pigmentation photos on Flickr

11

White Mandarin Duck IMG_4358 by lakegeorgevacations

11 26

Leucistic birds have less pigmentation than normal, so they will appear white or pale, in varying degrees. This is not an albino since there is some pigmentation and the eyes are not pink.

Leucistic American Goldfinch by Craigs Travels

5 1

The American Goldfinch on the right middle of the feeder is Leucistic which is lacking in normal feather pigmentation and is different from Albinism.

Going to a party? by Rosa Gamboias

18 38

A really interesting damselfly, it has a very soft shade of pink and blue, and some brilliant pigmentation along its body and legs. Looks like dressed for a party :))) Much better seen in Large, I think.

Parque da Paz - Almada - Portugal

Leucistic Blackbird by Paul West

21 1

A blackbird with reduced pigmentation in its feathers, resulting in patches or areas of white or pale coloration, rather than the typical black plumage. This condition, known as leucism, is a genetic mutation that affects melanin production, the pigment responsible for dark colours

The Existence Of A New Human Being by poly_mnia

3 3

YOUR BABY IS DUE Aug 28:

You are currently 4 WEEKS PREGNANT

Estimated Date of Conception: Dec 05, 1988

(4 weeks 3 days or 1 months)

This is based on the cycle length provided, not an average cycle length of 28 days, however it is still an estimate.

PROGRESS: You are 12% of the way through your pregnancy.

12% Weekly Development WEEK 1 & 2

Weeks 1 & 2 of your pregnancy is Nov 22, 1988 - Dec 05, 1988

Baby Conceived: It's ovulation time. If sperm and egg meet, you're on your way to pregnancy.

WEEK 3: Week 3 of your pregnancy is Dec 06, 1988 - Dec 12, 1988

Implantation occurs: Your baby is a tiny ball of several hundred cells that are rapidly multiplying and burrowing into the lining of your uterus. The cells that become the placenta are producing hCG, the pregnancy hormone. It tells your ovaries to stop releasing eggs and keep producing progesterone. Once there's enough hCG in your urine, you'll get a positive pregnancy test result.

WEEK 4: Week 4 of your pregnancy is Dec 13, 1988 - Dec 19, 1988 - Positive Pregnancy Test: Your baby is an embryo made up of two layers, the hypoblast and the epiblast. The placenta is developing and preparing to provide nutrients and oxygen to your growing baby. The amniotic sac is developing and will surround and protect your baby while it continues to grow.

WEEK 5: Week 5 of your pregnancy is Dec 20, 1988 - Dec 26, 1988 - Your embryo is now made up of three layers, the ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm which will later form all the organs and tissues. You might start to feel the first twinges of pregnancy such as tender breasts, frequent urination, or morning sickness.

WEEK 6: Week 6 of your pregnancy is Dec 27, 1988 - Jan 02, 1989

Heartbeat detectable by ultrasound. Your baby's heart is beating about 160 times a minute and the nose, mouth and ears are taking shape. Lungs and digestive system are forming organs.

WEEK 7: Week 7 of your pregnancy is Jan 03, 1989 - Jan 09, 1989 - Your baby is forming hands and feet. Key organs like the stomach, liver and esophagus are beginning to form. Your uterus has doubled in size. The umbilical cord is transferring blood and waste between baby and mother.

WEEK 8: Week 8 of your pregnancy is Jan 10, 1989 - Jan 16, 1989 - The respiratory system is forming now. Breathing tubes extend from the throat to the branches of the developing lungs.

WEEK 9: Week 9 of your pregnancy is Jan 17, 1989 - Jan 23, 1989 - Your baby is nearly an inch long now. If you watch closely, you may see your baby move if you have an ultrasound done

WEEK 10: Week 10 of your pregnancy is Jan 24, 1989 - Jan 30, 1989 - Your baby's organs are growing and beginning to mature. The baby's head comprises half the length of the body.

WEEK 11: Week 11 of your pregnancy is Jan 31, 1989 - Feb 06, 1989 - Fingers and toes have separated and the bones are beginning to harden. External genitalia has almost completely formed.

WEEK 12: Week 12 of your pregnancy is Feb 07, 1989 - Feb 13, 1989 - The kidneys can now secrete urine and the nervous system is maturing. You baby may be curling all 10 toes, practicing opening and closing fingers and sucking a thumb. And mom should have gained from 0,5 -3 kgs.

WEEK 13: Week 13 of your pregnancy is Feb 14, 1989 - Feb 20, 1989 - Miscarriage risk decreases. Your baby now has unique fingerprints and the kidney and urinary tract are completely functional, that means she's peeing. And if you are having a girl, her ovaries are already full of thousands of eggs.

WEEK 14: Week 14 of your pregnancy is Feb 21, 1989 - Feb 27, 1989 - Your baby's facial muscles are getting a workout as he squints, frowns, grimaces and practices his first smile for you.

WEEK 15: Week 15 of your pregnancy is Feb 28, 1989 - Mar 06, 1989 - Your baby is looking more like a baby with legs growing longer than the arms and all her limbs moving. The ears are properly positioned on the side of her head and the eyes are moving from the side of the head to the front of the face. At your doctor's visit, he should offer you a quad screening test to check for Down's syndrome or other chromosomal abnormalities.

WEEK 16: Week 16 of your pregnancy is Mar 07, 1989 - Mar 13, 1989 - Baby's heart is pumping about 25 quarts of blood each day. His eyes are working and moving side to side even though the eyelids are still sealed. Mom will have a "pregnancy glow" due to increased blood supply.

WEEK 17: Week 17 of your pregnancy is Mar 14, 1989 - Mar 20, 1989 - Baby's skeleton is changing from soft cartilage to bone and her heart is now regulated by her brain. She's practicing her sucking and swallowing skills in preparation for that first suckle at your breast or the bottle. Mom's breasts may have increased a full bra size.

WEEK 18: Week 18 of your pregnancy is Mar 21, 1989 - Mar 27, 1989 - Gender reveal time. If you're having a girl, her uterus and fallopian tubes are formed and in place. If you're having a boy, his genitals are noticable now but he may hide them during an ultrasound. Are you feeling kickes and punches? Baby's hearing is also developing, so you may want to start talking to your baby.

WEEK 19: Week 19 of your pregnancy is Mar 28, 1989 - Apr 03, 1989 - Baby's brain is designating specialized areas for his 5 senses - vision, hearing, taste, smell and touch. A waxy protective coating called the vernix caseosa is forming on his skin to prevent wrinkling.

WEEK 20: Week 20 of your pregnancy is Apr 04, 1989 - Apr 10, 1989 - Your baby weighs about 300 grams and is the size of a small banana. Her uterus is fully formed this week and she may have tiny primitive eggs in tiny ovaries now. His testicles are waiting for the scrotum to finish growing and will begin their descent soon. Mom can expect to gain about 1/2 lb per week for the rest of her pregnancy.

WEEK 21: Week 21 of your pregnancy is Apr 11, 1989 - Apr 17, 1989 - Feel all that moving and shaking going on! Baby's arms and legs are in proportion now and movements are much more coordinated. Bone marrow is now helping the liver and spleen produce blood cells. The intestines are starting to produce meconium, the thick tarry looking stool first seen in baby's diaper.

WEEK 22: Week 22 of your pregnancy is Apr 18, 1989 - Apr 24, 1989 - Senses are growing stronger. Now she can hear your heart beat, your breathing and digestion. Sense of sight is becoming more fine-tuned and he can preceive light and dark. Hormones are now developing which will the organs the commands they need to operate.

WEEK 23: Week 23 of your pregnancy is Apr 25, 1989 - May 01, 1989 - Premature baby may survive. Baby's organs and bones are visible through his skin, which has a red hue because of the developing veins and arteries beneath. He'll become less transparent as his fat deposits fill in. Baby is also developing surfactant which will help the lungs inflate if baby is born prematurely

WEEK 24: Week 24 of your pregnancy is May 02, 1989 - May 08, 1989 - Baby's face is almost fully formed complete with eyelashes, eyebrows and hair. Right now her hair is white because there's no pigment yet. Between now and 28 weeks, the doctor should send mom for a glucose screening test for gestational diabetes.

WEEK 25: Week 25 of your pregnancy is May 09, 1989 - May 15, 1989 - Baby is gaining more fat and looking more like a newborn. Hair color and texture is in place. His lungs are maturing and preparing for that first breath. You might feel the baby having hiccups.

WEEK 26: Week 26 of your pregnancy is May 16, 1989 - May 22, 1989 - Brain-wave activity is on high That means baby can hear noises and respond to them with an increase pulse rate or movement. Eyes are beginning to open but they don't have much pigmentation. That will develop over the next couple months and may even continue to change until she's about 6-months-old.

WEEK 27: Week 27 of your pregnancy is May 23, 1989 - May 29, 1989 - Start talking to your baby . Baby may recognize both your and your partner's voices. This is the time to read and even sing to your baby. She now has taste buds so when you eat spicy food, your baby will be able to taste the difference in the amniotic fluid. Her mealtime comes about two hours after yours. Feel some belly spasms? Those are likely hiccups from that spicy food. It doesn't bother the baby as much as you. Baby also has settled in to a regular sleep cycle, but it may be different from mom's.

WEEK 28: Week 28 of your pregnancy is May 30, 1989 - Jun 05, 1989 - During the third trimester the brain triples in weight adding billions of new nerve cells. Senses of hearing, smell and touch are developed and functional. Your baby is having different sleep cycles, including rapid eye movement. That means she's dreaming.

WEEK 29: Week 29 of your pregnancy is Jun 06, 1989 - Jun 12, 1989 - Baby can breathe. Baby's bones are soaking up lots of calcium as they harden so be sure to consume good sources of calcium. We recommend taking Nordic Naturals and Fairhaven Health supplements.

WEEK 30: Week 30 of your pregnancy is Jun 13, 1989 - Jun 19, 1989 - Baby's brain is taking on characteristic grooves and indentations to allow for an increased amount of brain tissue. Bone marrow has taken over the production of red blood cells. This means she'll be better able to thrive on her own when she's born Baby is now weighing about 1.36 kgs and is 28 centimetres.

WEEK 31: Week 31 of your pregnancy is Jun 20, 1989 - Jun 26, 1989 - Baby's brain is developing faster than ever and he's processing information, tracking light and perceiving signals from all five sense. She's probably moving a lot, especially at night when you're trying to sleep. Take comfort that all this activity means your baby is healthy. Mom may start feeling some Braxton Hicks contractions.

WEEK 32: Week 32 of your pregnancy is Jun 27, 1989 - Jul 03, 1989 - Baby can focus on large objects not too far away; toenails and fingernails have grown in along with real hair. He's practicing swallowing, breathing, kicking and sucking. All key skills for thriving after birth.

WEEK 33: Week 33 of your pregnancy is Jul 04, 1989 - Jul 10, 1989 - Immune system is maturing. The bones in your baby's skull are still pliable which makes it easier for her to fit through the birth canal. Your uterine walls are becoming thinner allowing more light to penetrate your womb. That helps baby differentiate between night and day.

WEEK 34: Week 34 of your pregnancy is Jul 11, 1989 - Jul 17, 1989 - Baby's fat layers are filling her out and will help regulate body temperture when she's born. If your baby is a boy, the testicles are making their way down from the abdomen to the scrotum.

WEEK 35: Week 35 of your pregnancy is Jul 18, 1989 - Jul 24, 1989 - Kidneys are fully developed and her liver can process some waste products. Most of her physical development is complete. She'll spend the next few weeks gaining weight and adding baby fat. Baby is settling lower into the pelvis preparing for delivery and this is called "lightening".

WEEK 36: Week 36 of your pregnancy is Jul 25, 1989 - Jul 31, 1989 - Hopefully your baby is in a head-down position. If not, your practitioner may suggest an external cephalic version to manipulate your baby into a head down position. The vernix caseosa has now disappeared.

WEEK 37: Week 37 of your pregnancy is Aug 01, 1989 - Aug 07, 1989 - Baby is considered full term. Baby is taking up most of the room in your womb so he's only kicking and poking you, no more somersaults. Baby is sucking her thumb, blinking eyes and inhaling and exhaling amniotic fluid.

WEEK 38: Week 38 of your pregnancy is Aug 08, 1989 - Aug 14, 1989 - Baby's eyes right now are blue, gray or brown but once they're exposed to light they may change color or a shade. The lanugo, the fine downy hair that covered his body for warmth is falling off in preparation for delivery. Her lungs have strenthened and her vocal cords have developed. That means she's ready for her first cry.

WEEK 39: Week 39 of your pregnancy is Aug 15, 1989 - Aug 21, 1989 - Baby is ready to make his debut. He's adding more fat as his pinkish skin turns white or white-grayish. He won't have his final pigment until shortly after birth.

WEEK 40: Week 40 of your pregnancy is Aug 22, 1989 - Aug 28, 1989 - This is the official end of your pregnancy but because due dates are just a calculation he might be "late." No need to worry, your body knows the right time to go into labor, or your doctor may suggest you be induced. At birth your baby's eye sight is a little blurry since central vision is still developing. Just say hello and he'll recognize your voice.

During the Process of Fertilization, the sperm and the oocyte cease to exist as such, and a new human being is produced.

abstract by Patrick Marioné

10

Limited Edition Autumn Beauty~ 'Rosa Morph' Common Buckeye Butterfly (Junonia coenia) by Brody J

7 9

While Buckeyes have new broods through most of the year, only the Autumn brood can exhibit seasonal polyphenism,

also known as polyphenic pigmentation, which is adaptive for insect species that undergo multiple matings each year, and in the Buckeye, this results in distinctly eye catching rose colored ventral wings! Known as a 'rosa morph', their color variation is an Autumn delight!

Different pigmentation patterns provide appropriate camouflage throughout the seasons, as well as alter heat retention as temperatures change. The Summer version of the Common Buckeye has light yellowish ventral wings and is called the 'linea morph'...

Lizzie by Patrick Marioné

5

le Mascaret, Rixensart

Leucistic red kite stretching its wings... by Karen Burns

10 17

The bird has a partial loss of pigmentation leading to the pale colouring

Glaucous-winged Gull-type with whitish primaries - Quamichan Lake, Duncan BC by Liam Singh

5

Possible pigmentation issue no signs of hybridization otherwise except apparent yellow(?) orbital.

KU VASTEI ROCK 27 by eeKool Images

5

This album's name is dedicated to my favourite game of all time Elder Scrolls Online and race of all time, The Argonians (reptile humanoids). There's a story for you to read below about some of them towards the bottom.

What does Ku Vastei mean? Read below

By Lights-the-Way, Mystic of the Mages Guild

It is hard to describe the culture of my people. Often my tongue stumbles as I try to explain, but it is my hope that ink and quill will give me time enough to gather my thoughts. And perhaps, though such writing, I will finally connect the parts of me that now feel so divided; my homeland of Murkmire and my new life within the Mages Guild.

These journals are to become my ku-vastei. And, as I write that, I can think of no better topic to begin with.

Ku-vastei roughly translates to "the catalyst of needed change," though such a direct translation in no way does justice to the original meaning. Another translation could be "that which creates the needed pathway for change to occur" or even "the spark which ignites the flame which must come into being."

Perhaps a more direct analysis should be first presented. Ku-vastei is a noun, a thing or person. Vastei directly translates to change, an important part of my culture. Ku is harder to speak of. It is that which leads to change, though not that which creates change. An important role, as stagnation is a fate worse than death.

Take a boulder which sits atop a cliff, teetering in place. It must fall eventually. The ku-vastei does not push the boulder off the cliff; rather, it picks the pebble which holds the rock in place. And so it falls, not by a push, but by a pathway cleared.

Ku-vastei is revered, just as change itself is revered, for to look back at what was means to stumble as you move forward. Sometimes, a little push in the right direction is all someone needs to remember such wisdom. Other times, they may need to be shoved.

-------------------------------------

The Gee-Rusleel Tribe

by Emmanubeth Hurrent, the Wayfarers' Society of Wayrest

I've had the privilege to speak to two different Miredancer elders now, and I've learned a great deal from both of these conversations. The "Gee-Rusleel," as they call themselves, are among the most introspective Argonians I've met in my travels. They also tend to be the most pleasant. For all their reclusiveness and wariness, I've never met a people more willing to share a meal or a game of Shells and Stones. They are skilled crafters, with a particular knack for working with Hist amber and egg shells. They are also peerless navigators, guiding their flat-bottom boats effortlessly through the swamp, master weavers, and skilled cartographers.

The most defining characteristic of the Miredancer tribe, however, is piety. This deep reverence for the Hist has earned them the right to name a "Sap-Speaker" for countless generations.

According to the elders I spoke with, the Sap-Speaker is the Hist's direct intermediary. (This is, of course, subject to debate. Many tribes boast unique methods of communion with the Hist. But as far as I have seen, the Miredancers make the most compelling case for the methods they use.) Sap-Speakers often go into seclusion for days or even weeks on end, venturing either down into the roots or high into the canopy of leaves in the uppermost branches. Here, they commune with the Hist. Indeed, the word that one of the elders used was "journey."

These journeys into the Hist tax the Sap-Speakers, but are thoroughly private affairs. After days by themselves, the Sap-Speakers emerge to hide away with old books, scrolls, and tablets. I asked after the purpose of these periods of seclusion, and this is what the elders told me. "The Sap-Speaker enters the embrace of the Hist to learn from the great tree," one elder said. "While in close contact with the roots and branches, the Sap-Speaker receives visions and other forms of communication that neither you nor I would understand."

The other elder continued. "Even the Sap-Speaker finds some of what is shown to be mystifying and confusing. I have heard that a Sap-Speaker is treated to ancient metaphors, arcane secrets, and visions that make little sense to creatures so far removed from sap and pulp." Apparently, the second period of seclusion allows the Sap-Speaker time to reflect on what he or she was shown, as well as time to consult with the ancient writings of Sap-Speakers who came before. After a suitable period of study and reflection, the Sap-Speaker emerges to reveal the Hist's will to the tribe.

I attempted to get more information about what happens while the Sap-Speaker meditates among the roots or branches, but I'm not sure the elders knew much more. They did tell me that the only nourishment the Sap-Speaker receives during these periods of seclusion is provided by the Hist itself in the form of sap, leaves, and the otherwise forbidden fruit of the tree.

There is a price to pay for the gift of Hist communion, however. Ingesting large quantities of Hist sap is a dangerous affair, even for Argonians. Sap-Speakers routinely suffer the effects of sap-poisoning, including "gold tongue" (permanent change of mouth pigmentation to a golden hue), unbidden hallucinations, "bark-scale" (thickening and darkening of surface scales), and other maladies they were reticent to talk about. The current Sap-Speaker, Thumarz, was in seclusion during my visit to the tribal village. I hope to meet him someday. If he's half as wise as the elders I interacted with, I'd no doubt learn a great deal from him.

Despite their deeply religious nature, the Miredancers also seem to have an obsession with games of all types. They are particularly fond of the games Nine-Shells and Shells and Stones, as well as sports such as the popular "teeba-hatsei" (also known as "hip and tail ball.") In addition to lovingly explaining their own games, they wanted to know everything I could tell them about the games we play back in Wayrest. I must admit, their enthusiasm was quite infectious! And I found it highly amusing to watch them try to re-create Deceiver's Bones from the vague description I provided.

The Miredancers are also inveterate gamblers, but they often forget to collect their winnings. Unlike the games of men and mer, Miredancer competitions appear to be completely devoid of malice or injured pride. Victory and defeat seem more like afterthoughts than objectives, due in no small part to their phlegmatic disposition. As in most things, their focus is strictly on the moment—the now. It pains me to leave their village, but I still have many more tribes to study. I doubt any of them will be as fascinating or as friendly as the Miredancers.

["the tribe is not currently in the game but in the world of the game"]

This image is taken from United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, 1927 by Medical Heritage Library, Inc.

6

Go to the Book with image in the Internet Archive

Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, 1927

Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

Publisher:

Sponsor:

Contributor:

Date: 1927-01

Language: eng

Table of Contents

Number 1

PREFACE v

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS vi

SPECIAL ARTICLES:

Posture.

By Lieut. G. E. Mott, Medical Corps, United States Navy 1

Medical Tactics in Naval Warfare —Part III— Continued.

By Commander W. L. Mann, Medical Corps, United States Navy, and Maj. A.

D. Tuttle, Medical Corps, United States Army 20

Identification by the Teeth.

By J. H. Taylor, Identification Section, Bureau of Navigation, Navy

Department 49

An Analysis of the Annual Physical Examination of a Group of Officers.

By Lieut. Commander L. G. Roddis and Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. A.

Cooper, Medical Corps, United States Navy 54

Dressing Sterilizers with Special Reference to Temperature, Pressure,

and Chamber Air Exhaustion During the Process of Sterilization.

By Lieut. Commander J. Harper, Medical Corps, United States Navy 62

Calcium Hypochlorite for Lyster Bags.

By Lieut. E. M. Steger, Medical Corps, United States Navy 6S

The Use of Modified Milk in Infant Feeding.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Short, Medical Corps, United States Navy 73

Aviation Crashes at Pensacola— 1925-26.

By Lieut. J. D. Benjamin, Medical Corps, United States Navy.. 86

Climatic Bubo.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitmore, Medical Corps, United States Navy

89

Ideas on Recruiting.

By Lieut. J. G. Smith, Medical Corps, United States Navy 102

CLINICAL NOTES:

One Thousand Operations During a Shore Cruise.

By Lieut. Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy 105

Filariasis.

By Lieut. Commander H. V. Hughens, Medical Corps, United States Navy. .

111

Bismuto-Yatren A and B in the Treatment of Yaws.

By Lieut. Commander R. P. Parsons, Medical Corps, United States Navy

117

Addison's Disease Without the Usual Pigmentation of the Skin.

By Commander E. C. White and Lieut. (Junior Grade) W. F. James, Medical

Corps, United States Navy 122

Scurvy.

By Lieut. Commander L. J. Roberts, Medical Corps, United States Navy

126

Early Pulmonary Tuberculosis With Negative X-ray Findings.

By Lieut. J. D. Blackwood, jr., Medical Corps, United States Navy 128

Cholecystography.

By Lieut. O. B. Spalding, Medical Corps, United States Navy.. 131

Syphilis.

By Lieut, (junior grade) B. W. Harris, Medical Corps, United States

Navy 134

Yaws Sera and the Kahn Precipitation Test, Experiments With.

By Pharmacist F. O. Huntsinger, United States Navy 135

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

Commendation for articles in the Bulletin—Treatment of burns — Parasitic

infections in China—Effect of elevation of temperature on spirochetes —Rabies

—-American Relief Administration in Russia, 1921-1923— Forecasting smallpox

epidemics in India —Helium-oxygen mixture in diving —Treatment of pernicious

anemia by diet —International meeting on cancer control, September 20-24, 1926

—American College of Surgeons —Resignation after special courses—Study courses

for Hospital Corps ratings 137-160

NURSE CORPS:

Laboratory Experiences with Epidemic Cerebrospinal Meningitis.

By Nurse S. Ruth Hassler, United States Navy 161

Help from the Laboratory.

By Nurse Ruth B. Meutzer, United States Navy 164

Some Interesting Laboratory Work.

By Nurse Frances C. Bonner, United States Navy 166

BOOK NOTICES 169

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS:

Reactions incidental to the administration of 91,707 doses of

neoarsphenamine and other arsenical compounds in the United States Navy—Food

poisoning on board U. S. S. "Concord" May 13, 1926—Food poisoning

following a barbecue —Food poisoning at marine barracks, navy yard,

Philadelphia, Pa., May 21, 1926 — Influenza in Guam —Efficacy of B. typhosus

vaccine in controlling typhoid fever in Guam 177

Public Health Activities Against Tropical Diseases.

By Dr. Pedro N. Ortiz, commissioner of health, Porto Rico 208

Scarlet fever attack rate among contacts, Detroit, Mich.—Health of the

Navy— Statistics 220

Number 2

PREFACE---------------- --------- ------- - ------------- ------ vii

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS____________________________ viii

SPECIAL ARTICLES: .

MEDICINE IN TURKEY.

By Commander C. W. 0 . Bunker, Medical Corps, United States

Navy------------------------·------ 229

COLOR-BLINDNESS.

By Capt. E. H. H. Old, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 253

ETIOLOGICAL FACTORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF MAXILLARY ANTRUM DISEASE.

By G. B. Trible, M. D., F. A. C. S., former commander, medical Corps,

United States Navy________ 266

BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY'S EXHIBIT, SESQUICENTENNIAL,

PHILADELPHIA, 1926.

By Capt. R. C. Holcomb, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 272

MALARIA IN HAITI.

By Capt. O. S. Butler, and Lieut. E. Peterson, Medical Corps, United

States Navy_____________ 278

INSTITUTIONAL POLICIES AS APPLIED TO A YEAR'S DENTAL ACTIVITIES.

By Lieut. Commander J. L. Brown, Dental Corps, United States

Navy________________ __________ 288

RECURRENCE OF INGUINAL HERNIA.

By Lieut. Commander K. E. Lowman, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------------- 300

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON CEREBROSPINAL FEVER.

By Lieut. Commander Paul Richmond, Medical Corps, United States

Navy__________________ 304

THEORIES CONCERNING THE MECHANISM OF THE INSULIN EFFECT ON CARBOHYDRATE

METABOLISM.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) H. Phillips, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------- 309

THE WASSERMANN REACTION FOLLOWING THE USE OF BISMUTH IN THE TREATMENT

OF YAWS AND SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. D. Middlestadt, Medical Corps, United

States Navy _______________ 315.

THE TUBERCULOUS VETERANS' BUREAU PATIENT.

By Lieut. J. D. Blackwood, jr., Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------------------- 319

CLINICAL NOTES:

OCULAR ENUCLEATION.

By Commander C. B. Camerer, and Lieut. Commander B. P. Davis, Medical

Corps, United States Navy________________ 325

TREATMENT OF AN IRREDUCIBLE DISLOCATED LOWER JAW OF 98 DAYS' DURATION.

By Lieut. Commander M. D. Willcutts, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------ 331

TRAUMATIC RUPTURE OF THE SPLEEN.

By Commander L. W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States

Navy-------------------------------- 336

DIATHERMY IN SHOCK.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 340

SPONTANEOUS RUPTURE OF THE HEART.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. 'w. Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ------------------------------- 343

MERCUROCHROME-220 SOLUBLE, FOREIGN PROTEIN, AND SUGAR IN ACUTE

GONORRHEAL URETHRITIS, WITH A STUDY OF THE BLOOD CELLULAR CHANGES DURING THE

REACTION.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams, and Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F.

Cooper, Medical Corps, United States Navy _________ 352

GLANDULAR FEVER WITH INGUINAL ADENOPATHY.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. C. Yanquell, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ___________358

A CASE OF ACQUIRED HYDROCEPHALUS.

By Capt. E. O. White, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 361

CARCINOMA OF THE STOMACH WITH LARGE RETROPERITONEAL TUMOR.

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitmore, Medical Corps, United States Navy----------------

365

HEXAMETHYLENAMINE IN MENINGEAL INFECTIONS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) A. E. Bruuschwig, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ________369

REINFECTION IN SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. O. P. Archambeault, Medical Corps, United States Navy--------------------------------------372

AN UNUSUAL BULLET WOUND. ·

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) P. H. Golberg, Medical Corps, United States

Navy __________374

THE NAVAL RESERVE -------------------------------------------- 375

NURSE CORPS:

THE PENSACOLA HURRICANE.

By Chief Nurse Mary J. McCloud, United States Navy ______ 379

MY FIRST EXPERIENCE IN A HURRICANE.

By Reserve Nurse Luama A. MacFarland, United States Navy _ 382

A HURRICANE THRILL.

By Nurse Ellen E. Wells and Nurse Mary Hennemeier, United States Navy

-------------------383

AN EPIDEMIC OF IMPETIGO CONTAGIOSA.

By Nurse Caroline W. Spofford, United States Navy _________ 385

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

A new section of the BULLETIN-Change in character of –examinations for

promotion-Hospital Corps instruction-Duty at sea – Handling poisons-Laboratory

technicians-The Henry S. Wellcome medal and prize for 1927-Micro-Kahn

reactions-Streptococcus cardioarthritidis--Progress in dermatology-Mitral

regurgitation- Cutaneous leishmaniasis

and the phlebotomus-Medicinals and dyes-Rectal feeding-Epidemic

encephalitis-Catarrhal jaundice- Excoriation of the skin about intestinal

fistulae-Ethylene

anesthesia-Sodoku in the treatment of general paresis—Carbuncles of the

neck-Gye's theory of cancer-$100,000 offered for conquest of cancer-The Sofie

A. Nordoff-Jung cancer prize ____387

BOOK NOTICES ------------------- 413

TOTAL FUEL REQUIREMENT IN HEALTH.

By Commander J. R. Phelps, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 431

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON SMALLPOX AND VACCINATION.

BY Surg. J. P. Leake, United States Public Health Service______ 461

A fatal case of food poisoning caused by fried oysters contaminated

with a paratyphoid B. bacillus-Outbreak of food poisoning in the wardroom mess

of the U. S. S. Richmond, caused by chicken

salad contaminated with B. enteritidis-------------------------- 475

R EPORT OF AN OUTBREAK OF FISH POISONING ON BOARD THE U. S. S. “CALIFORNIA.''

By Capt. J. L. Neilson, Medical Corps, United States Navy ------ 480

AN OUTBREAK OF FOOD POISONING CAUSED BY BOILED SMOKED TONGUE.

By Lieut. Commander W. A. Fort, Medical Corps, United States Navy -------------------------------------

484

Report of an outbreak of food poisoning caused by cheese-Outbreak of

food poisoning caused by corned-beef hash at the United States destroyer base,

San Diego, Calif. _______________ 486

REPORT OF POISONING BY TRINITROTOLUENE AMONG ENLISTED MEN ENGAGED IN

TRANSFERRING T. N. T. FROM STORAGE TO U. S. S. "NITRO."

By Lieut. Commander T. A. Fortescue, Medical Corps, United States

Navy_______________________________________________ 491

An epidemic of jaundice in San Diego, Calif.-Health of the Navy___ 494

Number 3

PREFACE ---------------------------------------------------------- v

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS--------------------------- vi

SPECIAL ARTICLES :

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON AVOIDABLE DROWNING.

By Lieut. Commander R. B. Miller, Medical Corps, United States Navy

___________505

FLIES AND THEIR ERADICATION.

By Lieut. Commander E. C. Carr, Medical Corps, United States

Navy----------------------------- 528

ACTIVITIES OF THE UNITED STATES NAVAL MEDICAL SUPPLY DEPOT.

By Capt. D. C. Cather, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___ 542

RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA.

By Commander C. B. Camerer, Medical Corps, United States

Navy---------------------------------- 562

PREMATURE CONTRACTIONS OF THE HEART.

By Capt. E. C. White, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___ 567

ROENTGEN RAY EXAMINATION IN SUSPECTED CHRONIC APPENDICITIS.

By Lieut. P. P. Maher, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 573

COMPARISON OF THE KAHN AND KOLMER REACTIONS.

By Lieut. Commander P. Richmond, jr., Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------585

COMMENTS ON THE ORIGIN OF DISABILITY.

By Lieut. Commander Lewis W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------------------- 588

DEPARTMENT OF SANITATION, MARINE BARRACKS, QUANTICO, VA.

By Capt. W. M. Garton, Medical Corps, United States Navy ___593

CLINICAL NOTES :

CHOLECYSTOGRAPHY,

By Lieut. G. B. Larson, Medical Corps, United States Navy __597

THROMBO-ANGIITIS OBLITERANS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) R. A. Schneiders, Medical Corps, United States

Navy----------------------------605

THE DEBT OF SURGICAL DIAGNOSIS TO THE X RAY.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 614

THE TREATMENT OF CHANOROIDS AND OTHER LESIONS WITH AMMONIACAL

SILVER NITRATE AND FORMALIN.

By Commander P. G. White, Dental Corps, and Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. Q.

Owsley, Medical Corps, United States Navy _____ 619

SUMMARY OF SEVENTY CASES OF GONOCOCCUS INFECTION TREATED WITH

MERCUROCHROME-220 SOLUBLE TOGETHER WITH SUGAR AND FOREIGN PROTEIN.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams and Lieut. W. D. Small, Medical

Corps, United States Navy------621

TREATMENT OF ENCEPHALITIS LETHARGICA.

By Harold S. Hulbert, M. D. -------------------------------624

MULTIPLE UNERUPTED AND IMPACTED CUSPID AND BICUSPID TEETH.

By Lieut. Commander M. W. Mangold, Dental Corps, United States

Navy----------------- ------------------ 625

MIXED VENEREAL INFECTIONS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F. Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy-----------------------------626

CAISSON DISEASE DURING HELMET DIVING.

By Lieut. Commander W. M. Anderson, Medical Corps, United States Navy

--- ------------------------ 628

ANTERIO-VENOUS ANEURYSM OF THE COMMON CAROTID ARTERY AND INTERNAL

JUGULAR VEIN: OPERATION WITH CONSERVATION OF THE ARTERY.

By Commander F. X. Koltes, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 630

CREEPING ERUPTION.

By Lieut. Commander H. L. Shinn, Medical Corps, United States Navy

___________________632

DEATH BY LIGHTNING.

By Lieut. J. D. Benjamin, Medical Corps, United States Navy _634

DEVICE FOR TRANSFERRING PATIENTS FROM SHIPS.

By Master Rigger Thomas Schofield _______________________ _ 635

AN ECONOMICAL AND PRACTICAL UTENSIL STERILIZER.

By Chief Pharmacist Charles Peek, United States Navy ______ _637

THE NAVAL RESERVE-------------------------------------------- 639

NURSE CORPS:

HOSPITAL HOUSEKEEPING.

By Chief Nurse Nell I. Disert, United States Navy ________ ___ _ 649

DIETS AND THE NURSE.

By J. Beatrice Bowman, Superintendent, Navy Nurse Corps __ 651

DIETETICS AT NAVAL HOSPITALS.

By Nurse Anna F. Patten, United States Navy _______________ 655

NOTES AND COMMENTS:

Comments on " Some observations on avoidable drowning

"-Hypertension- Unrecognized syphilitic myocarditis- Tuberculosis

hospitalization- Microbic dissociation-Bacteriological nomenclature - Carbon

dioxide in hiccough-Diathermy in pneumonia-Answering examination

questions-Medical ethics-Alcoholic content of brain-Electric shock-Acid and

alkali burns-Antiseptics and the nasal flora of rabbits-Annam swelling- The

metric system-Eye test for hypersensitiveness to serum-Research on

pharmacological

problems- Syphilis not caused by vaccination-Line of duty ____ 661

BOOK NOTICES--- - - --------- - - --- ------ - - - -------- ------

--------- 697

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS :

Digest of the views of medical officers regarding venereal-disease

problems as recorded in various annual sanitary reports for 1926- Two deaths

following inoculation with B. typhosus vaccine- Report

of outbreak of cereb1'ospinal fever at United States naval training

station, San Diego, Calif., December, 1926-January, 1927-Report of outbreak of

scarlet fever at United States naval training station, Hampton Roads, Va.-Fatal

poisoning by arseniuretted hydrogen in the galvanizing shop at the navy yard,

Puget Sound, Wash.-Data useful in estimating the amount of food wasted by men

eating in hospital wards and in a general mess-Outbreak of food poisoning at

United States naval training station, Hampton Roads, Va., attributed to canned

Vienna sausages-Epidemic of influenza among natives of Samoa in August, 1926-

Health of the Navy --------------------------------------------

Number 4

PREFACE--------------------------------------- --------------- VII

NOTICE TO SERVICE CONTRIBUTORS----------------------------- viii

SPECIAL ARTICLES :

CHINESE MILITARY MEDICINE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. L. McClartney, Medical Corps (Vol. G),

United States Naval Reserve-------- 783

ABDOMINAL WOUNDS AND INJURIES.

By Commander Lucius W. Johnson, Medical Corps, United States Navy

---------------------------- 816

AVIATION HYGIENE.

By Commander R. G. Davis, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 832

GOITER.

By Commander C. E. Henry, M. D., F. A. C. P., Medical Corps (Vol. S),

United States Naval Reserve __ 837

COMMENTS CONCERNING THE DUTIES OF THE COMMANDING OFFICER OF A NAVAL

HOSPITAL.

By Capt. A. Farenholt, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 844

THE BUDGET AND THE BUREAU OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY ACCOUNTING SYSTEM.

By Chief Pharmacist B. E. Irwin, United States Navy_________ 851

ELECTROCARDIOGRAM IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF THE CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIAS.

By Lieut. Commander R. L. Nattkemper, Medical Corps, United States Navy

------------------- 862

SIPPY TREATMENT FOR PEPTIC ULCER IN NAVAL HOSPITALS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) A. E. Brunschwig, Medical Corps, United States

Navy ------ ------------------ 871

By Lieut. Commander W. H. Whitemore and Lieut. (Junior Grade) O. A.

Smith, Medical Corps, United States Navy______ 875

LOCAL ANESTHESIA IN EYE, EAR, NOSE, AND THROAT WORK.

By Lieut. Commander F. L. Young, Medical Corps (Vol. G), United States

Naval Reserve-------------- 879

ENDARTERITIS, ACUTE, FROM ELECTRIC SHOCK.

By Lieut. P. F. Dickens, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 881

ACUTE OSTEOMYELITIS WITH METASTASIS.

By Lieut. G. G. Herman, Medical Corps, United States Navy____ 883

ABDOMINAL HODGKIN'S DISEASE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) W. D. C. Day, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--------------------- 886

A NEEDLE FOR ANESTHESIA OF THE MAXILLARY NERVE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) J. Connolly, Dental Corps, United States Navy

------- --- --- ----- 889

POISONING FROM SOAP-VINE.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) G. F . Cooper, Medical Corps, United States

Navy - - ------- ---------- 892

THE DIRECT DIAGNOSIS OF PERICARDITIS WITH EFFUSION.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) C. G. Dyke, Medical Corps, United States

Navy--- -------- - --- --- -- 894

WHAT SHOULD THE DIAGNOSIS BE?

By Lieut. Commander C. A. Andrus, Medical Corps, United States Navy-----

---------------------- 896

MULTIPLE SCROTAL FISTULAE FOLLOWING RUPTURE OF THE BLADDER WITH

STRICTURE OF URETHRA. OPERATION AND RESTORATION OF FUNCTION.

By Lieut. Commander L. H. Williams, Medical Corps, United States

Navy------ - - ----------------897

TRAUMATIC RUPTURE OF THE SPLEEN.

By Commander F. X. Koltes, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 898

APPENDIX ABSCESS V. PYONEPHROSIs.

By Commander G. F. Cottle, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 900

MERCUROCHROME IN A CASE WITHOUT DIAGNOSIS.

By Lieut. (Junior Grade) B. W. Harris, Medical Corps, United States Navy--------------------------903

GREASE RACK FOR AUTOMOBILES.

By Capt. A. Farenholt, Medical Corps, United States Navy ____ 908

NAVAL RESERVE:

Hospital units- Recent appointments _____________________________ 909

NURSE CORPS:

THE LECTURES ON ACCOUNTING FROM A NURSE'S POINT OF VIEW.

By Chief Nurse Mabel T. Cooper, United States Navy _________ 913

ADDRESS TO THE CLASS OF 1926 HAITIAN GENERAL HOSPITAL TRAINING SCHOOL

FOR NURSES.

By Capt. C. St. J. Butler, Medical Corps, United States Navy __ 918

A NAVY NURSE IN THE NEAR EAST.

By Mabell S. C. Smith--------------------------- 920

DIETETICS.

By Nurse Anna P. Smith, United States Navy ________________ 921

DIETETICS.

By Nurse Mary J. Miney, United States Navy ________________ 923

NOTES AND COMMENTS :

Correction-Report on treatment of Chinese wounded-Skin tests in asthma-

Treponematosis-The physiological effects of tropical climate-History of medical

practice in the State of Illinois-Mercurochrome- Water

supplies-Seasickness-Cholera in Shanghai in 1926--Fracture of the

skull-Senescence and senility-Bismuth in the treatment of syphilis-Pressure

method of vaccination - Ventilators- Neurosyphilis-Tennis leg-Tea in treatment

of burns-European influenza epidemic at end-Visit of the Relief to Washington-Aviation

instruction for Hospital Corpsmen_ ______ 927

BOOK NOTICES----------------------- ------------------------------ 959

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE, STATISTICS :

A STUDY OF TWO THOUSAND HEALTH RECORDS CONTAINING ENTRIES FOR SYPHILIS.

By Lieut. Commander H. H. Montgomery, Medical Corps, United States Navy-------------------------------973

MEASURES OF OUTSTANDING IMPORTANCE IN THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF

MALARIA.

By Commander M.A. Stuart, Medical Corps, United States Navy_ 996

Outbreak of infectious diarrhea in the Battle Fleet, April, 1927, not

investigated at the time of occurrence----An epidemic of malaria at the United

States Naval Station, Olongapo, P. I.- Two deaths from rabies contracted by

playing with a dog which was incubating the disease, in Hankow, China-Frequency

of rabies-An outbreak of mumps among midshipmen at the United States Naval

Academy-Health of the Navy_________ 1010

INDEX TO SUBJECTS ----------------------------------------- 1035

INDEX TO AUTHORS-------- ------------------------------------- 1047

If you have questions concerning reproductions, please contact the Contributing Library.

Note: The colors, contrast and appearance of these illustrations are unlikely to be true to life. They are derived from scanned images that have been enhanced for machine interpretation and have been altered from their originals.

Read/Download from the Internet Archive

See all images from this book

See all MHL images published in the same year

White Sika Deer - Cervus nippon - Arne RSPB Dorset -020417 (31) by Ann Collier

8 9

The white deer in my area of Dorset are all leucistic & not albinos.

Leucism is a condition in animals characterized by reduced pigmentation. Unlike albinism, it is caused by a reduction in all types of skin pigment, not just melanin.

Leucism (occasionally spelled leukism) is a general term for the phenotype resulting from defects in pigment cell differentiation and/or migration from the neural crest

to skin, hair, or feathers during development. This results in either the entire surface (if all pigment cells fail to develop) or patches of body surface (if only a subset are defective)

having a lack of cells capable of making pigment. [Wikipedia]

Lion (Panthera Leo) by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

5

The lion (Panthera leo) is a large cat of the genus Panthera, native to Africa and India. It has a muscular, broad-chested body; a short, rounded head; round ears; and a hairy tuft at the end of its tail. It is sexually dimorphic; adult male lions are larger than females and have a prominent mane. It is a social species, forming groups called prides. A lion's pride consists of a few adult males, related females, and cubs. Groups of female lions usually hunt together, preying mostly on large ungulates. The lion is an apex and keystone predator; although some lions scavenge when opportunities occur and have been known to hunt humans, lions typically do not actively seek out and prey on humans.

The lion inhabits grasslands, savannahs, and shrublands. It is usually more diurnal than other wild cats, but when persecuted, it adapts to being active at night and at twilight. During the Neolithic period, the lion ranged throughout Africa and Eurasia, from Southeast Europe to India, but it has been reduced to fragmented populations in sub-Saharan Africa and one population in western India. It has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1996 because populations in African countries have declined by about 43% since the early 1990s. Lion populations are untenable outside designated protected areas. Although the cause of the decline is not fully understood, habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes for concern.

One of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture, the lion has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature. Lions have been kept in menageries since the time of the Roman Empire and have been a key species sought for exhibition in zoological gardens across the world since the late 18th century. Cultural depictions of lions were prominent in Ancient Egypt, and depictions have occurred in virtually all ancient and medieval cultures in the lion's historic and current range.

Etymology

The English word lion is derived via Anglo-Norman liun from Latin leōnem (nominative: leō), which in turn was a borrowing from Ancient Greek λέων léōn. The Hebrew word לָבִיא lavi may also be related.[4] The generic name Panthera is traceable to the classical Latin word 'panthēra' and the ancient Greek word πάνθηρ 'panther'.[5]

Taxonomy

The upper cladogram is based on the 2006 study,[6][7] the lower one on the 2010[8] and 2011[9] studies.

Felis leo was the scientific name used by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, who described the lion in his work Systema Naturae.[3] The genus name Panthera was coined by Lorenz Oken in 1816.[10] Between the mid-18th and mid-20th centuries, 26 lion specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, of which 11 were recognised as valid in 2005.[1] They were distinguished mostly by the size and colour of their manes and skins.[11]

Subspecies

Range map showing distribution of subspecies and clades

In the 19th and 20th centuries, several lion type specimens were described and proposed as subspecies, with about a dozen recognised as valid taxa until 2017.[1] Between 2008 and 2016, IUCN Red List assessors used only two subspecific names: P. l. leo for African lion populations, and P. l. persica for the Asiatic lion population.[2][12][13] In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised lion taxonomy, and recognises two subspecies based on results of several phylogeographic studies on lion evolution, namely:[14]

P. l. leo (Linnaeus, 1758) − the nominate lion subspecies includes the Asiatic lion, the regionally extinct Barbary lion, and lion populations in West and northern parts of Central Africa.[14] Synonyms include P. l. persica (Meyer, 1826), P. l. senegalensis (Meyer, 1826), P. l. kamptzi (Matschie, 1900), and P. l. azandica (Allen, 1924).[1] Multiple authors referred to it as 'northern lion' and 'northern subspecies'.[15][16]

P. l. melanochaita (Smith, 1842) − includes the extinct Cape lion and lion populations in East and Southern African regions.[14] Synonyms include P. l. somaliensis (Noack 1891), P. l. massaica (Neumann, 1900), P. l. sabakiensis (Lönnberg, 1910), P. l. bleyenberghi (Lönnberg, 1914), P. l. roosevelti (Heller, 1914), P. l. nyanzae (Heller, 1914), P. l. hollisteri (Allen, 1924), P. l. krugeri (Roberts, 1929), P. l. vernayi (Roberts, 1948), and P. l. webbiensis (Zukowsky, 1964).[1][11] It has been referred to as 'southern subspecies' and 'southern lion'.[16]

However, there seems to be some degree of overlap between both groups in northern Central Africa. DNA analysis from a more recent study indicates, that Central African lions are derived from both northern and southern lions, as they cluster with P. leo leo in mtDNA-based phylogenies whereas their genomic DNA indicates a closer relationship with P. leo melanochaita.[17]

Lion samples from some parts of the Ethiopian Highlands cluster genetically with those from Cameroon and Chad, while lions from other areas of Ethiopia cluster with samples from East Africa. Researchers, therefore, assume Ethiopia is a contact zone between the two subspecies.[18] Genome-wide data of a wild-born historical lion sample from Sudan showed that it clustered with P. l. leo in mtDNA-based phylogenies, but with a high affinity to P. l. melanochaita. This result suggested that the taxonomic position of lions in Central Africa may require revision.[19]

Fossil records

Skull of an American lion on display at the National Museum of Natural History

Other lion subspecies or sister species to the modern lion existed in prehistoric times:[20]

P. l. sinhaleyus was a fossil carnassial excavated in Sri Lanka, which was attributed to a lion. It is thought to have become extinct around 39,000 years ago.[21]

P. fossilis was larger than the modern lion and lived in the Middle Pleistocene. Bone fragments were excavated in caves in the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and Czech Republic.[22][23]

P. spelaea, or the cave lion, lived in Eurasia and Beringia during the Late Pleistocene. It became extinct due to climate warming or human expansion latest by 11,900 years ago.[24] Bone fragments excavated in European, North Asian, Canadian and Alaskan caves indicate that it ranged from Europe across Siberia into western Alaska.[25] It likely derived from P. fossilis,[26] and was genetically isolated and highly distinct from the modern lion in Africa and Eurasia.[27][26] It is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings, ivory carvings, and clay busts.[28]

P. atrox, or the American lion, ranged in the Americas from Canada to possibly Patagonia.[29] It arose when a cave lion population in Beringia became isolated south of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet about 370,000 years ago.[30][31] A fossil from Edmonton dates to 11,355 ± 55 years ago.[32]

Evolution

red Panthera spelaea

blue Panthera atrox

green Panthera leo

Maximal range of the modern lion

and its prehistoric relatives

in the late Pleistocene

The Panthera lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago to 11.75 to 0.97 million years ago,[6][33][34] and the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia.[35] Results of analyses differ in the phylogenetic relationship of the lion; it was thought to form a sister group with the jaguar (P. onca) that diverged 3.46 to 1.22 million years ago,[6] but also with the leopard (P. pardus) that diverged 3.1 to 1.95 million years ago[8][9] to 4.32 to 0.02 million years ago. Hybridisation between lion and snow leopard (P. uncia) ancestors possibly continued until about 2.1 million years ago.[34] The lion-leopard clade was distributed in the Asian and African Palearctic since at least the early Pliocene.[35] The earliest fossils recognisable as lions were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and are estimated to be up to 2 million years old.[33]

Estimates for the divergence time of the modern and cave lion lineages range from 529,000 to 392,000 years ago based on mutation rate per generation time of the modern lion. There is no evidence for gene flow between the two lineages, indicating that they did not share the same geographic area.[19] The Eurasian and American cave lions became extinct at the end of the last glacial period without mitochondrial descendants on other continents.[27][36][37] The modern lion was probably widely distributed in Africa during the Middle Pleistocene and started to diverge in sub-Saharan Africa during the Late Pleistocene. Lion populations in East and Southern Africa became separated from populations in West and North Africa when the equatorial rainforest expanded 183,500 to 81,800 years ago.[38] They shared a common ancestor probably between 98,000 and 52,000 years ago.[19] Due to the expansion of the Sahara between 83,100 and 26,600 years ago, lion populations in West and North Africa became separated. As the rainforest decreased and thus gave rise to more open habitats, lions moved from West to Central Africa. Lions from North Africa dispersed to southern Europe and Asia between 38,800 and 8,300 years ago.[38]

Extinction of lions in southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East interrupted gene flow between lion populations in Asia and Africa. Genetic evidence revealed numerous mutations in lion samples from East and Southern Africa, which indicates that this group has a longer evolutionary history than genetically less diverse lion samples from Asia and West and Central Africa.[39] A whole genome-wide sequence of lion samples showed that samples from West Africa shared alleles with samples from Southern Africa, and samples from Central Africa shared alleles with samples from Asia. This phenomenon indicates that Central Africa was a melting pot of lion populations after they had become isolated, possibly migrating through corridors in the Nile Basin during the early Holocene.[19]

Hybrids

Further information: Panthera hybrid

In zoos, lions have been bred with tigers to create hybrids for the curiosity of visitors or for scientific purpose.[40][41] The liger is bigger than a lion and a tiger, whereas most tigons are relatively small compared to their parents because of reciprocal gene effects.[42][43] The leopon is a hybrid between a lion and leopard.[44]

Description

A tuft at the end of the tail is a distinct characteristic of the lion.

Skeleton

The lion is a muscular, broad-chested cat with a short, rounded head, a reduced neck, and round ears; males have broader heads. The fur varies in colour from light buff to silvery grey, yellowish red, and dark brown. The colours of the underparts are generally lighter. A new-born lion has dark spots, which fade as the cub reaches adulthood, although faint spots may still be seen on the legs and underparts.[45][46] The tail of all lions ends in a dark, hairy tuft that, in some lions, conceals an approximately 5 mm (0.20 in)-long, hard "spine" or "spur" that is formed from the final, fused sections of tail bone. The functions of the spur are unknown. The tuft is absent at birth and develops at around 5+1⁄2 months of age. It is readily identifiable at the age of seven months.[47]

Its skull is very similar to that of the tiger, although the frontal region is usually more depressed and flattened and has a slightly shorter postorbital region and broader nasal openings than those of the tiger. Due to the amount of skull variation in the two species, usually only the structure of the lower jaw can be used as a reliable indicator of species.[48][49]

The skeletal muscles of the lion make up 58.8% of its body weight and represent the highest percentage of muscles among mammals.[50][51]

Size

Among felids, the lion is second only to the tiger in size.[46] The size and weight of adult lions vary across its range and habitats.[52][53][54][55] Accounts of a few individuals that were larger than average exist from Africa and India.[45][56][57][58]

AverageFemale lionsMale lions

Head-and-body length160–184 cm (63–72 in)[59]184–208 cm (72–82 in)[59]

Tail length72–89.5 cm (28.3–35.2 in)[59]82.5–93.5 cm (32.5–36.8 in)[59]

Weight118.37–143.52 kg (261.0–316.4 lb) in Southern Africa,[52]

119.5 kg (263 lb) in East Africa,[52]

110–120 kg (240–260 lb) in India[53]186.55–225 kg (411.3–496.0 lb) in Southern Africa,[52]

174.9 kg (386 lb) in East Africa,[52]

160–190 kg (350–420 lb) in India[53]

Mane

A six-year-old male in Phinda Private Game Reserve

Male in Pendjari National Park

The male lion's mane is the most recognisable feature of the species.[11] It may have evolved around 320,000–190,000 years ago.[60] It grows downwards and backwards, covering most of the head, neck, shoulders, and chest. The mane is typically brownish and tinged with yellow, rust, and black hairs.[46] It starts growing when lions enter adolescence, when testosterone levels increase, and reach their full size at around four years old.[61] Cool ambient temperatures in European and North American zoos may result in a heavier mane.[62] On average, Asiatic lions have sparser manes than African lions.[63]

This feature likely evolved to signal the fitness of males to females. The mane of the lion is thought to serve mating purposes. Males with darker manes appear to have greater reproductive success and are more likely to remain in a pride for longer. They have longer and thicker hair and higher testosterone levels, but they are also more vulnerable to heat stress.[64][65] Unlike in other felid species, female lions consistently interact with multiple males at once.[66] Another hypothesis suggests that the mane also serves to protect the neck in fights, but this is disputed.[67][68] During fights, including those involving maneless females and adolescents, the neck is not targeted as much as the face, back, and hindquarters. Injured lions also begin to lose their manes.[69]

Almost all male lions in Pendjari National Park are either maneless or have very short manes.[70] Maneless lions have also been reported in Senegal, in Sudan's Dinder National Park and in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya.[71] Castrated lions often have little to no mane because the removal of the gonads inhibits testosterone production.[72]

Rarely, lionesses (in the wild and in captivity) have been observed to grow manes.[73][74] Increased testosterone may be the cause of maned lionesses reported in northern Botswana.[75]

Colour variation

Further information: White lion

The white lion is a rare morph with a genetic condition called leucism, which is caused by a double recessive allele. It is not albino; it has normal pigmentation in the eyes and skin. White lions have occasionally been encountered in and around Kruger National Park and the adjacent Timbavati Private Game Reserve in eastern South Africa. They were removed from the wild in the 1970s, thus decreasing the white lion gene pool. Nevertheless, 17 births have been recorded in five prides between 2007 and 2015.[76] White lions are selected for breeding in captivity.[77] They have reportedly been bred in camps in South Africa for use as trophies to be killed during canned hunts.[78]

Distribution and habitat

Lion in Gir National Park

African lions live in scattered populations across sub-Saharan Africa. The lion prefers grassy plains and savannahs, scrub bordering rivers, and open woodlands with bushes. It rarely enters closed forests. On Mount Elgon, the lion has been recorded up to an elevation of 3,600 m (11,800 ft) and close to the snow line on Mount Kenya.[45] Savannahs with an annual rainfall of 300 to 1,500 mm (12 to 59 in) make up the majority of lion habitat in Africa, estimated at 3,390,821 km2 (1,309,203 sq mi) at most, but remnant populations are also present in tropical moist forests in West Africa and montane forests in East Africa.[79] The Asiatic lion now survives only in and around Gir National Park in Gujarat, western India. Its habitat is a mixture of dry savannah forest and very dry, deciduous scrub forest.[12]

Historical range

In Africa, the range of the lion originally spanned most of the central African rainforest zone and the Sahara desert.[80] In the 1960s, it became extinct in North Africa, except in the southern part of Sudan.[81][79][82]

In southern Europe and Asia, the lion once ranged in regions where climatic conditions supported an abundance of prey.[83] In Greece, it was common, as reported by Herodotus in 480 BC; it was considered rare by 300 BC and extirpated by AD 100.[45] It was present in the Caucasus until the 10th century.[49] It lived in Palestine until the Middle Ages and in Southwest Asia until the late 19th century. By the late 19th century, it had been extirpated in most of Turkey.[84] The last live lion in Iran was sighted in 1942, about 65 km (40 mi) northwest of Dezful,[85] although the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of the Karun river in Khuzestan province in 1944.[86] It once ranged from Sind and Punjab in Pakistan to Bengal and the Narmada River in central India.[87]

Behaviour and ecology

Lions spend much of their time resting; they are inactive for about twenty hours per day.[88] Although lions can be active at any time, their activity generally peaks after dusk with a period of socialising, grooming, and defecating. Intermittent bursts of activity continue until dawn, when hunting most often takes place. They spend an average of two hours a day walking and fifty minutes eating.[89]

Group organisation

Lion pride in Etosha National Park

A lioness (left) and two males in Masai Mara

The lion is the most social of all wild felid species, living in groups of related individuals with their offspring. Such a group is called a "pride". Groups of male lions are called "coalitions".[90] Females form the stable social unit in a pride and do not tolerate outside females.[91] The majority of females remain in their birth prides while all males and some females will disperse.[92] The average pride consists of around 15 lions, including several adult females and up to four males and their cubs of both sexes. Large prides, consisting of up to 30 individuals, have been observed.[93] The sole exception to this pattern is the Tsavo lion pride that always has just one adult male.[94] Prides act as fission–fusion societies, and members will split into subgroups that keep in contact with roars.[95]

Nomadic lions range widely and move around sporadically, either in pairs or alone.[90] Pairs are more frequent among related males. A lion may switch lifestyles; nomads can become residents and vice versa.[96] Interactions between prides and nomads tend to be hostile, although pride females in estrus allow nomadic males to approach them.[97] Males spend years in a nomadic phase before gaining residence in a pride.[98] A study undertaken in the Serengeti National Park revealed that nomadic coalitions gain residency at between 3.5 and 7.3 years of age.[99] In Kruger National Park, dispersing male lions move more than 25 km (16 mi) away from their natal pride in search of their own territory. Female lions stay closer to their natal pride. Therefore, female lions in an area are more closely related to each other than male lions in the same area.[100]

The evolution of sociability in lions was likely driven both by high population density and the clumped resources of savannah habitats. The larger the pride, the more high-quality territory they can defend; "hotspots" being near river confluences, where the cats have better access to water, prey and shelter (via vegetation).[101][102] The area occupied by a pride is called a "pride area" whereas that occupied by a nomad is a "range".[90] Males associated with a pride patrol the fringes.[46] Both males and females defend the pride against intruders, but the male lion is better-suited for this purpose due to its stockier, more powerful build. Some individuals consistently lead the defense against intruders, while others lag behind.[103] Lions tend to assume specific roles in the pride; slower-moving individuals may provide other valuable services to the group.[104] Alternatively, there may be rewards associated with being a leader that fends off intruders; the rank of lionesses in the pride is reflected in these responses.[105] The male or males associated with the pride must defend their relationship with the pride from outside males who may attempt to usurp them.[96] Dominance hierarchies do not appear to exist among individuals of either sex in a pride.[106]

Asiatic lion prides differ in group composition. Male Asiatic lions are solitary or associate with up to three males, forming a loose pride while females associate with up to 12 other females, forming a stronger pride together with their cubs. Female and male lions associate only when mating.[107] Coalitions of males hold territory for a longer time than single lions. Males in coalitions of three or four individuals exhibit a pronounced hierarchy, in which one male dominates the others and mates more frequently.[108]

Hunting and diet

Male lion and cub feeding on a Cape buffalo in Sabi Sand Game Reserve

Four lionesses catching a buffalo in the Serengeti

A skeletal mount of a lion attacking a common eland, on display at The Museum of Osteology

The lion is a generalist hypercarnivore and is considered to be both an apex and keystone predator due to its wide prey spectrum.[109][110] Its prey consists mainly of ungulates particularly blue wildebeest, plains zebra, African buffalo, common warthog, gemsbok and giraffe.[111] In India, chital and sambar deer are the most common wild prey,[46][111][112] while livestock contributes significantly to lion kills outside protected areas.[113] They usually avoid fully grown adult elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamus and small prey like dik-dik, hyraxes, hares and monkeys.[111][114] Unusual prey include porcupines and small reptiles. Lions kill other predators but seldom consume them.[115]

Young lions first display stalking behaviour at around three months of age, although they do not participate in hunting until they are almost a year old and begin to hunt effectively when nearing the age of two.[116] Single lions are capable of bringing down zebra and wildebeest, while larger prey like buffalo and giraffe are riskier.[96] In Chobe National Park, large prides have been observed hunting African bush elephants up to around 15 years old in exceptional cases, with the victims being calves, juveniles, and even subadults.[117][118] In typical hunts, each lioness has a favoured position in the group, either stalking prey on the "wing", then attacking, or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey fleeing from other lionesses. Males attached to prides do not usually participate in group hunting.[119] Some evidence suggests, however, that males are just as successful as females; they are typically solo hunters who ambush prey in small bushland.[120] They may join in the hunting of large, slower-moving prey like buffalo; and even hunt them on their own. Moderately-sized hunting groups generally have higher success rates than lone females and larger groups.[121]

Lions are not particularly known for their stamina. For instance, a lioness's heart comprises only 0.57% of her body weight and a male's is about 0.45% of his body weight, whereas a hyena's heart comprises almost 1% of its body weight.[122] Thus, lions run quickly only in short bursts at about 48–59 km/h (30–37 mph) and need to be close to their prey before starting the attack.[123] One study in 2018 recorded a lion running at a top speed of 74.1 km/h (46.0 mph).[124] They take advantage of factors that reduce visibility; many kills take place near some form of cover or at night.[125] The lion's attack is short and powerful; it attempts to catch prey with a fast rush and final leap, usually pulls it down by the rump, and kills with a clamping bite to the throat or muzzle. It can hold the prey's throat for up to 13 minutes, until the prey stops moving.[126]

Lions typically consume prey at the location of the hunt but sometimes drag large prey into cover.[127] They tend to squabble over kills, particularly the males. Cubs suffer most when food is scarce but otherwise all pride members eat their fill, including old and crippled lions, which can live on leftovers.[96] Large kills are shared more widely among pride members.[128] An adult lioness requires an average of about 5 kg (11 lb) of meat per day while males require about 7 kg (15 lb).[129] Lions gorge themselves and eat up to 30 kg (66 lb) in one session.[86] If it is unable to consume all of the kill, it rests for a few hours before continuing to eat. On hot days, the pride retreats to shade with one or two males standing guard.[127] Lions defend their kills from scavengers such as vultures and hyenas.[96]

Lions scavenge on carrion when the opportunity arises, scavenging animals dead from natural causes such as disease or those that were killed by other predators. Scavenging lions keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, which indicate the death or distress of an animal.[130] Most carrion on which both hyenas and lions feed upon are killed by hyenas rather than lions.[55] Carrion is thought to provide a large part of lion diet.[131]

Predatory competition

Lioness chasing a spotted hyena in Kruger National Park

Lioness stealing a kill from a leopard in Kruger National Park

Lions and spotted hyenas occupy a similar ecological niche and compete for prey and carrion; a review of data across several studies indicates a dietary overlap of 58.6%.[132] Lions typically ignore hyenas unless they are on a kill or are being harassed, while the latter tend to visibly react to the presence of lions with or without the presence of food. In the Ngorongoro crater, lions subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas, causing them to increase their kill rate.[133] In Botswana's Chobe National Park, the situation is reversed as hyenas there frequently challenge lions and steal their kills, obtaining food from 63% of all lion kills.[134] When confronted on a kill, hyenas may either leave or wait patiently at a distance of 30–100 m (98–328 ft) until the lions have finished.[135] Hyenas may feed alongside lions and force them off a kill. The two species attack one another even when there is no food involved for no apparent reason.[136] Lions can account for up to 71% of hyena deaths in Etosha National Park. Hyenas have adapted by frequently mobbing lions that enter their home ranges.[137] When the lion population in Kenya's Masai Mara National Reserve declined, the spotted hyena population increased rapidly.[138]

Lions tend to dominate cheetahs and leopards, steal their kills and kill their cubs and even adults when given the chance.[139] Cheetahs often lose their kills to lions or other predators.[140] A study in the Serengeti ecosystem revealed that lions killed at least 17 of 125 cheetah cubs born between 1987 and 1990.[141] Cheetahs avoid their competitors by hunting at different times and habitats.[142] Leopards take refuge in trees, but lionesses occasionally attempt to climb up and retrieve their kills.[143]

Lions similarly dominate African wild dogs, taking their kills and slaying pups or adult dogs. Population densities of wild dogs are low in areas where lions are more abundant.[144] However, there are a few reported cases of old and wounded lions falling prey to wild dogs.[145][146]

Reproduction and life cycle

Lions mating at Masai Mara

A lion cub in Masai Mara

Most lionesses reproduce by the time they are four years of age.[147] Lions do not mate at a specific time of year and the females are polyestrous.[148] Like those of other cats, the male lion's penis has spines that point backward. During withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause ovulation.[149][150] A lioness may mate with more than one male when she is in heat.[151] Lions of both sexes may be involved in group homosexual and courtship activities. Males will also head-rub and roll around with each other before mounting each other.[152][153] Generation length of the lion is about seven years.[154] The average gestation period is around 110 days;[148] the female gives birth to a litter of between one and four cubs in a secluded den, which may be a thicket, a reed-bed, a cave, or some other sheltered area, usually away from the pride. She will often hunt alone while the cubs are still helpless, staying relatively close to the den.[155] Lion cubs are born blind, their eyes opening around seven days after birth. They weigh 1.2–2.1 kg (2.6–4.6 lb) at birth and are almost helpless, beginning to crawl a day or two after birth and walking around three weeks of age.[156] To avoid a buildup of scent attracting the attention of predators, the lioness moves her cubs to a new den site several times a month, carrying them one-by-one by the nape of the neck.[155]

Usually, the mother does not integrate herself and her cubs back into the pride until the cubs are six to eight weeks old.[155] Sometimes the introduction to pride life occurs earlier, particularly if other lionesses have given birth at about the same time.[96][157] When first introduced to the rest of the pride, lion cubs lack confidence when confronted with adults other than their mother. They soon begin to immerse themselves in the pride life, however, playing among themselves or attempting to initiate play with the adults.[157] Lionesses with cubs of their own are more likely to be tolerant of another lioness's cubs than lionesses without cubs. Male tolerance of the cubs varies—one male could patiently let the cubs play with his tail or his mane, while another may snarl and bat the cubs away.[158]

Video of a lioness and her cubs in Phinda Reserve

Pride lionesses often synchronise their reproductive cycles and communal rearing and suckling of the young, which suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride. The synchronisation of births is advantageous because the cubs grow to being roughly the same size and have an equal chance of survival, and sucklings are not dominated by older cubs.[96][157] Weaning occurs after six or seven months. Male lions reach maturity at about three years of age and at four to five years are capable of challenging and displacing adult males associated with another pride. They begin to age and weaken at between 10 and 15 years of age at the latest.[159]

When one or more new males oust the previous males associated with a pride, the victors often kill any existing young cubs, perhaps because females do not become fertile and receptive until their cubs mature or die. Females often fiercely defend their cubs from a usurping male but are rarely successful unless a group of three or four mothers within a pride join forces against the male.[160] Cubs also die from starvation and abandonment, and predation by leopards, hyenas and wild dogs. Male cubs are excluded from their maternal pride when they reach maturity at around two or three years of age,[161] while some females may leave when they reach the age of two.[92] When a new male lion takes over a pride, adolescents both male and female may be evicted.[162]

Health and mortality

Lions in a tree near Lake Nakuru

Lions may live 12–17 years.[46] Although adult lions have no natural predators, evidence suggests most die violently from attacks by humans or other lions.[163] Lions often inflict serious injuries on members of other prides they encounter in territorial disputes or members of the home pride when fighting at a kill.[164] Crippled lions and cubs may fall victim to hyenas and leopards or be trampled by buffalo or elephants. Careless lions may be maimed when hunting prey.[165] Nile crocodiles may also kill and eat lions, evidenced by the occasional lion claw found in crocodile stomachs.[166]

Ticks commonly infest the ears, neck and groin regions of the lions.[167][168] Adult forms of several tapeworm species of the genus Taenia have been isolated from lion intestines, having been ingested as larvae in antelope meat.[169] Lions in the Ngorongoro Crater were afflicted by an outbreak of stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) in 1962, resulting in lions becoming emaciated and covered in bloody, bare patches. Lions sought unsuccessfully to evade the biting flies by climbing trees or crawling into hyena burrows; many died or migrated and the local population dropped from 70 to 15 individuals.[170] A more recent outbreak in 2001 killed six lions.[171]

Captive lions have been infected with canine distemper virus (CDV) since at least the mid-1970s.[172] CDV is spread by domestic dogs and other carnivores; a 1994 outbreak in Serengeti National Park resulted in many lions developing neurological symptoms such as seizures. During the outbreak, several lions died from pneumonia and encephalitis.[173] Feline immunodeficiency virus and lentivirus also affect captive lions.[174][175]

Communication

Head rubbing among pride members is a common social behaviour.

When resting, lion socialisation occurs through a number of behaviours; the animal's expressive movements are highly developed. The most common peaceful, tactile gestures are head rubbing and social licking,[176] which have been compared with the role of allogrooming among primates.[177] Head rubbing, nuzzling the forehead, face and neck against another lion appears to be a form of greeting[178] and is seen often after an animal has been apart from others or after a fight or confrontation. Males tend to rub other males, while cubs and females rub females.[179] Social licking often occurs in tandem with head rubbing; it is generally mutual and the recipient appears to express pleasure. The head and neck are the most common parts of the body licked; this behaviour may have arisen out of utility because lions cannot lick these areas themselves.[180]

Lion roar

Duration: 10 seconds.0:10

A captive lion roaring

Problems playing this file? See media help.

Lions have an array of facial expressions and body postures that serve as visual gestures.[181] A common facial expression is the "grimace face" or flehmen response, which a lion makes when sniffing chemical signals and involves an open mouth with bared teeth, raised muzzle, wrinkled nose, closed eyes and relaxed ears.[182] Lions also use chemical and visual marking;[181] males spray urine[183] and scrape plots of ground and objects within the territory.[181]

The lion's repertoire of vocalisations is large; variations in intensity and pitch appear to be central to communication. Most lion vocalisations are variations of growling, snarling, meowing and roaring. Other sounds produced include purring, puffing, bleating and humming. Roaring is used to advertise its presence. Lions most often roar at night, a sound that can be heard from a distance of 8 kilometres (5 mi).[184] They tend to roar in a very characteristic manner starting with a few deep, long roars that subside into grunts.[185][186]

Conservation

The lion is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List. The Indian population is listed on CITES Appendix I and the African population on CITES Appendix II.[2]

In Africa

Video of a wild lioness

Several large and well-managed protected areas in Africa host large lion populations. Where an infrastructure for wildlife tourism has been developed, cash revenue for park management and local communities is a strong incentive for lion conservation.[2] Most lions now live in East and Southern Africa; their numbers are rapidly decreasing, and fell by an estimated 30–50% in the late half of the 20th century. Primary causes of the decline include disease and human interference.[2] In 1975, it was estimated that since the 1950s, lion numbers had decreased by half to 200,000 or fewer.[187] Estimates of the African lion population range between 16,500 and 47,000 living in the wild in 2002–2004.[188][81]

In the Republic of the Congo, Odzala-Kokoua National Park was considered a lion stronghold in the 1990s. By 2014, no lions were recorded in the protected area so the population is considered locally extinct.[189] The West African lion population is isolated from the one in Central Africa, with little or no exchange of breeding individuals. In 2015, it was estimated that this population consists of about 400 animals, including fewer than 250 mature individuals. They persist in three protected areas in the region, mostly in one population in the W A P protected area complex, shared by Benin, Burkina Faso and Niger. This population is listed as Critically Endangered.[13] Field surveys in the WAP ecosystem revealed that lion occupancy is lowest in the W National Park, and higher in areas with permanent staff and thus better protection.[190]

A population occurs in Cameroon's Waza National Park, where between approximately 14 and 21 animals persisted as of 2009. In addition, 50 to 150 lions are estimated to be present in Burkina Faso's Arly-Singou ecosystem. In 2015, an adult male lion and a female lion were sighted in Ghana's Mole National Park. These were the first sightings of lions in the country in 39 years. In the same year, a population of up to 200 lions that was previously thought to have been extirpated was filmed in the Alatash National Park, Ethiopia, close to the Sudanese border.

In 2005, Lion Conservation Strategies were developed for West and Central Africa, and or East and Southern Africa. The strategies seek to maintain suitable habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base for lions, reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations, and make lion–human coexistence sustainable. Lion depredation on livestock is significantly reduced in areas where herders keep livestock in improved enclosures. Such measures contribute to mitigating human–lion conflict.

In Asia

The last refuge of the Asiatic lion population is the 1,412 km2 (545 sq mi) Gir National Park and surrounding areas in the region of Saurashtra or Kathiawar Peninsula in Gujarat State, India. The population has risen from approximately 180 lions in 1974 to about 400 in 2010.[199] It is geographically isolated, which can lead to inbreeding and reduced genetic diversity. Since 2008, the Asiatic lion has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. By 2015, the population had grown to 523 individuals inhabiting an area of 7,000 km2 (2,700 sq mi) in Saurashtra. The Asiatic Lion Census conducted in 2017 recorded about 650 individuals.

The presence of numerous human habitations close to the National Park results in conflict between lions, local people and their livestock. Some consider the presence of lions a benefit, as they keep populations of crop damaging herbivores in check. The establishment of a second, independent Asiatic lion population in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary, located in Madhya Pradesh was planned but in 2017, the Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project seemed unlikely to be implemented.

Captive breeding

Lions imported to Europe before the middle of the 19th century were possibly foremost Barbary lions from North Africa, or Cape lions from Southern Africa. Another 11 animals thought to be Barbary lions kept in Addis Ababa Zoo are descendants of animals owned by Emperor Haile Selassie. WildLink International in collaboration with Oxford University launched an ambitious International Barbary Lion Project with the aim of identifying and breeding Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction into a national park in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. However, a genetic analysis showed that the captive lions at Addis Ababa Zoo were not Barbary lions, but rather closely related to wild lions in Chad and Cameroon.

In 1982, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums started a Species Survival Plan for the Asiatic lion to increase its chances of survival. In 1987, it was found that most lions in North American zoos were hybrids between African and Asiatic lions. Breeding programs need to note origins of the participating animals to avoid cross-breeding different subspecies and thus reducing their conservation value. Captive breeding of lions was halted to eliminate individuals of unknown origin and pedigree. Wild-born lions were imported to American zoos from Africa between 1989 and 1995. Breeding was continued in 1998 in the frame of an African lion Species Survival Plan.

About 77% of the captive lions registered in the International Species Information System in 2006 were of unknown origin; these animals might have carried genes that are extinct in the wild and may therefore be important to the maintenance of the overall genetic variability of the lion.

Interactions with humans

Lions are part of a group of exotic animals that have been central to zoo exhibits since the late 18th century. Although many modern zoos are more selective about their exhibits, there are more than 1,000 African and 100 Asiatic lions in zoos and wildlife parks around the world. They are considered an ambassador species and are kept for tourism, education and conservation purposes. Lions can live over twenty years in captivity; for example, three sibling lions at the Honolulu Zoo lived to the age of 22 in 2007.

The first European "zoos" spread among noble and royal families in the 13th century, and until the 17th century were called seraglios. At that time, they came to be called menageries, an extension of the cabinet of curiosities. They spread from France and Italy during the Renaissance to the rest of Europe. In England, although the seraglio tradition was less developed, lions were kept at the Tower of London in a seraglio established by King John in the 13th century; this was probably stocked with animals from an earlier menagerie started in 1125 by Henry I at his hunting lodge in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, where according to William of Malmesbury lions had been stocked.

Lions were kept in cramped and squalid conditions at London Zoo until a larger lion house with roomier cages was built in the 1870s. Further changes took place in the early 20th century when Carl Hagenbeck designed enclosures with concrete "rocks", more open space and a moat instead of bars, more closely resembling a natural habitat. Hagenbeck designed lion enclosures for both Melbourne Zoo and Sydney's Taronga Zoo; although his designs were popular, the use of bars and caged enclosures prevailed in many zoos until the 1960s. In the late 20th century, larger, more natural enclosures and the use of wire mesh or laminated glass instead of lowered dens allowed visitors to come closer than ever to the animals; some attractions such as the Cat Forest/Lion Overlook of Oklahoma City Zoological Park placed the den on ground level, higher than visitors.

Lion taming has been part of both established circuses and individual acts such as Siegfried & Roy. The practice began in the early 19th century by Frenchman Henri Martin and American Isaac Van Amburgh, who both toured widely and whose techniques were copied by a number of followers.[225] Van Amburgh performed before Queen Victoria in 1838 when he toured Great Britain. Martin composed a pantomime titled Les Lions de Mysore ("the lions of Mysore"), an idea Amburgh quickly borrowed. These acts eclipsed equestrianism acts as the central display of circus shows and entered public consciousness in the early 20th century with cinema. In demonstrating the superiority of human over animal, lion taming served a purpose similar to animal fights of previous centuries. The ultimate proof of a tamer's dominance and control over a lion is demonstrated by the placing of the tamer's head in the lion's mouth. The now-iconic lion tamer's chair was possibly first used by American Clyde Beatty (1903–1965).

Hunting and games

Lion hunting has occurred since ancient times and was often a royal tradition, intended to demonstrate the power of the king over nature. Such hunts took place in a reserved area in front of an audience. The monarch was accompanied by his men and controls were put in place to increase their safety and ease of killing. The earliest surviving record of lion hunting is an ancient Egyptian inscription dated circa 1380 BC that mentions Pharaoh Amenhotep III killing 102 lions in ten years "with his own arrows". The Assyrian emperor Ashurbanipal had one of his lion hunts depicted on a sequence of Assyrian palace reliefs c. 640 BC, known as the Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal. Lions were also hunted during the Mughal Empire, where Emperor Jahangir is said to have excelled at it. In Ancient Rome, lions were kept by emperors for hunts, gladiator fights and executions.

The Maasai people have traditionally viewed the killing of lions as a rite of passage. Historically, lions were hunted by individuals, however, due to reduced lion populations, elders discourage solo lion hunts. During the European colonisation of Africa in the 19th century, the hunting of lions was encouraged because they were considered pests and lion skins were sold for £1 each. The widely reproduced imagery of the heroic hunter chasing lions would dominate a large part of the century. Trophy hunting of lions in recent years has been met with controversy, notably with the killing of Cecil the lion in mid-2015.

Man-eating

Lions do not usually hunt humans but some (usually males) seem to seek them out. One well-publicised case is the Tsavo maneaters; in 1898, 28 officially recorded railway workers building the Uganda Railway were taken by lions over nine months during the construction of a bridge in Kenya. The hunter who killed the lions wrote a book detailing the animals' predatory behaviour; they were larger than normal and lacked manes, and one seemed to suffer from tooth decay. The infirmity theory, including tooth decay, is not favoured by all researchers; an analysis of teeth and jaws of man-eating lions in museum collections suggests that while tooth decay may explain some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans. Sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating but the behaviour is not unusual, nor necessarily aberrant.

Lions' proclivity for man-eating has been systematically examined. American and Tanzanian scientists report that man-eating behaviour in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period. The incidents occurred near Selous Game Reserve in Rufiji River and in Lindi Region near the Mozambican border. While the expansion of villages into bush country is one concern, the authors argue conservation policy must mitigate the danger because in this case, conservation contributes directly to human deaths. Cases in Lindi in which lions seize humans from the centres of substantial villages have been documented. Another study of 1,000 people attacked by lions in southern Tanzania between 1988 and 2009 found that the weeks following the full moon, when there was less moonlight, were a strong indicator of increased night-time attacks on people.

According to Robert R. Frump, Mozambican refugees regularly crossing Kruger National Park, South Africa, at night are attacked and eaten by lions; park officials have said man-eating is a problem there. Frump said thousands may have been killed in the decades after apartheid sealed the park and forced refugees to cross the park at night. For nearly a century before the border was sealed, Mozambicans had regularly crossed the park in daytime with little harm.

Cultural significance

Lions carved on a rock weight, Jiroft culture, Iran, 3rd mil. BC

The lion is one of the most widely recognised animal symbols in human culture. It has been extensively depicted in sculptures and paintings, on national flags, and in contemporary films and literature. It appeared as a symbol for strength and nobility in cultures across Europe, Asia and Africa, despite incidents of attacks on people. The lion has been depicted as "king of the jungle" and "king of beasts", and thus became a popular symbol for royalty and stateliness. The lion is also used as a symbol of sporting teams.

Africa

Museum of Denmark

In sub-Saharan Africa, the lion has been a common character in stories, proverbs and dances, but rarely featured in visual arts. In some cultures, the lion symbolises power and royalty. In the Swahili language, the lion is known as simba which also means "aggressive", "king" and "strong". Some rulers had the word "lion" in their nickname. Sundiata Keita of the Mali Empire was called "Lion of Mali". The founder of the Waalo kingdom is said to have been raised by lions and returned to his people part-lion to unite them using the knowledge he learned from the lions.

In parts of West Africa, lions symbolised the top class of their social hierarchies. In more heavily forested areas where lions were rare, the leopard represented the top of the hierarchy. In parts of West and East Africa, the lion is associated with healing and provides the connection between seers and the supernatural. In other East African traditions, the lion represents laziness. In much of African folklore, the lion is portrayed as having low intelligence and is easily tricked by other animals.

The ancient Egyptians portrayed several of their war deities as lionesses, which they revered as fierce hunters. Egyptian deities associated with lions include Sekhmet, Bast, Mafdet, Menhit, Pakhet and Tefnut. These deities were often connected with the sun god Ra and his fierce heat, and their dangerous power was invoked to guard people or sacred places. The sphinx, a figure with a lion's body and the head of a human or other creature, represented a pharaoh or deity who had taken on this protective role.

Asia

Roaring and striding lion from the Throne Room of Nebuchadnezzar II, 6th century BC, from Babylon, Iraq

The lion was a prominent symbol in ancient Mesopotamia from Sumer up to Assyrian and Babylonian times, where it was strongly associated with kingship. Lions were among the major symbols of the goddess Inanna/Ishtar. The Lion of Babylon was the foremost symbol of the Babylonian Empire. The Lion of Judah is the biblical emblem of the tribe of Judah and the later Kingdom of Judah. Lions are frequently mentioned in the Bible, notably in the Book of Daniel, in which the eponymous hero refuses to worship King Darius and is forced to sleep in the lions' den where he is miraculously unharmed (Dan 6). In the Book of Judges, Samson kills a lion as he travels to visit a Philistine woman.(Judg 14).

Indo-Persian chroniclers regarded the lion as keeper of order in the realm of animals. The Sanskrit word mrigendra signifies a lion as king of animals in general or deer in particular. Narasimha, the man-lion, is one of ten avatars of the Hindu god Vishnu. Singh is an ancient Indian vedic name meaning "lion", dating back over 2,000 years. It was originally used only by Rajputs, a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste but is used by millions of Hindu Rajputs and more than twenty million Sikhs today. The Lion Capital of Ashoka, erected by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century CE, depicts four lions standing back to back. It was made the National Emblem of India in 1950. The lion is also symbolic for the Sinhalese people, the term derived from the Sanskrit Sinhala, meaning "of lions" while a sword-wielding lion is the central figure on the national flag of Sri Lanka.

The lion is a common motif in Chinese art; it was first used in art during the late Spring and Autumn period (fifth or sixth century BC) and became more popular during the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) when imperial guardian lions started to be placed in front of imperial palaces for protection. Because lions have never been native to China, early depictions were somewhat unrealistic; after the introduction of Buddhist art to China in the Tang dynasty after the sixth century AD, lions were usually depicted wingless with shorter, thicker bodies and curly manes. The lion dance is a traditional dance in Chinese culture in which performers in lion costumes mimic a lion's movements, often with musical accompaniment from cymbals, drums and gongs. They are performed at Chinese New Year, the August Moon Festival and other celebratory occasions for good luck.

Western world

Lion-headed figures and amulets were excavated in tombs in the Greek islands of Crete, Euboea, Rhodes, Paros and Chios. They are associated with the Egyptian deity Sekhmet and date to the early Iron Age between the 9th and 6th centuries BC. Tfhe lion is featured in several of Aesop's fables, notably The Lion and the Mouse. The Nemean lion was symbolic in ancient Greece and Rome, represented as the constellation and zodiac sign Leo, and described in mythology, where it was killed and worn by the hero Heracles, symbolising victory over death. Lancelot and Gawain were also heroes slaying lions in the Middle Ages. In some medieval stories, lions were portrayed as allies and companions. "Lion" was the nickname of several medieval warrior-rulers with a reputation for bravery, such as Richard the Lionheart.

Lions continue to appear in modern literature as characters including the messianic Aslan in the 1950 novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Chronicles of Narnia series by C. S. Lewis, and the comedic Cowardly Lion in L. Frank Baum's 1900 The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. Lion symbolism was used from the advent of cinema; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is Leo, which has been the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios since the 1920s. The 1966 film Born Free features Elsa the lioness and is based on the book Born Free published in 1960. The lion's role as king of the beasts has been used in the 1994 Disney animated feature film The Lion King.

Lions are frequently depicted on coats of arms, like on the coat of arms of Finland, either as a device on shields or as supporters, but the lioness is used much less frequently. The heraldic lion is particularly common in British arms. It is traditionally depicted in a great variety of attitudes, although within French heraldry only lions rampant are considered to be lions; felined figures in any other position are instead referred to as leopards

Albino Squirrel by Galimage PHOTOGRAPHY

17 1

Albinism is due to gene mutations that affect the production of pigmentation

True albino animals lack melanin and are white with no markings and with unpigmented pink eyes

Squirrels, white or otherwise, do not make good pets and under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 it is illegal to release grey squirrels or to allow them to escape into the wild once caught.

It is possible to find melanistic (black) squirrels in the UK as well, but these along with the albino variety are rare

Piebald Deer by Coco Venturin

3

To my surprise I finally found the elusive Piebald Deer at Fort Snelling State Park in Minneapolis. This is a genetic abnormality, causing patches of white across its body. The patchy look gives it a mixed up appearance, in which the patches, or lack of pigmentation almost make it"bald".

This image is taken from United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 25, Nos. 1-4, 1927 by Medical Heritage Library, Inc.

7