de altitude (Cwa e Cwb) e temperado.
A T.alba pode tolerar até 81 geadas em um ano. Ocorre em locais onde a temperatura média anual varia de 14,4ºC como mínimo e 22,4ºC como máximo.
Solo
A espécie prefere solos úmidos, com drenagem lenta e geralmente não muito ondulados (LONGHI, 1995).
Aparece em terras de boa à média fertilidade, em solos profundos ou rasos, nas matas e raramente cerradões (NOGUEIRA, 1977).
Pragas e Doenças
De acordo com CARVALHO (2003), possui como praga a espécie de coleópteros Cydianerus bohemani da família Curculionoideae e um outro coleóptero da família Chrysomellidae. Apesar da constatação de elevados índices populacionais do primeiro, os danos ocasionados até o momento são leves. Nas praças e ruas de Curitiba - PR, 31% das árvores foram atacadas pela Cochonilha Ceroplastes grandis.
ZIDKO (2002), ao estudar no município de Piracicaba a associação de coleópteros em espécies arbóreas, verificou a presença de insetos adultos da espécie Sitophilus linearis da família de coleópteros, Curculionidae, em estruturas reprodutivas. Os insetos adultos da espécie emergiram das vagens do ipê, danificando as sementes desta espécie nativa.
ANDRADE (1928) assinalou diversas espécies de Cerambycidae atacando essências florestais vivas, como ingazeiro, cinamomo, cangerana, cedro, caixeta, jacarandá, araribá, jatobá, entre outras como o ipê amarelo.
A Madeira
A Tabebuia alba produz madeira de grande durabilidade e resistência ao apodrecimento (LONGHI,1995).
MANIERI (1970) caracteriza o cerne desta espécie como de cor pardo-havana-claro, pardo-havan-escuro, ou pardo-acastanhado, com reflexos esverdeados. A superfície da madeira é irregularmente lustrosa, lisa ao tato, possuindo textura media e grã-direita.
Com densidade entre 0,90 e 1,15 grama por centímetro cúbico, a madeira é muito dura (LORENZI, 1992), apresentando grande dificuldade ao serrar.
A madeira possui cheiro e gosto distintos. Segundo LORENZI (1992), o cheiro característico é devido à presença da substância lapachol, ou ipeína.
Usos da Madeira
Sendo pesada, com cerne escuro, adquire grande valor comercial na marcenaria e carpintaria. Também é utilizada para fabricação de dormentes, moirões, pontes, postes, eixos de roda, varais de carroça, moendas de cana, etc.
Produtos Não-Madeireiros
A entrecasca do ipê-amarelo possui propriedades terapêuticas como adstringente, usada no tratamento de garganta e estomatites. É também usada como diurético.
O ipê-amarelo possui flores melíferas e que maduras podem ser utilizadas na alimentação humana.
Outros Usos
É comumente utilizada em paisagismo de parques e jardins pela beleza e porte. Além disso, é muito utilizada na arborização urbana.
Segundo MOREIRA & SOUZA (1987), o ipê-amarelo costuma povoar as beiras dos rios sendo, portanto, indicado para recomposição de matas ciliares. MARTINS (1986), também cita a espécie para recomposição de matas ciliares da Floresta Estacional Semidecidual, abrangendo alguns municípios das regiões Norte, Noroeste e parte do Oeste do Estado do Paraná.
Aspectos Silviculturais
Possui a tendência a crescer reto e sem bifurcações quando plantado em reflorestamento misto, pois é espécie monopodial. A desrrama se faz muito bem e a cicatrização é boa. Sendo assim, dificilmente encopa quando nova, a não ser que seja plantado em parques e jardins.
Ao ser utilizada em arborização urbana, o ipê amarelo requer podas de condução com freqüência mediana.
Espécie heliófila apresenta a pleno sol ramificação cimosa, registrando-se assim dicotomia para gema apical. Deve ser preconizada, para seu melhor aproveitamento madeireiro, podas de formação usuais (INQUE et al., 1983).
Produção de Mudas
A propagação deve realizada através de enxertia.
Os frutos devem ser coletados antes da dispersão, para evitar a perda de sementes. Após a coleta as sementes são postas em ambiente ventilado e a extração é feita manualmente. As sementes do ipê amarelo são ortodoxas, mantendo a viabilidade natural por até 3 meses em sala e por até 9 meses em vidro fechado, em câmara fria.
A condução das mudas deve ser feita a pleno sol. A muda atinge cerca de 30 cm em 9 meses, apresentando tolerância ao sol 3 semanas após a germinação.
Sementes
Os ipês, espécies do gênero Tabebuia, produzem uma grande quantidade de sementes leves, aladas com pequenas reservas, e que perdem a viabilidade em poucos dias após a sua coleta. A sua conservação vem sendo estudada em termos de determinação da condição ideal de armazenamento, e tem demonstrado a importância de se conhecer o comportamento da espécie quando armazenada com diferentes teores de umidade inicial, e a umidade de equilíbrio crítica para a espécie (KANO; MÁRQUEZ & KAGEYAMA, 1978).
As levíssimas sementes aladas da espécie não necessitam de quebra de dormência. Podem apenas ser expostas ao sol por cerca de 6 horas e semeadas diretamente nos saquinhos. A quebra natural leva cerca de 3 meses e a quebra na câmara leva 9 meses. A germinação ocorre após 30 dias e de 80%.
As sementes são ortodoxas e há aproximadamente 87000 sementes em cada quilo.
Preço da Madeira no Mercado
O preço médio do metro cúbico de pranchas de ipê no Estado do Pará cotado em Julho e Agosto de 2005 foi de R$1.200,00 o preço mínimo, R$ 1509,35 o médio e R$ 2.000,00 o preço máximo (CEPEA,2005).
used the live view mode to get the boat shed in focus and sharpened a little in photoshop. Still a little mist on the water - a lovely day.
using the car door as a tripod & shooting thru the driver's window w/engine running @ a stop sign while someone is waiting behind U so can't take time to change camera settings... causes a lil bit of 'lens shake' ☺
please also view → flic.kr/p/dZdDvu → nighttime double
Waddingtons Victory
©1989
14003
plywood
500 pieces, used and complete
49 x 34 cm
19 x 13 in
2022 piece count: 152,659
puzzle: 210
TED: ''She's bin at it agane - byein' stuff on eBay I mean. This woodun pussle of a tiger's 'ead appeared the uvver day so I fawt I'd 'ave a go at makin' it up. It wuz cheap so I hexpekted it to 'ave a peece missin' but no, it's compleate! I 'ad to culler in a big scratchy mark on the front of the box but it looks nice now, much better than it did. I no she's gonna keep it cuz it's woodun an' it's a nice pikchur, but I wish she woodunt!''
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La Giulia è un'autovettura berlina prodotta dall'Alfa Romeo tra il 1962 ed il 1977. La Giulia nasce come erede della precedente Giulietta ed è stata proposta in numerose varianti di carrozzeria: dalla versione coupé alla cabriolet fino alla spider. Complessivamente la casa ha prodotto circa 1 milione di Giulia in 15 anni rendendola una dei modelli Alfa Romeo più venduti della storia (insieme all'Alfasud); di questi ben 572.646 esemplari possedevano la carrozzeria berlina tre volumi. Nata all'inizio degli anni Sessanta col compito di sostituire la Giulietta, la Giulia ne riprendeva lo schema meccanico di base. Il motore a quattro cilindri di scuola aeronautica, con distribuzione bialbero e costruzione interamente in alluminio. Rispetto a quello della sua progenitrice c'era, oltre all'incremento di cilindrata da 1290 a 1570 cm³, l'importante innovazione delle valvole di scarico raffreddate al sodio (in pratica le valvole erano cave e la cavità stessa conteneva granuli di sodio, che trasportavano il calore dal fungo verso lo stelo). Le sospensioni anteriori avevano uno schema particolarmente sportivo a quadrilateri sovrapposti, mentre il retrotreno, pur utilizzando la classica e un po' conservatrice soluzione a ponte rigido, fu reso più efficace spostando gli attacchi di molle e ammortizzatori dai semiassi ai bracci longitudinali, mantenendo la scatola del differenziale in alluminio ed evolvendo il disegno del braccio superiore di controllo dello scuotimento laterale. La trasmissione era manuale a cinque rapporti, mentre i freni erano a tamburo con gli anteriori a 3 ganasce e tamburi in alluminio alettato, sostituiti in seguito da un impianto a 4 dischi Dunlop (Ate dal 1967). Se la meccanica era d'avanguardia (a parte alcune soluzioni della primissima serie, come impianto frenante e il comando del cambio al volante, con la cloche come optional), anche la scocca a deformazione differenziata con cellula abitativa rigida e la linea della carrozzeria erano molto moderne. Grazie alla coda tronca, alle incavature laterali alla base della linea di cintura (che accompagnavano l'aria dal muso alla coda) e al muso basso e sfuggente la Giulia (che era una classica 3 volumi 4 porte) aveva un coefficiente di penetrazione aerodinamica (CX) di soli 0,34 punti (famoso lo slogan “la Giulia l'auto disegnata dal vento”. Quest'ultimo aspetto le dava anche un tocco notevole di aggressività (i fari grandi alle estremità e i piccoli all'interno ricordavano una persona con le ciglia aggrottate). Il risultato finale di tanta tecnologia furono prestazioni al top della categoria: una prova su strada condotta da una rivista specializzata nel 1965 la pose a confronto con altre 12 concorrenti di pari classe; ne risultò la più veloce con 177,154 km/h, mentre le altre oscillavano tra i 132 km/h e i 165 km/h. La vettura, secondo le strategie dei vertici Alfa, inizialmente doveva essere lanciata in concomitanza con l'inaugurazione del nuovo stabilimento Alfa di Arese, ma a causa dei continui ritardi nella consegna dello stesso, per circa 2 anni si ebbe una curiosa fase di transizione in cui le prime parti di vettura ad essere prodotte nel nuovo impianto fuori Milano furono le scocche e sopra di esse si doveva montare tutta la componentistica meccanica ancora proveniente dall'impianto milanese del Portello. Il tutto fu possibile perché le due fabbriche distavano solo 15 chilometri. La prima vettura ad essere prodotta ad Arese fu poi la Giulia GT del 1963.
La Giulia venne presentata presso l'Autodromo Nazionale di Monza il 27 giugno 1962 nella versione TI (acronimo di Turismo Internazionale). Grazie alla cilindrata di 1570 cm³ e all'alimentazione con un carburatore doppio corpo verticale, il motore poteva erogare una potenza di 92 cv (67 Kw). Il cambio a 5 rapporti, una vera chicca all'epoca riservata a vetture di alta sportività e classe, aveva però il comando con la leva al volante, che ne rendeva scomoda e poco sportiva la manovrabilità. Il sedile anteriore aveva la seduta in pezzo unico che la omologava per sei posti, mentre la plancia (in plastica grigia) incorporava una strumentazione ad andamento orizzontale (con tachimetro a nastro e un piccolo contagiri circolare sulla sinistra). Nel 1963 venne lanciata la versione Ti Super, pensata per l'omologazione alle gare turismo. Rispetto alla Ti, la Ti Super presentava una carrozzeria alleggerita (cofani e portiere in alluminio, lunotto e finestrini posteriori in plexiglas, alcuni lamierati assottigliati, allestimento interno semplificato, il motore a doppia accensione da 112 CV della Giulia SS coupé (con alimentazione a 2 carburatori Weber 45 DCOE14, valvole maggiorate, alberi distribuzione sportivi), freni a disco, cerchi in lega di magnesio Campagnolo con feritoie quadrangolari (gli stessi della Giulia TZ) e leva del cambio a cloche sul pavimento. A richiesta erano disponibili radiatore dell'olio, differenziale autobloccante e rapporti al ponte differenti. Esternamente la Ti Super si riconosceva per i quadrifogli adesivi sulla fiancata e la sostituzione della coppia di fari anteriori più interna con prese d'aria circolari. Opportunamente elaborata da noti preparatori come Virgilio Conrero, con il motore che arrivava a erogare circa 155 CV (114 kw), fu omologata nella categoria Turismo Gruppo 2 e in gara diede parecchie soddisfazioni all'Alfa Romeo che coniò lo slogan: “Giulia, la berlina che vince le corse”. Nel 1964, dopo aver tolto di listino la Ti Super (costruita nei 501 esemplari necessari all'omologazione per le gare), l'Alfa Romeo aggiornò anche la Ti: 4 freni disco (dopo 22.000 esemplari con freni a tamburo), sedili anteriori separati e leva del cambio a cloche sul pavimento. Nel 1965 la 1600 TI venne affiancata dalla Giulia Super. Finiture più curate (plancia rivestita in legno, strumentazione circolare, sedili ridisegnati, profilo cromato, diversi fregi posteriori, biscioni smaltati sui montanti posteriori) erano gli atout della Super, insieme con il motore che grazie all'adozione di due carburatori doppio corpo orizzontali Weber 40 DCOE4 erogava 112 CV e con il nuovo rapporto al ponte 9/41 riusciva a superare i 175 km/h, valore analogo rispetto alla precedente TI, ma raggiunto a un minore regime di giri, migliorando comfort e consumi. Nello stesso anno, la Pininfarina utilizzò la base meccanica della 1600 per costruire una propria versione coupé con carrozzeria aerodinamica presentata al salone automobilistico di Torino. Nel 1967 la 1600 TI uscì di listino, rimpiazzata come versione di accesso dalla 1600 S, con motore (sempre monocarburatore) potenziato a 95 CV, strumentazione simile alla Super ed eliminazione di quasi tutti i profili cromati. Nel 1969 la Super venne potenziata a 116 CV grazie a nuovi alberi a camme e un aumento del diametro dei venturi dei carburatori.
Nel 1964 venne lanciato il modello d'accesso Giulia 1300, con motore di 1290 cm³ monocarburatore doppio corpo (78 CV) evoluzione di quello montato sulla Giulietta TI, cambio a 4 marce, frontale con due soli fari (anziché 4 come sulla 1600), interni molto semplificati e dotazione di accessori ridotta all'osso (mancava anche la luce di retromarcia e il servofreno). Nonostante le economie si affermò immediatamente come la 1300 più veloce del mondo, con una punta dichiarata di 155 km/h, che nella prova di Quattroruote superò i 160 effettivi. Nel 1965 venne presentata la 1300 TI, con motore di 1290 cm³ alimentato sempre da un carburatore doppio corpo verticale Solex 32 PAIA/7, ma potenziato a 82 CV grazie al superiore rapporto di compressione (9:1 invece di 8.5:1) e ai collettori di aspirazione e scarico maggiorati, simili a quelli della 1600 TI. Dalla 1600 ricevette anche il cambio, servofreno, finiture più curate. Sempre invariato il frontale con due soli fari. Nel 1969 anche la 1300 base ottenne il servofreno, mentre accomunò tutta la gamma la frizione a comando idraulico con molla a diaframma, il ritardatore di frenata al retrotreno, l'alternatore al posto della dinamo e il passaggio a cerchi da 14’ con pneumatici 165/80. Nel 1970 nacque la Giulia 1300 Super, che riprendeva le finiture dell'omonima versione 1600 (ma il frontale rimaneva a fari singoli), e raggiungeva prestazioni ancora più elevate grazie al motore 1300 bicarburatore da 103 CV (SAE) già utilizzato sulla GT Junior fin dal 1966. Nel 1971 la 1300 base venne tolta di listino.
Nel 1971, in occasione di un leggero restyling, la gamma venne semplificata e l'offerta ridotta a due soli modelli. Le modifiche estetiche riguardarono una nuova mascherina (nera con barre cromate), l'eliminazione delle cornici cromate attorno alle luci posteriori e i cerchi ruota. All'interno venne mantenuto l'allestimento Super, con alcune variazioni (consolle centrale rivestita in legno) e semplificazioni (pavimento in gomma anziché in moquette). La Giulia Super (questa la nuova denominazione) era disponibile nelle versioni, assolutamente identiche (anche la 1300 adottò il frontale a 4 fari): 1.3 (1290 cm³, 89 CV) e 1.6 (1570 cm³, 102 CV). Nel 1974 un restyling più consistente diede vita alla Nuova Super. A cambiare furono il frontale (nuova mascherina in plastica nera, diverso scudetto Alfa, cofano motore liscio), i paraurti (più avvolgenti), la coda (cofano liscio, diverso layout delle luci) e gli interni (plancia rivista, consolle centrale con bocchette di ventilazione frontali, pavimento in moquette, sedili con poggiatesta). Nessuna novità tecnica. La gamma rimaneva composta delle versioni 1300 da 89 CV e 1600 da 102. Nonostante gli anni trascorsi, la “Giulia” continuava a meravigliare anche in quest'ultima versione per le doti motoristiche e dinamiche in generale: una nota rivista specializzata annotò “la berlina 1300 più veloce del mercato”, e ancora nell'accelerazione da fermo il tempo ottenuto sul chilometro da fermo è ancora oggi il migliore ottenuto da berline 1300... Nel 1976 venne lanciata la Nuova Super Diesel, mossa da un 4 cilindri diesel di 1760 cm³ prodotto dalla Perkins Engines (era lo stesso dei furgoni Alfa Romeo F12). Progetto figlio della fretta indotta dalla crisi petrolifera, adottava un motore lento (55 CV secondo le permissive specifiche SAE, 135 km/h), rumoroso e ruvido, molto pesante poiché interamente in ghisa e anche all'epoca considerato poco adatto ad una berlina di impostazione sportiva. La Nuova Super Diesel fu un sonoro fiasco tecnico e commerciale (meno di 6.500 esemplari prodotti). Inoltre avendo mantenuto lo stesso telaio del benzina le vibrazioni tipiche del diesel ne causavano cedimenti strutturali. Per molti anni questa vettura è stata in dotazione a Polizia e Carabinieri (nonché auto preferita dai malviventi per le loro fughe) in forza della sua velocità, agilità e tenuta di strada. Proprio queste sue caratteristiche l'hanno fatta diventare una “icona” del cinema poliziesco degli anni settanta. La targa MI A00000, la prima con una lettera in Italia, venne assegnata ad una Giulia TI di colore nero. Ne possedette un esemplare il cantante Lucio Battisti. Una Giulia Super (1971-75) è presente nei film del 1982 Bonnie e Clyde all'italiana, dove viene usata come auto dei banditi insieme a una Fiat Argenta, e in “Vai avanti tu che mi vien da ridere”. Viene citata da Antonello Venditti nella sua canzone “Robin” e da Caterina Caselli nella canzone “Viale Kennedy” (Viale Kennedy, l'amore non c’è più in questa Giulia blu). Fu la prima delle molte Alfa Romeo usate dal detective privato Josef Matula, protagonista della serie tedesca Un caso per due.
Used a Vivitar FD 24mm f/2.8 and a Soligor 21mm f/3.8 lenses for the star photos and a Minolta Rokkor 200mm tele for the moon shot.
Got a lot of stars, considering how light polluted the skies of the DC area are, however, I'm not super-happy with these pics.
There seems to be a lot of distortion no matter what combination of settings I use. Could simply be a matter of using cheap lenses.
Ah well, I'm still learning, and any advice would be gratefully appreciated.
Using the wind or falling water has been used in industry for many years.
The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel is probably the Perachora wheel (3rd c. BC), in Greece. The earliest written reference is in the technical treatises Pneumatica and Parasceuastica of the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium. Wikipedia.
This water mill uses the water flowing from the moat running around two sides of Dunham Massey Hall.
The wheel here is an overshot wheel. The overshot wheel was a later innovation in waterwheels and was around two and a half times more efficient than the undershot.
Used my new TTL flash with diffuser and I totally love how it looks like she is emerging from the black background on the right side.
I know she is dressed as a Sakizou drawing but does anyone know which one as there are a gazillion of them out there. Or if you happen to know the cosplayer, can someone forward this picture to her? Thanks.
UPDATE: Nicole W left me a comment on 7.25.19 to ID herself as the cosplayer and who/what her cosplay is. She is "Miss Adversary" and yes, it is a Sakizou-inspired costume but she was not sure which book it came from.
A free download, a diecut with the Friends dictionary definition and a butterfly for this card.
Simple CAS:
Segedunum was a Roman fort at modern-day Wallsend, North Tyneside in North East England. The fort lay at the eastern end of Hadrian's Wall near the banks of the River Tyne. It was in use for approximately 300 years from around 122 AD to almost 400. Today Segedunum is the most thoroughly excavated fort along Hadrian's Wall, and is operated as Segedunum Roman Fort, Baths and Museum. It forms part of the Hadrian's Wall UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Etymology
Five places named Segedunum are known to have existed in the Roman empire, one each in Britain and Germany and three in Gaul.
The name Segedunum is known from the Notitia Dignitatum of the 4th century, but there is no consensus on its meaning. The various conjectures include "derived from the Celtic for 'powerful' or 'victorious'", "derived from the [Celtic] words sego ('strength') and dunum ('fortified place')", "Romano-British Segedunum 'Strong-fort'", and "Celtic sechdun or 'dry hill'".
The first element of the name is attested widely in Gaul, Spain, Germany and Italy, and derives from the Indo-European root segh-, which is reflected in various later European languages with similar meanings: Irish seg-, segh- 'strength, vigour', Welsh hy 'daring, bold', German Sieg 'victory', and so on. As applied to place names, it appears to have had the meaning of "place of strength" or "place of victory". The second element, -dunum, is a Celtic term widely attested across Britain and Gaul and typically meant a fort. Thus Segedunum probably had the meaning of "strong fort" or "victory fort".
History
The Roman wall originally terminated at the fort of Pons Aelius (Newcastle upon Tyne) begun in 122 AD. Subsequently, in about 127 AD, the wall was extended further east by 4 mi (6 km), possibly to protect the river crossing at Pons Aelius, passing through present-day Byker to the new fort of Segedunum. The new section of wall was narrower than those previously built, being 7 feet 6 inches (2.29 m) wide on a foundation of 8 feet (2.4 m). Unlike the rest of the wall, the extension had no Vallum ditch and embankment on the south side. It was apparently not needed here because its role was performed by the River Tyne.
The fort of Segedunum measured 453 feet (138 m) from north to south and 393 feet (120 m) from east to west, covering an area of 4.1 acres (17,000 m2). A wide ditch and an earth embankment surrounded the fort on all sides. It had four double gates with the east, west and north gates opening outside the wall and only the south gate opening within the wall. The wall joined to the west wall of the fort just south of the west gate. From the southeast angle of the fort, a 6 feet 6 inches (2 m) wide wall ran down to the riverbank and extended at least as far as the low water level.
There is evidence that there was an extensive vicus, or village surrounding the fort, including the area to the north of the wall.
Garrison
The original garrison of Segedunum is unknown, but in the 2nd century Cohors II Nerviorum was stationed there. In the 3rd and 4th centuries the part-mounted Fourth Cohort of the Lingones occupied the fort, as recorded in the Notitia Dignitatum. Both units were 600 strong, consisting of 120 cavalry and 480 infantry.
Subsequent history
Sometime round about 400 AD the fort was abandoned. For centuries the area remained as open farmland, but in the 18th century, collieries were sunk near the fort and the area gradually became a populous pit village. Eventually, in 1884, the whole fort disappeared under terraced housing.
In 1929 some excavations were carried out which recorded the outline of the fort. The local authority marked out this outline in white paving stones. In the 1970s the terraced houses covering the site were demolished.
A section of Hadrian's Wall was excavated and a reconstruction built in the early 1990s. The Segedunum project began in January 1997 with a series of excavations in and around the Fort, as well as the construction of the bath house and the conversion of former Swan Hunter shipyard buildings to house the new museum. Segedunum Roman Fort, Baths & Museum opened to the public in June 2000.
Today
The site of the fort now contains the excavated remains of the buildings' foundation of the original fort, as well as a reconstructed Roman military bathhouse based on excavated examples at Vindolanda and Chesters forts. A museum contains items of interest that were found when the site was excavated, and a large observation tower overlooks the site. A portion of the original wall is visible across the street from the museum, and a reconstruction of what the whole wall might have looked like. The central section of Hadrian's Wall was erected atop the Whin Sill, a geological formation that offers a natural topographic defence against invaders or immigrants from the north. However at the eastern end of the wall, the main topographic defence was the River Tyne itself, and the very final stretch of the wall ran down from Segedunum fort to the river's edge. There may have been a statue or monument to mark the very end of the wall, but if there ever was, it no longer exists.
North Tyneside Council provided accommodation in the newly built Battle Hill Estate for the owners of all the houses demolished when the site was cleared. The name Wallsend comes from Segedunum being at the easternmost end of Hadrian's Wall; the westernmost end is at Bowness-on-Solway.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
Using my new fisheye lens, the northern lights came out to play :) The bright star is actually the moon.
WHY USE BOTANICAL ELEMENTS: ENERGY BLEND?
Do you need a pick-me-up or a jolt of energy? Find relief with this botanical, aromatherapy treatment that is natural and safe to use. Open the jar and unleash the energizing power that these select Essential Oils provide for your air passages.
Fill the provided tea ball with Botanical Elements: Energy Blend in warm bath water-to help energize your mind, body & soul. This Essential Oil blend was made for anyone who is tired or dragging through the day. Put some spring back into your step-boost your energy, naturally!
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?
Energy blend is just the solution for what your mind & body needs. Energy Essential Oil blend is a combination of Sweet Orange, Ginger & Zest. You can use this system with the provided tea ball in the bath tub. You can take the lid off and keep the jar by your bed, at work or in the car.
Arrives in a beautiful 12 ounce glass jar with chrome lid and silver bow front. Comes with a silver tea ball. Tea ball holds approx 2 tbs of tea blend. 12 ounce jar makes 10-12 baths.
INGREDIENTS:ROSE FLOWER, CHAMOMILE FLOWER (ANTHEMIS NOBILIS), LAVENDER FLOWER (LAVANDULA ANGUSTIFOLIA), SPEARMINT LEAF (MENTHA VIRDIS), ROSEMARY LEAF (ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS), JUNIPER (JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS), ESSENTIAL OILS OF: SWEET ORANGE (CITRUS SINENSIS), GINGER (ZINGIBER OFFICINATE).
NO COLORS OR FRAGRANCES ADDED
VEGAN
PHTHALATE FREE
Used in the construction of the foundations of the west pier. Thanks to Keith Ross for the id. (I had it down as a mediaeval punishment for gossips - two little seats inside!)
Using 39 of the 66 antennas of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), located 5000 metres up on the Chajnantor plateau in the Chilean Andes, astronomers have been able to detect carbon monoxide (CO) in the disc of debris around an F-type star. Although carbon monoxide is the second most common molecule in the interstellar medium, after molecular hydrogen, this is the first time that CO has been detected around a star of this type. The star, named HD 181327, is a member of the Beta Pictoris moving group, located almost 170 light-years from Earth.
More information: www.eso.org/public/images/potw1621a/
Credit:
ESO/Marino et al.
Used our babyphoto's, put them in a frame from CoffeeShop Rita ,
www.thecoffeeshopblog.com/p/coffeeshop-storyboards-and-fr...
the frame comes with a vintage texture giving the photo's an old look. Then i used my Cabinetcard as a background and added the quote and finally I added my own old paper texture 2.
Honey you still make me so happy and i still love you deeply !!! and you do give me strength !!!
Created for 20th MMM Challenge
EXPLORE Worthy, Mini Challenge #8 - BE MY VALENTINE (Art from 2013)
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission.
© All rights reserved
this book uses the traditional japanese embroidery technique of sashiko to embellish a variety of sewing projects. traditional sashiko uses the repition of many tiny stiches to create an overall pattern.
the projects in this book use the same embroidery process to create large and small images, repeating patterns, geometric shapes, and other cute designs. projects include: bags, furoshiki (wrapping cloth), pouches, book covers, pot holders, tea cozies and coasters, placemats and aprons, napkins, cushion covers, curtains and tablecloths, hanging decorations/ornaments, vase covers, and ideas for embroidery on clothes.
all the written directions are in japanese, but there are clear photos of basic stitches, and patterns and diagrams for all the projects. the projects have a bit of a range from simple to intermediate difficulty, although with some sewing experience, you should be able to recreate all the projects in this book. for even a complete beginner, you can use all the embroidery ideas and make the simpler projects. the patterns for the sewing projects are included (they overlap, so you need to photocopy them and then cut out the ones you are using), as are the embroidery patterns.
71 pages.
Using craft glue and sewing pins, I carefully attached the walls to the floor. You will need to brace the walls with a box or something sturdy that will hold them in place until the pins are in and the glue is dry.
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
The dOCUMENTA (13) was the thirteenth edition of the quinquennial contemporary art exhibition documenta. It took place between 9 June until 16 September 2012 in Kassel. The exhibition was held under the theme Collapse and Recovery. Exhibits could be seen in several venues in the city, among others in the Fridericianum museum,[1] in the Orangerie and in the Karlsaue, a large urban park.[2]
Its artistic director was the curator Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev[3] who was chief curator of the Castello di Rivoli - Museo d'Arte Contemporanea in Turin and, in 2008, also head of the Biennale of Sydney.
Participants
The Museum Fridericianum during the exhibition
A Lida Abdul, Bani Abidi, Etel Adnan, Korbinian Aigner, Vyacheslav Akhunov, Barmak Akram, Khadim Ali, Jennifer Allora & Guillermo Calzadilla, Maria Thereza Alves, Francis Alÿs, Ayreen Anastas, AND AND AND, Ida Applebroog, Mohammad Yusuf Asefi, Doug Ashford, Tarek Atoui, Kader Attia
B Alexandra Bachzetsis, Nanni Balestrini, Amy Balkin, Judith Barry, Gianfranco Baruchello, Ahmed Basiony, Thomas Bayrle, Jérôme Bel, Gordon Bennett, Rossella Biscotti, Manon de Boer, Alighiero Boetti, Anna Boghiguian, Carol Bove, Kristina Buch, Andrea Büttner, Gerard Byrne
C CAMP (founded 2007 from Shaina Anand, Sanjay Bhangar and Ashok Sukumaran), Janet Cardiff and George Bures Miller, Emily Carr, Mariana Castillo Deball, Paul Chan, Kudzanai Chiurai, Constant, Daniel Gustav Cramer, Critical Art Ensemble, Abraham Cruzvillegas, István Csákány, Attila Csörgő, Antoni Cumella
D Salvador Dalí, Marie Darrieussecq, Tacita Dean, Mark Dion, Thea Djordjadze, Willie Doherty, Trisha Donnelly, Sam Durant, Jimmie Durham
E Haris Epaminonda, Cevdet Erek
F Guillermo Faivovich & Nicolás Goldberg, Matias Faldbakken, Geoffrey Farmer, Omer Fast, Lara Favaretto, Ceal Floyer, Llyn Foulkes, Abul Qasem Foushanji, Chiara Fumai
G Rene Gabri, Ryan Gander, Dora García, Mario Garcia Torres, Theaster Gates, Jeanno Gaussi, Mariam Ghani, Simryn Gill, Édouard Glissant, Julio González, Tue Greenfort
H Zainab Haidary, Fiona Margaret Hall, Tamara Henderson, Susan Hiller, Horst Hoheisel, Judith Hopf, Khaled Hourani mit Amjad Ghannam and Rashid Masharawi, Pierre Huyghe
I Sanja Iveković
J Toril Johannessen, Joan Jonas, Brian Jungen and Duane Linklater
K Rudolf Kaesbach, Robin Kahn & National Union of Sahrawi Women, Masood Kamandy, Amar Kanwar, William Kentridge, Hassan Khan, Erkki Kurenniemi
L Horacio Larraín Barros, Dinh Q. Lê (in collaboration with Vũ Giáng Hương, Quang Tho, Huynh Phuong Dong, Nguyen Thu, Truong Hieu, Phan Oanh, Nguyen Toan Thi, Duong Anh, Minh Phuong, Kim Tien, Quach Phong, Nguyen Thanh Chau), Gabriel Lester, David Link, Maria Loboda, Mark Lombardi, Aníbal López, Renata Lucas, Marcos Lutyens und Raimundas Malašauskas, featuring Sissel Tolaas
M Goshka Macuga, Anna Maria Maiolino, Catherine Malabou, Nalini Malani, Man Ray, Maria Martins, Francesco Matarrese, Fabio Mauri, Julie Mehretu, John Menick, Christoph Menke, Gustav Metzger, Lee Miller, Aman Mojadidi, Moon Kyungwon & Jeon Joonho, Gareth Moore, Giorgio Morandi, Rabih Mroué, Zanele Muholi, Christian Philipp Müller
N Arne Nordheim, M. A. Numminen
O Objects damaged during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), Shinro Ohtake, Rahraw Omarzad, Roman Ondák, Füsun Onur, The Otolith Group
P Christodoulos Panayiotou, Giuseppe Penone, Claire Pentecost, Hetti Perkins, Susan Philipsz, Pratchaya Phinthong, Sopheap Pich, Lea Porsager, Michael Portnoy, Margaret Preston, Seth Price, Ana Prvacki
R Walid Raad, Michael Rakowitz, Araya Rasdjarmrearnsook, Doreen Reid Nakamarra, Pedro Reyes, Gunnar Richter, Stuart Ringholt, Ruth Robbins und Red Vaughan Tremmel, Juana Marta Rodas und Julia Isídrez, Paul Ryan, Hannah Ryggen
S Natascha Sadr Haghighian, Anri Sala, Charlotte Salomon, Issa Samb, Ines Schaber, Tino Sehgal, Ashkan Sepahvand, Albert Serra, Tejal Shah, Wael Shawky, Zolaykha Sherzad, Nedko Solakow, Song Dong, Tamás St. Turba, Alexandra Sukhareva, Imre Szeman
T Mika Taanila, Mohsen Taasha, Alexander Tarakhovsky, Javier Téllez, Aase Texmon Rygh, Warwick Thornton, Time/Bank (e-flux: Julieta Aranda & Anton Vidokle), Warlimpirrnga Tjapaltjarri, Rosemarie Trockel
V Rattana Vandy, Vann Nath, Adrián Villar Rojas, Jeronimo Voss
W Jessica Warboys, Lori Waxman, Clemens von Wedemeyer, Apichatpong Weerasethakul in collaboration with Chaisiri Jiwarangsan, Lawrence Weiner
Y Yan Lei, Haegue Yang
Z Akram Zaatri, Zalmaiï, Anton Zeilinger, Konrad Zuse[4][5][6]
Die dOCUMENTA (13) war die dreizehnte Ausgabe der documenta, einer der weltweit bedeutendsten Ausstellungen für zeitgenössische Kunst. Sie fand vom 9. Juni bis zum 16. September 2012 in Kassel unter der künstlerischen Leitung von Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev statt und hatte 904.992 BesucherInnen.[1] Die Ausstellung stand unter dem Leitmotiv Collapse and Recovery (englisch für Zusammenbruch und Wiederaufbau).[2] Satelliten der Ausstellung befanden sich in Afghanistan mit Kabul und Bamiyan (9. Juni bis 16. September 2012), in Ägypten mit Alexandria und Kairo (1. Juni bis 8. Juli 2012) und dem kanadischen Banff (2. August bis 15. August 2012).
Die Documentaleitung veröffentlichte die Namen von über 300 Teilnehmern. Davon trugen 187 Künstler und Künstlergruppen mit allen Formen künstlerischer Äußerungen, wie Bilder, Druckgrafiken, Skulpturen, Performances, Installationen, Filmen und Environments, zu der Ausstellung bei. Weitere 108 Teilnehmer waren durch Vorträge, Seminare, Kongresse, Dichterlesungen oder Schriften in der Documenta-Reihe 100 Notizen – 100 Gedanken beteiligt.
Museum Fridericianum mit dOCUMENTA (13)-Beflaggung
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Leitungsteam
2 Findungskommission
3 Schreibweise als Logo
4 Leitmotiv
5 Eröffnung
6 Teilnehmende Künstler
7 Ausstellungsorte
8 Streit im Vorfeld
9 Filme
10 Publikationen
11 Literatur
12 Weblinks
13 Einzelnachweise
Leitungsteam
Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev (2010)
Als künstlerische Leiterin wurde die US-amerikanische Kuratorin Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev ausgewählt, sie war Chefkuratorin des Castello di Rivoli – Museo di Arte Contemporanea in Turin und war 2008 auch Leiterin der Biennale of Sydney.
Projektleiterin ist die Kunsthistorikerin Christine Litz. Ihr obliegt es, die Konzepte der Leiterin Carolyn Christov-Barkagiev und ihrer Kuratoren umzusetzen.[3] Ab Juni 2012 wurde Litz als Direktorin an das Museum für Neue Kunst (Freiburg im Breisgau) berufen[4] und Jenny Dirksen und Christoph Platz übernahmen die Leitung der Abteilung sowie die Abwicklung der Ausstellung.[5] Die kuratorische Abteilung übernahm die spanische Kunsthistorikerin Chus Martínez. Sie ist gleichzeitig Mitherausgeberin der Schriftenreihe 100 Notizen – 100 Gedanken. Bevor sie 2009 Kuratorin am Museu d’Art Contemporani de Barcelona wurde, war sie Leiterin des Frankfurter Kunstvereins.
Als Leiterin der Publikationsabteilung wurde die in New York lebende deutsche Autorin und Publizistin Bettina Funcke benannt.[6] Sie ist gleichzeitig Mitherausgeberin der Schriftenreihe 100 Notizen – 100 Gedanken. Sie war bis 2007 Redakteurin bei der Dia Art Foundation (heute Dia Center for the Arts) und von 2007 bis 2010 leitende Redakteurin bei der New Yorker Ausgabe der Kunstzeitschrift Parkett. Sie ist Mitbegründerin von The Leopard Press und dem Continuous Project Kollektiv. Mit der Publikation der Schriften wurde der Hatje Cantz Verlag beauftragt.
Die Kommunikationsabteilung wurde bis September 2011 von Kathrin Lutz geleitet.[7] Im Oktober 2011 lösten sie Terry Harding und Henriette Gallus ab.[8]
Für die organisatorische Abwicklung ist – seit 1996 – der Geschäftsführer der documenta und Museum Fridericianum Veranstaltungs-GmbH Bernd Leifeld verantwortlich.
Die Ausstellung wurde am 9. Juni 2012 durch Bundespräsident Joachim Gauck eröffnet.[9]
Findungskommission
Am 3. Dezember 2008 wurde der Auswahlprozess für die künstlerische Leitung der kommenden documenta abgeschlossen. Der Vorschlag der neunköpfigen Findungskommission wurde vom Aufsichtsrat der documenta einstimmig bestätigt. Die Findungskommission der documenta 13 bestand aus:
Iossif Markowitsch Bakschtein – Direktor des Instituts für Probleme der modernen Kunst Moskau
Manuel J. Borja-Villel – Direktor Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia Madrid
Kathy Halbreich – Stellvertretende Direktorin Museum of Modern Art New York
Paulo Herkenhoff – Freier Kurator und bis 2006 Direktor des Museu Nacional de Belas Artes in Rio de Janeiro
Oscar Ho – Direktor MA Programme in Cultural Management, Chinesische Universität Hongkong
Udo Kittelmann – Direktor Museum für Moderne Kunst Frankfurt/Main
Kasper König – Direktor Museum Ludwig, Köln
Elizabeth Ann Macgregor – Direktorin Museum of Contemporary Art Sydney
Rein Wolfs – Künstlerischer Leiter der Kunsthalle Fridericianum Kassel
Schreibweise als Logo
Hinweisschilder vor dem Fridericianum
101 013–1 der Deutschen Bahn AG mit Werbeaufschrift im Hauptbahnhof Mannheim am 14. März 2012
Im April 2010 wurde die „visuelle Identität“ der 13. documenta vorgestellt. Sie wurde von der Mailänder Grafikdesign-Agentur Leftloft entwickelt. Diese documenta verzichtet auf ein traditionelles Logo. Stattdessen wird die Schreibweise des Wortes als Symbol genutzt. Der Name wird am Anfang mit einem kleinen d geschrieben, die folgenden Buchstaben sind Großbuchstaben, gefolgt von der in Klammern gesetzten 13. Eine einheitliche Schriftart gab es nicht, diese variierte je nach Anwendung.
Die Grafikdesigner schrieben zu ihrem Entwurf:
„Diese visuelle Regel soll besagen, dass die Lehren dieser documenta (das lateinische ‘documentum’, von dem das Pluralwort ‘documenta’ stammt, bedeutet ‘Lehre’ und gelegentlich bezeichnet es auch eine ‘Ermahnung’) nicht pedantisch sein werden. Wir setzen vielmehr eine lebendige, pluralistische, ideenreiche und stetig zunehmende Entwicklung in Gang. Viele, auch die Öffentlichkeit, werden in den kommenden Jahren in diesen Prozess involviert werden. Der Höhepunkt, im Jahr 2012, stellt nur einen Moment einer viel längeren Reise dar, durch die Klammern um die dreizehn wird das deutlich.“
Die künstlerische Leiterin, Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev, verwies auf die Tradition der Kleinschreibung der documenta seit ihrem Beginn in den 1950er Jahren und bemerkte:
„Während dies in ihren Anfängen eine radikale demokratische Geste und eine Entscheidung des Designs war, ist heute die Nicht-Großschreibung von Wörtern ein Beispiel für eine von vielen unbeabsichtigten Gesten der digitalen Welt, die Nachrichten über Netzwerke und rund um den Globus schickt. Die normalen Schreibregeln umzudrehen, indem man das restliche Wort in Großbuchstaben schreibt, erfordert aktives Engagement, Aufmerksamkeit und einen gewissen Mehraufwand an der Tastatur.“[10]
Leitmotiv
Das Leitmotiv der dOCUMENTA (13) lautet Zusammenbruch und Wiederaufbau (engl. Collapse and Recovery). Es wurde rund ein Jahr vor Beginn der Ausstellungseröffnung offiziell vorgestellt. Es bezieht sich zum einen auf die Geschichte der Stadt Kassel in den letzten 60 Jahren, in denen nach der Vernichtung durch die Bombardierung im Zweiten Weltkrieg der – bis heute nicht abgeschlossene – Wiederaufbau erfolgte. Mehrere Arbeiten, wie das Projekt trail von Natascha Sadr Haghighian, nehmen ganz unmittelbar auf das Leitmotiv Bezug. Die Künstlerin stellt eine Leiter an die Begrenzungsmauer der Straße Schöne Aussicht, über die die Besucher einen steilen Abhang erreichen, der 1955 aus Kriegstrümmern der Henschel-Werke aufgeschüttet wurde. Über ihn führt ein schmaler, unbefestigter und nicht ungefährlicher Pfad zum Talgrund der Karlsaue.[11] Zum anderen, virulent, ist das Leitmotiv für den Ausstellungsort Kabul, das dort um die Bedingungen Belagerungszustand, Hoffnung, Rückzug und Bühne erweitert wurde.[12]
Eröffnung
Am 21. Juni 2010, zwei Jahre vor Eröffnung der dOCUMENTA (13), wurde – entgegen der üblichen Gepflogenheiten – bereits die erste Arbeit öffentlich eingeweiht. Die Skulptur Idee di Pietra („Ansichten eines Steins“) von Giuseppe Penone, ein Vertreter der Arte Povera und mehrfacher documenta-Teilnehmer, wurde am Rande der Karlsaue aufgestellt. Die Arbeit war bereits auf der 16. Biennale of Sydney, die Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev 2008 kuratiert hatte, präsentiert worden. Es handelt sich um eine fast neun Meter hohe Bronzeskulptur in der Form eines Baumes, in deren oberem Teil ein großer Stein ruht. Neben der Skulptur wächst ein kleiner, echter, junger Baum. Penone war selbst anwesend und stellte seine Arbeit vor:
„[…] Wenn die Bedeutung des Malens das Bedecken ist und die Bedeutung der Skulptur das Entdecken, dann wird die Malerei durch die Schwerkraft charakterisiert und die Skulptur durch die Kraft, die der der Schwerkraft entflieht, die Kraft des Lichts. Das Werk, das ich hier zeige, hat mit beiden Konzepten zu tun. Der Stein ist ein Mineral und die stabilsten Farben gewinnt man aus Steinen. Der Stein verweist auf die Schwerkraft. Das Pflanzliche entzieht sich der Schwerkraft, es wächst in die Höhe, als direkte Folge des Sonnenlichts. Die Struktur der pflanzlichen Welt wird durch das Licht bestimmt, das das Gewicht der Zweige und Blätter anzieht. Bronzeguss braucht die Schwerkraft und nutzt die Struktur der pflanzlichen Welt, um die flüssige Bronze in der Gussform zu verteilen. […]“
Bewusst war der Tag der Sommersonnenwende als Datum für die Veranstaltung gewählt worden. Die Verantwortlichen betrachteten die Aktion als einen Beitrag zur Geschichte der Außenskulptur im Rahmen der documenta-Ausstellungen und sahen in ihr insbesondere auch eine Einstimmung auf die in zwei Jahren stattfindende offizielle Eröffnung.[13]
Am 9. Juni 2012 eröffnete der damalige Bundespräsident Joachim Gauck die Kunstausstellung.
Teilnehmende Künstler
Giuseppe Penones Idee di Pietra
A Lida Abdul, Bani Abidi, Etel Adnan, Korbinian Aigner, Vyacheslav Akhunov, Barmak Akram, Khadim Ali, Jennifer Allora & Guillermo Calzadilla, Maria Thereza Alves, Francis Alÿs, Ayreen Anastas, AND AND AND, Ida Applebroog, Mohammad Yusuf Asefi, Doug Ashford, Tarek Atoui, Kader Attia
B Alexandra Bachzetsis, Nanni Balestrini, Amy Balkin, Judith Barry, Gianfranco Baruchello, Ahmed Basiony, Thomas Bayrle, Jérôme Bel, Gordon Bennett, Rossella Biscotti, Manon de Boer, Alighiero Boetti, Anna Boghiguian, Carol Bove, Kristina Buch, Andrea Büttner, Gerard Byrne
C CAMP (gegründet 2007 von Shaina Anand, Sanjay Bhangar und Ashok Sukumaran), Janet Cardiff und George Bures Miller, Emily Carr, Mariana Castillo Deball, Paul Chan, Kudzanai Chiurai, Constant, Daniel Gustav Cramer, Critical Art Ensemble, Abraham Cruzvillegas, István Csákány, Attila Csörgő, Antoni Cumella
D Salvador Dalí, Marie Darrieussecq, Tacita Dean, Mark Dion, Thea Djordjadze, Willie Doherty, Trisha Donnelly, Sam Durant, Jimmie Durham
E Haris Epaminonda, Cevdet Erek
F Guillermo Faivovich & Nicolás Goldberg, Matias Faldbakken, Geoffrey Farmer, Omer Fast, Lara Favaretto, Ceal Floyer, Llyn Foulkes, Abul Qasem Foushanji, Chiara Fumai
G Rene Gabri, Ryan Gander, Dora García, Mario Garcia Torres, Theaster Gates, Jeanno Gaussi, Mariam Ghani, Simryn Gill, Édouard Glissant, Julio González, Tue Greenfort
H Zainab Haidary, Fiona Hall, Tamara Henderson, Susan Hiller, Horst Hoheisel, Judith Hopf, Khaled Hourani mit Amjad Ghannam und Rashid Masharawi, Pierre Huyghe
I Sanja Iveković
J Toril Johannessen, Joan Jonas, Brian Jungen und Duane Linklater
K Rudolf Kaesbach, Robin Kahn & La Cooperativa Unidad Nacional Mujeres Saharauis (The National Union of Women from Western Sahara), Masood Kamandy, Amar Kanwar, William Kentridge, Hassan Khan, Erkki Kurenniemi
L Horacio Larraín Barros, Dinh Q. Lê (in Zusammenarbeit mit Vũ Giáng Hương, Quang Tho, Huynh Phuong Dong, Nguyen Thu, Truong Hieu, Phan Oanh, Nguyen Toan Thi, Duong Anh, Minh Phuong, Kim Tien, Quach Phong, Nguyen Thanh Chau), Gabriel Lester, David Link, Maria Loboda, Mark Lombardi, Aníbal López, Renata Lucas, Marcos Lutyens und Raimundas Malašauskas, featuring Sissel Tolaas
M Goshka Macuga, Anna Maria Maiolino, Catherine Malabou, Nalini Malani, Man Ray, Maria Martins, Francesco Matarrese, Fabio Mauri, Julie Mehretu, John Menick, Christoph Menke, Gustav Metzger, Lee Miller, Aman Mojadidi, Moon Kyungwon & Jeon Joonho, Gareth Moore, Giorgio Morandi, Rabih Mroué, Zanele Muholi, Christian Philipp Müller
N Arne Nordheim, M. A. Numminen
O Objects damaged during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), Shinro Ohtake, Rahraw Omarzad, Roman Ondák, Füsun Onur, The Otolith Group
P Christodoulos Panayiotou, Giuseppe Penone, Claire Pentecost, Hetti Perkins, Susan Philipsz, Pratchaya Phinthong, Sopheap Pich, Lea Porsager, Michael Portnoy, Margaret Preston, Seth Price, Ana Prvacki
R Walid Raad, Michael Rakowitz, Araya Rasdjarmrearnsook, Doreen Reid Nakamarra, Pedro Reyes, Gunnar Richter, Stuart Ringholt, Ruth Robbins und Red Vaughan Tremmel, Juana Marta Rodas und Julia Isídrez, Paul Ryan, Hannah Ryggen
S Natascha Sadr Haghighian, Anri Sala, Charlotte Salomon, Issa Samb, Ines Schaber, Tino Sehgal, Ashkan Sepahvand, Albert Serra, Tejal Shah, Wael Shawky, Zolaykha Sherzad, Nedko Solakow, Song Dong, Tamás St. Turba, Alexandra Sukhareva, Imre Szeman
T Mika Taanila, Mohsen Taasha, Alexander Tarakhovsky, Javier Téllez, Aase Texmon Rygh, Warwick Thornton, Time/Bank (e-flux: Julieta Aranda & Anton Vidokle), Warlimpirrnga Tjapaltjarri, Rosemarie Trockel
V Rattana Vandy, Vann Nath, Adrián Villar Rojas, Jeronimo Voss
W Jessica Warboys, Lori Waxman, Clemens von Wedemeyer, Apichatpong Weerasethakul in Zusammenarbeit mit Chaisiri Jiwarangsan, Lawrence Weiner
Y Yan Lei, Haegue Yang
Z Akram Zaatri, Zalmaiï, Anton Zeilinger, Konrad Zuse
Ausstellungsorte
Die dOCUMENTA (13) umfasst neben Ausstellungsorten im gesamten Stadtraum von Kassel und in der Umgebung, auch Orte außerhalb Europas. In Kassel sind Kunstwerke an so zahlreichen unterschiedlichen Plätzen zu sehen, wie bei keiner anderen Documenta zuvor. Neben öffentlichen Gebäuden wie der Handwerkskammer, der Zentralbibliothek und dem Ständehaus, wurden auch private Kinos, Kaufhäuser und Hotels einbezogen. Die meisten Künstlerpräsentationen konzentrieren sich um den Friedrichsplatz, den Kulturbahnhof (Hauptbahnhof) und in der Karlsaue.[14]
Ausstellungsorte in Kassel und Umgebung:
Das Museum Fridericianum ist mit Werken von 32 Künstlern wieder Mittelpunkt der Documenta. Zusätzlich werden in der Rotunde 28 plastische Arbeiten oder artifizielle Objekte gezeigt, unter anderem von Judith Hopf, Man Ray und Lawrence Weiner.
Die documenta-Halle wird, neben frühen Zeichnungen von Gustav Metzger, die verdeckt in Schaukästen in der Vorhalle präsentiert werden, vor allem durch Arbeiten von Thomas Bayrle geprägt. Zwischen einem 8 Meter × 25 Meter messenden Papprelief Carmageddon auf der linken Wand und dem 8 Meter × 13,4 Meter messenden Flugzeug von 1982 bis 1983 stellte der Künstler aufgeschnittene Automotoren auf. Der Lärm der sieben Motoren wird aus Lautsprechern von eintönigen, sich immer wiederholenden Gebeten begleitet, die Bayrle in Frankfurter Kirchen aufgenommen und rhythmisiert hat. Es ist die größe Einzelpräsentation die bisher in der documenta-Halle zu sehen war.[15]
Ottoneum
Karlsaue
In der Neuen Galerie werden 18 künstlerische Positionen ausgestellt. Die Künstlerin Andrea Büttner zeigt in ihrem vorderen Raum neben zwei monochromen Farbflächen drei archaische, großformatige Holzschnitte, im zweiten Raum zeigt sie unter anderem ein Video, das sich auf eine umfangreiche Recherche zu den Arbeiten des Ordens Kleine Schwestern Jesu im Vergnügungspark von Ostia bei Rom bezieht und bei der zwei Ordensangehörige über ihre Arbeit berichten.[16]
Kassel Hauptbahnhof
Das Gloria-Kino ist – wie auch bei der Documenta 12 – Vorführungsort des Filmprogramms. Tagsüber wird eine Diainstallation von Trisha Donnelly gezeigt.
Ehemaliges Elisabeth Krankenhaus (Oberste Gasse 4)
Nie realisierte Moschee (Untere Karlsstr. 14)
Im lichtlosen Bode-Saal des Grand City-Hotels Hessenland zeigt Tino Sehgal eine viel beachtete Performance. Die eintretenden Besucher werden von 12 Akteuren, einzeln oder in kleinen Gruppen, umgeben, die sie hör- und fühlbar singend, summend, kriechend, schnalzend in einem choreografisch festgelegten Grundrhythmus umtanzen und dabei versuchen, die Eingetretenen in das Geschehen einzubeziehen.[17]
ehemaliges Kino Kaskade[18]
Verschiedene Orte in der Kasseler Innenstadt
Gedenkstätte Kloster Breitenau in Guxhagen
Alot of people have been asking me what paint I have been using throughout the project. I don't feel like I've been using anything particularly special, but with some research, these are what I chose. Some of these have individual labels on them with green tape. That's because many of them look almost the same, and I don't want to spend my time reading the fine print every time I use one.
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1. Dupli-Color Acrylic Enamel Black (also pictured Krylon "Can-Gun")
2. Dupli-Color Acrylic Enamel Clear Coat
3. Dupli-Color Ceramic High Heat Engine Enamel (500°).
4. Dupli-Color Self-Etching Primer (Green)
5. Dupli-Color Ceramic High Heat Engine Primer (500°).
6. Tal-Strip Paint Remover (extra strength). Any aircraft stripper is great too.
7. Dupli-Color Prep Spray (a must for effectively removing dirt, grease, and wax)
8. Ace Epoxy Appliance Paint (black). I used this in leu of re-powder coating my center stand. It's a tough, chemical resistant epoxy paint.
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There are also a few cleaning supplies that help with the prep process. Such as the 3M Automotive Masking Tape, Scotch-Brite™ General Purpose Hand Pad 7447 (MUST HAVE), misc grades of sandpaper ranging from 180-1200, and you can't have enough brass wire brushes. Soft enough to use on aluminum, but strong enough to get the job done.
St Paul's and London Skyline from Members Room at Tate Modern.
This image is a 12 frame panoramic stitch using the new Panorama Photo Merge feature in Lightroom CC and includes the following notable architecture:
The Leadenhall Building 122 Leadenhall Street. 225 m (737 ft) tall The commercial skyscraper opened in July 2014 is designed by Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners and informally known as "The Cheesegrater",
20 Fenchurch Street nicknamed The Walkie-Talkie completed in spring 2014 and top-floor 'sky garden' was opened in January 2015 The 34-storey building is 160 m (525 ft) tall making it the fifth-tallest building in the City of London,
Mondial House 1975 designed by Hubbard Ford & Partners,
Monument 1671-7 designed by Sir Christopher Wren & Dr Robert Hooke Commemorates the Great Fire of London in 1666 The height of the column (62m) is the same as the distance to Pudding Lane where the Fire began,
Cannon St Station 1865-6 designed by John Hawkshaw Remodelled in the 1960s the two towers are all that remain of the existing structure,
20 Fenchurch Street 1963-8 designed by CLRP architects,
Lloyd's Building 1978-86 designed by Richard Rogers Partnership Headquarters of Lloyd's of London insurance brokers,
Swiss Re Headquarters 1997-2004 designed by Foster & Partners,
Barclays Bank 1990-93 designed by GMW Partnership,
Vintners' Hall Rebuilt in the 1670's after the Great Fire of London,
Tower 42 1971-80 designed by Richard Seifert & Partners Formerly known as the Nat West Tower it is 42 storeys high rising to a height of 183m,
Globe View Refurbished 1997-2000 designed by Halpern and built by Barratt Residential development,
St Mary Aldermary 1672-82 designed by John Oliver tower added 1701-4 designed by William Dickenson,
St Mary-le-Bow 1670-83 designed by Sir Christopher Wren An authentic cockney is said to be born within the sound of Bow Bells,
City Point Refurbished 1997-2000 designed by Sheppard Robson international,
St Nicholas Cole Abbey 1671-7 designed by Sir Christopher Wren Replaced original building dating back to 1144 Restored from World War II damage in 1961 by Arthur Bailey,
Alban Gate 1987-92 designed by Terry Farrell & Partners,
Millennium Bridge 1998-2002 designed by Foster & Partners in collaboration with Sir Anthony Caro and engineers Ove Arup & Partners,
Shakespeare Tower 1976 designed by Chamberlain Powell and Bon One of 3 residential towers that form part of the Barbican Centre,
St Paul's Cathedral 1675-1710 designed by Sir Christopher Wren Replaced the original cathedral which was destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666 Central dome is 112m high,
City of London School (Boys) designed by City Architects Department,
Faraday Building 1932,
Central Criminal Court 1900-7 designed by Edward W Mountford Also known as the Old Bailey Constructed from Portland stone on the site of Newgate prison Dome is topped by blind figure of justice,
St Martin Ludgate Ludgate Hill 1677-84 designed by Sir Christopher Wren Has one of Wren's most elegant lead steeples,
10 Fleet Place 1992-9 designed by Skidmore Owings and Merrill,
St Bride 1670-85 spire added 1701-4 designed by Sir Christopher Wren The shape of the traditional wedding cake is modelled on the design of the spire which is the tallest of Wren's designs at 69m,
Peterborough Court 1987-91 designed by Kohn Peterson Fox Associates,
Blackfriars Station Opened in 1886 as St Paul's Rebuilt in 1977,
Blackfriars Railway Bridge 1884-6 designed by J Wolfe Barry and HM Brunel,
Unilever House 1930-1 designed by J Lomax Simpson,
City of London School 1881-2 designed by Davis & Emmanuel,
Royal Courts of Justice 1874-82 designed by George Edmund Street Replaced Kent and Soane's old Law Courts at Westminster and one of the last great public buildings in London to be built in the Gothic style,
British Telecom Tower 1965 designed by Eric Bedford Chief Architect for the Ministry of Public Works Tower is 165m high and one of a series across the country linking cities by microwave transmission of telephone and other messages,
Centre Point 1963-7 designed by Richard Seifert and Partners,
Somerset House 1776-88 designed by Sir William Chambers East Wing 1829-35 designed by Sir Robert Smirke West Wing 1849-56 designed by Sir James Pennethorne Home to the Royal Academy until 1836,
Copyright © 2015 by Scott A. McNealy www.noboundaryphotography.co.uk
Patrons use computers in an internet cafe that was assisted by a microloan from the Social Welfare Fund. Republic of Yemen. Photo: Dana Smillie / World Bank
Photo ID: DS-RY027 World Bank
I used a slow shutter speed to capture the falling spray just after a huge breaker had smashed against the cliffs. (I am aware of the imperfections in this image - barrel distortion at 18mm on my Tamron 18-270mm lens has given me a 'banana' horizon.)
Scaan (pronounced sk-ah-n) is a three-way natural arch on the north coastline of Westray. Here, you can just about make out where two of the arches have eroded back-to-back until they met. What can't be seen on this photo is the third archway which runs at right angles to the ones we can see. The land in the distance is the neighbouring island of Papay (or as the map makers insist on calling it, Papa Westray.)
Please look at the other images in this series of 9 - some 'smashing' wave and cliff images!