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Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
History
Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.
Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]
Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]
At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.
Phases
Launch
Main article: Rocket launch
See also: List of space launch system designs
Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.
A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.
A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.
Reaching space
The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.
For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.
Alternatives
Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
Leaving orbit
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Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit
Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)
Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.
However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.
Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.
Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.
Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.
Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.
Astrodynamics
Main article: Orbital mechanics
Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.
Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.
Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry
Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane
Transfer energy
The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]
Reentry
Main article: Atmospheric reentry
Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.
Landing
The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.
Recovery
After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.
Types
Uncrewed
See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft
Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars
The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)
Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.
Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.
Benefits
Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.
Telepresence
Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]
Human
Main article: Human spaceflight
ISS crew member stores samples
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.
Sub-orbital
Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight
The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.
Orbital
Main article: Orbital spaceflight
Apollo 6 heads into orbit
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary
Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight
Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.
Interstellar
Main article: Interstellar travel
Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic
Main article: Intergalactic travel
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.
Spacecraft
Main article: Spacecraft
An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface
Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.
The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.
Propulsion
Main article: Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.
Launch systems
Main article: Launch vehicle
Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.
Expendable
Main article: Expendable launch system
Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.
Reusable
Main article: Reusable launch system
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.
The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1
Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission
Columbia launches again on STS-2
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]
Challenges
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Space disasters
Main article: Space accidents and incidents
All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]
Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.
In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]
Weightlessness
Main article: Weightlessness
Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.
In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.
Radiation
Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]
Life support
Main article: Life support system
In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.
Space weather
Main article: Space weather
Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.
Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]
Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.
Environmental considerations
Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.
In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.
A business leader can be considered an oligarch if the following conditions are satisfied:
uses monopolistic tactics to dominate an industry;
possesses sufficient political power to promote their own interests; controls multiple businesses, which intensively coordinate their activities
More generally, an oligarch is a "member of an oligarchy; a person who is part of a small group holding power in a state".
The term is commonly used in the Western press to describe Russian business people. According to a study by journalist Alan Macleod on its use by the New York Times, CNN and Fox News, 98% of the mentions of countries linked to oligarchs were related to Russia (overwhelmingly) or countries of the former Soviet Union. American business people were very rarely referred to as oligarchs in the 150 articles included in the stud
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, also known as the "Toy Train", is a 610 mm narrow gauge railway that runs between New Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling in the Indian state of West Bengal, India. Built between 1879 and 1881, the railway is about 78 kilometres long. Its elevation level varies from about 100 metres at New Jalpaiguri to about 2,200 metres at Darjeeling. Four modern diesel locomotives handle most of the scheduled services; however the daily Kurseong-Darjeeling return service and the daily tourist trains from Darjeeling to Ghum (India's highest railway station) are handled by the vintage British-built B Class steam locomotives. The railway, along with the Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the Kalka-Shimla Railway, is listed as the Mountain Railways of India World Heritage Site. The headquarters of the railway is in the town of Kurseong. Operations between Siliguri and Kurseong have been temporarily suspended since 2010 following a Landslide at Tindharia.
HISTORY
A broad gauge railway connected Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Siliguri in 1878. Siliguri, at the base of the Himalayas, was connected to Darjeeling by a cart road (the present day Hill Cart Road) on which "Tonga services" (carriage services) were available. Franklin Prestage, an agent of Eastern Bengal Railway Company approached the government with a proposal of laying a steam tramway from Siliguri to Darjeeling. The proposal was accepted in 1879 following the positive report of a committee formed by Sir Ashley Eden, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal. Construction started the same year.
Gillanders Arbuthnot & Co. constructed the railway. The stretch from Siliguri to Kurseong was opened on 23 August 1880, while the official opening of the line up to Darjeeling was on 4 July 1881. Several engineering adjustments were made later in order to ease the gradient of the rails. Despite natural calamities, such as an earthquake in 1897 and a major cyclone in 1899, the DHR continued to improve with new extension lines being built in response to growing passenger and freight traffic. However, the DHR started to face competition from bus services that started operating over the Hill Cart Road, offering a shorter journey time. During World War II, the DHR played a vital role transporting military personnel and supplies to the numerous camps around Ghum and Darjeeling.
After the independence of India, the DHR was absorbed into Indian Railways and became a part of the Northeast Frontier Railway zone in 1958. In 1962, the line was realigned at Siliguri and extended by nearly 6 km to New Jalpaiguri (NJP) to meet the new broad gauge line there. DHR remained closed for 18 months during the hostile period of Gorkhaland Movement in 1988-89.
The line closed in 2011 due to a 6.8 Magnitude earthquake. The line is currently loss-making and in 2015, Rajah Banerjee, a local tea estate owner, has called for privatisation to encourage investment, which was fiercely resisted by unions.
WORLD HERITAGE SITE
DHR was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1999, only the second railway to have this honour bestowed upon it, the first one being Semmering Railway of Austria in 1998. To be nominated as World Heritage site on the World Heritage List, the particular site or property needs to fulfill a certain set of criteria, which are expressed in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention and its corresponding Operational Guidelines. The site must be of outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. The protection, management, authenticity and integrity of properties are also important considerations.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION
The DHR is justified by the following criteria:
Criterion II - The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway is an outstanding example of the influence of an innovative transportation system on the social and economic development of a multi-cultural region, which was to serve as a model for similar developments in many parts of the world.
Criterion IV - The development of railways in the 19th century had a profound influence on social and economic developments in many parts of the world. This process is illustrated in an exceptional and seminal fashion by the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.
AUTHENTICITY AND INTEGRITY
Since 1881, the original route has been retained in a remarkable condition. Only minimal interventions of an evolutionary nature, such as the reduction of loops, have been carried out. Most of the original steam locomotives are still in use. Like Tea and the Ghurka culture, the DHR has become not only an essential feature of the landscape but also an enduring part of the identity of Darjeeling.
MANAGEMENT AND LEGAL STATUS
The DHR and all its movable and immovable assets, including the authentic railway stations, the line, and the track vehicles, belong to the Government of India entrusted to the Ministry of Railways. The Northeast Frontier Railway documented all the elements of the DHR in a comprehensive register. Apart from that, it handles the day-to-day maintenance and management. But moreover, several programs, divisions and departments of the Indian Railways are responsible for operating, maintaining and repairing the DHR. This includes technical as well as non-technical work. In principle, the only two legal protection mechanisms that apply to the conservation of the DHR are the provisions of the 1989 Railway Act and that it is a public property which is state-owned and therefore protected.
THE ROUTE
The railway line basically follows the Hill Cart Road which is partially the same as National Highway 55. Usually, the track is simply on the road side. In case of landslides both track and road might be affected. As long parts of the road are flanked with buildings, the railway line often rather resembles urban tramway tracks than an overland line.
To warn residents and car drivers about the approaching train, engines are equipped with very loud horns that even drown horns of Indian trucks and buses. Trains honk almost without pause.
Loops and Z-Reverses (or "zig-zag"s)
One of the main difficulties faced by the DHR was the steepness of the climb. Features called loops and Z-Reverses were designed as an integral part of the system at different points along the route to achieve a comfortable gradient for the stretches in between them. When the train moves forwards, reverses and then moves forward again, climbing a slope each time while doing so, it gains height along the side of the hill.
STATIONS
NEW JALPAIGURI JUNCTION (NJP)
New Jalpaiguri is the railway station which was extended to the south in 1964 to meet the new broad gauge to Assam. Where the two met, New Jalpaiguri was created.
SILIGURI TOWN STATION
Siliguri Town was original southern terminus of the line.
SIIGURI JUNCTION
Siliguri Junction became a major station only when a new metre-gauge line was built to Assam in the early 1950s
SUKNA STATION
This station marks the change in the landscape from the flat plains to the wooded lower slopes of the mountains. The gradient of the railway changes dramatically.
LOOP 1 (now removed)
Loop No.1 was in the woods above Sukna. It was removed after flood damage in 1991. The site is now lost in the forest.
RANGTONG STATION
A short distance above Rangtong there is a water tank. This was a better position for the tank than in the station, both in terms of water supply and distance between other water tanks.
LOOP 2 (now removed)
When Loop 2 was removed in 1942, again following flood damage, a new reverse, No.1, was added, creating the longest reverse run.
REVERSE 1
LOOP 3
Loop No.3 is at Chunbatti. This is now the lowest loop.
REVERSE 2 & 3
Reverses No.2 & 3 are between Chunbatti and Tindharia.
TINDHARIA STATION
This is a major station on the line as below the station is the workshops. There is also an office for the engineers and a large locomotive shed, all on a separate site.
Immediately above the station are three sidings; these were used to inspect the carriage while the locomotive was changed, before the train continued towards Darjeeling.
LOOP 4
Agony Point is the name given to loop No.4. It comes from the shape of the loop which comes to an apex which is the tightest curve on the line.
GAYABARI
REVERSE 6
Reverse No.6 is the last reverse on the climb.
MAHANADI STATION
KURSEONG STATION
There is a shed here and a few sidings adjacent to the main line, but the station proper is a dead end. Up trains must reverse out of the station (across a busy road junction) before they can continue on their climb. It is said that the station was built this way so that the train could enter a secure yard and stay there while the passengers left the train for refreshments.
Above Kurseong station, the railway runs through the bazaar. Trains skirt the front of shops and market stalls on this busy stretch of road.
SONADA STATION
Sonada is a small station which serves town of sonada on Darjeeling Himalayan railway. It is on Siliguri - Darjeeling national highway (NH 55).
JOREBUNGALOW STATION
This is a small location near Darjeeling and a railway station on Darjeeling Himalayan railway. Jorebungalow was store point for tea to Calcutta. This is a strategical place to connect Darjeeling to rest of the country.
GHUM STATION
Ghum, summit of the line and highest station in India. Now includes a museum on the first floor of the station building with larger exhibits in the old goods yard. Once this was the railway station at highest altitude overall and is the highest altitude station for narrow gauge railway.
BATASIA LOOP
The loop is 5 kilometres from Darjeeling, below Ghum. There is also a memorial to the Gorkha soldiers of the Indian Army who sacrificed their lives after the Indian Independence in 1947. From the Batasia Loop one can get a panoramic view of Darjeeling town with the Kanchenjunga and other snowy mountains in the back-drop.
DARJEELING STATION
The farthest reach of the line was to Darjeeling Bazaar, a goods-only line and now lost under the road surface and small buildings.
LOCOMOTIVES
CURRENT
STEAM
All the steam locomotives currently in use on the railway are of the "B" Class, a design built by Sharp, Stewart and Company and later the North British Locomotive Company, between 1889 and 1925. A total of 34 were built, but by 2005 only 12 remained on the railway and in use (or under repair).
In 2002, No. 787 was rebuilt with oil firing. This was originally installed to work on the same principle as that used on Nilgiri Mountain Railway No.37395. A diesel-powered generator was fitted to operate the oil burner and an electrically-driven feed pump, and a diesel-powered compressor was fitted to power the braking system. Additionally, the locomotive was fitted with a feedwater heater. The overall result was a dramatic change in the appearance of the locomotive. However, the trials of the locomotive were disappointing and it never entered regular service. In early 2011, it was in Tindharia Works awaiting reconversion to coal-firing.
In March 2001, No.794 was transferred to the Matheran Hill Railway to allow a "Joy Train" (steam-hauled tourist train) to be operated on that railway. It did not, however, enter service there until May 2002.
DIESEL
Four diesel locomotives are in use: Nos. 601-2, 604 and 605 of the NDM6 class transferred from the Matheran Hill Railway.
PAST
In 1910 the railway purchased the third Garratt locomotive built, a D Class 0-4-0+0-4-0.
Only one DHR steam locomotive has been taken out of India, No.778 (originally No.19). After many years out of use at the Hesston Steam Railway, it was sold to an enthusiast in the UK and restored to working order. It is now based on a private railway (The Beeches Light Railway) in Oxfordshire but has run on the Ffestiniog Railway, the Launceston Steam Railway and the Leighton Buzzard Light Railway.
IN POPULAR CULTURE
The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway has long been viewed with affection and enthusiasm by travellers to the region and the Earl of Ronaldshay gave the following description of a journey in the early 1920s:
"Siliguri is palpably a place of meeting . . The discovery that here the metre gauge system ends and the two foot gauge of the Darjeeling-Himalayan railway begins, confirms what all these things hint at... One steps into a railway carriage which might easily be mistaken for a toy, and the whimsical idea seizes hold of one that one has accidentally stumbled into Lilliput. With a noisy fuss out of all proportion to its size the engine gives a jerk - and starts... No special mechanical device such as a rack is employed - unless, indeed, one can so describe the squat and stolid hill-man who sits perched over the forward buffers of the engine and scatters sand on the rails when the wheels of the engine lose their grip of the metals and race, with the noise of a giant spring running down when the control has been removed.
Sometimes we cross our own track after completing the circuit of a cone, at others we zigzag backwards and forwards; but always we climb at a steady gradient - so steady that if one embarks in a trolley at Ghum, the highest point on the line, the initial push supplies all the energy necessary to carry one to the bottom."
The trip up to Darjeeling on railway has changed little since that time, and continues to delight travellers and rail enthusiasts, so much so that it has its own preservation and support group, the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Society.
Several films have portrayed the railway. Especially popular was the song Mere sapno ki rani from the film Aradhana where the protagonist Rajesh Khanna tries to woo heroine Sharmila Tagore who was riding in the train. Other notable films include Barfi!, Parineeta and Raju Ban Gaya Gentleman. The Darjeeling Limited, a film directed by Wes Anderson, features a trip by three brothers on a fictional long-distance train based very loosely on the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.
TELEVISION
The BBC made a series of three documentaries dealing with Indian Hill Railways, shown in February 2010. The first film covers the Darjeeling-Himalayan Railway, the second the Nilgiri Mountain Railway and the third the Kalka-Shimla Railway. The films were directed by Tarun Bhartiya, Hugo Smith and Nick Mattingly and produced by Gerry Troyna. The series won the UK Royal Television Society Award in June 2010. Wes Anderson's film The Darjeeling Limited also showcases three brothers riding the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.
WIKIPEDIA
The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.
The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.
Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.
Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.
The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.
Donald Trump unveils child-care policy influenced by Ivanka Trump
By Sean Sullivan and Robert Costa
ASTON, Pa. — Donald Trump, in softer tones than he normally uses, on Tuesday unveiled several policy proposals for lowering child-care costs that were crafted in part by his eldest daughter, Ivanka, including a plan to guarantee six weeks of paid maternity leave that marks a striking departure from GOP orthodoxy.
Conservative Republicans, in particular, have long seen a mandated expansion of the social safety net as anathema to their attempts to shrink government spending and give companies more control over their leave policies.
In a speech here, the Republican presidential nominee proposed ensuring six weeks of paid maternity leave to mothers who do not already receive leave from their employer.
"We need working mothers to be fairly compensated for their work, and to have access to affordable, quality child care for their kids," said Trump, who appeared determined to show off a more sensitive side than most are accustomed to seeing from him. He used a subdued delivery that contrasted with his tendency at larger rallies to raise his voice. After his speech, he held up a baby in the crowd.
Campaign officials said the maternity leave program wouldn't cost taxpayers anything more; instead, it would be financed through savings achieved by eliminating fraud in the unemployment insurance program. The plan would apply to mothers and would not be transferable to fathers.
Trump also laid out specific plans for enabling parents to deduct the cost of child-care expenses from their income taxes. Trump first mentioned allowing parents to “fully deduct” expenses last month when he announced his economic agenda in Detroit. Some of these expenses are already deductible under the law.
A fact sheet released by the Trump campaign proposed to "rewrite the tax code to allow working parents to deduct from their income taxes child care expenses for up to four children and elderly dependents.”
That deduction would be capped at the “average cost of care” in the state of residence, and it would not be available to individuals earning more than $250,000 or a couple earning more than $500,000.
[Wonkblog: The big difference between Donald Trump's and Hillary Clinton's child-care plans]
Ivanka Trump introduced her father here in Aston, marking her formal return to the campaign trail weeks after she introduced him at the Republican National Convention in Cleveland in July. The 34-year-old is a high-ranking executive at the Trump Organization and the mother of three young children. Her husband, investor Jared Kushner, has become an influential adviser to his father-in-law.
She said that she was "grateful" for the means to raise her three children and also pursue a career. Many women don't have that luxury, she added.
"This must change. As a society we need to create policies that champion all parents, enabling the American family to thrive," said Ivanka Trump.
Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton has proposed guaranteeing 12 weeks of paid family leave. Responding to Trump's maternity leave proposal, Clinton's senior adviser for policy Maya Harris said that by focusing solely on leave policies that benefit women, Trump may actually be hurting their cause, contributing to the attrition of women from the workplace after childbirth and the gender pay gap.
"We’re not living in a 'Mad Men' era anymore where only women are taking care of infants," Harris said. "It's just completely unserious."
At the start of his speech, Trump was joined onstage by several women Republican members of Congress.
"This is a family issue," said Rep. Marsha Blackburn (R-Tenn.). "We know men always want more money. What do women want? More time. And we are thrilled to finally have a president of the United States who is going to put the focus on working with women to make certain you can achieve your American dream."
Trump thanked Rep. Cathy McMorris Rodgers (Wash.), the fourth-ranking Republican in the U.S. House.
Also included in Trump's Tuesday’s proposals: additional spending rebates through the Earned Income Tax Credit, expanded deduction opportunities for stay-at-home parents, and revised federal savings accounts to set aside funds for child development and educational needs.
Before Trump gave his speech, he participated in a more intimate roundtable discussion.
According to Trump aides, Ivanka Trump has encouraged her father for weeks to detail policies that would appeal to parents who feel overburdened or underserved by existing programs, following up on the theme that coursed through her remarks at the convention.
Trump campaign manager Kellyanne Conway, who has grown close with Ivanka, also played a role in making child-care policy a priority, with an eye toward winning over female voters in places such as the vote-rich Philadelphia suburbs, the aides said.
Trump won some of his loudest applause lines when he mentioned Clinton's recent comment that half of his supporters are a "basket of deplorables."
"While my opponent slanders you as deplorable and irredeemable, I call you, hard-working American Patriots who love your country," said Trump.
Costa reported from Washington. Abby Phillip contributed.
Reservist from 38 Brigade Group’s Influence Activities Company conducts patrols and executes key leader engagements in the fictional village of Bayan during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.
Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson
Garrison Wainwright Imaging
WT07-2019-0013-0011
Tim Burton @ the MoMA
November 22, 2009–April 26, 2010
11 West 53rd Street, NYC
by navema
CHARACTERS INCLUDE: Boy with Nails in Eyes, Charred Girl, Girl with Many Eyes, Jimmy Penguin, Mummy Boy, Oyster Boy, Pin Cushion Queen, Robot Boy, Stain Boy, Staring Girl, Stick Boy, and Toxic Boy.
The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City hosted a retrospective showcase of Tim Burton’s iconic work within its walls.
Taking inspiration from popular culture, Tim Burton (American, b. 1958) has reinvented Hollywood genre filmmaking as an expression of personal vision, garnering for himself an international audience of fans and influencing a generation of young artists working in film, video, and graphics. This exhibition explores the full range of his creative work, tracing the current of his visual imagination from early childhood drawings through his mature work in film. It brings together over seven hundred examples of rarely or never-before-seen drawings, paintings, photographs, moving image works, concept art, storyboards, puppets, maquettes, costumes, and cinematic ephemera from such films as Edward Scissorhands, The Nightmare Before Christmas, Batman, Mars Attacks!, Ed Wood, and Beetlejuice, and from unrealized and little-known personal projects that reveal his talent as an artist, illustrator, photographer, and writer working in the spirit of Pop Surrealism. The gallery exhibition is accompanied by a complete retrospective of Burton’s theatrical features and shorts, as well as a lavishly illustrated publication.
Burton's films include Vincent (1982), Pee-wee's Big Adventure (1985), Beetlejuice (1988), Batman (1989), Edward Scissorhands (1990), Batman Returns (1992), The Nightmare Before Christmas (as creator and producer) (1993), Ed Wood (1994), Mars Attacks! (1996), Sleepy Hollow (1999), Big Fish (2003), Corpse Bride (2005), Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005), and Sweeney Todd (2007); writing and Web projects include The Melancholy Death of Oyster Boy & Other Stories (1997) and Stainboy (2000).
For more information, visit: www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2009/timburton
From The Great Dismal Swamp region of Virginia, Powell held the Supreme Court seat later given to Anthony Kennedy. Largely responsible for the general public's confusion about the interchangeability of the terms 'neoliberalism' and 'neoconservatism', which, economically speaking, mean the same thing.
Richter Freisler was very openly a happy monster, reveling in his position within Hitler's Germany; although Hitler joked about Freisler as being too much of a liberal egghead. Freisler ordered the beheading of students.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SZCqt8Dsws
www.youtube.com/watch?v=IxvW39kUABk
www.youtube.com/watch?v=dy72y2jLVOc
www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGV72TsQzq8 -- Dave Thomas looks like somebody, in addition to Liberace.
Wightwick Manor is a Victorian manor house located on Wightwick Bank, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, England, and one of only a few surviving examples of a house built and furnished under the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement. Wightwick was built by Theodore Mander, of the Mander family, who were successful 19th-century industrialists in the area, and his wife Flora, daughter of Henry Nicholas Paint, member of Parliament in Canada. It was designed by Edward Ould of Liverpool in two phases; the first was completed in 1887 and the house was extended with the Great Parlour wing in 1893.
This family house portrays life during the Victorian era and is a notable example of the influence of William Morris, with original Morris wallpapers and fabrics, De Morgan tiles, Kempe glass, and Pre-Raphaelite works of art. The house has splendid Victorian gardens and the outbuildings house stables, a handmade pottery shop, studio workshop and an antiquarian bookshop.
(for further pictures please go to the link at the end of page!)
Krems an der Donau (Stein)
Community Krems at the Danube
History
Stein, copper engraving, Georg Matthäus Vischer, 1672
© IMAREAL, Austrian Academy of Sciences
The twin city of Krems-Stein in 1995 celebrating the 1000 year jubilee, is one of the oldest cities in Austria. The terrace formation, the favorable climate and location at the crossroads of the Danube trade route with the north-south connections from the Waldviertel (Wood district) and the wine district (Weinviertel) favored for thousands of years the colonization of the area and contributed essentially to the development as a center in the Danube region.
For a far into the early days reaching settlement tradition speak finds from the Paleolithic (Hundssteig, Wachtberg, 30000-25000 BC), from the Neolithic period (ceramic cultures), but also the special role of the region in the Early Bronze Age Unetice Culture (1800-1500 BC) as well as traces of the urn field culture of the late Bronze Age and the Hallstatt culture (800-400 BC). In the La Tène period settled here probably celticized groups, in the Roman period the area belonged since the beginning of the second Century to the sphere of influence of the Germanic Marcomanni. According to the biography of Saint Severin ("Vita Severini") the center of the Germanic Rugians in the second half of the 5th Century probably lay in the area of Krems-Stein, for the next century the cemetery in Unter-Rohrendorf proves the presence of the Lombards.
First time mentioned by name Krems is in a charter of Emperor Otto III of 9th August 995 as orientalis urbs que dicitur Chremisa - as a fortified place in the East which is named the Chremisa. The settlement then lay on the eastern border of the small Mark Ostarrîchi in close proximity to Moravia, but soon it grew beyond the castle district and developed in the 11th Century to a market settlement around the High market (Hoher Markt). Since 1014 Krems was due to a Royal donation (Königsschenkung) parish. The sister city of Stein is only in the second half of the 11th century (1072) named. Its center was the to parish Krems belonging Michael Church. Stone primarily was a toll and loading berth for salt, wine and grain. From skipper settlement arose a market and in the 12th Century a town settlement (since 1144). The character as a city of Krems is yet a little earlier for the year 1136 proven.
The position at the Danube the two cities had assigned their complementary functions: Stein lay directly at the stream and became toll and landing place for ships, had but due to the rising hillsides little space for large commercial and market places and construction activity. Krems, however, was cut by tributaries and floodplains from the main stream, but offered plenty of space for colonization and markets as well as the protection of a mighty castle.
Around 1150 Krems was the most important commercial center in the country. In the tower of the town castle of Krems at the steep slope of the High market between 1130-190 the first Babenberg coin, the Kremser penny, was minted. On the world map of the Arab scholar Idrisi Krems is named before Vienna, which only in subsequent time should surpass Krems. The city's growth probably already in the first half of the 12th Century the relocation of the parish of St. Stephen's Church on woman mountain (Frauenberg - now Piaristenkirche) to the foot of the mountain made necessary where the new Vitus church became parish. End of the 12th Century Krems was surrounded by a city wall, 1196 the first city judge is testified. The city has been expanded several times and extended in the late Middle Ages from the Steiner Tor in the west to the Krems river in the east. The Dominican monastery, founded in 1236 was initially outside the city.
Stein evolved from the high terrace in the direction of Nicholas church, which in 1283 was elevated into the status of a parish. In the late Middle Ages, the area between Landstraße and the Danube was built-up and the city in the area of the in 1223/1224 founded Minorits monastery (consecration of the church in 1264) and between Reisperbach and Linzertor extended.
Both cities since the beginning of the 12th Century were princely and complemented each other as land and Danube trading venues. Their close relationship has led to a unique construction as a twin city. Both cities had a civic community with its own military and financial sovereignty, but had a common municipal law (1305) and a common municipal judge and later mayor (since 1416). 1463 Emperor Frederick III the two cities conferred a common coat of arms, the imperial double-headed eagle in gold on a black background. In addition to Krems-Stein only Wiener Neustadt and Vienna had the privilege to lead the double eagle. The union of the cities existed until 1849, after 90 years of independence of Stein, in 1939 took place the recent merger.
The economic boom in the late Middle Ages was based on the viticulture and trade with wine, salt and iron. In Stein shipping formed a significant economic factor. 1463 Stein received by the Emperor Frederick III the privilege to build a fixed bridge, the second oldest after Vienna in the area of the Austrian course of the Danube river.
From the richness and self-conciousness of the citizenship testifies the in 1265 built "Gozzoburg" of the mighty city judge Gozzo of Krems, a castle-like town house with loggia. The appearance of both cities is characterised of the numerous houses from the 15th and 16th century, which are designed with bay windows, sgraffito and paintings and as well as arcade courtyards inside. A characteristic of both cities are the since the High Middle Ages profable "vintage courtyards" of monasteries and bishoprics, which were used to store wine and served for the administration of the monastic possessions, such as the Passau courtyards, the Kremsmünstererhof or the Göttweigerhof. The Göttweigerhofkapelle (chapel) is equipped with valuable frescoes from the early 14th Century. About 1500 Krems through the work of the Augsburg artist Jörg Breu became a center of the Danube School.
Since the second half of the 16th Century Krems was mostly Protestant. The resistance of the citizens against the recatholicization in 1593 led to the loss of all privileges. It was not until 1615 as Emperor Matthias cancelled the harsh verdict and restored the independence of the city. A big part in the Catholic restoration played the in 1616 settled Jesuits who ran the school and by their theater performances became famous. In addition to the Jesuit college emerged in the time of the Counter-Reformation the Capuchin Monastery Und (1614) and the early Baroque new building of the Kremser parish church, in which renowned Italian artists took part.
The 17th Century due to the shift of international trade routes and the decline of the importance of the Danube trade brought an economic downturn. Severe damages the city suffered in 1645 by the Swedes, who besieged Krems, conquered and extended it to the main fortress, and by the reconquest a year later. It was only after 1700 as a upswing set in again, which found its expression in the Baroque style of the city. Employers for the resident artists or handicrafts were the big monasteries of the country. One of the most important painters of this period was Martin Johann Schmidt, the Kremser Schmidt, until his death (1801) in Stein maintaining a painting workshop.
In the second half of the 18th Century changed the ecclesiastical structures of the city. The since 1616 the Jesuits transmitted Frauenberg church was taken over by the Piarists in 1776 after the abolition of the Order (1773). 1783 the Dominican Monastery, 1796 the Minorit's monastery and the Capuchin monastery was abolished and profaned.
The biggest change of the cityscape since the Middle Ages took place in the 19th Century by the removal of the ramparts and the city gates. Remained except for remnants of the wall only the Steinertor (gate), which became the symbol of the city. Of the in the course of industrialization established factories of importance were the leather factory in Rehberg, the factory for the manufacturing of mats and rugs made of coconut fibres in Stein and the first quartz millstone factory of Austria. Great reputation also enjoyed the organ builders Zachistal, Capek and Hradetzky and the Kremser bell founders, including Matthias Prininger, Ferdinand Vötterlechner and Johann Gottlieb Jenichen. In the last third of the century followed the connection to the railway network, 1909, the Donauuferbahn (railway line along the Danube) was opened.
After the Second World War - on 2nd April 1945, there was heavy bombing - succeeded the city to preserve the architectural heritage largely in its original state and to connect it with modernity. The successful revitalization already received international recognition, Krems in 1975, 1979 and 2009 was Europa Nostra award winner. The city with the "Art Mile" in Stein (Kunsthalle, Museum of Caricature and Artothek), the Danube Festival and numerous cultural events developed to one of the most important cultural centers in Lower Austria .
The art treasures of the city as well as tradition and the history of wine-growing presents the "museumkrems" in the former Dominican church. Which the in 1994 founded and in 1995 opened "Danube University", Krems became 13th Austrian university town and is since 2002 the seat of a University of Applied Sciences (International Management Center). With the since 1998 annually realized Wachau Marathon Krems itself also could established as a "sports city".
In the 1970s, the city once again experienced a major expansion. In 1972 joined the community of Hollenburg Krems. The once separating Danube became the connecting element between the urban north and the "orchard" in the south. Meanwhile, the "Southtown" became integral part of the city, but could maintain its rural character.
Krems has partnerships with cities in Denmark, Germany, France, Czech Republic and the USA.
geschichte.landesmuseum.net/index.asp?contenturl=http://g...
Clarence Saunders (August 9, 1881 - October 14, 1953) was a grocer who first developed the modern retail sales model of self service. His ideas have had a massive influence on the development of the modern supermarket. Clarence Saunders worked for most of his life trying to develop a truly automated store, developing Piggly Wiggly, Keedoozle, and Foodelectric store concepts.
After leaving Clarksville, Tennessee, on September 6, 1916, Saunders launched the self-service revolution in America by opening the first self-service Piggly Wiggly store, at 79 Jefferson Street in Memphis, Tennessee, with its characteristic turnstile at the entrance. Customers paid cash and selected their own goods from the shelves.
The store incorporated shopping baskets, self-service branded products, and checkouts at the front. Removing unnecessary clerks, creating elaborate aisle displays, and rearranging the store to force customers to view all of the merchandise were just some of the characteristics of the early Piggly Wiggly stores. The concept of the "Self-Serving Store" was patented by Saunders in 1917.
Though this format of grocery market was drastically different from its competitors, the style became the standard for the modern supermarket, and in 1922 Piggly Wiggly had grown into 1,200 stores in 29 states. By 1932, the chain had grown to 2,660 stores doing over $180 million annually.
In the early 1920s Saunders began construction of a pink marble mansion in Memphis. Then, in early 1923, Merrill Lynch and other ‘bear’ interests on Wall Street tried to hammer down the price of Piggly Wiggly stock. It is alleged, Saunders took a train to New York City with one million dollars in cash in a small bag and bought Piggly Wiggly stock until he had orders for 196,000 of the 200,000 outstanding shares. Pressured by the ‘bears’, the New York Stock Exchange declared a ‘corner’ existed (see cornering the market), and gave the ‘bears’ five days rather than 24 hours to deliver the stock Saunders had bought. Saunders’ bank and his friends were pressured and the price was driven back down; Saunders was forced into bankruptcy and had to sell his stock at a loss. Afterwards, Saunders had no further association with the company.
Because of this financial reversal, Saunders was forced to sell his partly-completed Memphis mansion to the city. The mansion, nicknamed the Pink Palace eventually became the city's historical and natural history museum. Today, the Pink Palace includes a walk-through model of the first Piggly-Wiggly store, complete with 2¢ packets of Kellogg's Cornflakes and 8¢ cans of Campbell's Soup. Some of the grounds of the mansion were sold off to developers who built an upscale residential development, Chickasaw Gardens.
In a move reminiscent of that of J. Walter Scott’s in 1889, he went on to create the "Clarence Saunders Sole Owner of My Name Stores" chain, which went into bankruptcy during the Great Depression.
Our universe is spinning.
If the little gyroscope inside the spinning sphere were instead, to orbit a spinning "point" with mass M in a polar orbit with a radius R, through symmetry, one would expect the little gyroscope to precess in a similar manner.
Might this be considered an example of "frame dragging"?
Classical Newtonian physics predicts that an observer in a gyroscope-stabilized satellite in a polar orbit around the Earth should see the positions of distant stars remain fixed in space.
But General Relativity predicts "frame dragging". It predicts that the observer in the satellite would see the distant stars revolving slowly around him in a direction opposite to the rotation of the Earth.
Under MY influence, actually...
Hung out with my B.S. Biology friends and fellow physicians.
I lent my Nikon D5000 to my pal here and lent him my Sigma 17-50mm f/2.8 EX DC OS HSM lens.
I always teach him enough to take photos of anything when we decide to practice photography together, but my ultimate goal is to have him make photography a hobby of his own, and not just a secondary photographer for me.
Here's hoping I can inspire him... influence him... to take up the passion of photography.
Shooting Information:
Nikon D7200
Sigma 30mm f/1.4 EX DC HSM
Aperture Priority
1/40th @ f/2.8
ISO 1000
Flash Not Fired
Post Processing Information:
Adobe Lightroom CC 6.8
Not Cropped
Meeting details at 2011 Top 100 SMB Influencers. Picture by Grant Wickes principal of Wickpoint Management Services and currently VP Businss Development Wasp Barcode Technologies.
In picture: Anita Campbell, Aaron Stead
Photo taken with iPhone 4 with Photojojo 8x lens attached
Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) (Marathi:छत्रपती शिवाजी टर्मिनस), formerly Victoria Terminus (VT), is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and an historic railway station in Mumbai, India which serves as the headquarters of the Central Railways. Designed by Frederick William Stevens with influences from Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival architecture and traditional Mughal buildings, the station was built in 1887 in the Bori Bunder area of Bombay to commemorate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The new railway station was built on the location of the Bori Bunder Station and is the busiest railway station in India, serving as a terminal for both long-distance trains and commuter trains of the Mumbai Suburban Railway. The station's name was changed to its present one in March 1996 and it is now known simply as CST (or CSTM).
HISTORY
Bori Bunder (alternatively "Bori Bandar") was one of the areas along the Eastern shore line of Mumbai, India which was used as a storehouse for goods imported and exported from Mumbai. In the area's name, 'Bori' means sack and 'Bandar' means port or haven (in Persian); So Bori Bunder literally means a place where sacks are stored. In the 1850s, the Great Indian Peninsular Railway built its railway terminus in this area and the station took its name as Bori Bunder. On 16 April 1853 the Great Indian Peninsula Railway operated the historic first passenger train in India from Bori Bunder to Thane covering a distance of 34 km, formally heralding the birth of the Indian Railways. The train between Bori Bunder and Thane was 57 minutes it was a distance of 35 km apart.
CONSTRUCTION
The station was eventually rebuilt as the Victoria Terminus, named after the then reigning Queen, and has been subsequently renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CSTM) after Maharashtra's and India's Great famed 17th-century king. The shortened name is now CST.
The station was designed by the consulting British architect Frederick William Stevens (1848-1900). Work began in 1878. He received US$26,000 as the payment for his services. Stevens earned the commission to construct the station after a masterpiece watercolour sketch by draughtsman Axel Haig. The final design bears some resemblance to the St Pancras railway station in London. GG Scott's plans for Berlin's parliament building had been published four years before, and also has marked similarities to the station's design.Crawford market is also located near CSTM.
OPENING & GROWTH AS VICTORIA TERMINUS
It took ten years to complete and was named "Victoria Terminus" in honour of the Queen and Empress Victoria; it was opened on the date of her Golden Jubilee in 1887. It cost £260,000 when it was finished in 1888, the highest for any building of that era in Bombay. This famous architectural landmark in a Gothic-revival style was built as the headquarters of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. Since then, the station came to be known as Bombay VT. (Railway code-BBVT)
Originally intended only to house the main station and the administrative offices of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, a number of ancillary buildings have been added subsequently, all designed so as to harmonise with the main structure. A new station to handle main line traffic was erected in 1929. The original building is still in use to handle suburban traffic and is used by over three million commuters daily. It is also the administrative headquarters of the Central Railway.
RENAMING
In 1996, the Minister of Railways, Suresh Kalmadi, changed the name of the station to Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus in honour of Great King Chhatrapati Shivaji, founder of the Maratha Empire.
In 2008, the station was featured prominently in the Academy Award winning film, Slumdog Millionaire. In 1956, the station was also featured in the film C.I.D. during the song 'Yei Hai Bombay Meri Jaan'.
STRUCTURE
The station building is designed in the High Victorian Gothic style of architecture. The building exhibits a fusion of influences from Victorian Italianate Gothic Revival architecture and traditional Indian architecture. The skyline, turrets, pointed arches, and eccentric ground plan are close to traditional Indian palace architecture. Externally, the wood carving, tiles, ornamental iron and brass railings, grills for the ticket offices, the balustrades for the grand staircases and other ornaments were the work of students at the Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art. The station stands as an example of 19th century railway architectural marvels for its advanced structural and technical solutions.
The CST was constructed using high level of engineering both in terms of railway engineering and civil engineering. It is one of the first and is considered as one of the finest products of the use of industrial revolution technology merged with revival of the Gothic Revival style In India . The centrally domed office structure has a 330 feet long platform connected to a 1,200 feet long train shed, and its outline provides the skeleton plan for building. CST's dome of dovetailed ribs, built without centering, was considered as a novel achievement of the era. The interior of the building was conceived as a series of large rooms with high ceilings. It is a utilitarian building and has had various changes required by the users, not always sympathetic. It has a C-shaped plan which is symmetrical on an east-west axis. All the sides of the building are given equal value in the design. It is crowned by a high central dome, which acts as the focal point. The dome is an octagonal ribbed structure with a colossal female figure symbolizing Progress, holding a torch pointing upwards in her right hand and a spoked wheel in her left hand. The side wings enclose the courtyard, which opens on to the street. The wings are anchored by monumental turrets at each of their four corners, which balance and frame the central dome. The façades present the appearance of well proportioned rows of windows and arches. The ornamentation in the form of statuary, bas-reliefs, and friezes is exuberant yet well controlled. The columns of the entrance gates are crowned by figures of a lion (representing Great Britain) and a tiger (representing India). The main structure is built from a blend of India sandstone and limestone, while high-quality Italian marble was used for the key decorative elements. The main interiors are also decorated: the ground floor of the North Wing, known as the Star Chamber, which is still used as the booking office, is embellished with Italian marble and polished Indian blue stone. The stone arches are covered with carved foliage and grotesques.
Internally, the ceiling of the booking hall was originally painted blue, gold and strong red on a ground of rich blue with gold stars. Its walls were lined with glazed tiles made by Maw & Co of Britain. Outside, there are statues representing Commerce, Agriculture, Engineering and Science, with a statue representing Progress on the central dome of the station. A statue of Queen Victoria beneath the central dome has been removed.
CST has 18 platforms - 7 are for locals trains and 11 are for long distance.
Rumours persist that the design for Chhatrapat Shivaji Terminus in Mumbai was originally designated for Flinders Street Station. However, no convincing evidence, other than architectural similarities to other buildings in their respective cities, has been produced to support the rumour.
Plans are underway to upgrade Mumbai CST (along with Pune Jn. and Nagpur) by means of a public-private partnership.
SUBURBAN NETWORK
The network of suburban trains (locally known as locals, short for local trains) radiating out from this station is instrumental in keeping Mumbai running. The station serves long-distance trains as well as two of the suburban lines-the Central Line and the Harbour line. It is the westernmost terminus of Central Railway.
- Central Line the trains terminate at Kurla, Ghatkopar, Thane, Dombivli, Kalyan, Ambarnath, Badlapur, Karjat, Khopoli, Asangaon, Titwala, and Kasara.
- Harbour Line the trains terminate at Bandra, Andheri, Mankhurd, Vashi, Nerul, Belapur and Panvel.
CST has 18 platforms - six are for locals trains and 12 are for long distance.
DORMITORIES
Air-conditioned dormitories were inaugurated at CST on 16 April 2013 by Union Railway Minister Pawan Kumar Bansal. The facility has 58 beds for men and 20 for women.
IN POPULAR CULTURE
IN FILMS
The station has been the location of filming the "Jai Ho" song in Slumdog Millionaire; and Ra.One etc.
2008 MUMBAI ATTACKS
On 26 November 2008, two terrorists entered the passenger hall of the CST, opened fire and threw grenades at people. The terrorists were armed with AK-47 rifles. One of the terrorists, Ajmal Kasab, was later caught alive by the police and identified by eyewitnesses. The attacks began around 21:30 when the two men entered the passenger hall and opened fire, The attackers killed 58 people and injured 104 others, including a police officer, Tukaram Omble; their assault ending at about 22:45. The CCTV captured the attack, and the evidence was used to identify and indict Kasab.
WIKIPEDIA
This gorgeous necklace was designed as part of my “Volcanic” collection.
It is a primitive/tribal-influenced piece featuring a gorgeous MAKUstudio (http://www.flickr.com/photos/makustudio/) raku ceramic cabochon.
The top element is bead-embroidered around the raku cab, the middle element is bead-embroidered around a light grayish freshwater pearl. Both are bead-embroidered using dark copper Japanese beads, black Czeck glass druk beads and black matte Japanese seed beads. The bead-embroidery is lined with black Ultrasuede.
The necklace is strung with beautiful light coloured pearl, dark copper Japanese seed beads, black and black matte Czech druk glass beads and it fastens with a decorative copper ring and toggle bar. A lovely onyx drop hangs from the bottom of the bead-embroidery.
The centerpiece measures 2” (c. 5 cm) at the widest point and is 4” (c. 10 cm) long. The necklace measures 19 ½” (c. 44.5 cm) around the neckline.
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See other designs from the “Volcanic” collection:
www.flickr.com/photos/trizdesigns/4981744114/
www.flickr.com/photos/trizdesigns/4981380934/
www.flickr.com/photos/trizdesigns/4982078573/
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Hội An is a city of Vietnam, on the coast of the South China Sea in the South Central Coast region of Vietnam. It is located in Quảng Nam Province and is home to approximately 120,000 inhabitants. It is recognized as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Hội An Ancient Town is an exceptionally well-preserved example of a South-East Asian trading port dating from the 15th to the 19th century. Its buildings and its street plan reflect the influences, both indigenous and foreign, that have combined to produce this unique heritage site.The city possessed the largest harbour in Southeast Asia in the 1st century and was known as Lâm Ấp Phố (Champa City). Between the seventh and 10th centuries, the Cham (people of Champa) controlled the strategic spice trade and with this came tremendous wealth. The former harbour town of the Cham at the estuary of the Thu Bồn River was an important Vietnamese trading centre in the 16th and 17th centuries, where Chinese from various provinces as well as Japanese, Dutch and Indians settled. During this period of the China trade, the town was called Hai Pho (Seaside Town) in Vietnamese. Originally, Hai Pho was a divided town with the Japanese settlement across the "Japanese Bridge" (16th-17th century). The bridge (Chùa cầu) is a unique covered structure built by the Japanese, the only known covered bridge with a Buddhist temple attached to one side.
ETYMOLOGY
Hội An translates as "peaceful meeting place". In English and other European languages, the town was known historically as Faifo. This word is derived from Vietnamese Hội An phố (the town of Hội An), which was shortened to "Hoi-pho", and then to "Faifo".
HISTORY
The early history of Hội An is that of the Cham. These Austronesian-speaking Malayo-Polynesian peoples created the Champa Empire which occupied much of what is now central and lower Vietnam, from Huế to beyond Nha Trang. Various linguistic connections between Cham and the related Jarai language and the Austronesian languages of Indonesia (particularly Acehnese), Malaya, Cambodia and Hainan has been documented. In the early years, Mỹ Sơn was the spiritual capital, Trà Kiệu was the political capital and Hội An was the commercial capital of the Champa Empire - later, by the 14th century, the Cham moved further down towards Nha Trang. The river system was the transportation for goods between the highlands, inland countries of Laos and Thailand and the low lands.In 1535 Portuguese explorer and sea captain António de Faria, coming from Đà Nẵng, tried to establish a major trading center at the port village of Faifo. Hội An was founded as a trading port by the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Hoàng sometime around 1595. The Nguyễn lords were far more interested in commercial activity than the Trịnh lords who ruled the north. As a result, Hội An flourished as a trading port and became the most important trade port on the South China Sea. Captain William Adams, the English sailor and confidant of Tokugawa Ieyasu, is known to have made at least one trading mission to Hội An (around 1619). The early Portuguese Jesuits also had one of their two residences at Hội An.
In the 18th century, Hội An was considered by Chinese and Japanese merchants to be the best destination for trading in all of Southeast Asia, even Asia. Japanese believed the heart of all of Asia (the dragon) lay beneath the earth of Hội An. The city also rose to prominence as a powerful and exclusive trade conduit between Europe, China, India, and Japan, especially for the ceramic industry. Shipwreck discoveries have shown that Vietnamese and Asian ceramics were transported from Hội An to as far as Sinai, Egypt.Hội An's importance waned sharply at the end of the 18th century because of the collapse of Nguyễn rule (thanks to the Tây Sơn Rebellion - which was opposed to foreign trade).
Then, with the triumph of Emperor Gia Long, he repaid the French for their aid by giving them exclusive trade rights to the nearby port town of Đà Nẵng. Đà Nẵng became the new center of trade (and later French influence) in central Vietnam while Hội An was a forgotten backwater. Local historians also say that Hội An lost its status as a desirable trade port due to silting up of the river mouth. The result was that Hội An remained almost untouched by the changes to Vietnam over the next 200 years.
Today, the town is a tourist attraction because of its history, traditional architecture and crafts such as textiles and ceramics. Many bars, hotels, and resorts have been constructed both in Hội An and the surrounding area. The port mouth and boats are still used for both fishing and tourism.
WEATHER
Calm mild weather is now limited to the season of May/June - end of August when the seas are calm and wind changes direction and comes from the South. The remainder of the year the weather is intermittent between rain & cold and hot & mild. Popular activities such as visiting offshore Cù lao Chàm islands are only guaranteed to be likely during the short season of end of May to end of August, which is the high season for domestic tourism.
HERITAGE AND TOURISM
In 1999, the old town was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as a well-preserved example of a Southeast Asian trading port of the 15th to 19th centuries, with buildings that display a unique blend of local and foreign influences. According to the UNESCO Impact Report 2008 on Hội An, tourism has bought changes to the area which are not sustainable without mitigation. Due to the increased number of tourists visiting Hoi An a variety of activities are emerging which allow guests to get out of the old quarter and explore by motorbike, bicycle, Kayak or motorboat. The Thu Bon River is still essential to the region more than 500 years after António de Faria first navigated it and it remains an essential form of food production and transport. As such kayak and motorboat rides are becoming an increasingly popular tourist activity.
MUSEUM
The city has four museums highlighting the history of the region. These museums are managed by the Hoi An Center for Cultural Heritage Management and Preservation. Entrance to the museum is permitted with a Hoi An Entrance Ticket.
The Museum of History and Culture, at 13 Nguyen Hue St, was originally a pagoda, built in the 17th century by Minh Huong villagers to worship the Quan An, and is adjacent to the Quan Cong temple. It contains original relics from the Sa Huynh, Champa, Dai Viet and Dai Nam periods, tracing the history of Hoi An's inhabitants from its earliest settlers through to French colonial times.
The Hoi An Folklore Museum, at 33 Nguyen Thai Hoc St, was opened in 2005, and is the largest two-storey wooden building in the old town, at 57m long and 9m wide, with fronts at Nguyen Thai Hoc St and Bach Dang St. On the second floor, there are 490 artifacts, organised into four areas: plastic folk arts, performing folk arts, traditional occupations and artefacts related to the daily life of Hoi An residents.
The Museum of Trade Ceramics is located at 80 Tran Phu St, and was established in 1995, in a restored wooden building, originally built around 1858. The items originating from Persia, China, Thailand, India and other countries are proof of the importance of Hội An as a major trading port in South East Asia.
The Museum of Sa Huỳnh Culture, is located at 149 Tran Phu St. Established in 1994, this museum displays a collection of over 200 artifacts from the Sa Huỳnh culture - considered to be the original settlers on the Hội An site - dating to over 2000 years ago. This museum is considered to be the most unique collection of Sa Huỳnh artefacts in Vietnam.
WIKIPEDIA
"Spheres of Influence"
Digital Peice
A glimpse into what has influenced my Felix project over the past year
Diffrent Spheres consisit of
-Artists
-People,
-Music
-Sticker Art
-Old school Graff
-Skating
-Nature
If any of your images were borrowed in this peice, it was to reflect that you have influenced some of my work so thank you!
Meeting details at 2011 Top 100 SMB Influencers. Picture by Grant Wickes principal of Wickpoint Management Services and currently VP Businss Development Wasp Barcode Technologies.
In picture: Anita Campbell, Natalie Godwin, Rosemarie Lavecchia
A Pair Of Candle Sticks That I Have Restored
Restored EPNS Candlesticks
Most silver plated cutlery and hollow ware is marked 'E.P.N.S.' - the abbreviation for 'Electro-Plated Nickel-Silver'. 'Nickel-Silver' identifies the base metal as a copper-zinc-nickel alloy; it contains no silver but, because its nickel content imparts a colour more akin to silver than brass, it has always been known as 'nickel-silver'. 'Electro-plated' in this context means that the articles are electro-plated with silver - the first metal to be used extensively in electro-plating. In many countries including USA, nickel silver is not used, but brass is used instead.
Stainless steel cutlery or hollowware is sometimes silver plated, in which case it may be marked 'E.P.S.S.'. Knife blades with a cutting edge are made from stainless and are not plated with silver because it would blunt their edges. The life of silver plate depends upon its thickness and how often it is used. A household that saves its silver plated cutlery for special occasions may use it on average only once a month - elsewhere it may be used several times a day. When selecting cutlery, it is advisable to compare the thickness of silver claimed to be present on each and every piece (averages based upon half a dozen pieces are less meaningful because some pieces are likely to have a significantly thinner silver thickness than that average). Silver thickness is normally quoted in 'microns'. (One micron is one thousandth of a millimeter). As a very approximate guide, work on at least 1 micron of silver thickness for every year of intended use.
CARE OF SILVER
The characteristic white 'patina' of silver which is responsible for much of its aesthetic appeal becomes more pronounced with age due to the optical effect of the multitude of very fine scratches that develop in use. On new highly polished silver, however, the few fine isolated scratches that first appear tend to be somewhat conspicuous until the white patina has fully developed.
Tarnish
Silver, being a noble metal, is highly resistant to corrosion, but it can be tarnished by sulphides that are always present to some extent in the atmosphere and in many foods, green vegetables and eggs being the most potent. Tarnish consists of a superficial film of silver sulphides. Initially it is a light gold colour, but, with prolonged exposure to sulphides, it can develop into a blue-black discolouration.
Sulphides in the atmosphere originate mainly from combustion of gas oil, coke, wood etc. and from living creatures. To avoid the need for frequent cleaning, it is best to store silver cutlery in a box or drawer in a room without a fire of any type and, if convenient, in one of the lesser used rooms. To avoid tarnishing by food, rinse it off the cutlery as soon as convenient. Tarnish resisting papers and cloths are available to store silver, which certainly reduce the rate of tarnishing.
Tarnish Removal
Four methods of detarnishing silver are available: polishing powders or pastes, chemical dip solutions, electrolytic methods and ball burnishing.
Polishing Powders and Pastes
Only those sold specifically for silver should be used; cleaners intended for chromium plate, stainless steel etc will scratch silver. Always apply the cleaner with a soft cloth or sponge - either of which should be thoroughly and freshly washed to eliminate any abrasive dust particles which could cause scratching.
Some cleaners that are available in paste or emulsion form, not only remove tarnish but contain tarnish inhibitors. Such products are particularly useful for hollowware (being handled, washed and wiped less frequently than cutlery, the inhibiting effect lasts longer).
Over zealous pressure when cleaning with powders may remove significant amounts of silver which ultimately will wear through the plate completely.
Chemical Dip Solutions (Often referred to as silver dip)
Provide a rapid, less arduous method of detarnishing, especially on heavily embossed designs whose crevices are difficult to clean with silver powders. These dip solutions convert the film of tarnish (silver sulphides) back to silver by removing the sulphides without removing any silver. However, the following precautions must be taken:
- (1) Never leave silver plated cutlery in the dip solution for more than 10 seconds.
- (2) Do not use dip solutions to remove very heavy tarnish. They will convert the silver sulphides to silver but, because heavy tarnish is thicker, the surface of the restored silver may have a matt finish.
- (3) Dip solutions can stain or even etch stainless steel knife blades. Any drops that fall onto blades or other stainless steel equipment should be rinsed off immediately.
Electrolytic Methods
Tarnish can be removed from silver by immersing it in a hot solution of washing soda of about 30 grams per 5 litres whilst the cutlery or hollowware is in contact with aluminium.
Proprietary kits are available but the process can be carried out on a DIY basis in a plastic bowl with a sheet of aluminium foil laid in the bottom so that the cutlery is in contact with the foil. When the foil eventually darkens and becomes brittle, it becomes ineffective and needs replacing.
As in the case of chemical dip solutions, the process is not suitable for use on very heavily tarnished silver upon which it can produce a dull white finish.
Ball Burnishing
This is a bulk process for use in large catering establishments. The cutlery is placed in a rotating drum containing steel ball bearings, water and a corrosion inhibitor to prevent the steel balls from rusting. Its prime purpose is to brighten and harden the surface so that it becomes more resistant to scratching and wear. However, it will also remove light to moderate tarnish, except in the crevices of heavily patterned pieces.
Despite the apparent severity of the process, it does not wear off the silver if carried out under intelligent supervision and in accordance with the machine supplier's instructions. Problems likely to occur are:
Entanglement of fork prongs which may cause some to bend. This can be avoided by positioning the compartment separators closer together so that the forks stay orientated across the barrel.
A matt scratched finish, caused by having insufficient water in the burnisher - this can occur as a result of leakage if the machine's lid has not been adequately tightened or if its seal is defective.
Developments of grooves on the sides of vessels such as tea post. This is caused by the compartment separators being too close together, thus allowing steel balls to become entrapped between the separators and the sides of the vessel - to the detriment of the latter. Compartment widths should be adjusted to suit the width of vessel being burnished.
Hollowware can be damaged if large heavy items are burnished in the same compartment.
Silver cutlery should be washed thoroughly after cleaning.
CARE OF STAINLESS STEEL CUTLERY
Stains
First, it must be emphasised that staining is a rare phenomenon and that in most cases it is due to something that becomes firmly deposited on the steel, rather than to any attack of the steel itself. Probably the most common cause of staining is attack by one of the proprietary dip solutions used for removing tarnish from silver. Although excellent for cleaning silver and E.P.N.S., these solutions should never be allowed to come into contact with stainless steel; they contain acids that etch the steel, first giving it an iridescent rainbow stain and ultimately etching it a dull grey. Even if care is taken to dip only the silver handle of a knife, it is so easy, when lifting it from the solution, to let drips fall onto the stainless steel blades of other cutlery that happen to be lying around.
All tap water contains dissolved mineral salts that would leave an extremely thin film on any article on which it was allowed to dry out without wiping. In most cases, the resultant stain will wipe off, but occasionally more vigorous treatment is needed, using a polishing preparation, such as stainless steel cleaners.
Detergents, especially unnecessarily strong solutions of detergent, can leave an indelible rainbow stain on stainless steel if they are not rinsed off and are allowed to dry, out on its surface. This is a common problem with some dishwashing machines when the rinse cycle is malfunctioning.
Very hard water can deposit a chalky film on stainless steel, but this is only likely to occur in dishwashers that use un-softened or incompletely softened water.
Very hot grease, fat or meat juices sometimes leave stubborn rainbow coloured stains on stainless steel, but this is more likely to occur on meat dishes than cutlery - again this does not mean there is anything wrong this the stainless steel and the articles will be as good as new after the stain has been removed.
Heat by itself will impart a rainbow coloured heat tint to stainless steel, but this is only likely to occur if the cutlery is accidentally left on a hot plate or gas burner, when the cause would be immediately obvious.
Prolonged immersion in synthetic 'vinegar' (condiment) can stain stainless steel knives if left on for several hours, but more rapidly if the 'vinegar' also contains salt.
Sometimes rust coloured stains occur. Wet fragments of steel wool that find their way onto cutlery may go rusty and leave indelible rust stains on the stainless steel. Other rust coloured stains may come from corrosion pits in the cutlery, although the pits themselves may be so small as to be barely visible.
Most stains that resist ordinary rubbing with a soapy cloth can be removed with stainless steel cleaners.
Finally, it must be pointed out that there may be other causes of staining that have not yet been identified.
Pits
When stainless steel corrodes, it does not rust all over like non stainless steel but acquires small localised pits or holes. Remember its STAIN LESS steel which means it will rust or corroded under some circumstances.
The majority of spoons and forks are made from stainless steels that have such excellent corrosion resistance that they are virtually immune to pitting. For knives, however, the blade steel is selected to give a compromise between corrosion resistance and cutting properties. In order to achieve a lasting edge, a steel that is much harder but of lower corrosion resistance that spoon and fork steel is used. The corrosion resistance of this steel is strongly influenced by care in manufacture (thorough hardening and avoidance of overheating when grinding etc) but only marginal improvements are achieved by the selection of alternative steels, however, expensive. Research is continually being carried out in the search for significantly better steels and method of treatment.
Prolonged contact with water is probably responsible for more pitting trouble than anything else. Knives have been made from stainless steel for such a long time that the highly corrosive effect of tap water, caused by the traces of mineral salts it contains is not appreciated. Why then do blades in one establishment last for years without trouble, whilst in others pitting becomes apparent within a few months? The answer lies in the length of time the blades are wet; knives that are left undried or actually immersed in water overnight can receive, in this time, as much exposure to the corrosive effect of water as three or four months' ordinary use where they are in contact with water for only a few minutes each time they are washed.
Common salt and liquid bleaches or disinfectants are very corrosive and will greatly accelerate the corrosive action of water. Some water softeners are regenerated with salt. If they are not functioning correctly, the softened water can have a high salt content. After adding salt to water softeners in a dishwasher, make certain that it is put through the rinse programme recommended by the supplier before washing knives in the machine. Detergents, on the other hand, are normally harmless when fully dissolved - indeed they often inhibit corrosion by water. If, however, certain powder detergents are allowed to come into contact with blades in hot water before the detergent is fully dissolved, pits and/or stains can form within a few minutes. Un-dissolved table salt can have a similar effect.
If pitting does occur, a diligent enquiry into the washing procedure is recommended to find out whether the cutlery is ever left in contact with water for a long item. Managers of catering establishments are not always aware of what really happens in their kitchens - for example, probably only the person directly involved may know that dirty cutlery is always left soaking in a bucket of water until someone has time to wash it, or that the last batch of knives to be washed in the early hours is left unwiped to dry overnight in a humid basement.
WASHING CUTLERY IN DISHWASHERS
Dishwashing machines provide a welcome relief from the task of washing up but to maintain knives in good condition a few simple precautions are necessary. Special hardenable stainless steels are generally used for knives to give them a lasting edge but these steels can become slightly pitted or corroded if left repeatedly and for too long in contact with moisture.
- Whenever possible wash knives immediately; do not leave them wet overnight and do not subject knives to the 'rinse and hold' cycle. The use of the dishwasher as a dirty storage cabinet causes many cases of knife corrosion.
- As soon as the dishwasher has completed its cycle, remove the knives and wipe them dry. It is particularly undesirable to leave them overnight in the damp atmosphere of a dishwasher.
- Observe the dishwasher manufacturer's instructions concerning the type and quality of detergent used and the method of loading cutlery in the compartments provided.
- Water with a high salt content is particularly corrosive to stainless steel. Dishwashers are often fitted with water softeners that must be regenerated with salt. After adding salt, make certain that the machine is put through the programme recommended by the supplier before washing knives in the machine.
- Cutlery with handles of wood, plastic, bone or china should be washed by hand unless it is stated to be suitable for dishwashers.
- If any stains are produced by hard water, detergent or by any other cause, they can usually be removed by rubbing them with a non-abrasive metal cleaning paste or liquid. Detergent stains can often occur with regular dishwasher use and show themselves as rainbow like stains, these can easily be removed with lemon juice.
- Do not allow undiluted dishwasher detergent to come into contact with silver or silver plated items as this may result in permanent staining of the surface. Some dishwasher manufacturers are not aware of this and position the cutlery basket immediately below the detergent dispenser.
- Do don't place silver plated or silver cutlery in at the same time stainless steel items, as it can increase the risk of the stainless steel corroding. Don't place knives with silver/ silver plated handles in the dishwasher at all.
Printed copies of this document are available to cutlery manufacturers, distributors and retailers for inclusion with cutlery/flatware at the point of sale.
This information is given without liability in connection with its application or use in particular circumstances
CATRA can provide specific help for users where they are experiencing problems
Gerani (Greek: Γεράνι, literally 'Geranium', Turkish: Turnalar) is a village in the Famagusta District of Cyprus, located 8 km (5.0 mi) northeast of Trikomo. It is under the de facto control of Northern Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.
Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.
A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.
Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.
Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.
Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.
Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.
The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.
Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.
Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.
By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.
EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.
However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.
On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.
In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.
By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.
In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.
The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.
After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".
As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.
Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.
On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.
The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.
Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.
The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.
Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.
Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria
An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."
In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.
Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.
In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.
Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.
Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.
Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.
The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:
UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.
The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.
By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."
After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.
On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.
The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.
During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.
In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.
Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.
A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.
Hell's Kitchen, Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States
Summary
The Catholic Apostolic Church, built in 1885-86, was one of architect Francis H. Kimball's earliest independent commissions in New York City. He had previously worked mostly in Hartford, Connecticut, where he supervised the construction of the Collegiate Gothic style buildings at Trinity College designed by English architect-theorist William Burges. The Church's foremost leaders, residents of Hartford, would have known Kimball's work.
A Christian Pentecostal sect established in England in the 1830s, the Catholic Apostolic Church formed a congregation in New York City in 1851. Kimball's beautiful design, executed in red brick laid in running bond and extensive red terra cotta above a brownstone base, is a sophisticated and original essay in the "muscular" Victorian Gothic style, as influenced by Burges. It was, as well, a masterful solution for a small midblock church, for a congregation with limited resources.
The church was widely admired for its design, proportions, color, beauty of materials, vigorous composition built around a central tower form, skilled ornament, and innovative use of terra cotta. Noted critic Montgomery Schuyler called it the most "scholarly Gothic work in New York." Kimball was in the forefront of architects in using exterior architectural terra cotta in New York during this period, and the Catholic Apostolic Church is significant in the history of American terra cotta.
It was one of the earliest churches in New York to employ structural terra cotta, which was manufactured by the Boston Terra Cotta Co., the leading East Coast firm at the time. The terra cotta's combed texture indicates the involvement of James Taylor, "the father of American terra cotta" who was then superintendent of the company. The church's facade is dominated by a central rose window within a pointed-arched surround, one of the most complex elements yet attempted in terra cotta in the United States.
The sculptural ornament also incorporates iconography of Apostle-Evangelists and angels. Despite dwindling membership, the Catholic Apostolic Church retained its building until 1995. It is currently the Church for All Nations, of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. The virtually unaltered Catholic Apostolic Church building is considered to be one of the finest late-nineteenth-century churches in New York City.
DESCRIPTION AND ANALYSIS
The Catholic Apostolic Church in England and New York
A Christian Pentecostal sect established in England in the early nineteenth century, the Catholic Apostolic Church had no association with the Roman Catholic Church. Its followers, believers in the impending "second coming" of Christ, started out in yearly prayer meetings, held after 1826 at the estate of Henry Drummond, a wealthy London banker and member of Parliament. Edward Irving (1792-1834), a controversial Scottish Presbyterian minister, became an early leader of this group and also sanctioned speaking in tongues. The sect promoted the concept that the "second coming" must be preceded by a revival of customs and official positions associated with early Christianity. Between 1832 and 1835. twelve men (most associated with the Anglican and Presbyterian Churches) were appointed Apostles of the officially organized Catholic Apostolic Church.
Around 1836, these Apostles began embarking as missionaries. European converts to the church were found mostly in England and Germany. The Apostles met with little success farther afield, except in Australia, Canada, and the United States. The Catholic Apostolic Church was led by the original Apostles until the death of Francis V. Woodhouse, the last, in 1901. The church's elaborate hierarchy also included Angels (bishops in charge of local churches). Coadjutors. Evangelists, prophets, elders, and priests, all appointed by the Apostles, as well as deacons, who were elected by each congregation.
The ordination of church officials ended in 1901, thus leaving no succession of leadership. A schism had developed in 1860 over the issue of replacing the Apostles in order to maintain a body of twelve. Coming out of the church in Berlin, this schism led to the creation of the separate New Apostolic Church, which became active in northern Germany and in German-speaking communities in the United States. The Catholic Apostolic Church seriously declined in the twentieth century and some of the congregations affiliated with other Protestant sects.
The organizational center of the Catholic Apostolic Church was its "seven churches in London," all established in 1832-35, which were seen as a "pattern of the unity of Christendom." The Central Church (1850-54, John Raphael Brandon) at Gordon Square was a mammoth Gothic Revival style structure. Although the Catholic Apostolics "employed a number of the same architects who were designing Anglican Victorian churches in the neo-Gothic style, such as Brandon, [John L.] Pearson, and [Augustus W.N.] Pugin. the interiors of their church buildings were designed to meet previously determined liturgical requirements... and to conform to their particular theological principles," including a highly ritualistic form of worship.
One Catholic Apostolic historian noted that "the beginnings of the movement in the United States are rather obscure" but coincided with a period of religious revivalism that was receptive to the efforts of the Catholic Apostolic evangelistic missionaries, first Francis V. Woodhouse. and after 1860. Nicholas Armstrong. Although "New York [State] has ever been the centerth' of the Catholic Apostolic movement in the United States, the "three foremost men," William Watson Andrews, Samuel J. Andrews, and John Sydney Davenport, were all from Hartford, Connecticut.
The first American Catholic Apostolic church was established in the 1840s in Potsdam, in far northeastern New York. William Andrews (1810-1897), a former Congregational minister, took over this church from 1849 to 1856; he then became a Catholic Apostolic Evangelist in the United States and Canada. He was called the "head of the Catholic Apostolic Church in this country" by the New York Times in 1896.8 His brother. Samuel Andrews, became a Catholic Apostolic priest in Hartford. Davenport (1808-1900), a nephew of Hudson River Railroad president James Boorman. was an Episcopal priest until he was deposed for accepting Catholic Apostolicism. He became Evangelist with the Apostles, in charge of instruction and supervision of all American Evangelists.
In New York City, a Catholic Apostolic congregation was established in 1851. Prior to that, an informal group had met in Greenwich Village, but had disbanded. Woodhouse, the Apostle, called on John Canfield Sterling in 1850 to organize a meeting. Woodhouse commented in 1854 that the congregation, meeting for the last three years, had recently purchased a building and was conducting services under two Episcopal priests "by commission from the Apostles." Conveyance records indicate that in 1854 James Rintoul, on behalf of the church, purchased a Congregational church building that had originally been a German Evangelical church (c. 1844) at 126 West 16th Street.
By 1885, the congregation had reached the point where it was able to commission a new building. Francis H. Kimball was hired as architect for the proposed Catholic Apostolic Church. He probably received this commission due to his previous work in Hartford, including Trinity College and other Episcopal Church-related buildings, which would have been well known by the Catholic Apostolic Church leaders who resided in that city.
The Architect
Bom in Maine. Francis Hatch Kimball (1845-1919) worked as a teenager in a relative's building firm, served in the Navy during the Civil War. and in 1867 entered the firm of the Boston architect Louis P. Rogers (who later joined with Gridley J.F. Bryant). In 1869. Kimball became supervisor of this firm's work in Hartford, and in 1873 was appointed superintending architect of the buildings at Trinity College (1875-82) designed by English architect and theorist William Burges.
Kimball worked directly with Burges in London from the end of 1873 to the fall of 1874. The Trinity College buildings are considered the earliest examples of the Collegiate Gothic style in the United States. Kimball also received independent commissions in Hartford, including the Orphan Asylum (1876-78, demolished) and Theological Seminar)' (1879). He moved to New York City to work on the remodelling of the Madison Square Theater in 1879 and soon formed a partnership with the English-born architect Thomas Wisedell. which lasted until the latter's death in 1884.
Their firm was responsible for the Goodwin Building (1881). Hartford, and the Moorish style Casino Theater (1881-82. demolished), 1400 Broadway. Kimball practiced alone'" until 1892, producing designs in a variety of styles and executed with notable terra-cotta ornament, including: the Catholic Apostolic Church (1885-86); Emmanuel Baptist Church (1886-87), 279 Lafayette Avenue. Brooklyn; Corbin Building (1888-89). 11 John Street; Montauk Club (1889-91). 1925 Eighth Avenue, Brooklyn; Harrigan's (later Garrick) Theater (1890-91, demolished), 65 West 35th Street; the exterior of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad Terminal headhouse (1891-93), Philadelphia; and the New York Architectural Terra Cotta Co. Building (1892). 42-10-42-16 Vernon Boulevard. Long Island City. Queens. Another church commission was the picturesque Riverdale Presbyterian Chapel (1888-89; later Edgehill Church of Spuyten Duyvil). 2550 Independence Avenue, the Bronx.'' In the iron-and-steel-framed Fifth Avenue Theater (1891-92, demolished), 1185 Broadway, Kimball developed a technique for constructing foundations with concrete cylinders sunk by mechanical means that was a precursor of the later pneumatic caisson system of skyscraper foundation construction.
Kimball emerged in the forefront of early skyscraper design in New York City during his collaboration from 1892 to 1898 with George Kramer Thompson (1859-1935). Kimball & Thompson's seminal seventeen-story (plus tower) Manhattan Life Insurance Co. Building (1893-94. demolished). 64-66 Broadway, was the tallest building constructed in the city at that time and is credited with being the first New York skyscraper with a full iron and steel frame, set on pneumatic concrete caissons.
Among the firm's other commissions were the Gertrude Rhinelander Waldo Mansion (1895-98). 867 Madison Avenue; the Standard Oil Building addition (1896-97). 26 Broadway; and the Empire Building (1897-98), 71 Broadway. Kimball's later skyscrapers, designed in a variety of styles, include the Trinity and U.S. Realty Buildings (1904-07), 111 and 115 Broadway; J. & W. Seligman & Co. Building (1906-07. with Julian C. Levi), 1 William Street; Trust Co. of America Building (1906-07), 39 Wall Street; City Investing Co. Building (1906-08, demolished). Broadway and Cortlandt Street: and Adams Express Co. Building (1912-16), 61 Broadway. Kimball also designed two early automobile-related structures, the A.T. Demarest & Co. and Peerless Motor Car Co. Buildings (1909), 1770 and 1760 Broadway.
He formed a partnership with Frederick H. Roosa in 1915, but a petition was filed against the firm in 1917 that apparently led to involuntary bankruptcy. Upon his death in 1919, the New York Times referred to Kimball as "the father of the skyscraper," reflecting his technical innovations and involvement with many fine early skyscrapers.
Construction and Design of the Catholic Apostolic Church.
In May 1885, two lots on the north side of West 57th Street between Ninth and Tenth Avenues were conveyed for $25,000 to prominent Catholic Apostolic Church members David M. Fackler and Stephen R. Rintoul. Rev. David Moms Fackler (1811-1895), a former Episcopal priest who had converted to Catholic Apostolicism during Apostle Woodhouse's 1850 visit, was ordained a priest (1859) and an Angel and "served prominently in the history and development of the Church in New York."
Stephen R. Rintoul was later a priest and an Angel of this church. Other members involved in the construction of the new church on this site were John S. Davenport, then a lawyer residing in New York and serving on the building committee, and Rev. Charles A.G. Brigham. apparently the first priest in this church. Construction of the Catholic Apostolic Church commenced at the beginning of June 1885 and was completed at the end of March 1886. The property was transferred to the Church Building Trust Association in November 1886.
The English Catholic Apostolics had no distinct architectural tradition, but appear to have favored the Gothic style. The Catholic Apostolic Church in New York was designed in the Victorian Gothic style, which originated in England and was most closely associated with ecclesiastical architecture, but also with public buildings, in the second half of the nineteenth century. The style, also popular for similar building types in the United States in the late nineteenth century, was characterized by an eclectic use of medieval forms (including pointed arches) in an original manner, simple massing and sculptural composition, complex rooflines. and the bold use of contrast, color, texture, and material.
Churches in the Victorian Gothic mode have sometimes been referred to as "muscular Gothic." Kimball's Catholic Apostolic Church is a sophisticated and original essay in the "muscular" Victorian Gothic style. Despite its small size and midblock location, the church attracts notice due to its vigorous and complex yet symmetrical composition built around a central tower form; the beauty and color of its materials (brownstone. red brick, red terra cotta. and leaded glass) and ornament, especially the rose window; and its technical solutions to practical considerations, such as providing natural light to the interior.
The design was influenced by the churches of Burges, such as the Church of Christ the Consoler (1871-76), Skelton-on-Ure. In particular, the rose window and the figures of the winged lion and the eagle below it. representing the Apostle-Evangelists St. Mark and St. John, were clearly inspired by the similar rose window and "Four Evangelistic Beasts" sculptures carved on Burges' St. Fin Barre's Cathedral. Cork. Ireland (1863-79)" Kimball's church can also be seen as related to the work of a number of noted contemporary American architects, such as [Frank] Furness & [George W.j Hewitt's Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts (1871-76), Philadelphia, and Edward T. Potter's Church of the Holy Innocents (1872-74), Hoboken.
It has been suggested that the presence of two side entrances on the Catholic Apostolic Church, rather than the usual major central entrance, may have been influenced by other architects' designs for "nonconformist" religions.
Kimball's design for the Catholic Apostolic Church received favorable critical comment. The Real Estate Record & Guide in 1888 called the church "one of the most artistic of recent buildings in New York, and the architect and his clients are to be heartily congratulated upon it."
The journal further remarked that it especially deserves to be better known because, apart from being a very pretty and effective bit of street architecture, it presents a solution of a problem that most architects who have attempted it have found very untractable.
The problem is that of a city church on an "inside lot," that is to say, in such a situation that it can be lighted only from the ends, or even from one end, and from a clerestory so arranged as not to be deprived of its light by towering buildings alongside. So far as a view of the exterior can enable one to say the solution is highly successful, and the means to its practical success are also the means of giving architectural force and character to the building.
The congregation itself was quite pleased with Kimball's work. John S. Davenport, writing in response to the Real Estate Record & Guide's article, enthused that we are entitled to the congratulations you speak of for Mr. Kimball's success in the architectural treatment of the building, but for the additional reason that we are conscious that Mr. Kimball was equally successful in the exceedingly economical and advantageous manner in which he applied the limited amount of money which we were able to furnish him for the purpose.
Noted critic Montgomery Schuyler wrote in 1898 that "the arrangement is expressed in a clear and edifying way. of which the effect is immensely heightened by the excellence of the detail in design, and its perfect adaptation in scale. There is no more scholarly Gothic-work in New York." In 1899, Brickbuilder referred to the church as "an interesting composition in brick and terra cotta" in which "that most admirable rose window" was "the distinguishing feature."
Architectural Terra Cotta in New York City in the 1880s While a number of buildings in the late 1840s and 1850s employed terra cotta for architectural ornament in New York City and elsewhere, it was after the Chicago and Boston fires of 1871-72 that terra cotta was revived as a significant interior and exterior building material in the United States.
Walter Geer observed that "by these fires it was conclusively demonstrated that fire-proof buildings could not be made of unprotected stone or iron, and that only brick and terra-cotta walls were practically fire-proof. This increased use of brick work, and of terra-cotta as a constructive and decorative material in connection with brick work, revived the demand for the manufacture of this material in or near New York."
Advantages seen in terra cotta for both exterior architectural ornament and interior fireproofing included its fireproof properties, strength, durability, lower cost and weight in shipping and handling, the relative ease with which elaborate decoration could be molded, and the retention over time of crisp ornamental profiles compared to stone.
In the 1870s and early 1880s. architectural terra cotta was often a color that matched stone (commonly brownstone, buff or red) that could be pleasantly juxtaposed with brick, or used as a substitute for brownstone. The Real Estate Record & Guide noted that during this period "terra cotta is most generally used for the trimming and ornamentation of buildings, taking the form of panels, courses, friezes, small tiles, roofing tiles and paving blocks."
At this time. George B. Post was the leader in the use of exterior terra cotta in New York City, including the Braem House (1878-80. demolished), 15 East 37th Street; Long Island Historical Society (1878-81). 128 Pierrepont Street. Brooklyn, for which a contemporary said "the material has been employed, for the first time in the United States, both for the building material and for all decorative details": New York Produce Exchange (1881-84. demolished), 2 Broadway: and Mills Building (1881-83. demolished). 59 Exchange Place. Among other contemporary architects who employed terra cotta were Silliman & Famsworth. in the Morse Building (1878-80).
140 Nassau Street, then considered the first prominent New York office building to employ exterior terra cotta (though it was used sparingly for architectural details, in conjunction with molded red and black brick), and Temple Court Building (1881-83). 3-9 Beekman Street: Kimball & Wisedell. in the Goodwin Building. Hartford, and the Casino Theater, an early New York building having highly intricate, exotic terra-cotta ornament (the terra cotta on both buildings was by the Boston Terra Cotta Co.); and Kimball, in many of his early independent commissions.
James Taylor, the Boston Terra Cotta Co.. and the Catholic Apostolic Church
The terra cotta employed by Kimball on the Catholic Apostolic Church was manufactured by the Boston Terra Cotta Co. the leading East Coast terra cotta firm at the time. James Taylor (1839-1898), called "the father of American terra cotta," was superintendent of the Boston company during construction of the church. Formerly superintendent of the J[ohn]. M[arriottJ. Blashfield & Co. terra cotta works in Stamford. England.
Taylor emigrated to superintend the Chicago Terra Cotta Works in 1870-77. the period during which the Chicago firm was the dominant center of American terra cotta manufacturing After 1878, the Chicago firm collaborated with the Boston Fire Brick Co. to meet the demand for terra cotta on the East Coast; the latter plant became the Boston Terra Cotta Co. in 1880 and Taylor became superintendent there until 1886.
The Boston Terra Cotta Co. produced the exterior terra cotta for many significant buildings in New York City until its demise in 1893. Extant buildings ornamented with Boston terra cotta include Nos. 19 and 21 East 17th Street (1881-82, Silliman & Famsworth); No. 746-750 Broadway (1881-83, Starkweather & Gibbs), for Orlando B. Potter; Grace M.E. Church (1882-83. Parfitt Brothers), 29-35 Seventh Avenue, Brooklyn; Chelsea Apartments (1883-85. Hubert. Pirsson & Co.), 222 West 23rd Street; Potter Building (1883-86. N.G. Starkweather). 35-38 Park Row, for Orlando Potter: YMCA Institute Building (1884-85, Bradford L. Gilbert). 222 Bowery: and Mercantile Exchange (1885, Thomas R. Jackson). 2-6 Harrison Street.
Orlando Potter decided to organize his own firm, the New York Architectural Terra Cotta Co.. which was launched in January 1886 with Walter Geer and his father, Asahel Clarke Geer. Taylor was superintendent until he retired in 1893. The company, the only major architectural terra cotta firm in New York City, became one of the largest such manufacturers in the United States, remaining in business until its bankruptcy in 1932.
The Real Estate Record & Guide in 1888 noted of the Catholic Apostolic Church that the material of the church is baked clay throughout - red brick with wrought work of terra cotta in a slightly different tint. An effective texture is given to the terra cotta by roughening the mould so as to produce something the effect of bush-hammering in stone work. The mouldings are throughout artistic in form and successfully adjusted in scale. The ornament is copious, as there is no excuse for its not being in terra cotta, but it is nowhere overloaded, though this is rather a matter of design and disposition than of quantity. ... This ornament is so well placed and derailed that it emphasizes and nowhere confuses the effect of the admirable arrangement and proportion to which the little church mainly owes its success.
The combed texture of the terra cotta on the church is a "signature" indicating the involvement of James Taylor. Taylor later transferred the use of this texture to his next firm. The New York Architectural Terra Cotta Co. Building has a similar textured effect, as does a fireplace located inside that is signed "Jas. Taylor."
Taylor wrote in 1892 that Kimball was one of the first architects in the United States to employ "highly ornamental work in terra cotta" and to demonstrate that terra cotta was capable of elaborate decoration at moderate cost. This capability has been constantly put before the public by F.H. Kimball in various buildings which he has designed, viz., the Catholic Apostolic Church... which has an elaborate rose window, in which several features were introduced that had not before been attempted in America, presumably a reference to the complexity of its design.
Montgomery Schuyler remarked of the church in 1898 that the charm of it is heightened by the fact that, although the ornament is in terra cotta, and is or might be a substitute for stone-carving, there is yet in some of it, as in the main offset of the front and the gableted offsets of the buttresses, a recognition in design of the material which adds the raciness of idiom to scholarly diction.
Brickbuilder in 1899 referred to the Catholic Apostolic Church as "the first church, and one of the first buildings of importance on which structural terracotta was used in New York... and. though one of the least pretentious, is considered one of [Kimball's] happiest efforts." This publication was also impressed by the manner in which the design and manufacture of the terra cotta on this building was able "to obtain the maximum of merit at a minimum cost."
The use of the term "structural" here refers to the manner in which the terra cotta was fully integrated into the exterior brick bearing walls, in contrast to the use of low relief terra-cotta panels found typically on contemporary buildings.
The Catholic Apostolic Church is a significant building in the history of terra cotta in the United States, employing extensive and notable 1880s exterior architectural terra cotta. Today the building, virtually unaltered, is a relatively rare survivor of that period of development of terra cotta in New York, by one of the most significant East Coast terra cotta companies of the period. The red, matt-glazed terra-cotta ornament on the church, some of the most complex elements yet attempted in the United States, incorporates religious iconography referring to Catholic Apostolic beliefs: a winged lion and an eagle, representing two of the four Apostle-Evangelists, St. Mark and St. John: two angels, one playing a musical instrument and one bearing a censer: and cherubs. There are also many foliate and floral motifs employed in moldings.
Later History
King's Handbook in 1893 stated that there were about 400 members of the Catholic Apostolic Church in New York. That same year, the New York Times reported that this church was
the only one in New York. It has dependencies in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago, San Francisco, and smaller places, but they have not a completely ordered priesthood. The New-York church has as its head the Angel, and under him a long list of elders, priests, deacons, sub-deacons, and deaconesses. The latter officiate in acts of charity and render assistance particularly to the women of the parish.
In 1893, however, a small, one-story German Apostolic Church (William J. Bower, builder; demolished) had been built for a German immigrant congregation at 202 West 114th Street in Harlem. A church census in 1936 identified seven Catholic Apostolic churches in the United States. The Church then had about 2,577 members nationally, with the other churches located in New York, Connecticut. Pennsylvania, Illinois, and California. In 1946, a church history referred to the 57th Street church as "the oldest Church in the country." The German Apostolic and Catholic Apostolic congregations merged in 1947 and the Harlem building was sold to the Church of the Good Shepherd.
The last "Angel in Charge of the Catholic-Apostolic Church" in New York and other Eastern states, since 1919, was Henry Ogden DuBois (c.1855-1949). An Episcopal priest who was ordained an Angel in the Church in 1890, he later served as Coadjutor to the Inducted Angel prior to 1919. The congregation continued in this building for another 45 years after his death under the leadership of a deacon, despite the rapid decrease in membership. The handful of remaining members "became greatly concerned that the building be preserved as a sanctuary for a Biblically faithful Christian ministry. Thus, they began a careful study of other denominations." The Catholic Apostolic Church donated the property in 1995 to the Atlantic District of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. After a restoration of the building, the Church for All Nations opened in 1997.
Description
The midblock Catholic Apostolic Church has a complex shape due to its cruciform plan, with a square central tower crowned by a peaked roof at the front of the nave, flanked by low side (aisle) wings; a peaked-roof nave with a gable-dormered clerestory behind the tower; a peaked-roof transept with a gable-dormered clerestory; and a peaked-roof chancel. Built with masonry bearing walls and timber framing, the church is clad in red brick laid in running bond and extensive red terra-cotta ornament, above a rusticated brownstone base.
The terra cotta has a combed texture. Between 1995 and 1997, the church was cleaned and re-pointed and some small elements of deteriorated terra cotta were replicated (using cast stone, from molds based on the original terra cotta), including on the rose window and eastern entrance. The roofs were originally covered with gray slate shingles; they are currently covered with asphalt shingles with terra-cotta ridgecaps. Windows currently have protective plastic coverings.
Tower The ground-story level has two sets of paired arched windows, with squat columns having stylized floral capitals, capped by a stringcourse with end corbels in the shape of heads. The tower is dominated by an elaborate central rose window, set above a winged lion and an eagle and placed within a molded, pointed-arched surround. The rose window surmounts an arcade of windows, with columns having stylized floral capitals and floral rondels, surmounting a setback covered with terra-cotta tiles.
The arcade and setback are flanked by buttresses ornamented with gablets and terra-cotta-tiled steps. Flanking the rose window are plaques ornamented with angels (the western angel originally played a musical instrument (which has been removed): the eastern angel bears a censer) and chamfered comers. The gable of the tower, rising above a wide, molded band course that continues along both sides of the tower, is ornamented by a tripartite arcaded window group and. at the peak, floral diaperwork with a small blind arch.
All windows are leaded glass. The tower has four polygonal corner turrets with blind arches and steeply peaked roofs covered with terra-cotta tiles. Original finials are missing. The ridge of the front gable is coped with terra cotta with crockets and a Celtic-type cross. The ridge of the rear gable is coped with copper.
Side (aisle) Wings Each wing has an entrance with a molded, pointed-arched surround springing from squat columns with stylized floral capitals: stone steps with historic wrought-iron railings and gates: double, paneled wooden doors with wooden tympanum ornamented with quatrefoils; and reveals ornamented with terra-cotta blocks with floral and cherub motifs.
Each entrance is surmounted by a setback covered with terra-cotta tiles, in turn surmounted by a triple band of windows with leaded glass and a gableted buttress on the outer end. The shed roof of each wing is covered with red tile shingles and has a terra-cotta ridgecap.
Clerestory gable dormers The two gable dormers on the eastern and western facades of the nave, and the gable dormer at each end of the transept, have double arched windows capped by a quatrefoil.
Areaway The areaway is bordered by an historic wrought-iron fence and gate. Stone steps at the west end lead to a basement entrance, which has a non-historic metal door and awning. There are currently an air conditioning unit and wooden church sign installed within the areaway. Basement windows on the church have historic wrought-iron grilles.
- From the 2001 NYCLPC Landmark Designation Report
Centers of Influence visited and maneuvered through the Field Leadership Reaction Course, FLRC, on June 13, 2018 at Fort Knox, Ky. during Cadet Summer Training. Photo by: Madison Thompson
Angus Watt (UK)
The creator of thousands of decorative silk flags.
The Armada (Canada/Australia/Ireland)
Jeff Martin (Tea Party) formed this trio resulting in exotic blends of rock.
Babylon Circus (France)
This 10-piece big band have big-top energy and provide a compelling spectacle.
Besh o droM (Hungary)
This is the essential, feisty sound of gypsy fusion.
Calexico (USA)
Exploring all manner of dusty low-fi and compelling sound noir experiments.
Dancing on Your Grave (UK)
A five-piece theatre troupe of the downdtrodden deceased.
Djan Djan (Mali/India/Australia)
The union of Mamadou Diabate, Bobby Singh and Jeff Lang.
Dub Colossus (Ethiopia/UK)
A dub-influenced exploration of traditional Ethiopian styles and 1970s grooves.
Eliades Ochoa (Cuba)
A star of the Buena Vista Social Club, Ochoa delivers unforgettable performances.
Ethiopiques (Ethiopia/France)
One of the biggest stars of Ethiopia with a 10-piece band.
Frank Yamma (Australia)
Writing brutally honest songs crossing cultural and musical boundaries.
Jane Siberry (Canada)
Striking original music and a hauntingly beautiful voice.
Kamel el Harrachi (Algeria/France)
Kamel explores the popular urban style, chaâbi.
Kathakali Dance Ensemble (India)
This dance-drama ensemble present excerpts from the epic Indian poem The Mahabharata.
La Compagnie Transe Express (France)
An innovative aerial show with characters balancing in the air!
LAFA and Artists Dance Company (Taiwan)
A young company changing the perception of dance it Taiwan.
Lepisto and Lehti (Finland)
The Finnish master musicians unite the double bass and accordian.
Mariem Hassan (Western Sahara)
Mariem Hassan is hailed as the true voice of the Western Sahara.
Monkey Puzzle Tree (Australia)
This quartet reaches for ethereal soundscapes and compositions that embrace worldly sounds.
Nortec Collective presents: Bostich and Fussible (Mexico)
They have invented nortec – a fusion of norteño and hard techno dance beats.
Ojos de Brujo (Spain)
A heady fusion of street rumba with a hot flamenco heartbeat.
The Public Opinion Afro Orchestra (Australia)
Bringing contemporary African funk to Australian dancefloors.
Ravi Shankar and Anoushka Shankar (India)
This sitar master is the great popular icon of Indian music.
Ross Daly and Ensemble (Greece)
Embracing Eastern and Western influence in the music of Crete.
Shellie Morris (Australia)
An indigenous singer performing eathy and honest songs.
The Skatalites (Jamaica)
They lay the foundation for rocksteady, reggae, dub, dancehall and raga.
Unified Gecko (Australia)
Turkish Romany Gypsy music influenced by the music of today.
VulgarGrad (Australia)
Embracing the old songs of Russian thieves, punk classics and contemporary ska.
Xavier Rudd and Izintaba (Australia)
Combining the raw edge of his rigorous guitar/vocal/didgeridoo and percussion workouts.
Young Wägilak Group (Australia)
A contemporary rendering of the Yolngu of Arnhem Land.
CHIBA, JAPAN - JUNE 25: Esports influencer “V1 meL” of Team International competes in a Team Deathmatch Showmatch against Team Japan at VALORANT Masters Tokyo Grand Finals at Makuhari Messe on June 25, 2023 in Chiba, Japan. (Photo by Colin Young-Wolff/Riot Games)
Asmara is a city of Eritrea, a country of the Africa. It is the capital of Eritea. About five hundred thousand people live in Asmara. The architecture of Asmara was influenced by the Italian colonization.
The town of Asmara was colonized by the Italians. It was colonized in 1889. The town of Asmara became the national capital of the colony in 1897. In 1913 and then later in 1915, Asmara suffered knew some damages because of earthquakes. That is one of the reason why in the 1930’s, the Italians modified the architecture of the city. They built new buildings. Most of the actual center of the town was built by the Italians. The city looked like Roma. Asmara was called "Piccola Roma" (the little Roma). Nowadays, most of the buildings of Asmara have an italian origin. Some shops are still named in Italian.
The three main architectural styles you will find in Asmara are the art deco style, the Victorian style and the Italian new roman style. The Impero Cinema is a famous art deco building of Asmara. As famous as well, there is the Pension Africa, a cubist building. The Europeans at that time used to say that Asmara was a place to experiment “new radical designs”. Some buildings are neo-Romanesque, such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral, some villas are built in a late Victorian style. Art Deco influences are found throughout the city. Architects were restricted by nothing.
There are a lot of religious sites in the town of Asmara. Such as the catholic cathedral, the eclectic cathedral, mosquees, and the copte Nda Mariam cathedral which is one of the most impressive buildings of Asmara. Colored wall pictures done by contemporary artists can be seen in different parts of the town. The town also has traditional markets. It has little shops. The inhabitants are reputed warm and open people.
© Eric Lafforgue
The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.
The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.
Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.
Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.
The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.
Role players from the fictional village of Bayan exchange currency at the village market during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.
Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson
Garrison Wainwright Imaging
WT07-2019-0013-0012
Role players from the fictional village of Bayan conversing amoungst each other during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.
Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson
Garrison Wainwright Imaging
WT07-2019-0013-002
Andy Chyba -
Speech
This campaign has dominated my life for the last 3 years and for long periods of that I wondered whether we had any chance of prevailing against the power and influence of the oil & gas lobby and their allies in Government, but I am here today to tell you that I am now totally convinced that we will prevail and prevent the devastation that this industry brings.
Why am I so confident? What has become clear in recent months is that this issue resonates with people, with voters, across the political spectrum in a way that issues like climate change have singularly failed to manage.
Despite the fact that climate change science is established and only challenged by the loony right-wing fringe; despite the fact that the arguments have been won and just about every world leader now acknowledges that we are well on course for catastrophic climate change, within the lifetimes of most people alive today; despite this no major country has found it politically possible to do anything like enough to avert the impending calamities.
We have been preaching about climate change for decades and instead of weeing in the wind, we look destined to be pissing in the coming gales for all we seem capable of achieving on this issue. The threat simply does not seem obvious, immediate or personal enough to influence people’s votes.
But fracking is different. It does, of course have a critical climate change dimension, but voters of all persuasions are beginning to realise what is at stake, especially when it pitches up in their back yards.
Witness the reaction in the Tory heartland around Balcombe. Fracking was fine when it was up in the desolate North, as the profits being made would boost their dividend payouts and pensions funds. But bring it to their doorstep and all of a sudden it is their water turning shades of green and black, it is their health being threatened, it is their leisure and tourism and agriculture being ruined, and perhaps most tellingly of all for fans of capitalism, it is the value of their prized capital assets, their property, that is being decimated and made unsellable.
This is why they have welcomed us with open arms when we visit the Balcombe camp and recognise the sacrifices being made by people like Frances Crack and Caroline Lucas in risking their liberty for the cause.
We don’t fight for these people though. As eco -socialists, we in the Green Party and Plaid Cymru have long recognised that any environmental threat tends to be a socialist issue. Who is it that disregards the environmental consequences beyond ensuring they have a big enough compensation kitties for when it goes tits up?
BP were able to establish a $20 billion compensation fund straight after the Deepwater Horizon disaster (a disaster they had insisted could never happen) and it barely caused them a moments inconvenience. Meanwhile thousands of fishermen have lost their livelihoods and way of life forever; the tourism and hospitality industries, and the poorly paid people within it, have taken massive hits, while those with lawyers and accountants milk the compensation pot.
You see, it always the little guys that are ultimately made to pay for the mistakes of the big guys. Sound familiar? Here in austerity Britain?
So, we have voters from the left and the right finding common ground in opposing fracking, and we even have Conservative AMs championing the precautionary principle if we are to believe Suzy Davies. What a pity they are in opposition, I bet she hopes we think.
Which leaves us to consider the middle ground of the political landscape. And for that we need look no further than over my shoulder. This is, of course, crediting Carwyn and his mates with not quite being the Red Tories we see in Westminster, but where has been the leadership the Welsh people deserve on this issue?
Many of us here today have written to Carwyn, he is after all my AM in Bridgend, and what do we get? We get him peddling the ultimate myth of the fracking apologist, regarding, and I quote his letter directly: “the role that gas will have as a key transitional fuel as we move to a low carbon energy system”.
This only ever had any traction if we were to burn gas instead of coal, but there is absolutely no evidence of this happening – coal production has continued apace in the USA and a drop in coal consumption, in the capitalist world, only means a drop in price and greater demand and consumption in other, poorer, parts of the world.
The latest research coming out of the London School of Economics tells us that we have to leave between 60 and 80% of current known reserves in the ground if we are to stand a chance of avoiding catastrophic climate change. Wake up Carwyn – the very last thing we need is to keep looking for ever more extreme forms of fossil fuels.
If we had proper leadership here in Wales, we could be at the very forefront of the worlds low carbon economies given the staggering potential for renewable energy we have here in Wales – not just wind and solar, but ground source heating and biogas potential that would allow us to heat our homes a lot cheaper and safer than using shale gas – and not forgetting the near criminal waste of the second highest tidal range in the entire world rushing past our doors as regular as clockwork, just over there!
The latest multi-technology proposals suggest a readily available 14GW is going to waste everyday in the Bristol Channel – the equivalent of 4 Wylfa sized nuclear power stations, at least 10 Gas-fired power stations, or put another way – more than enough to meet the average consumption level of the whole of Wales today.
So what do we need? We need Carwyn to get his backside off the fence, get out here and listen to the hard cold facts of the matter rather than keep looking for a lead from the red Tories in Westminster that only ever give us slightly tamer versions of whatever the blue Tories say, and for him to recognise that we are not going away until we get the environmental and social justice of a ban on fracking in Wales.
Let’s hear you Carwyn! Thank you!
A coalition calling for a cross party motion on Shale Gas extraction Fracking in Wales.
Tues 24 Sept 2013, Y Senedd Cardiff Bay.
Twitter @nspugh twitter.com/nspugh