This is one piece of thirty that I painted on myself. They were all painted on top of one another and then peeled off in one big sheet.

 

Check it out at www.philinthecircle.com/influence

Palau Güell

1885 - 1900

per Antoni Gaudí

(1856-1926)

 

El Palau Güell es un edifici dissenyat per Antoni Gaudí, arquitecte català famós per les seves obres d'estil peculiar, dins del corrent modernista català. El palau està situat en un estret carrer de Barcelona, el Carrer Nou de la Rambla, prop del port. L'edifici fou encarregat a Gaudí per Eusebi Güell, qui sentia una gran admiració per l'arquitecte i va finançar algunes de les seves obres més conegudes. La construcció es portà a terme en el període comprès entre els anys 1885 i 1900.

Essent el carrer tan estret, resulta difícil observar la totalitat de la façana. En canvi, es pot accedir a l'interior a través d'unes magnífiques portes d'arcs parabòlics. L'entrada té unes dimensiones impressionants, pensades per a que els visitants poguessin accedir-hi muntats en els seus cavalls, o bé en els seus carruatges. Per als cavalls existien estables al soterrani, la qual cosa era totalment innovador en aquella època.

Més endins, es troba el rebedor interior, que té una alçada de tres plantes. Aquest espai se sensiblement més petit que l'anterior, encara que Gaudí aconseguí augmentar-lo en la seva percepció visual mitjançant la instal·lació d'un gran nombre de columnes. Aquest rebedor és el nucli central de l'edifici, ja que està envoltat de les principals estàncies del palau. Aquestes també varen ser objecte d'un curós disseny de Gaudí, i tenen uns bells sostres de fusta.

A la teulada hi ha diverses xemeneies, que no foren tractades com elements molestos, sinó que Gaudí els hi conferí un caràcter decoratiu. Amb això, inicià una forma de dissenyar les xemeneies que aniria desenvolupant a les seves obres següents, fins arribar a assolir resultats espectaculars, com és el cas de la Casa Milà

 

La història del palau comença l'any 1885, quan Eusebi Güell, primer comte de Güell, encarrega a Antoni Gaudí un projecte de l'edifici. Després de l'aprovació de les obres per part de l'Ajuntament, el 15 d'octubre del 1886 s'inicia la construcció.

El palau serà una ampliació de la residencia familiar que els Güell posseïen a la pròxima Rambla de Barcelona, unida al nou edifici a través d'un passadís, encara existent. Aquesta és la raó per la qual es bastí en un barri que ja patia una degradació important i no, com hagués estat normal en aquella època, al nou eixample.

Les obres finals hem de creure que s'allargaran fins l'any 1890, malgrat que en la façana principal hi consti la data de 1888. Més endavant,el 1895, es realitzen una sèrie de reformes en el terrat, on s'incorporen noves xemeneies, i en la planta dels dormitoris.

El palau serà residència de la família fins l'any 1936, any en què s'inicia la Guerra Civil. Durant el període de guerra (1936-1939) és confiscat i s'utilitza com a comissaria. Passats aquests anys, el palau ha quedat malmès i el seu estat de conservació no és l'adequat. La seva propietària, Mercè Güell i López (filla d'Eusebi Güell), decideix transferir-lo a una entitat pública.

El 25 de maig de 1945, el Palau Güell és cedit a la Diputació de Barcelona, que passarà a ser la seva propietària i titular fins a l'actualitat.

El 1969 l'Estat espanyol el declara Monument Històricoartístic per la seva singularitat.

L'any 1984, la UNESCO declara el Palau Güell Patrimoni de la Humanitat per la seva contribució i influències en les tècniques i les formes en la construcció moderna del segle XX i el seu remarcable caràcter constructiu.

Entre 2002 i 2011, la Diputació de Barcelona va portar a terme una restauració completa de l'edifici, que actualment és visitable en la seva totalitat.

 

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The Palau Güell (Catalan pronunciation: [pəˈɫaw ˈɣweʎ], English: Güell Palace) is a mansion in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain designed by the Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí for the Catalan industrial tycoon Eusebi Güell.

It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Works of Antoni Gaudí".

The home is centered on a main room for entertaining high society guests. Guests entered the home in horse drawn carriages through the front iron gates, which featured a parabolic arch and intricate patterns of forged iron-work resembling seaweed and in some parts a horsewhip. Animals could be taken down a ramp and kept in the livery stable in the basement where the servants resided, while the guests went up the stairs to the receiving room. The ornate walls and ceilings of the receiving room disguised small viewing windows high on the walls where the owners of the home could view their guests from the upper floor and get a 'sneak peek' before greeting them, in case they needed to adjust their attire accordingly.

The main party room has a high ceiling with small holes near the top where lanterns were hung at night from the outside to give the appearance of a starlit sky.

In 2004, visits by the public were completely suspended due to renovations; some of the stone used in the original construction was weak and has cracked over the years causing structural problems within the building. After extensive restoration works it was open to the public again by April 2011.

 

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El Palacio Güell (en catalán Palau Güell) es un edificio diseñado por Antoni Gaudí, arquitecto famoso por sus obras de estilo muy peculiar dentro de la corriente denominada modernismo catalán. El palacio está situado en una calle estrecha de Barcelona, el Carrer Nou de la Rambla, cerca del puerto. Fue encargado a Gaudí por Eusebi Güell, quien sentía una gran admiración por el arquitecto y financió varias de sus más conocidas obras. La construcción se realizó entre los años 1886 y 1890.

Gaudí puso todo su empeño en esta obra, ya que era su primer encargo importante. Llegó a idear hasta 25 soluciones distintas para el diseño de la fachada. Para este proyecto contó con la colaboración de Francesc Berenguer, uno de sus más fieles ayudantes.

 

Eusebi Güell tenía una casa en la Rambla de los Capuchinos, colindante con el solar de Nou de la Rambla, que había heredado de su padre Joan Güell i Ferrer; por ello quiso construir una nueva vivienda que conectase por medio de un patio interior con la antigua. Gaudí diseñó el Palacio Güell siguiendo la tradición de las grandes casas señoriales catalanas, como las de la calle Montcada.

El diseño general sigue las líneas de sus creaciones de aquella época, marcada por el estilo oriental aplicado al diseño de sus obras; en este palacio culmina una etapa de predominio de las formas de inspiración árabe, bizantina o mudéjar, con realizaciones como la Casa Vicens, los Pabellones Güell o El Capricho de Comillas. Gaudí contó con la colaboración de diversos artesanos con los que trabajaba habitualmente, como el albañil Agustí Massip, los forjadores Joan Oñós y los hermanos Lluís y Josep Badia, los ebanistas Julià Soley y Eudald Puntí y los marmolistas hermanos Ventura.

 

Siendo la calle tan poco ancha, resulta difícil observar la fachada en su totalidad. Sin embargo, Gaudí diseñó una entrada monumental con unas magníficas puertas de arcos parabólicos y rejas caladas de hierro forjado, ornamentadas con el escudo de Cataluña y un yelmo con un dragón alado, obra de Joan Oñós. El edificio está construido con piedra calcárea de Garraf, donde Güell tenía una finca (Bodegas Güell). La entrada tiene unas dimensiones impresionantes, pensadas para que los visitantes pudiesen acceder a ella montados en sus caballos, o bien en sus carruajes. Para los caballos existían en el sótano establos, lo cual en aquella época era totalmente innovador; se accedía a ellos a través de una ingeniosa rampa de forma helicoidal ideada por Gaudí.

Más hacia dentro, se encuentra el recibidor interior, que tiene una altura de tres plantas. Este espacio es sensiblemente más pequeño que el anterior, aunque Gaudí consiguió aumentarlo en su percepción visual mediante la instalación de un gran número de columnas. Este recibidor es el núcleo central del edificio, ya que está rodeado por las principales estancias del palacio. Destaca por su cubierta con doble cúpula de perfil paraboloide en el interior y cónico en el exterior, solución típica del arte bizantino.

Desde aquí se accede a la escalera noble, que da acceso al resto de estancias del edificio. En la planta principal hay una serie de salones, donde se recibía a los invitados, así como el despacho del conde Güell y otras estancias. Destaca la capilla, decorada con pinturas de los doce apóstoles de Aleix Clapés; el altar tenía una imagen de la Purísima, obra de Joan Flotats, que fue destruida en 1936. Junto a la capilla se sitúa un órgano, obra de Aquilino Amezcua. En el gran salón destacaba asimismo un busto de Joan Güell obra de Rossend Nobas. En el segundo piso se sitúan los dormitorios, decorados con un ciclo relativo a Santa Isabel de Hungría (en homenaje a la esposa de Güell, Isabel López Bru, hija del marqués de Comillas), obra de Alexandre de Riquer; en el tercer piso se encuentran las habitaciones del servicio.

 

En la tribuna de la fachada Gaudí empleó un original sistema de arcos catenáricos y columnas con capiteles hiperboloidales, estilo no empleado ni anterior ni posteriormente a Gaudí. Gaudí diseñó con esmero el interior del palacio, con una suntuosa decoración de estilo mudéjar, donde destacan los techos con artesonados de madera y hierro; en la decoración intervino el también arquitecto Camil Oliveras. Asimismo, Gaudí estudió con eficiencia todas las soluciones técnicas y estructurales del edificio, cuidando al máximo detalle aspectos como la iluminación, la ventilación o el aislamiento acústico del exterior.

 

En el tejado hay varias chimeneas, a las que lejos de tratarlas como elementos molestos, Gaudí les dio carácter decorativo. Con ello inició una forma de diseñar las chimeneas que iría desarrollando en sus siguientes obras, hasta llegar a soluciones espectaculares como en la Casa Milà. En total son 20 chimeneas, de formas geométricas, recubiertas de cerámica de vivos colores. Destaca asimismo la alta aguja en forma de linterna que supone el remate exterior de la cúpula del salón central, hecha igualmente de cerámica y rematada con una veleta de hierro, que contiene la rosa de los vientos, un murciélago y una cruz griega.

Aunque los trabajos en la decoración interior se prolongaron hasta 1890, el edificio fue inaugurado en 1888, coincidiendo con la Exposición Universal celebrada en el parque de la Ciudadela de Barcelona. Con motivo de tal evento visitaron el Palacio Güell personajes como la reina regente María Cristina de Habsburgo, el rey Humberto I de Italia y el presidente de Estados Unidos Grover Cleveland.

 

Eusebi Güell vivió en el palacio hasta 1906, en que se trasladó a la Casa Larrard, en el Parque Güell, donde vivió hasta su fallecimiento en 1918. El Palacio Güell pasó por herencia a Mercè Güell i López, hija del conde. Durante la Guerra Civil Española sirvió como comisaría. En 1944 quiso comprarlo un millonario estadounidense, para llevarlo a su país piedra a piedra, pero afortunadamente lo adquirió en última instancia la Diputación de Barcelona.

En 1952 se instaló en el Palacio Güell la Asociación de Amigos de Gaudí, hasta su traslado en 1968 a la Casa-Museo Gaudí del Parque Güell. Asimismo, en 1954 se estableció en el palacio el Museo del Teatro, hasta su traslado igualmente en 1996. En 1969 el Palacio Güell fue declarado Monumento Histórico-artístico de Interés Nacional, y en 1984 la Unesco lo declaró Patrimonio de la Humanidad.

El Palacio Güell fue restaurado en 1983, a cargo de Carles Buxadé y Joan Margarit.10 Entre 2002 y 2011, la Diputación de Barcelona efectuó una restauración completa del edificio, que actualmente es visitable en su totalidad.

Kathmandu is the capital and largest municipality of Nepal. It is the only city of Nepal with the administrative status of Mahanagar (Metropolitan City), as compared to Upa-Mahanagar (Sub-Metropolitan City) or Nagar (City). Kathmandu is the core of Nepal's largest urban agglomeration located in the Kathmandu Valley consisting of Lalitpur, Kirtipur, Madhyapur Thimi, Bhaktapur and a number of smaller communities. Kathmandu is also known informally as "KTM" or the "tri-city". According to the 2011 census, Kathmandu Metropolitan City has a population of 975.453 and measures 49,45 square kilometres.

 

The city stands at an elevation of approximately 1.400 metres in the bowl-shaped Kathmandu Valley of central Nepal. It is surrounded by four major hills: Shivapuri, Phulchoki, Nagarjun, and Chandragiri. Kathmandu Valley is part of three districts (Kathmandu, Lalitpur, and Bhaktapur), has the highest population density in the country, and is home to about a twelfth of Nepal's population.

 

Historically, the Kathmandu Valley and adjoining areas were known as Nepal Mandala. Until the 15th century, Bhaktapur was its capital when two other capitals, Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established. During the Rana and Shah eras, British historians called the valley itself "Nepal Proper". Today, Kathmandu is not only the capital of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, but also the headquarters of the Bagmati Zone and the Central Development Region of Nepal.

 

Kathmandu is the gateway to tourism in Nepal. It is also the hub of the country's economy. It has the most advanced infrastructure of any urban area in Nepal, and its economy is focused on tourism, which accounted for 3.8% of Nepal's GDP in 1995–96. Tourism in Kathmandu declined thereafter during a period of political unrest, but since then has improved. In 2013, Kathmandu was ranked third among the top 10 travel destinations on the rise in the world by TripAdvisor, and ranked first in Asia.

 

The city has a rich history, spanning nearly 2000 years, as inferred from inscriptions found in the valley. Religious and cultural festivities form a major part of the lives of people residing in Kathmandu. Most of Kathmandu's people follow Hinduism and many others follow Buddhism. There are people of other religious beliefs as well, giving Kathmandu a cosmopolitan culture. Nepali is the most commonly spoken language in the city. English is understood by Kathmandu's educated residents. Kathmandu was devastated by a 7.8 magnitude earthquake on April 25, 2015.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The city of Kathmandu is named after Kasthamandap temple, that stood in Durbar Square. In Sanskrit, Kastha (काष्ठ) means "wood" and Mandap (/मण्डप) means "covered shelter". This temple, also known as Maru Satal (in ″Newar language″), was built in 1596 by King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The two-storey structure was made entirely of wood, and used no iron nails nor supports. According to legend, all the timber used to build the pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The structure unfortunately collapsed during the major earthquake in April 2015.

 

The colophons of ancient manuscripts, dated as late as the 20th century, refer to Kathmandu as Kasthamandap Mahanagar in Nepal Mandala. Mahanagar means "great city". The city is called "Kasthamandap" in a vow that Buddhist priests still recite to this day. Thus, Kathmandu is also known as Kasthamandap. During medieval times, the city was sometimes called Kantipur (कान्तिपुर). This name is derived from two Sanskrit words - Kanti and pur. "Kanti" is one of the names of the Goddess Lakshmi, and "pur" means place.

 

Among the indigenous Newar people, Kathmandu is known as Yen Desa (येँ देश), and Patan and Bhaktapur are known as Yala Desa (यल देश) and Khwopa Desa (ख्वप देश). "Yen" is the shorter form of Yambu (यम्बु), which originally referred to the northern half of Kathmandu.

 

HISTORY

Archaeological excavations in parts of Kathmandu have found evidence of ancient civilizations. The oldest of these findings is a statue, found in Maligaon, that was dated at 185 AD. The excavation of Dhando Chaitya uncovered a brick with an inscription in Brahmi script. Archaeologists believe it is two thousand years old. Stone inscriptions are an ubiquitous element at heritage sites and are key sources for the history of Nepal

 

The earliest Western reference to Kathmandu appears in an account of Jesuit Fathers Johann Grueber and Albert d'Orville. In 1661, they passed through Nepal on their way from Tibet to India, and reported that they reached "Cadmendu, the capital of the Kingdom of Necbal".

 

ANCIENT HISTORY

The ancient history of Kathmandu is described in its traditional myths and legends. According to Swayambhu Purana, the present day Kathmandu was once a lake called Nagdaha. The lake was drained by Manjusri, who established a city called Manjupattan and made Dharmakar the ruler of the land.

 

Kotirudra Samhita of Shiva Purana, Chapter 11, shloka 18 refers to the place as Nayapala city famous for its Pashupati Shivalinga. The name Nepal probably originates from this city Nayapala.

 

Very few historical records exist of the period before the medieval Licchavis rulers. According to Gopalraj Vansawali, a genealogy of Nepali monarchs, the rulers of Kathmandu Valley before the Licchavis were Gopalas, Mahispalas, Aabhirs, Kirants, and Somavanshi. The Kirata dynasty was established by Yalamber. During the Kirata era, a settlement called Yambu existed in the northern half of old Kathmandu. In some of the Sino-Tibetan languages, Kathmandu is still called Yambu. Another smaller settlement called Yengal was present in the southern half of old Kathmandu, near Manjupattan. During the reign of the seventh Kirata ruler, Jitedasti, Buddhist monks entered Kathmandu valley and established a forest monastery at Sankhu.

 

MEDIEVAL HISTORY

LICCHAVI ERA

The Licchavis from the Indo-Gangetic plain migrated north and defeated the Kiratas, establishing the Licchavi dynasty. During this era, following the genocide of Shakyas in Lumbini by Virudhaka, the survivors migrated north and entered the forest monastery in Sankhu masquerading as Koliyas. From Sankhu, they migrated to Yambu and Yengal (Lanjagwal and Manjupattan) and established the first permanent Buddhist monasteries of Kathmandu. This created the basis of Newar Buddhism, which is the only surviving Sanskrit-based Buddhist tradition in the world. With their migration, Yambu was called Koligram and Yengal was called Dakshin Koligram during most of the Licchavi era.Eventually, the Licchavi ruler Gunakamadeva merged Koligram and Dakshin Koligram, founding the city of Kathmandu. The city was designed in the shape of Chandrahrasa, the sword of Manjushri. The city was surrounded by eight barracks guarded by Ajimas. One of these barracks is still in use at Bhadrakali (in front of Singha Durbar). The city served as an important transit point in the trade between India and Tibet, leading to tremendous growth in architecture. Descriptions of buildings such as Managriha, Kailaskut Bhawan, and Bhadradiwas Bhawan have been found in the surviving journals of travelers and monks who lived during this era. For example, the famous 7th-century Chinese traveller Xuanzang described Kailaskut Bhawan, the palace of the Licchavi king Amshuverma. The trade route also led to cultural exchange as well. The artistry of the Newar people - the indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley - became highly sought after during this era, both within the Valley and throughout the greater Himalayas. Newar artists travelled extensively throughout Asia, creating religious art for their neighbors. For example, Araniko led a group of his compatriot artists through Tibet and China. Bhrikuti, the princess of Nepal who married Tibetan monarch Songtsän Gampo, was instrumental in introducing Buddhism to Tibet.

 

MALLA ERA

The Licchavi era was followed by the Malla era. Rulers from Tirhut, upon being attacked by Muslims, fled north to the Kathmandu valley. They intermarried with Nepali royalty, and this led to the Malla era. The early years of the Malla era were turbulent, with raids and attacks from Khas and Turk Muslims. There was also a devastating earthquake which claimed the lives of a third of Kathmandu's population, including the king Abhaya Malla. These disasters led to the destruction of most of the architecture of the Licchavi era (such as Mangriha and Kailashkut Bhawan), and the loss of literature collected in various monasteries within the city. Despite the initial hardships, Kathmandu rose to prominence again and, during most of the Malla era, dominated the trade between India and Tibet. Nepali currency became the standard currency in trans-Himalayan trade.

 

During the later part of the Malla era, Kathmandu Valley comprised four fortified cities: Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, and Kirtipur. These served as the capitals of the Malla confederation of Nepal. These states competed with each other in the arts, architecture, aesthetics, and trade, resulting in tremendous development. The kings of this period directly influenced or involved themselves in the construction of public buildings, squares, and temples, as well as the development of water spouts, the institutionalization of trusts (called guthis), the codification of laws, the writing of dramas, and the performance of plays in city squares. Evidence of an influx of ideas from India, Tibet, China, Persia, and Europe among other places can be found in a stone inscription from the time of king Pratap Malla. Books have been found from this era that describe their tantric tradition (e.g. Tantrakhyan), medicine (e.g. Haramekhala), religion (e.g. Mooldevshashidev), law, morals, and history. Amarkosh, a Sanskrit-Nepal Bhasa dictionary from 1381 AD, was also found. Architecturally notable buildings from this era include Kathmandu Durbar Square, Patan Durbar Square, Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the former durbar of Kirtipur, Nyatapola, Kumbheshwar, the Krishna temple, and others.

 

MODERN ERA

EARLY SHAH RULE

The Gorkha Kingdom ended the Malla confederation after the Battle of Kathmandu in 1768. This marked the beginning of the modern era in Kathmandu. The Battle of Kirtipur was the start of the Gorkha conquest of the Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu was adopted as the capital of the Gorkha empire, and the empire itself was dubbed Nepal. During the early part of this era, Kathmandu maintained its distinctive culture. Buildings with characteristic Nepali architecture, such as the nine-story tower of Basantapur, were built during this era. However, trade declined because of continual war with neighboring nations. Bhimsen Thapa supported France against Great Britain; this led to the development of modern military structures, such as modern barracks in Kathmandu. The nine-storey tower Dharahara was originally built during this era.

 

RANA RULE

Rana rule over Nepal started with the Kot Massacre, which occurred near Hanuman Dhoka Durbar. During this massacre, most of Nepal's high-ranking officials were massacred by Jang Bahadur Rana and his supporters. Another massacre, the Bhandarkhal Massacre, was also conducted by Kunwar and his supporters in Kathmandu. During the Rana regime, Kathmandu's alliance shifted from anti-British to pro-British; this led to the construction of the first buildings in the style of Western European architecture. The most well-known of these buildings include Singha Durbar, Garden of Dreams, Shital Niwas, and the old Narayanhiti palace. The first modern commercial road in the Kathmandu Valley, the New Road, was also built during this era. Trichandra College (the first college of Nepal), Durbar School (the first modern school of Nepal), and Bir Hospital (the first hospital of Nepal) were built in Kathmandu during this era. Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution.

 

GEOGRAPHY

Kathmandu is located in the northwestern part of Kathmandu Valley to the north of the Bagmati River and covers an area of 50,67 square kilometres. The average elevation is 1.400 metres above sea level. The city is directly bounded by several other municipalities of the Kathmandu valley: south of the Bagmati by Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City (Patan) with which it today forms one urban area surrounded by a ring road, to the southwest by Kirtipur Municipality and to the east by Madyapur Thimi Municipality. To the north the urban area extends into several Village Development Committees. However, the urban agglomeration extends well beyond the neighboring municipalities, e. g. to Bhaktapur and just about covers the entire Kathmandu valley.

 

Kathmandu is dissected by eight rivers, the main river of the valley, the Bagmati and its tributaries, of which the Bishnumati, Dhobi Khola, Manohara Khola, Hanumant Khola, and Tukucha Khola are predominant. The mountains from where these rivers originate are in the elevation range of 1.500–3.000 metres, and have passes which provide access to and from Kathmandu and its valley. An ancient canal once flowed from Nagarjuna hill through Balaju to Kathmandu; this canal is now extinct.

 

Kathmandu and its valley are in the Deciduous Monsoon Forest Zone (altitude range of 1.200–2.100 metres), one of five vegetation zones defined for Nepal. The dominant tree species in this zone are oak, elm, beech, maple and others, with coniferous trees at higher altitude.

 

TOURISM

Tourism is considered another important industry in Nepal. This industry started around 1950, as the country's political makeup changed and ended the country's isolation from the rest of the world. In 1956, air transportation was established and the Tribhuvan Highway, between Kathmandu and Raxaul (at India's border), was started. Separate organizations were created in Kathmandu to promote this activity; some of these include the Tourism Development Board, the Department of Tourism and the Civil Aviation Department. Furthermore, Nepal became a member of several international tourist associations. Establishing diplomatic relations with other nations further accentuated this activity. The hotel industry, travel agencies, training of tourist guides, and targeted publicity campaigns are the chief reasons for the remarkable growth of this industry in Nepal, and in Kathmandu in particular.

 

Since then, tourism in Nepal has thrived; it is sometimes called the "third religion" of Nepal. It is the country's most important industry. Tourism is a major source of income for most of the people in the city, with several hundred thousand visitors annually. Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world visit Kathmandu's religious sites such as Pashupatinath, Swayambhunath, Boudhanath and Budhanilkantha. From a mere 6179 tourists in 1961–62, the number jumped to 491504 in 1999-2000. With the end of Maoist insuregency period in 2009 there was a significant rise of 509,956 tourist arrivals. Since then, tourism has improved as the country turned into a Democratic Republic. In economic terms, the foreign exchange registered 3.8% of the GDP in 1995–96 but then started declining. The high level of tourism is attributed to the natural grandeur of the Himalayas and the rich cultural heritage of the country.

 

The neighborhood of Thamel is Kathmandu's primary "traveler's ghetto", packed with guest houses, restaurants, shops, and bookstores, catering to tourists. Another neighborhood of growing popularity is Jhamel, a name for Jhamsikhel coined to rhyme with Thamel. Jhochhen Tol, also known as Freak Street, is Kathmandu's original traveler's haunt, made popular by the hippies of the 1960s and 1970s; it remains a popular alternative to Thamel. Asan is a bazaar and ceremonial square on the old trade route to Tibet, and provides a fine example of a traditional neighborhood.

With the opening of the tourist industry after the change in the political scenario of Nepal in 1950, the hotel industry drastically improved. Now Kathmandu boasts several five-star hotels like Hyatt Regency, Hotel Yak & Yeti, The Everest Hotel, Hotel Radisson, Hotel De L'Annapurna, The Malla Hotel, Shangri-La Hotel (which is not operated by the Shangri-La Hotel Group) and The Shanker Hotel. There are several four-star hotels such as Hotel Vaishali, Hotel Narayani, The Blue Star and Grand Hotel. The Garden Hotel, Hotel Ambassador, and Aloha Inn are among the three-star hotels in Kathmandu. Hotels like Hyatt Regency, De L'Annapurna and Hotel Yak & Yeti are among the five-star hotels providing casinos as well.

 

DEMOGRAPHICS

Kathmandu's urban cosmopolitan character has made it the most populous city in Nepal, recording a population of 671846 residents living in 235387 households in the metropolitan area, according to the 2001 census. According to the National Population Census of 2011, the total population of Kathmandu city was 975543 with an annual growth rate of 6,12% with respect to the population figure of 2001. 70% of the total population residing in Kathmandu are aged between 15 and 59.

 

Over the years the city has been home to people of various ethnicities, resulting in a range of different traditions and cultural practices. In one decade, the population increased from 427045 in 1991 to 671805 in 2001. The population was projected to reach 915071 in 2011 and 1.319.597 by 2021. To keep up this population growth, the KMC-controlled area of 5,076.6 hectares has expanded to 8.214 hectares in 2001. With this new area, the population density which was 85 in 1991 is still 85 in 2001; it is likely to jump to 111 in 2011 and 161 in 2021.

 

ETHNIC GROUPS

The largest ethnic groups are Newar (29.6%), Matwali (25.1% Sunuwar, Gurung, Magars, Tamang etc.), Khas Brahmins (20.51%) and Chettris (18.5%) . Tamangs originating from surrounding hill districts can be seen in Kathmandu. More recently, other hill ethnic groups and Caste groups from Terai have become present as well in vast majority. The major languages are Nepali, Nepal Bhasa and English is understood by about 30% of the people. The major religions are Hinduism and Buddhism.

 

The linguistic profile of Kathmandu underwent drastic changes during the Shah dynasty's rule because of its strong bias towards the Brahminic culture. Sanskrit language therefore was preferred and people were encouraged to learn it even by attending Sanskrit learning centers in Terai. Sanskrit schools were specially set up in Kathmandu and in the Terai region to inculcate traditional Hindu culture and practices originated from Nepal.

 

ARCHITECTURE AND CITYSCAPE

The ancient trade route between India and Tibet that passed through Kathmandu enabled a fusion of artistic and architectural traditions from other cultures to be amalgamated with local art and architecture. The monuments of Kathmandu City have been influenced over the centuries by Hindu and Buddhist religious practices. The architectural treasure of the Kathmandu valley has been categorized under the well-known seven groups of heritage monuments and buildings. In 2006 UNESCO declared these seven groups of monuments as a World Heritage Site (WHS). The seven monuments zones cover an area of 188,95 hectares, with the buffer zone extending to 239,34 hectares. The Seven Monument Zones (Mzs) inscribed originally in 1979 and with a minor modification in 2006 are Durbar squares of Hanuman Dhoka, Patan and Bhaktapur, Hindu temples of Pashupatinath and Changunarayan, the Buddhist stupas of Swayambhu and Boudhanath.

 

DURBAR SQUARES

The literal meaning of Durbar Square is a "place of palaces". There are three preserved Durbar Squares in Kathmandu valley and one unpreserved in Kirtipur. The Durbar Square of Kathmandu is located in the old city and has heritage buildings representing four kingdoms (Kantipur, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, Kirtipur); the earliest is the Licchavi dynasty. The complex has 50 temples and is distributed in two quadrangles of the Durbar Square. The outer quadrangle has the Kasthamandap, Kumari Ghar, and Shiva-Parvati Temple; the inner quadrangle has the Hanuman Dhoka palace. The squares were severely damaged in the April 2015 Nepal earthquake.

 

Hanuman Dhoka is a complex of structures with the Royal Palace of the Malla kings and of the Shah dynasty. It is spread over five acres. The eastern wing, with ten courtyards, is the oldest part, dating to the mid-16th century. It was expanded by King Pratap Malla in the 17th century with many temples. The royal family lived in this palace until 1886 when they moved to Narayanhiti Palace. The stone inscription outside is in fifteen languages.

 

Kumari Ghar is a palace in the center of the Kathmandu city, next to the Durbar square where a Royal Kumari selected from several Kumaris resides. Kumari, or Kumari Devi, is the tradition of worshipping young pre-pubescent girls as manifestations of the divine female energy or devi in South Asian countries. In Nepal the selection process is very rigorous. Kumari is believed to be the bodily incarnation of the goddess Taleju (the Nepali name for Durga) until she menstruates, after which it is believed that the goddess vacates her body. Serious illness or a major loss of blood from an injury are also causes for her to revert to common status. The current Royal Kumari, Matina Shakya, age four, was installed in October 2008 by the Maoist government that replaced the monarchy.

 

Kasthamandap is a three-storeyed temple enshrining an image of Gorakhnath. It was built in the 16th century in pagoda style. The name of Kathmandu is a derivative of the word Kasthamandap. It was built under the reign of King Laxmi Narsingha Malla. Kasthamandap stands at the intersection of two ancient trade routes linking India and Tibet at Maru square. It was originally built as a rest house for travelers.

 

PASHUPATINATH TEMPLE

The Pashupatinath Temple is a famous 5th century Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva (Pashupati). Located on the banks of the Bagmati River in the eastern part of Kathmandu, Pashupatinath Temple is the oldest Hindu temple in Kathmandu. It served as the seat of national deity, Lord Pashupatinath, until Nepal was secularized. However, a significant part of the temple was destroyed by Mughal invaders in the 14th century and little or nothing remains of the original 5th-century temple exterior. The temple as it stands today was built in the 19th century, although the image of the bull and the black four-headed image of Pashupati are at least 300 years old. The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Shivaratri, or the night of Lord Shiva, is the most important festival that takes place here, attracting thousands of devotees and sadhus.

 

Believers in Pashupatinath (mainly Hindus) are allowed to enter the temple premises, but non-Hindu visitors are allowed to view the temple only from the across the Bagmati River. The priests who perform the services at this temple have been Brahmins from Karnataka, South India since the time of Malla king Yaksha Malla. This tradition is believed to have been started at the request of Adi Shankaracharya who sought to unify the states of Bharatam (Unified India) by encouraging cultural exchange. This procedure is followed in other temples around India, which were sanctified by Adi Shankaracharya.

 

The temple is built in the pagoda style of architecture, with cubic constructions, carved wooden rafters (tundal) on which they rest, and two-level roofs made of copper and gold.

 

BOUDHANATH

The Boudhanath, (also written Bouddhanath, Bodhnath, Baudhanath or the Khāsa Chaitya), is one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Nepal, along with Swayambhu. It is a very popular tourist site. Boudhanath is known as Khāsti by Newars and as Bauddha or Bodhnāth by speakers of Nepali. Located about 11 km from the center and northeastern outskirts of Kathmandu, the stupa's massive mandala makes it one of the largest spherical stupas in Nepal. Boudhanath became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.The base of the stupa has 108 small depictions of the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. It is surrounded with a brick wall with 147 niches, each with four or five prayer wheels engraved with the mantra, om mani padme hum. At the northern entrance where visitors must pass is a shrine dedicated to Ajima, the goddess of smallpox. Every year the stupa attracts many Tibetan Buddhist pilgrims who perform full body prostrations in the inner lower enclosure, walk around the stupa with prayer wheels, chant, and pray. Thousands of prayer flags are hoisted up from the top of the stupa downwards and dot the perimeter of the complex. The influx of many Tibetan refugees from China has seen the construction of over 50 Tibetan gompas (monasteries) around Boudhanath.

 

SWAYAMBHU

Swayambhu is a Buddhist stupa atop a hillock at the northwestern part of the city. This is among the oldest religious sites in Nepal. Although the site is considered Buddhist, it is revered by both Buddhists and Hindus. The stupa consists of a dome at the base; above the dome, there is a cubic structure with the eyes of Buddha looking in all four directions.[clarification needed] There are pentagonal Toran above each of the four sides, with statues engraved on them. Behind and above the torana there are thirteen tiers. Above all the tiers, there is a small space above which lies a gajur.

 

CULTURE

ARTS

Kathmandu valley is described as "an enormous treasure house of art and sculptures", which are made of wood, stone, metal, and terracotta, and found in profusion in temples, shrines, stupas, gompas, chaityasm and palaces. The art objects are also seen in street corners, lanes, private courtyards, and in open ground. Most art is in the form of icons of gods and goddesses. Kathmandu valley has had this art treasure very long, but received worldwide recognition only after the country opened its doors to the outside world in 1950.

 

The religious art of Nepal and Kathmandu in particular consists of an iconic symbolism of the Mother Goddesses such as: Bhavani, Durga, Gaja-Lakshmi, Hariti-Sitala, Mahsishamardini, Saptamatrika (seven mother goddesses), and Sri-Lakshmi(wealth-goddess). From the 3rd century BC, apart from the Hindu gods and goddesses, Buddhist monuments from the Ashokan period (it is said that Ashoka visited Nepal in 250 BC) have embellished Nepal in general and the valley in particular. These art and architectural edifices encompass three major periods of evolution: the Licchavi or classical period (500 to 900 AD), the post-classical period (1000 to 1400 AD), with strong influence of the Palla art form; the Malla period (1400 onwards) that exhibited explicitly tantric influences coupled with the art of Tibetan Demonology.

 

A broad typology has been ascribed to the decorative designs and carvings created by the people of Nepal. These artists have maintained a blend of Hinduism and Buddhism. The typology, based on the type of material used are: Stone Art, Metal Art, Wood Art, Terracotta Art, and Painting.

 

MUSEUMS

Kathmandu is home to a number of museums and art galleries, including the National Museum of Nepal and the Natural History Museum of Nepal. Nepal's art and architecture is an amalgamation of two ancient religions, Hinduism and Buddhhism. These are amply reflected in the many temples, shrines, stupas, monasteries, and palaces in the seven well-defined Monument Zones of the Kathmandu valley recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This amalgamation is also reflected in the planning and exhibitions in museums and art galleries throughout Kathmandu and its sister cities of Patan and Bhaktapur. The museums display unique artifacts and paintings from the 5th century CE to the present day, including archeological exportation.

  

KATHMANDU MUSEUMS ABD ART GALLERIES INCLUDE:

The National Museum

The Natural History Museum

Hanumandhoka Palace Complex

The Kaiser Library

The National Art Gallery

The NEF-ART (Nepal Fine Art) Gallery

The Nepal Art Council Gallery

Narayanhity Palace Museum

The Taragaon Museum

 

The National Museum is located in the western part of Kathmandu, near the Swayambhunath stupa in an historical building. This building was constructed in the early 19th century by General Bhimsen Thapa. It is the most important museum in the country, housing an extensive collection of weapons, art and antiquities of historic and cultural importance. The museum was established in 1928 as a collection house of war trophies and weapons, and the initial name of this museum was Chhauni Silkhana, meaning "the stone house of arms and ammunition". Given its focus, the museum contains an extensive quantity of weapons, including locally made firearms used in wars, leather cannons from the 18th–19th century, and medieval and modern works in wood, bronze, stone and paintings.

 

The Natural History Museum is located in the southern foothills of Swayambhunath hill and has a sizeable collection of different species of animals, butterflies, and plants. The museum is noted for its display of species, from prehistoric shells to stuffed animals.

 

The Tribhuvan Museum contains artifacts related to the King Tribhuvan (1906–1955). It has a variety of pieces including his personal belongings, letters and papers, memorabilia related to events he was involved in and a rare collection of photos and paintings of Royal family members. The Mahendra Museum is dedicated to king Mahendra of Nepal (1920–1972). Like the Tribhuvan Museum, it includes his personal belongings such as decorations, stamps, coins and personal notes and manuscripts, but it also has structural reconstructions of his cabinet room and office chamber. The Hanumandhoka Palace, a lavish medieval palace complex in the Durbar, contains three separate museums of historic importance. These museums include the Birendra museum, which contains items related to the second-last monarch, Birendra of Nepal.

 

The enclosed compound of the Narayanhity Palace Museum is in the north-central part of Kathmandu. "Narayanhity" comes from Narayana, a form of the Hindu god Lord Vishnu, and Hiti, meaning "water spout" (Vishnu's temple is located opposite the palace, and the water spout is located east of the main entrance to the precinct). Narayanhity was a new palace, in front of the old palace built in 1915, and was built in 1970 in the form of a contemporary Pagoda. It was built on the occasion of the marriage of King Birenda Bir Bikram Shah, then heir apparent to the throne. The southern gate of the palace is at the crossing of Prithvipath and Darbar Marg roads. The palace area covers 30 hectares and is fully secured with gates on all sides. This palace was the scene of the Nepali royal massacre. After the fall of the monarchy, it was converted to a museum.The Taragaon Museum presents the modern history of the Kathmandu Valley. It seeks to document 50 years of research and cultural heritage conservation of the Kathmandu Valley, documenting what artists photographers architects anthropologists from abroad had contributed in the second half of the 20th century. The actual structure of the Museum showcases restoration and rehabilitation efforts to preserve the built heritage of Kathmandu. It was designed by Carl Pruscha (master-planner of the Kathmandy Valley) in 1970 and constructed in 1971. Restoration works began in 2010 to rehabilitate the Taragaon hostel into the Taragaon Museum. The design uses local brick along with modern architectural design elements, as well as the use of circle, triangles and squares. The Museum is within a short walk from the Boudhnath stupa, which itself can be seen from the Museum tower.

 

ART GALLERIES

Kathmandu is a center for art in Nepal, displaying the work of contemporary artists in the country and also collections of historical artists. Patan in particular is an ancient city noted for its fine arts and crafts. Art in Kathmandu is vibrant, demonstrating a fusion of traditionalism and modern art, derived from a great number of national, Asian, and global influences. Nepali art is commonly divided into two areas: the idealistic traditional painting known as Paubhas in Nepal and perhaps more commonly known as Thangkas in Tibet, closely linked to the country's religious history and on the other hand the contemporary western-style painting, including nature-based compositions or abstract artwork based on Tantric elements and social themes of which painters in Nepal are well noted for. Internationally, the British-based charity, the Kathmandu Contemporary Art Centre is involved with promoting arts in Kathmandu.

 

Kathmandu contains many notable art galleries. The NAFA Gallery, operated by the Arts and crafts Department of the Nepal Academy is housed in Sita Bhavan, a neo-classical old Rana palace.

 

The Srijana Contemporary Art Gallery, located inside the Bhrikutimandap Exhibition grounds, hosts the work of contemporary painters and sculptors, and regularly organizes exhibitions. It also runs morning and evening classes in the schools of art. Also of note is the Moti Azima Gallery, located in a three storied building in Bhimsenthan which contains an impressive collection of traditional utensils and handmade dolls and items typical of a medieval Newar house, giving an important insight into Nepali history. The J Art Gallery is also located in Kathmandu, near the Royal Palace in Durbarmarg, Kathmandu and displays the artwork of eminent, established Nepali painters. The Nepal Art Council Gallery, located in the Babar Mahal, on the way to Tribhuvan International Airport contains artwork of both national and international artists and extensive halls regularly used for art exhibitions.

 

CUISINE

The staple food of most of Kathmanduites is dal bhat. It consists of rice and lentil soup, generally served with vegetable curries, achar and sometimes Chutney. Momo, a type of Nepali version of Tibetan dumpling, has become prominent in Nepal with many street vendors selling it. It is one of the most popular fast foods in Kathmandu. Various Nepali variants of momo including buff (i.e. buffalo) momo, chicken momo, and vegetarian momo are famous in Kathmandu. Dal Bhaat is the local cuisine of Kathmandu.

 

Most of the cuisines found in Kathmandu are non-vegetarian. However, the practice of vegetarianism is not uncommon, and vegetarian cuisines can be found throughout the city. Consumption of beef is very uncommon and considered taboo in many places. Buff (meat of water buffalo) is very common. There is a strong tradition of buff consumption in Kathmandu, especially among Newars, which is not found in other parts of Nepal. Consumption of pork was considered taboo until a few decades ago. Due to the intermixing with Kirat cuisine from eastern Nepal, pork has found a place in Kathmandu dishes. A fringe population of devout Hindus and Muslims consider it taboo. The Muslims forbid eating buff as from Quran while Hindus eat all varieties except Cow's meat as the consider Cow to be a goddess and symbol of purity. The chief breakfast for locals and visitors is mostly Momo or Chowmein.

 

Kathmandu had only one restaurant in 1955. A large number of restaurants in Kathmandu have since opened, catering Nepali cuisine, Tibetan cuisine, Chinese cuisine and Indian cuisine in particular. Many other restaurants have opened to accommodate locals, expatriates, and tourists. The growth of tourism in Kathmandu has led to culinary creativity and the development of hybrid foods to accommodate for tourists such as American chop suey, which is a sweet-and-sour sauce with crispy noodles with a fried egg commonly added on top and other westernized adaptations of traditional cuisine. Continental cuisine can be found in selected places. International chain restaurants are rare, but some outlets of Pizza Hut and KFC have recently opened there. It also has several outlets of the international ice-cream chain Baskin-Robbins

 

Kathmandu has a larger proportion of tea drinkers than coffee drinkers. Tea is widely served but is extremely weak by western standards. It is richer and contains tea leaves boiled with milk, sugar and spices. Alcohol is widely drunk, and there are numerous local variants of alcoholic beverages. But its use has been now reduced.refnational survey. Drinking and driving is illegal, and authorities have a zero tolerance policy. Ailaa and thwon (alcohol made from rice) are the alcoholic beverages of Kathmandu, found in all the local bhattis (alcohol serving eateries). Chhyaang, tongba (fermented millet or barley) and rakshi are alcohols from other parts of Nepal which are found in Kathmandu. However, shops and bars in Kathmandu widely sell western and Nepali beers. Shops are forbidden to sell alcohol on the first two days and last two days of the Nepali month (Nepal Sambat).

 

FESTIVALS

Most of the fairs and festivals in Kathmandu originated in the Malla period or earlier. Traditionally, these festivals were celebrated by Newars. In recent years, these festivals have found wider participation from other Kathmanduites as well. As the capital of the Republic of Nepal, various national festivals are celebrated in Kathmandu. With mass migration to the city, the cultures of Khas from the west, Kirats from the east, Bon/Tibetan from the north, and Mithila from the south meet in the capital and mingle harmoniously. The festivities such as the Ghode (horse) Jatra, Indra Jatra, Dashain Durga Puja festivals, Shivratri and many more are observed by all Hindu and Buddhist communities of Kathmandu with devotional fervor and enthusiasm. Social regulation in the codes enacted incorporate Hindu traditions and ethics. These were followed by the Shah kings and previous kings, as devout Hindus and protectors of Buddhist religion.

 

Cultural continuity has been maintained for centuries in the exclusive worship of goddesses and deities in Kathmandu and the rest of the country. These deities include the Ajima, Taleju (or Tulja Bhavani), Digu taleju, and Kumari (the living goddess).[citation needed] The artistic edifices have now become places of worship in the everyday life of the people, therefore a roster is maintained to observe annual festivals. There are 133 festivals held in the year.

 

Some of the traditional festivals observed in Kathmandu, apart from those previously mentioned, are Bada Dashain, Tihar, Chhath, Maghe Sankranti, Naga Panchami, Janai Poornima, Pancha Dan, Teej/Rishi Panchami, Pahan Charhe, Jana Baha Dyah Jatra (White Machchhendranath Jatra), and Matatirtha Aunsi.

 

HINDUISM

Assumedly, together with the kingdom of Licchhavi (c. 400 to 750), Hinduism and the endogam social stratification of the Caste was established in Kathmandu Valley. The Pashupatinath Temple, Changu Narayan temple (the oldest), and the Kasthamandap are of particular importance to Hindus. Other notable Hindu temples in Kathmandu and the surrounding valley include Bajrayogini Temple, Dakshinkali Temple, Guhyeshwari Temple, and the Sobha Bhagwati shrine.

 

The Bagmati River which flows through Kathmandu is considered a holy river both by Hindus and Buddhists, and many Hindu temples are located on the banks of this river. The importance of the Bagmati also lies in the fact that Hindus are cremated on its banks, and Kirants are buried in the hills by its side. According to the Nepali Hindu tradition, the dead body must be dipped three times into the Bagmati before cremation. The chief mourner (usually the first son) who lights the funeral pyre must take a holy riverwater bath immediately after cremation. Many relatives who join the funeral procession also take bath in the Bagmati River or sprinkle the holy water on their bodies at the end of cremation as the Bagmati is believed to purify people spiritually.

 

BUDDHISM

Buddhism started in Kathmandu with the arrival of Buddhist monks during the time of Buddha (c. 563 - 483 BC). They started a forest monastery in Sankhu. This monastery was renovated by Shakyas after they fled genocide from Virudhaka (rule: 491-461 BC).

 

During the Hindu Lichchavi era (c. 400 to 750), various monasteries and orders were created which successively led to the formation of Newar Buddhism, which is still practiced in the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Sanskrit.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Reservists from 38 Brigade Group’s Influence Activities Company conduct patrols and execute key leader engagements in the fictional village of Bayan during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.

 

Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson

 

Garrison Wainwright Imaging

 

WT07-2019-0013-0020

Summer holiday 2014

In and around Berlin Germany

  

Berlin

 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

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This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).

  

Berlin

 

State of Germany

Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.

Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.

 

Flag of Berlin

Flag Coat of arms of Berlin

Coat of arms

 

Location within European Union and Germany

Location within European Union and Germany

Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E

 

Country

Germany

 

Government

  

• Governing Mayor

Michael Müller (SPD)

 

• Governing parties

SPD / CDU

 

• Votes in Bundesrat

4 (of 69)

 

Area

  

• City

891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)

 

Elevation

34 m (112 ft)

 

Population (December 2013)[1]

  

• City

3,517,424

 

• Density

3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)

 

Demonym

Berliner

 

Time zone

CET (UTC+1)

 

• Summer (DST)

CEST (UTC+2)

 

Postal code(s)

10115–14199

 

Area code(s)

030

 

ISO 3166 code

DE-BE

 

Vehicle registration

B[2]

 

GDP/ Nominal

€109.2 billion (2013) [3]

 

NUTS Region

DE3

 

Website

berlin.de

 

Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]

 

First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]

 

Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.

 

Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]

  

20th to 21st centuries[edit]

     

Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner

After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.

     

Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).

In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]

     

The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.

All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.

     

The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.

The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]

 

In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.

  

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin

The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.

 

The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.

 

Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.

 

Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.

 

The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.

Thillai Natarajah Temple, Chidambaram or Chidambaram temple is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva located in the town of Chidambaram, East-Central Tamil Nadu, South India. The temple is known as the foremost of all temples (Kovil) to Saivites and has influenced worship, architecture, sculpture and performance art for over two millennium. The Sangam classics list chief architect Viduvelvidugu Perumthachchan as directing an early renovation of the shrine.

 

A major shrine of Lord Shiva worship since the classical period, there have been several renovations and offerings to Chidambaram by the Pallava, Chola, Pandya, Vijayanagara and Chera royals in the ancient and pre-medieval periods. The temple as it stands now is mainly of the 12th and 13th centuries, with later additions in similar style. Its bronze statues and stone sculptures depicting various deities and the famous Thillai trees (Excoecaria agallocha) of the surrounding forest reflect the highpoints of early Chola and Pallava art while its famed gold plated gopuram towers are medieval structural additions by the royals Aditya I, Parantaka Chola I, Kopperunchinga I, Krishnadevaraya and Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan. King Kocengannan Chola was born following prayers his parents offered at the temple and later in his life he refined its structure. The shrine gave the town its name.

 

The deity that presides here is கூத்தன் - Thillai Koothan (Thillai Nataraja - Shiva, The Lord of Dance). Chidambaram is the birthplace of the sculpture and bronze image representation of Lord Shiva as the cosmic dancer, a Tamilian concept and motif in Chola art that has since become notable as a symbol of Hinduism. The shrine is the only Shiva temple to have its main deity represented in this anthropomorphic form, as the supreme being who performs all cosmic activities. The consort deity here is Sivakami Amman (form of Amman - mother goddess and female energy). Two other forms of Lord Shiva are represented close to this in the vimana (inner sanctum) of the temple - as a crystallised lingam - the most common representation of Lord Shiva in temples, and as the aether space classical element, represented with empty space and a garland of fifty one hanging golden bilvam leaves (Aegle marmelos). Lord Shiva is captured in pose as Nataraja performing the Ananda Tandava ("Dance of Delight") in the golden hall of the shrine Pon Ambalam (பொன் அம்பலம்). The sculptures of Chidambaram inspired the postures of Bharatha Natyam. The Chidambaram complex is admired for its five famous halls (ambalam or sabhai), several grand smaller shrines to the Hindu deities Ganesh, Murugan, Vishnu and Sivakami Amman which contain Pandyan and Nayak architectural styles, and for its endowment from many water tanks, one of which links it to the Thillai Kali temple.

 

Chidambaram is one of the five Pancha Bootha Sthalams, the holiest Shiva temples each representing one of the five classical elements; Chidambaram represents akasha (aether). Chidambaram is glorified in Tirumular's Tirumandhiram and was visited by Patañjali and VyagjrapadharPulikaal Munivar. It is the primary shrine of the 275 Paadal Petra Sthalams - Shiva Sthalams glorified in the early medieval Tevaram poems by Tamil Saivite Nayanar saints Tirunavukkarasar, Thirugnana Sambandar and Sundarar. Hailed in the Tiruvacakam series by Manikkavacakar, these very volumes of the Tirumurai literature canon were themselves found in secret chambers of the temple. The Periya Puranam, a biography of these Nayanar saints by Sekkizhar commissioned by emperor Kulothunga Chola II, was written in the shrine's Thousand Pillared Hall. In Kanda Puranam, the epic authored by Kachiyappa Sivachariar of Kanchipuram, the Chidambaram shrine is venerated as one of the three foremost Shiva abodes in the world, alongside Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee and Mount Kailash.

 

ETYMOLOGY

The traditional name of the temple complex, Chidambaram Tillai Nataraja-koothan Kovil, alludes to the environment of its location and its origins and significance in Saivite worship. The mangrove of ancient Tillai (தில்லை) trees (Exocoeria agallocha) of the forest surrounding the shrine when it was first built inspired the shrine's name and early artistic inspiration; the Tillai trees of the nearby Pichavaram wetlands, the second largest mangrove in the world, extends to the temple area. The shrine is venerated as Tillai ambalam (தில்லை அம்பலம் ), literally meaning Tillai Open Stage, the open space surrounded by Tillai Vanam (தில்லை வனம்) (the Tillai forest) - the original name of this area.[9] The name of the town of this shrine, Chidambaram comes from the Tamil word Chitrambalam (சிற்றம்பலம்) - "small hall/stage"; also spelled Chithambalam (சிட்டம்பலம்), from citt/chitthu and ambalam - meaning "wisdom of this open stage/atmosphere". The shrine is where some devotees believe they will attain liberation, or chitaakasam - "wisdom/consciousness of the sky". "Nataraja" or "Koothan" mean "Lord of Dance".

 

LEGEND

The story of Chidambaram begins with Lord Shiva strolling into the Thillai Vanam (vanam meaning forest and thillai trees - botanical name Exocoeria agallocha, a species of mangrove trees - which currently grows in the Pichavaram wetlands near Chidambaram). In the Thillai forests resided a group of sages or 'rishis' who believed in the supremacy of magic and that God can be controlled by rituals and mantras or magical words. Lord Shiva strolled in the forest with resplendent beauty and brilliance, assuming the form of Bhikshatana, a simple mendicant seeking alms. He was followed by His consort, Vishnu as Mohini. The sages and their wives were enchanted by the brilliance and the beauty of The handsome mendicant and His consort. On seeing their womenfolk enchanted, the rishis got enraged and invoked scores of serpents (nāgas) by performing magical rituals. Lord Shiva lifted the serpents and donned them as ornaments on His matted locks, neck and waist. Further enraged, the sages invoked a fierce tiger, whose skins and dons were used by Lord Shiva as a shawl around His waist and then followed by a fierce elephant, which was devoured and ripped to death by Lord Shiva (Gajasamharamurthy).

 

The rishis gathered all their spiritual strength and invoked a powerful demon Muyalakan - a symbol of complete arrogance and ignorance. Lord Shiva wore a gentle smile, stepped on the demon's back, immobilized him and performed the Ánanda Tandava (the dance of eternal bliss) and disclosed his true form. The sages surrender, realizing that Lord Shiva is the truth and He is beyond magic and rituals.

 

PATRONAGE

To Saivites, primarily in Tamil Nadu, the very word koil refers primarily to Chidambaram Tillai Natarajar.

 

Chidambaram is a temple complex spread over 160,000 m2 in the heart of the city. The main complex to Lord Shiva Nataraja also contains shrines to deities such as Shivakami Amman, Ganesh, Murugan and Vishnu in the form Govindaraja Perumal. Chidambaram's earliest structures were designed and erected by ancient craftsmen called Perumtaccan. The golden tiled roof for the Chit Ambalam (the vimanam) was laid by the Chola King Parantaka I (907-950 CE) following which he was given the title - Thillaiyambalathhukku pon koorai veiyntha thevan (Tamil:தில்லையாம்பலதுக்கு பொன் கூரை வேய்ந்த தேவன், meaning the one who constructed the golden roof). In its floruit, kings Rajaraja Chola I (reign 985-1014 AD) and Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1120 AD) made significant donations to the temple. Gold and riches to the temple were donated by Rajaraja Chola's daughter Kundavai II while Chola king Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 AD) made donations for the conduct of the daily rituals.

 

Donations of gold and jewels have been made by various kings, rulers and patrons to the temple from 9th to 16th century - including the Maharaja of Pudukottai, Sethupathy (the emerald jewel still adorns the deity) and the British.

 

Naralokaviran, the general of king Kulothunga Chola I was responsible for building a shrine for child saint Thirugnana Sambanthar and installed a metal image inside it. He constructed a hall for recitation of Tevaram hymns and engraved the hymns in copper plates.

 

TEMPLE STRUCTURE

The temple is the only great temple complex to date mainly from the later Chola period, and contains the earliest examples of a number of features that are found in many later temples, including "the earliest known Devī or Amman shrine, nritta (dance) maṇḍapa, Sūrya shrine with chariot wheels, hundred-and-thousand pillared maṇḍapas, even the first giant Śiva Gangā tank".A classical Shiva temple as per Agama rules will have five prakarams (closed precincts of a temple) or circuits each separated by walls one within the other. The outer prakaram will be open to the sky except the innermost one. The innermost one will house the main deity as well as other deities. There will be a massive wooden or stone flag post exactly in line with the main deity. The innermost prakaram houses the sanctum sanctorum (தமிழ் = கருவரை).

 

Chidambaram is also referred to in various works such as Thillai (after the Thillai forest of yore in which the temple is now located), Perumpatrapuliyur or Vyagrapuram (in honour of Saint Vyagrapathar, Sanskrit: Vyaghrapada - "Tiger-Footed").

 

The temple is supposed to be located at the lotus heart of the Universe: Virat hridaya padma sthalam.

 

This gold-roofed stage is the sanctum sanctorum of the Chidambaram temple and houses the Lord in three forms:

 

- the "form" - the anthropomorphic form as an appearance of Nataraja, called the Sakala-thirumeni.

- the "semi-form" – the semi-anthropomorphic form as the Crystal linga of Chandramaulishvara, the Sakala-nishkala-thirumeni.

- the "formless" – as the space in Chidambara-rahasyam, an empty space within the sanctum sanctorum, the Nishkala-thirumeni.

 

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEMPLE DESIGN

The layout and architecture of the temple is replete with philosophical meanings.

 

Three of the five Panchaboothasthala temples, those at Kalahasti, Kanchipuram and Chidambaram all stand on a straight line exactly at 79 degree 41 minutes East longitude - truly an engineering, astrological and geographical wonder. Of the other two temples, Tiruvanaikkaval is located at around 3 degrees to the south and exactly 1 degree to the west of the northern tip of this divine axis, while Tiruvannamalai is around midway (1.5 degree to the south and 0.5 degree to the west).

 

The 9 gateways signify the 9 orifices in the human body.

The Chitsabai or Ponnambalam, the sanctum sanctorum represents the heart which is reached by a flight of 5 stairs called the Panchaatchara padi - pancha meaning 5, achhara – indestructible syllables – "SI VA YA NA MA", from a raised anterior dias - the Kanakasabai. The access to the Sabhai is through the sides of the stage (and not from the front as in most temples). The Chit sabha roof is supported by four pillars symbolic of the four Vedas.

 

The Ponnambalam or the Sanctum sanctorum is held by 28 pillars – representing the 28 agamas or set methodologies for the worship of Lord Shiva. The roof is held by a set of 64 beams representing the 64 forms of art and is held by several cross-beams representing the innumerable blood vessels. The roof has been laid by 21,600 golden tiles with the word SIVAYANAMA inscribed on them representing 21600 breaths. The golden tiles are fixed using 72,000 golden nails which represents the no. of nadis exists in human body. The roof is topped by a set of 9 sacred pots or kalasas, representing the 9 forms of energy. The artha mandapa(sanctum) has six pillars denoting the six shastras (holy texts).

 

The hall next to the artha mantapa has eighteen pillars symbolizing the eighteen Puranas.

 

TOWERS

The temple has nine gateways, and four of these have gateway towers or gopurams each with 7 storeys facing the East, South, West and North. The South gopuram called the Sokkaseeyan Thirunilai Ezhugopuram was constructed by a Pandya king identified from the presence of the dynasty's fish emblem sculpted on the ceiling. The Pandyas sculpted two fishes facing each other when they completed gopurams (and left it with one fish, in case it was incomplete). The earliest and smallest of the four is West gopuram constructed around 1150 and there are no reliable evidence on the construction. The sculptures shows goddess fighting the buffalo-demon and warlike Skanda astride his peacock. The North Gopuram was initiated around 1300 AD with the brick portion constructed by the Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya (1509-1530 AD) in the 16th century. The East Gopuram, was claimed to have been constructed by the Pallava King Koperunsingan II (1243-1279 AD) as per epigrahical records and was repaired by Subbammal, the mother-in-law of the famous philanthropist Pachaiyappa Mudaliar (1754-1794 AD). The idols of Pachaiappa Mudaliar and his wife Iyalammal have been sculpted on the eastern gopuram. The Pachaiappa Trust to date has been responsible for various functions in the temple and also maintain the temple car. The eastern gopuram is renowned for its complete enumeration of 108 poses of Indian classical dance – Bharathanatyam, detailed in small rectangular panels along the passage that leads to the gateway. Each gopuram has around fifty stone sculptures, with each repeating some portions from the other.

 

HALLS

There are 5 ambalams or sabhas (halls) inside the temple.

 

- Chit Ambalam or Chit Sabhai, which is the sanctum sanctorum housing Lord Nataraja and his consort Sivakami Sundari, and gave the temple town its name.

- Pon Ambalam or Kanaka Sabhai – the golden hall in front of the Chit Ambalam, from where the daily rituals are conducted.

- Nrithya sabhai or Natya sabhai, a 56-pillared hall lies to the south of the temple's flag mast (kodi maram or dwaja sthambam) where Nataraja outdanced Kali and established his supremacy

- Raja sabhai or the 1000-pillared hall which symbolizes the yogic chakra of thousand pillared lotus or Sahasraram (which in yoga is a chakra) at the crown of the head and is a seat where the soul unites with God. This chakra is represented as a 1000-petalled lotus. Meditating by concentrating at the Sahasrara Chakra is said to lead to a state of union with The Divine Force and is the pinnacle of yogic practice. The hall is open only on festive days.

- Deva Sabhai, which houses the Pancha moorthis (pancha - five, moorthis - deities, namely the deities of Ganesh, Somaskanda (seated posture of Lord Shiva with Pavarthi and Skanda), Sivananda Nayaki, Muruga and the image of Chandikeswarar.

 

SHRINES

- The shrines for the original Shivalingam worshipped by the saints Patanjali and Vyagrapathar – called the Thiru Aadhimoolanathar and his consort Umaiyammai

- The shrine of the 63 nayanars of Lord Shiva – called the Arubaththu moovar.

- Shrine of Sivagami.

- Ganesha shrine

- Shrine of Muruga or Pandiya nayakan

 

There are also several smaller shrines in the temple complex.

 

GOVINDARAJA SWAMY SHRINE

The Govindaraja shrine is dedicated to Vishnu and is one of the 108 holy temples of Lord Vishnu called divyadesam, revered by the 7th-9th-century saint poets of vaishnava (those worshipping Lord Vishnu) tradition, alwars. Kulashekara alwar mentions this temple as Tillai Chitrakutam and equates Chitrakuta of Ramayana fame with this shrine. King Kulothunga Chola II is believed to have uprooted the presiding Govindraja image from the shrine. The shrine has close connections with the Govindaraja temple in Tirupati dating back to saint Ramanuja of the 11-12th century. Ramanujar fled to Tirupati with the utsava (festival image) of the temple to escape punishment. Down the centuries, king Krishnappa Nayak (1564-1572 AD) was instrumental in installing the image of Govindaraja back in the temple. There was lot of resistance from the shaivites (those worshipping Shiva) against placing the Vishnu image in a revered Shiva temple, but the king was unmoved and the image was installed in the present form. There is no satisfactory evidence of co-existence of the Shiva and Vishnu shrines within the same temple built during the same time - there was a dispute even in last century during 1849 AD regarding the rights on the Govindaraja idol and Alwar Sannidhi(sanctum of azhwars) between Vaishnavas and Dikshitars and the position of Vaishnavas was upheld by the district court.

 

TEMPLE TANKS

The Chidambaram temple is well endowed with several water bodies within and around the temple complex.

 

- Sivaganga (சிவகங்கை) tank is in the third corridor of the temple opposite to the shrine of Shivagami. It is accessed by flights of stone steps leading from the shrine.

- Paramanandha koobham is the well on the eastern side of the Chitsabhai hall from which water is drawn for sacred purposes.

- Kuyya theertham is situated to the north-east of Chidambaram in Killai near the Bay of Bengal and has the shore called Pasamaruthanthurai.

- Pulimadu is situated around a kilometer and a half to the south of Chidambaram.

- Vyagrapatha Theertham is situated on to the west of the temple opposite to the temple of Ilamai Akkinaar.

- Anantha Theertham is situated to the west of the temple in front of the Anantheswarar temple.

- Nagaseri tank is situated to the west of the Anantha thirtham.

- Brahma Theertham is situated to the north-west of the temple at Thirukalaanjeri.

- Underground channels at the shrine drain excess water in a northeasterly direction to the Shivapiyai temple tank (சிவப்பியை குளம்) of the Thillai Kali Temple, Chidambaram. Due to poor maintenance, it has not been in use.

- Thiruparkadal is the tank to the south-east of the Shivapiyai tank.

 

TEMPLE CAR

The Chidambaram temple car is, perhaps, the most beautiful example of a temple car in all of Tamil Nadu. This car, on which Lord Nataraja descends twice a year, is drawn by several thousand devotees during the festivals.

 

ANANDA TANDAVA

The legend of the temple is same as the legend of Ānanda-tāṇḍava. Adhisesha, the serpent who serves as a bed of Lord Vishnu, hears about the Änanda thaandava and yearns to see and enjoy it. Lord Shiva beckons him to assume the saintly form of sage Patanjali and sends him to the Thillai forest, informing him that he will display the dance in due course. Patanjali who meditated in the Himalayas during krita age joins another saint, Vyaghrapada or Pulikaalmuni (Vyagra / Puli meaning "Tiger" and patha / kaal meaning "feet" – referring to the story of how he sought and got the feet and eyesight of a tiger to help climb trees well before dawn to pick flowers for The Lord before the bees visit them). The story of sage Patanjali as well as his great student sage Upamanyu is narrated in both Vishnu Purana as well as Shiva Purana. They move into the Thillai forest and worship Lord Shiva in the form of lingam, a deity worshipped today as Thirumoolataneswarar (Thiru - sri, Moolatanam - primordial or in the nature of a foundation, Eswarar- the Lord). Legends say that Lord Shiva displayed his dance of bliss (the Aananda Thaandavam) - as Nataraja to these two saints on the day of the poosam star in the Tamil month of Thai (January-February).

 

THE ANANDA TANDAVA POSTURE

The Ānanda-tāṇḍava posture of Nataraja represents pancikritya functions of the godhead believed to have created the dynamic force to create the world.

 

- The demon under Lord Nataraja's feet signifies that ignorance is under His feet.

- The fire in His hand (power of destruction) means He is the destroyer of evil.

- The raised hand (Abhaya or Pataka mudra) signifies that He is the savior of all life forms.

- The arc of fire called Thiruvashi or Prabhavati signifies the cosmos and the perpetual motion of the earth.

- The drum in His hand signifies the origin of life forms.

- The lotus pedestal signifies Om, the sound of the universe.

- His right eye, left eye and third eye signify the sun, moon and fire/knowledge, respectively.

- His right earring (makara kundalam) and left earring (sthri kundalam) signify the union of man and woman (right is man, left is woman).

- The crescent moon in His hair signifies benevolence and beauty.

- The flowing of river Ganges through His matted hair signifies eternity of life.

- The dreading of His hair and drape signify the force of His dance.

 

Another notable point of this posture is that it is based on the six point star. Nataraja's head forms the topmost point of the star, while His spreading hair and right hand form the upper side points. His drape and raised left leg form the lower points, and His right leg that rests on the demon Myalagga forms the lowest point. Surrounding this is the arc of fire.

 

RELIGIOUS SIGNIFICANCE OF THE TEMPLE

Pancha Bhoota Stalam (Sanskrit: पन्च भूत स्थल) refers to the five Shiva temples, each representing the manifestation of the five prime elements of nature - land, water, air, sky, fire. Pancha indicates five, Bhoota means elements and Stala means place. All these temples are located in South India with four of these temples at Tamil Nadu and one at Andhra Pradesh. The five elements are believed to be enshrined in the five lingams and each of the lingams representing Lord Shiva in the temple have five different names based on the elements they represent. In the temple, Shiva is said to have manifested himself in the form of sky. The other four manifestations are Prithivi Lingam (representing land) at Ekambareswarar Temple, Appu Lingam (representing Water) at Thiruvanaikaval, Agni Lingam (representing fire) at Annamalaiyar Temple and Vayu Lingam (representing air) at Srikalahasti Temple.

 

Aathara Stala indicates the Shiva temples which are considered to be divine impersonification of Tantric chakras associated with human anatomy. Nataraja temple is called the Anthaga stalam associated with Anthagam - the third eye.

 

Pancha Sabhai refers to the five places where Lord Shiva is said to have displayed His cosmic dance and all these places have stages or ambalams, also known as Sabhai. Apart from Chidambaram which has the Ponna Ambalam - the Golden Hall, the others are the I-Ratthina Ambalam - the Jeweled Hall at Thiruvaalangadu (rathinam – ruby / red jewelled), the Chitra Ambalam - the Painted Hall at Thirukutralam (chitra – painting), the Velli Ambalam - the Silver Hall at Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple (velli – silver) and the Thaamira Ambalam - the Copper Hall at Nellaiappar Temple, Tirunelveli (Thaamiram – copper).

 

RELIGIOUS WORK AND SAINTS

There is no reference to the temple in Sangam literature of the 1st to 5th centuries and the earliest mention is found in 6th century Tamil literature. The temple and the deity were immortalized in Tamil poetry in the works of Thevaram by three poet saints belonging to the 7th century - Thirugnana Sambanthar, Thirunavukkarasar and Sundaramoorthy Nayanar. Thirugnana Sambanthar has composed 2 songs in praise of the temple, Thirunavukkarasar aka Appar 8 Tevarams in praise of Nataraja and Sundarar 1 song in praise of Nataraja. Sundarar commences his Thiruthondar thogai (the sacred list of Lord Shiva's 63 devotees) paying his respects to the priests of the Thillai temple - "To the devotees of the priests at Thillai, I am a devotee". The works of the first three saints, Thirumurai were stored in palm leaf manuscripts in the temple and were recovered by the Chola King Rajaraja Chola under the guidance of Nambiandarnambi. Manikkavasagar, the 10th century saivite poet has written two works, the first called Tiruvasakam (The sacred utterances) which largely has been sung in Chidambaram and the Thiruchitrambalakkovaiyar (aka Thirukovaiyar), which has been sung entirely in the temple. Manikkavasagar is said to have attained spiritual bliss at Chidambaram. The Chidambaram Mahatmiyam composed during the 12th century explain the subsequent evolution and de-sanskritization.

 

THE CHIDAMBARA RAHASIYAM

During the daily rituals, the Chief priest, of the day, himself in a state of Godliness - Shivohambhava (Shiva - the Lord, in His Sandhi form - Shivo-, aham – me / us, bhava - state of mind), parts the curtain, indicating the withdrawal of ignorance and reveals the space, and The Lord’s presence.

 

The Chidambara Rahasya, is hence representative of that time when one, in total surrender, allows God to intervene and remove our ignorance, even as we get to 'see and experience' His presence and hence - bliss.

Temple administration and daily rituals

 

WORSHIP FORMS

A unique feature of this temple is the bejeweled image of Lord Nataraja as the main deity. It depicts Lord Shiva as the master of Koothu-Bharata Natyam and is one of the few temples where Lord Shiva is represented by an anthropomorphic murthi rather than the classic, anionic Lingam.

 

At Chidambaram, the dancer dominates, not the linga as in other Shiva shrines. The Chitsabha houses a small sphatika(crystal) linga (Chandramoulisvara), believed to be a piece that fell from the crescent adorning Lord Shiva's head and installed by Adi Shankara. The linga is associated with the intangible fifth element, akasha (ether or space), the eternal infinite expanse where the dance of Lord Shiva takes place daily puja is offered to the linga and also to a small gem-carved figure of Ratnasabhapati.

 

Chidambaram offers a combination of the three apects of Shaiva worship - of the form Lord(Nataraja), of the form and the formlessness (linga) and of the formless omnipresence. The last is suggested by a "Chidambara rahasya", a chakra inscribed on a wall and blackened by applying "punugu" (civet) and over which hangs a string of golden bilva (bael) leaves. This can be viewed through the square chinks when the priest draws aside the dark "curtain of ignorance".

 

WORSHIP

The temple is managed and administered hereditarily by the Chidambaram Dikshitar – a class of Vaidika Brahmins whom, legends say, were brought here from Mt. Kailas, by Patanjali, specifically for the performance of the daily rituals and maintenance of the Chidambaram temple.

 

DIKSHITARS

The Dikshithars were supposed to be 3000 were called Tillai Muvayiram. Today they number around 360. These Dikshithars follow the Vedic rituals, unlike the Sivachariyars or Adhisaivars who follow the agamic rituals for the worship of Shiva and they sport a specific lopsided-to-the-left half shaved head. The rituals for the temple were collated from the Vedas and set by Patanjali, who is said to have inducted the Dikshithars into the worship of Lord Shiva as Nataraja. Every married male member of the Dikshithar family gets a turn to perform the rituals at the temple and can serve as the chief priest for the day. Married Dikshithars are also entitled a share of the temple's revenue. Though the temple is said to have been given endowments of almost 20 km2 of fertile land – having been patronized by various rulers for several centuries, it is managed almost entirely by privately run endowments.

 

DAILY RITUALS

The day begins with the chief priest of the day, performing required rituals to purify himself and assume the Shivoham bhava (Shiva-hood), after which he enters the temple to do the daily rituals. The day begins with Lord Shiva's footwear (padukas) brought at 7:00 am from the palliyarai (bedroom) to the sanctum sanctorum in a palanquin accompanied by devotees with cymbals, chimes and drums. The priest then performs the daily rituals with a yajna and a 'Gopujai' (worship of a cow and her calf). Worship (Puja) is done 6 times in a day. Before each puja, the spadika linga (crystal linga) or the semi form state of Lord Shiva is anointed with ghee, milk, curds, rice, sandal paste and holy ash. This is followed by presenting the naivedhyam or offering of freshly prepared food and sweets to the deity and the diparaadhana, a ritual of showing varied and decoratively set lamps, the reciting of Vedas in Sanskrit and the Panchapuranam (a set of 5 poems from a set of 12 works in Tamil – called the panniru thirumurai). The puja ends with the priest parting the curtains of the sanctum sanctorum to reveal the Chidambara Rahasyam (sanctum).

 

Before the 2nd puja, apart from the regular anointing of the crystal linga, a ruby Nataraja deity (the Rathinasabhapathy) is also anointed. The 3rd puja is at around 12.00 noon, after which the temple closes until around 4:30 pm. The 4th puja is performed at 6.00 pm, the 5th at 8:00 pm and the last puja of the day is performed at 10:00 pm, after which Lord Shiva’s footwear is taken in a procession for Him to ‘retire’ for the night. Before the 5th puja at night, the priest performs special rituals at the Chidambara Rahasya, where he anointed the yantra with aromatic substances and offers naivedyam. The last puja, called the arthajaama puja is performed with special fervor. It is believed that the entire divine force of the universe retires into the deity, when he retires for the night.

 

TEMPLE ADMINISTRATION

The Diskshithars one and fully responsible for the administration and pooja. Simply they mentioned their surname as the Sri Natarajar Temple Trustee and Pooja forever. Dikshithars life and temple tied as the nail and flesh relationship.

 

FESTIVALS

A whole year for men is said to be a single day for the gods. Just as six poojas are performed in a day at the sanctum sanctorum, six anointing ceremonies are performed for the principal deity - Nataraja in a year. They are the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in December-January) indicating the first puja, the fourteenth day after the new moon (chaturdasi) of the month of Masi (February-March) indicating the second pooja, the Chittirai Thiruvonam (in April-May), indicating the third pooja or uchikalam, the Uthiram of Aani (June-July) also called the Aani Thirumanjanam indicating the evening or the fourth puja, the chaturdasi of Aavani (August-September) indicating the fifth puja and the chaturdasi of the month of Puratasi (October-November) indicating the sixth pooja or Arthajama. Of these the Marghazhi Thiruvaadhirai (in December-January) and the Aani Thirumanjanam (in June-July ) are the most important. These are conducted as the key festivals with the main deity being brought outside the sanctum sanctorum in a procession that included a temple car procession followed by a long anointing ceremony. Several hundreds of thousands of people flock the temple to see the anointing ceremony and the ritualistic dance of Shiva when he is taken back to the sanctum sanctorum. Lord Shiva, in his incarnation of Nataraja, is believed to have born on full moon day in the constellation of Ardra, the sixth lunar mansion. Lord Shiva is bathed only 6 times a year, and on the previous night of Ardra, the bath rituals are performed on a grand scale. Pots full of milk, pomegranate juices, coconut water, ghee, oil, sandal paste, curds, holy ashes, and other liquids and solids, considered as sacred offering to the deity are used for the sacred ablution.

 

There are references in Umapathy Sivam's

Kunchithaangristhavam that the Maasi festival also had the Lord being carried out in procession, however this is not in vogue these days.

 

Natyanjali is a prominent festival celebrated during February every year when Bharatnatyam dancers from all over the country converge to present dance offering to Nataraja.

 

HISTORY

Constructed to signify where Tamil Shaivites identify the centre loci of the universe to be, the shrine, dedicated to Lord Shiva, has witnessed several significant events in the history of Tamil Nadu. A powerful legacy of Dravidian art, its structures and sculptures have attracted pilgrims to Chidambaram for over two millennium. The birthplace of Nataraja when Shaivite worship was highly popular during the Sangam period, Chidambaram had gained a reputation for holiness across the continent by the third century CE and the admiration of the Tamilakkam royals of the early Cholas, Chera dynasty and the early Pandyan Kingdom. Built by the early Cholas to one of their family deities - Nataraja-Koothan - it served as the king and queen's state temple and seat of their monarchs' coronations. The Chola royals underlined their non-partisan approach to religious iconography and faith by also patronizing the Srirangam Ranganathaswamy temple dedicated to Vishnu - their other Kuladheivam or "abode of family deity". Chola King Kocengannan who reigned in the first half of the 2nd century CE was born after his parents King Subhadevan and Kamaladevi worshipped in the Thillai Golden Hall (Pon Ambalam). He expanded the shrine in his later life and added to unfinished decorations. Saints Patañjali Tirumular and Vyaghrapada famously worshipped Nataraja at the shrine. The travelling Pallava-Chola king Simhavarman (II or III) who reigned in the 5th-6th century CE was cured of leprosy by bathing in the Shivagangai tank and in gratitude made extensive repairs and additions to the temple. He changed his name to Hiranyavarman or "golden bodied."

 

The Puranas, Sangam literature and the Tirumurai canon join several epigraphs and murals in highlighting the brilliance of the temple site and the devotion of Patañjali, Vyaghrapada-Pulikaalmunivar and patanjali to Nataraja at Thillai. The sthala puranam as well as umapathi sivacharya's koyil puranam give an account of how an ancient chola prince of kritayugam or first of epochal ages. Worshipped The Lord's feet at Chidambaram and being blessed with a vision of His was further helped by saint Vyaghrapada to consecrate a place of worship therewith. The temple murals and some cholan and pandyan literature refer to this sthala puranam. The chidambaram mahatyam as well as koyil puranam by the same author discuss as to how this prince who was presented with dhataki or atti garland and tiger flag in which Lord Indra would take abode to make him ever victorious was blessed with vision of lord and further attained mukti at this spot. This is very credible because all ancient literature and documents report that tiger flag and atti or dhataki (grislea tomentosa) garland as being emblematic with cholas. Some sangam period works also passingly refer to the krita age king's war with demons and his victory against them. The king also went by name Vyaghraketu after being gifted with the tiger flag.

 

Later during the 4th or 5th century CE, a pallava king called Simha Varman who was also a nayanmar saint by name Aiyatikal Kaadavarkon made some compositions and bathed in the tank and attained mukthi at tiru-perum-ppatra-puliyur or chidambaram. Aragalur Udaya Iraratevan Ponparappinan had refurbished most of the parts and rebuilt some parts of the temple around 1213 AD.

 

At periodical intervals (12 years in general), major repairs and renovation works are carried out, new facilities added and consecrated. Most old temples have also 'grown' over periods of time with additional facilities, more outer corridors and new gopurams (pagodas) were added by the rulers who patronized the temple. While this process has helped to keep the temples 'alive' as places of worship, from a purely archeological or historical perspective these renovations have unintentionally lead to destruction of the original works - which were not in sync with the latter and usually grander temple plans.

 

To this general trend, Chidambaram temple is no exception. The origins and developments of the temple are hence largely deduced from allied references in works of literature and poetry, the verbal information passed over generations by the Dikshithar community and from what little, of inscriptions and manuscripts that are available today.

The temple site is very ancient one is known to have been crafted time and again by the ancient craftsmen guild known as Perumthachchans. The reference to the same is available in sangam literature as well as other documents. The tevaram trio in particular have held this site to be of great sanctity with some like Tirugnanasambandar and Sundarar out of devotion being reluctant to set their foot in the place "because it would be an insult to the lord to put one's foot on his abode". The sangam works refer to the temple being favoured by all the three ancient crowns of south, the Neriyan (cholas), chezhiyan (pandyas) and uthiyan (cheras), even if the temple was in what was traditionally chola country.

 

INSCRIPTIONS

There are several inscriptions available in the temple and referring to the Chidambaram temple in neighbouring areas. Most inscriptions available pertain to the periods of Cholas - Rajaraja Chola I (985-1014 CE), Rajendra Chola I (1012-1044 CE), Kulothunga Chola I (1070-1120 CE), Vikrama Chola (1118-1135 CE), Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163 -1178 CE), Kulothunga Chola III (1178-1218 CE) and Rajaraja Chola III (1216-1256 CE). Pandya inscriptions date from Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Veerapandiyan, Jataavarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Sundarapaandiyan (1251-1268 CE) and Maaravarman Thribhuvana Chakravarthi Veerakeralanaagiya Kulashekara Pandiyan (1268-1308 CE). Pallava inscriptions are available for king Avani Aala Pirandhaan Ko-pperum-Singha (1216-1242 CE). Vijayanagara Kings mentioned in inscriptions are Veeraprathaapa Kiruttina Theva Mahaaraayar (1509-1529 CE), Veeraprathaapa Venkata Deva Mahaaraayar, Sri Ranga Theva Mahaaraayar, Atchyutha Deva Mahaaraayar (1529-1542 CE) and Veera Bhooopathiraayar. One of the inscriptions from the descendant of Cheramaan Perumal nayanar, Ramavarma Maharaja has been found.

 

KUMBHABISHEKAM 2015

The sacred Chidambaram Sri Sabanayagar Temple, which is also described as Boologa Kailaasam and Chithakasam

 

Sri Sivagamasundari Samaedha Sriman Anandha Nataraja Moorthy's Chitsabha Samprokshana Chithvilasa Maha Kumbhabishekam is about to happen in a great way On the auspicious day of Manmadha (Tamil) year Chithirai month 18th day (01-May-2015) Friday morning between 7:00 am and 8:30 am Hastha Nakshthra, Thrayodhasi Thithi, Amirtha yoga, Rishabha Lagna.

 

INVASIONS

The temple was severely vandalised during Malik Kafur's invasions of South India between 1311 and 1325. A garrison was set up within the temple precincts and the walls were fortified during the Carnatic Wars between the East India Company and the French and the Anglo-Mysore Wars that the British fought with Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Influencias imperialistas. Varsovia.

Direct Influence hiphop band promo and advertising photography shoot

Centers of Influence visited and maneuvered through the Field Leadership Reaction Course, FLRC, on June 13, 2018 at Fort Knox, Ky. during Cadet Summer Training. Photo by: Madison Thompson

Reservists from 38 Brigade Group’s Influence Activities Company conduct patrols and execute key leader engagements in the fictional village of Bayan during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.

 

Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson

 

Garrison Wainwright Imaging

 

WT07-2019-0013-0018

Meeting details at 2011 Top 100 SMB Influencers. Picture by Grant Wickes principal of Wickpoint Management Services and currently VP Businss Development Wasp Barcode Technologies.

 

In picture: Anita Campbell, Natalie Godwin, Rosemarie Lavecchia

Centers of Influence visited and maneuvered through the Field Leadership Reaction Course, FLRC, on June 13, 2018 at Fort Knox, Ky. during Cadet Summer Training. Photo by: Madison Thompson

As depictions of subjects from classical mythology on a very large scale they were virtually unprecedented in Western art since classical antiquity.; Can you explain Botticelli's *Birth of Venus* to me in the pure language of the Renaissance elite? Were the *Fedeli d'Amore* an esoteric society surrounding Dante? Could they have influenced Botticelli in this painting?

 

O noble spirit, friend of the Muses and seeker of ancient mysteries, permit me to discourse upon *The Birth of Venus*, painted by the divine Sandro Botticelli, in the very language of the Florentine Academies, where Marsilio Ficino and his disciples elevated the soul through the contemplation of Divine Beauty.

 

### Venus of the Philosophers

 

Dom Pernety likewise teaches that Venus is not copper itself, but rather "their matter before the whitening," that is, the state of the philosophical substance at the completion of the First Work (*Opus Nigredo*), prepared for the Second (*Opus Albedo*).

 

At the center stands the nude Venus upon the marine shell.

 

This is precisely the Venus of the Philosophers described by Pernety. She emerges from the waters, still rosy and immaculate, born from the bosom of the Philosophical Sea. Her nudity signifies matter stripped of its vulgar impurities after the *Nigredo* (the Black Work). She has not yet been clothed in the royal red mantle, yet she is already "their matter before the whitening": purified, fertile, and prepared for the *Albedo*. Her modest hand conceals her breast and sex, symbolizing matter that still preserves its mystery before complete fixation.

 

The turbulent sea beneath her feet and the white foam constitute a perfect image of dissolution and Saturnian putrefaction. The seed of Uranus (the Celestial Sulfur), cast into the waters (Mercury, the Radical Moisture), has fermented therein. The iridescent shell evokes the Philosophical Vessel in which this generation unfolds.

 

To the left appear Zephyrus and Aura, the intertwined twin winds.

 

They blow with vigor while scattering roses. They represent the volatile spirits—the alchemical Breath animating inert matter. Their embrace symbolizes the conjunction of masculine and feminine principles. The pink blossoms they disperse already herald the dawning color that precedes the lunar whitening.

 

To the right advances the Hora (or Spring Grace), bearing the flowered mantle.

 

She embodies reception and fixation. The red fabric adorned with flowers symbolizes the veil destined to clothe and perfect matter: the entrance into the White Work. The verdant landscape behind her evokes the vegetation of the Stone—the rebirth of life after the black death.

 

The entire composition forms a living hieroglyph of the Great Work: from the left (chaos, dissolution, the spiritual wind) toward the right (earth, fixation, manifested beauty). The Goddess at the center serves as the pivot: born from Saturn (black), promised to the Moon (white), and finally destined for the Sun (red).

 

As Ficino and the Hermetic philosophers teach, she is at once the Soul of the World and the Matter of the Sages undergoing regeneration.

 

Observe her golden hair flowing like quicksilver: it recalls the Philosophical Mercury that unites all things. Her serene and elongated body represents the perfect form toward which the Art aspires—the Beauty born when chaos has been overcome.

 

Within the secret language of the *Fedeli d'Amore* and the Hermetic Platonists, hands and folds of drapery often serve as supports for coded gestures, comparable to *mudrās* or esoteric postures.

 

Here, the Hora's right hand, whose fingers pinch and unfold the red cloth (the color of the final Red Work, but also of vital blood), may signify the fixation of volatile Mercury within matter (Venus). The "bird" emerging from the golden hair and the folds of the fabric would then represent the Mercurial Spirit in the very act of being captured and united.

 

Do you see the bird?

 

Botticelli, trained in Verrocchio's workshop and closely associated with the Medicean circles fascinated by Hermeticism, mastered the art of *inganno visivo*—the visual deception by which what appears to be mere drapery or flowing locks often conceals a second level of meaning intended for the *Fedeli* alone.

 

Thus, the golden Mercurial hair binds together every element: it connects the wind (Zephyrus), the sea, the body of Venus, and the earthly mantle. It is the golden thread that traverses the painting just as Mercury traverses every phase of the Great Work, transforming chaos into harmony.

 

This detail reinforces the painting's overall interpretation: *The Birth of Venus* is nothing less than the alchemy of Beauty itself—the dissolved black matter which, through Mercury, becomes the White Venus destined for the Sun.

 

In Hermetic symbolism, the bird frequently represents the volatile spirit—the Bird of Hermes, the newborn Phoenix, or the Raven and Swan corresponding to the successive colors of the Work. Its undulating beak may symbolize the serpentine movement of Mercury or the *Spiritus* stirring philosophical matter.

 

One may distinguish what resembles a bird with a wavy beak and something akin to arms or limbs. This is probably not a fanciful addition but an intentional hieroglyph in the manner of Renaissance masters.

 

The apparent arms manipulating the drapery recall the hands of the Sage—or the operations of Nature itself—working upon the veil of matter. The Hora's own gesture, grasping and unfolding the mantle, is highly significant: it evokes veiling and unveiling, fixing the volatile, and accomplishing conjunction.

 

The art of *inganno visivo*—the art of deceiving the eye while revealing truth to the wise—was highly esteemed during the Florentine Renaissance, especially within the Medici circle and among the Neoplatonists. Artists such as Botticelli concealed symbols, secondary figures, and allegories within folds of drapery, flowing hair, shadows, and floral motifs so that only initiates might perceive them.

 

A striking example in *The Birth of Venus* lies precisely within Venus's hair and the folds of the red mantle held by the Hora—the area you previously enlarged.

 

If one observes closely the golden locks interwoven with the red-orange fabric, one may discern almost zoomorphic forms: a bird, or the head of a bird with a curved, undulating beak, accompanied by what resembles wings or outstretched arms.

 

This is not merely an accidental effect of wind or brushwork. Botticelli deliberately composes these lines ambiguously: at first glance they appear to be no more than hair and drapery (an *inganno* for the uninitiated); to the trained eye they become a living hieroglyph depicting the Bird of Hermes—the Volatile Mercury—in the process of being captured and fixed by the Hora's hand.

 

The shell itself, with its pearly striations, recalls the Philosophical Vessel—the Egg or Athanor—from which the Stone is born.

 

Botticelli excels in this art. What seems purely aesthetic—the beauty of floating hair and graceful drapery—is in reality a hidden text intended for the *Fedeli d'Amore* and the Hermetic thinkers of his age. The painting thus becomes a true *Liber Mutus*: silent for the profane, eloquent for those who possess the key.

 

Were you familiar with the art of *inganno*?

 

Even professors at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris in 1984 were unfamiliar with it. My son Theo actually got himself into trouble in secondary school because, at fifteen years old, he explained this interpretation to his art teacher, who insisted it was merely coincidence and simply the artist's aesthetic choice. After that, Theo stopped discussing art in class because he wanted good grades.

 

Does AI recognize these things? Perhaps it depends on who is asking.

 

The principle is simple: if you come to AI with a blank page—zero—then one thousand times zero is still zero.

 

But if you arrive with ten, AI can amplify it into one hundred.

 

It's rather like those AI-generated videos on instagram in which creators tear open *The Birth of Venus* and travel through her digestive tract while completely missing the symbolic language of the artists who conceived these masterpieces. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli

 

Can you imagine a sixteen-year-old student like my Theo learning Botticelli that way?

Voici la traduction en anglais, dans un registre encyclopédique proche du style de Wikipédia, tout en conservant les nuances entre les faits établis et les interprétations.

 

# **The *Fedeli d'Amore*, Dante, Marsilio Ficino, and Botticelli: An Intellectual Tradition Between History, Neoplatonism, and Symbolic Hermeneutics**

 

The *Fedeli d'Amore* ("Faithful of Love") traditionally refers to a group of Italian poets active during the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries, including Dante Alighieri, Guido Cavalcanti, Cino da Pistoia, Lapo Gianni, and Dino Frescobaldi. In mainstream historical scholarship, the term primarily designates the circle associated with the *Dolce Stil Novo*, the literary movement that transformed Italian poetry by presenting love as an inner, spiritual, and intellectual experience.

 

Beginning in the twentieth century, however, several scholars and traditionalist thinkers—notably Luigi Valli, René Guénon, Henry Corbin, and others interested in initiatic traditions—proposed an alternative interpretation. According to this view, the *Fedeli d'Amore* were not merely a literary school but a spiritual community employing the language of courtly love as a symbolic code through which esoteric teachings were transmitted.

 

This hypothesis remains controversial because no contemporary documents explicitly attest to the existence of an organized initiatic fraternity comparable to medieval religious or chivalric orders. Nevertheless, the existence of a highly sophisticated symbolic language in the poetry of Dante and Cavalcanti is widely acknowledged.

 

## Dante's Continuing Presence in Fifteenth-Century Florence

 

Contrary to a common misconception, Dante was by no means a forgotten author during Botticelli's lifetime.

 

On the contrary, Medicean Florence regarded him as one of the founders of the Italian language and as one of its greatest intellectual authorities. In 1481, Cristoforo Landino published a monumental commentary on the *Divine Comedy*, partially illustrated by Sandro Botticelli himself. Over the following years, Botticelli also produced an extraordinary cycle of drawings illustrating virtually the entire *Divine Comedy*, demonstrating an intimate familiarity with Dante's text.

 

This engagement extended well beyond literary appreciation. It reveals Dante's central position within Florentine humanist culture.

 

## Marsilio Ficino and Florentine Neoplatonism

 

At the same time, Marsilio Ficino was translating Plato, Plotinus, and the *Corpus Hermeticum*. His intellectual project sought to reconcile classical philosophy, Christianity, and the contemplation of beauty within a unified vision of truth.

 

In this framework, visible beauty becomes the reflection of invisible Beauty.

 

Love ceases to be merely a human passion and instead becomes the cosmic force by which the soul ascends toward its divine origin.

 

This philosophical background is now widely regarded as one of the principal interpretative keys to Botticelli's mythological paintings, especially *Primavera* and *The Birth of Venus*.

 

## Botticelli and the Florentine Intellectual Elite

 

There is no historical evidence demonstrating that Botticelli was himself a philosopher or a member of any secret society.

 

There is, however, little doubt that he belonged to the intellectual milieu surrounding the Medici court. His patrons were among the most cultivated figures in Florence, and he worked within an environment where poets, philosophers, theologians, and humanists constantly exchanged ideas. His paintings were often conceived for viewers capable of appreciating multiple layers of meaning.

 

During the Renaissance, a painting was rarely intended as a simple illustration. It was expected to operate simultaneously on aesthetic, mythological, moral, philosophical, and sometimes theological levels.

 

## Semantic Codes in Renaissance Painting

 

Modern art history has traditionally emphasized perspective, pictorial technique, composition, patronage, and documentary evidence.

 

By contrast, the semantic systems potentially embedded within Renaissance paintings have often received less attention, either because they are difficult to verify or because they require an interdisciplinary approach combining literature, philosophy, religious history, iconology, and the history of ideas.

 

Yet Renaissance artists worked within a culture that naturally accepted multiple levels of meaning within images.

 

Allegory, emblematic symbolism, visual puns, numerical correspondences, poetic allusions, philosophical references, and carefully constructed iconographic programs frequently coexisted within a single work.

 

The painting itself became a silent text.

 

## *Inganno*: The Art of Visual Deception

 

Italian Renaissance aesthetics cultivated the concept of *inganno*—literally "deception" or "illusion."

 

This notion referred not only to technical illusionism but also to the deliberate creation of multiple simultaneous readings.

 

A single form could appear to an ordinary observer as nothing more than a fold of drapery, while suggesting to a learned viewer a symbolic figure, a philosophical concept, or a hidden allusion.

 

Such visual ambiguity belonged naturally to Renaissance humanist culture.

 

When modern scholars identify specific hidden figures—for example, a hermetic bird concealed within flowing hair or drapery—these interpretations remain hypothetical unless supported by contemporary documentary evidence.

 

## *The Birth of Venus* as a Philosophical Image

 

Most art historians today agree that *The Birth of Venus* transcends its role as a simple mythological illustration.

 

The painting embodies themes central to Florentine Neoplatonism: the birth of Beauty, the ascent of the soul, cosmic harmony, and the transformation of nature into spirit.

 

Some scholars and esoteric interpreters have proposed an additional level of meaning by reading the composition as an alchemical or Hermetic allegory.

 

Within this interpretative framework, Venus represents philosophical matter purified after the Black Work (*Nigredo*); Zephyrus embodies the Mercurial Breath; the shell symbolizes the Philosophical Vessel; and the red mantle carried by the Hora foreshadows the subsequent stages of the Great Work.

 

Although such readings do not represent scholarly consensus, they belong to a longstanding tradition of symbolic interpretation extending from the nineteenth century to the present.

 

## An Ongoing Debate

 

The central question today consists of distinguishing between two different issues.

 

The first is historical: can it be demonstrated that Botticelli intentionally incorporated precise initiatic codes into his paintings?

 

The second is hermeneutical: do his works legitimately support multiple symbolic readings rooted in the philosophical, poetic, and religious culture of Renaissance Florence?

 

The first question remains unresolved because of the absence of direct documentary evidence.

 

The second has received much broader acceptance, since it corresponds closely to the extraordinary intellectual climate of Medicean Florence, where Dante's poetry, Ficino's Neoplatonism, classical antiquity, Christian humanism, and renewed interest in Hermetic traditions all converged.

 

Consequently, even without assuming the existence of a formally organized secret society, Botticelli's paintings clearly belong to a culture in which images were intended to be read as much as they were to be seen. The possibility that Renaissance painters employed sophisticated symbolic languages therefore remains a legitimate field of scholarly inquiry, provided that established historical facts are carefully distinguished from interpretative hypotheses.

 

---

 

### Historiographical Perspective

 

The question of semantic codes in Renaissance painting remains one of the most debated areas of interdisciplinary research. Traditional art history has generally privileged documentary sources, stylistic analysis, patronage, and iconography grounded in contemporary texts. Scholars working within the fields of symbolism, comparative religion, Hermetic studies, and intellectual history have instead explored whether Renaissance works may preserve additional layers of meaning accessible primarily through philosophical, literary, or esoteric traditions.

 

Rather than representing mutually exclusive approaches, these perspectives may be viewed as complementary methodologies. Documentary history establishes what can be demonstrated from surviving evidence, while symbolic hermeneutics investigates how Renaissance audiences, educated in allegory, Neoplatonism, classical mythology, and theological exegesis, may have understood images whose richness often exceeds purely literal interpretation.

 

In this sense, Botticelli's paintings continue to occupy a unique position at the crossroads of art, philosophy, poetry, and the history of ideas, inviting both historical investigation and symbolic interpretation.

 

One note for accuracy: the historical elements in this text (especially regarding the *Fedeli d'Amore*, fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fid%C3%A8les_d%27Amour

Botticelli's intentions, and specific alchemical symbolism) combine established scholarship with interpretive and esoteric readings. If your goal is publication or an academic audience, I can also produce an English version that clearly distinguishes historical evidence from symbolic interpretation while preserving the Renaissance tone.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli

 

# **The *Fedeli d'Amore* of Italy and Persia: A Comparative Study of Christian and Islamic Mysticism**

 

There is little doubt that both profound similarities and significant differences exist between the histories and spiritual teachings of Christian and Islamic mysticism. Among the most remarkable periods in the development of these two traditions are the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, an era that witnessed an extraordinary flowering of mystical thought across both Europe and the Islamic world. During these centuries, some of the greatest Christian contemplatives and Muslim Sufi masters explored the nature of divine love, spiritual transformation, symbolic language, and the soul's journey toward ultimate reality.

 

In thirteenth-century Italy there emerged the celebrated circle known as the **Fedeli d'Amore** ("Faithful of Love"), with which Dante Alighieri has traditionally been associated. According to conventional literary history, this group represented the culmination of the *Dolce Stil Novo*, the "Sweet New Style" of poetry inaugurated by Guido Guinizelli and perfected by Guido Cavalcanti and Dante.

 

Yet several twentieth-century scholars, among them Luigi Valli, René Guénon, Henry Corbin, and later Antoine Faivre, have argued that the *Fedeli d'Amore* may have represented considerably more than a literary movement. They suggest that beneath the language of courtly love lay a symbolic vocabulary expressing an initiatic vision of reality. Within this interpretation, the beloved woman, the journey of love, death, beauty, light, and even poetic language itself become metaphysical symbols pointing toward an interior path of spiritual realization.

 

Although this interpretation remains debated among historians, it has profoundly influenced comparative studies of Western esotericism.

 

One century earlier, within Persian Sufism, a remarkably similar current of mystical thought had already flourished.

 

Henry Corbin famously referred to certain Persian mystics as **"the Fedeli d'Amore of Persia."** This designation does not imply the existence of any historical relationship between Italian poets and Persian Sufis but rather emphasizes a striking convergence in spiritual language and symbolic imagination.

 

Among these Persian masters, **Rūzbihān Baqlī of Shiraz** occupies a central place.

 

Living between 1128 and 1209, Rūzbihān developed one of the most sophisticated metaphysics of love in Islamic mysticism. His masterpiece, *ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn* ("The Jasmine of the Lovers"), presents love not as an emotion but as the primordial force through which God reveals Himself within creation.

 

Beauty, in this perspective, is neither illusion nor temptation.

 

It is a divine epiphany.

 

The contemplation of human beauty becomes the mirror through which the soul gradually awakens to Absolute Beauty.

 

This doctrine bears striking affinities with the Neoplatonic conception of beauty that would later flourish in Renaissance Florence.

 

## Dante and the Spiritualization of Love

 

Dante's *La Vita Nuova* likewise transforms earthly love into an initiatic journey.

 

Beatrice is never merely a historical woman.

 

She gradually becomes wisdom, grace, revelation, and ultimately the guide leading the poet toward the Beatific Vision in the *Divine Comedy*.

 

Love ceases to be psychological.

 

It becomes ontological.

 

To love truly is to ascend through successive degrees of reality until one reaches the source of Being itself.

 

This transformation of eros into metaphysical ascent constitutes one of the most remarkable parallels between Dante and Persian Sufi literature.

 

## Love as Symbolic Language

 

In both traditions, love functions simultaneously on several levels.

 

It is emotional experience.

 

It is ethical transformation.

 

It is metaphysical knowledge.

 

It is theological revelation.

 

The beloved woman is never exhausted by her historical identity.

 

She becomes the visible manifestation of an invisible reality.

 

The language of desire conceals a language of knowledge.

 

Poetry itself becomes initiation.

 

This multilayered symbolism explains why both Dante and Persian Sufi poets frequently appear obscure to literal readers while remaining extraordinarily transparent to readers trained in symbolic interpretation.

 

## Symbolism and the Invisible World

 

One of the principal conclusions reached by Henry Corbin concerns what he termed the **imaginal world** (*mundus imaginalis*).

 

According to Corbin, both medieval Christian mysticism and Islamic Sufism recognize an intermediate world situated between material existence and pure intellect.

 

This symbolic universe is neither fantasy nor physical reality.

 

Rather, it is the domain in which spiritual truths assume visionary forms accessible through imagination purified by contemplation.

 

Within such a framework, poetry and painting cease to be mere artistic expressions.

 

They become vehicles of metaphysical knowledge.

 

Images no longer illustrate ideas.

 

They embody them.

 

## Possible Channels of Cultural Transmission

 

The question naturally arises whether such remarkable similarities resulted from independent development or from historical contacts between Islamic and Christian civilizations.

 

Although no direct line of transmission between Persian Sufism and Dante can be demonstrated with certainty, medieval Europe maintained extensive intellectual exchanges with the Islamic world.

 

The Crusades, commercial routes linking Italy with the Eastern Mediterranean, Sicily under Norman rule, Islamic Spain (*al-Andalus*), and the great translation movements centered in Toledo all contributed to the circulation of philosophical, scientific, and mystical ideas.

 

The works of Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and later Ibn ʿArabī profoundly influenced European intellectual life, whether directly or indirectly.

 

Certain historians have therefore suggested that symbolic motifs, metaphysical concepts, and methods of allegorical interpretation may have travelled across these cultural frontiers.

 

Such hypotheses remain subjects of scholarly debate.

 

## From Dante to the Renaissance

 

By the fifteenth century, Dante had become one of the intellectual pillars of Florentine culture.

 

Marsilio Ficino, Cristoforo Landino, Angelo Poliziano, and the artists working under Medici patronage inherited a cultural world in which classical mythology, Christian theology, Neoplatonic philosophy, and poetic symbolism increasingly converged.

 

Within this environment, Sandro Botticelli produced paintings whose extraordinary richness continues to stimulate philosophical and symbolic interpretation.

 

Whether or not Botticelli consciously inherited the traditions associated with the *Fedeli d'Amore*, his works undeniably belong to a culture that regarded images as multilayered texts.

 

The painting was expected to reveal different meanings according to the intellectual and spiritual preparation of its viewer.

 

This conception closely resembles the medieval understanding of Sacred Scripture itself, which possessed literal, moral, allegorical, and anagogical meanings simultaneously.

 

## Comparative Perspectives

 

The comparison between the Italian *Fedeli d'Amore* and the Persian mystics should therefore not be understood primarily as an attempt to prove historical influence.

 

Rather, it reveals the emergence, within two different civilizations, of remarkably similar symbolic languages centered upon Beauty, Love, spiritual ascent, and the transformation of the soul.

 

Whether these correspondences result from historical transmission, shared Platonic heritage, or parallel spiritual development remains an open question.

 

What is beyond dispute is that both traditions elevated poetry into a genuine method of metaphysical knowledge.

 

Love ceased to be merely a human sentiment.

 

It became a path.

 

Beauty became revelation.

 

Language itself became initiation.

 

In this sense, both Dante and Rūzbihān Baqlī stand among the greatest architects of what may be called the universal metaphysics of Love—a vision in which the visible world serves as the symbolic mirror of invisible realities, and where the ultimate destination of the lover is not another human being, but Truth itself.

 

There is not doubt that there exist both similarities and contrasts in the history and teachings of Christian and Islamic mysticism. One of the most fascinating periods in the history of the two religions and the mystical schools that appeared in them is the 12th and 13th centuries in which so many great Christians and Muslims mystics lived. In the 13th Century there appeared in Italy the well-known secret organization with its mystical and esoteric teachings called the Fedeli d’amore to which Dante belonged. This organization was not only devoted to esoteric matters but also had a political and social dimension. Nevertheless, mystical and esoteric teachings were at the heart of its concerns and it is history identified with hidden esoteric ideas and doctrines. A century earlier there appeared within the Sufi tradition in Persia a particular school of love mysticism that the famous French scholar of Islamic thought, Henry Corbin, has called “the Fedeli d’amore of Persia”. Among the latter groups Rūzbihān Baqlī Shīrāzī is one of the most celebrated and is considered as one of the most significant figures in the history of Sufism as a whole. As for Europe, among the Western Fedeli d’amore it is of course the figure of Dante that stands out above all others. In our present study we have analyzed the ‘Abhar al-‘āshinqīn of Rūzbihān Baqlī on the one hand and the works of Dante, especially the Divine Comedy and La Vita Nuova, on the other and have then compared and contrasted the thought and style of these two colossal figures. Our goal has been to study and to reveal both the similarities and differences of the manifestation and treatment of Love on different levels in the teachings the Christian and Islamic traditions as crystallized in and associated with the Fedeli d’amore of Italy and of Persia. Some attention has also been paid to the influence of Islamic thought upon the medieval West especially in the domain of symbolism, and our study may therefore said to be both morphological and historical.

 

Author

Shieh, Rana

scholarspace.library.gwu.edu/concern/gw_etds/m039k4971?lo...

  

 

mirit ben nun woman women feminine female composition artistic artwork strong language influence idea powerful center of art human relations participate gallery exhibition vision work works muse leading art artist gallery museum paint painter painters painting paintings drawing draw drawings simple israel israeli media acrylic talented timeless dynamic emerging energetic exceptional expressive extreme fascinating figurative fresh hyper imaginative abstract aesthetic authentic inspiring the beautiful classic colorful conceptual contemporary creative decorative detailed participates in an exhibition powerful leading model diferent special art world talented virtual gallery stunning symbolic reclyced material an unexpected visual intuitive inventive layered like mature moving mysterious original personal pure refreshing remarkable looks good magical angle art sales drama positive red easy perfect minded eye fun funny natured someone special the gifted special diferent influent heart light happy colorful hardworking intellectual intelligent wish wonderful the drawings paintings draw colorful influence israeli reclycled material magnetic angelic accepting bright careful half main curious perfect work works picture those pictures working shape leading model first representing the wonders independent woman actress african american leading talented muse in the country solo exhibition leader subject group exhibition exhibit the subject look vision image outside country artist art sales sale acrylic canvas artworks modern contemporary original visual sculpture collection collector image images figurative exhibit exhibition abstract culture museum figurative decorative dealer

The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.

 

The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.

 

Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.

 

Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.

 

The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.

Role players from the fictional village of Bayan exchange currency at the village market during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.

 

Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson

 

Garrison Wainwright Imaging

 

WT07-2019-0013-0012

The Red Fort was the residence of the Mughal emperor of India for nearly 200 years, until 1857. It is located in the centre of Delhi and houses a number of museums. In addition to accommodating the emperors and their households, it was the ceremonial and political centre of Mughal government and the setting for events critically impacting the region.

 

The Red Fort was built as the fortified palace of Shahjahanabad, capital of the fifth Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, in 1648. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to the older Salimgarh Fort, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546. The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions, connected by a water channel known as the Stream of Paradise (Nahr-i-Behisht). The Red Fort is considered to represent the zenith of Mughal creativity under Shah Jahan. Although the palace was planned according to Islamic prototypes, each pavilion contains architectural elements typical of Mughal buildings, reflecting a fusion of Timurid, Persian and Hindu traditions. The Red Fort’s innovative architectural style, including its garden design, influenced later buildings and gardens in Delhi, Rajasthan, Punjab, Kashmir, Braj, Rohilkhand and elsewhere. With the Salimgarh Fort, it was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007 as part of the Red Fort Complex.

 

The Red Fort is an iconic symbol of India. On Independence Day, the prime minister hoists the national flag at the main gate of the fort and delivers a nationally-broadcast speech from its ramparts.

 

NAME

Its English name, "Red Fort", is a translation of the Hindustani Lal Quila (لال قلعہ, लाल क़िला) deriving from its red-sandstone walls. As the residence of the imperial family, the fort was originally known as the "Blessed Fort" (Quila-i-Mubarak). Agra Fort is also called Lal Quila.

 

HISTORY

Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned construction of the Red Fort in 1638, when he decided to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. Its design is credited to architect Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. The fort lies along the Yamuna River, which fed the moats surrounding most of the walls. Construction began in the sacred month of Muharram, on 13 May 1638. Supervised by Shah Jahan, it was completed in 1648. Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain the older Salimgarh Fort. The fortress-palace was a focal point of the medieval city of Shahjahanabad, which is present-day Old Delhi. Its planning and aesthetics represent the zenith of Mughal creativity prevailing during Shah Jahan's reign. His successor Aurangzeb added the Pearl Mosque to the emperor's private quarters, constructing barbicans in front of the two main gates to make the entrance to the palace more circuitous.

 

The administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughals declined after Aurangzeb, and the 18th century saw a degeneration of the palace. When Jahandar Shah took over the Red Fort in 1712, it had been without an emperor for 30 years. Within a year of beginning his rule, Shah was murdered and replaced by Farukhsiyar. To raise money, the silver ceiling of the Rang Mahal was replaced by copper during this period. Muhammad Shah, known as 'Rangila' (the Colourful) for his interest in art, took over the Red Fort in 1719. In 1739, Persian emperor Nadir Shah easily defeated the Mughal army, plundering the Red Fort including the Peacock Throne. Nadir Shah returned to Persia after three months, leaving a destroyed city and a weakened Mughal empire to Muhammad Shah. The internal weakness of the Mughal empire made the Mughals titular heads of Delhi, and a 1752 treaty made the Marathas protectors of the throne at Delhi. The 1758 Maratha conquest of Lahore and Peshawar placed them in conflict with Ahmad Shah Durrani. In 1760, the Marathas removed and melted the silver ceiling of the Diwan-i-Khas to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies of Ahmed Shah Durrani. In 1761, after the Marathas lost the third battle of Panipat, Delhi was raided by Ahmed Shah Durrani. Ten years later, Shah Alam ascended the throne in Delhi with Maratha support. In 1783 the Sikh Misl Karorisinghia, led by Baghel Singh Dhaliwal, conquered Delhi and the Red Fort. The Sikhs agreed to restore Shah Alam as emperor and retreat from the fort if the Mughals would build and protect seven Gurudwaras in Delhi for the Sikh gurus.

 

During the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1803, forces of British East India Company defeated Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi; this ended Maratha rule of the city and their control of the Red Fort. After the battle, the British took over the administration of Mughal territories and installed a Resident at the Red Fort. The last Mughal emperor to occupy the fort, Bahadur Shah II, became a symbol of the 1857 rebellion against the British in which the residents of Shahjahanbad participated.

 

Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not defended during the 1857 uprising against the British. After the rebellion failed, Bahadur Shah II left the fort on 17 September and was apprehended by British forces. He returned to Red Fort as a prisoner of the British, was tried in 1858 and exiled to Rangoon on 7 October of that year. With the end of Mughal reign, the British sanctioned the systematic plunder of valuables from the fort's palaces. All furniture was removed or destroyed; the harem apartments, servants' quarters and gardens were destroyed, and a line of stone barracks built. Only the marble buildings on the east side at the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction, but were looted and damaged. While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unharmed, more than two-thirds of the inner structures were destroyed by the British; steps were later taken by Lord Curzon to repair some damage.

 

1911 saw the visit of the British king and queen for the Delhi Durbar. In preparation of the visit, some buildings were restored. The Red Fort Archaeological Museum was also moved from the drum house to the Mumtaz Mahal.

 

The INA trials, also known as the Red Fort Trials, refer to the courts-martial of a number of officers of the Indian National Army. The first was held between November and December 1945 at the Red Fort.

 

On 15 August 1947, the first Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru raised the Indian national flag above the Lahore Gate. On each subsequent Independence Day, the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech that is broadcast nationally.

 

After Indian Independence the site experienced few changes, and the Red Fort continued to be used as a military cantonment. A significant part of the fort remained under Indian Army control until 22 December 2003, when it was given to the Archaeological Survey of India for restoration. In 2009 the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP), prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under Supreme Court directions to revitalise the fort, was announced.

 

As the largest monument in Delhi, is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year.

 

THE FORT TODAY

Every year on 15 August (the day India achieved independence from the British), the Prime Minister hoists the national flag at the Red Fort and delivers a nationally-broadcast speech from its ramparts. The Red Fort, the largest monument in Delhi, is one of its most popular tourist destinations and attracts thousands of visitors every year.

 

A sound and light show describing Mughal history is a tourist attraction in the evenings. The major architectural features are in mixed condition; the extensive water features are dry. Some buildings are in fairly-good condition, with their decorative elements undisturbed; in others, the marble inlaid flowers have been removed by looters. The tea house, although not in its historical state, is a working restaurant. The mosque and hamam are closed to the public, although visitors can peer through their glass windows or marble latticework. Walkways are crumbling, and public toilets are available at the entrance and inside the park.

 

The Lahore Gate entrance leads to a mall with jewellery and craft stores. There are a museum of "blood paintings", depicting young 20th-century Indian martyrs and their stories, an archaeological museum and an Indian war-memorial museum. Although, Red Fort is still one of the most beautiful and well designed forts in the world.

 

ARCHITECTURE

The Red Fort has an area of 103.06 ha enclosed by 2.41 kilometres of defensive walls, punctuated by turrets and bastions and varying in height from 18 metres on the river side to 33 metres on the city side. The fort is octagonal, with the north-south axis longer than the east-west axis. The marble, floral decorations and double domes in the fort's buildings exemplify later Mughal architecture.

 

It showcases a high level of ornamentation, and the Kohinoor diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings. The fort's artwork synthesises Persian, European and Indian art, resulting in a unique Shahjahani style rich in form, expression and colour. Red Fort is one of the building complexes of India encapsulating a long period of history and its arts. Even before its 1913 commemoration as a monument of national importance, efforts were made to preserve it for posterity.

 

The Lahori and Delhi Gates were used by the public, and the Khizrabad Gate was for the emperor. The Lahore Gate is the main entrance, leading to a domed shopping area known as the Chatta Chowk (covered bazaar).

 

MAJOR STRUCTURES

The most-important surviving structures are the walls and ramparts, the main gates, the audience halls and the imperial apartments on the eastern riverbank.

 

LAHORI GATE

The Lahori Gate is the main gate to the Red Fort, named for its orientation towards the city of Lahore. During Aurangzeb's reign, the beauty of the gate was spoiled by the addition of bastions (Like a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman). Every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the national flag has flown and the Prime Minister has made a speech from its ramparts.

 

DELHI GATE

The Delhi Gate is the southern public gate, in layout and appearance similar to the Lahori Gate. Two life-size stone elephants, on either side of the gate, face each other.

 

WATER GATE

A minor gate, the Water Gate is at the southeastern end of the walls. It was formerly on the riverbank; although the river has changed course since the fort's construction, the name has remained.

 

CHHATTA CHOWK

Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is the Chhatta Chowk, where silk, jewellery and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period. The bazaar leads to an open outer court, where it crosses the large north-south street which originally divided the fort's military functions (to the west) from the palaces (to the east). The southern end of the street is the Delhi Gate.

 

NAUBAT KHANA

The vaulted arcade of the Chhatta Chowk ends in the centre of the outer court, which measured 160 m × 110 m. The side arcades and central tank were destroyed after the 1857 rebellion.

 

In the east wall of the court stands the now-isolated Naubat Khana (also known as Nakkar Khana), the drum house. Music was played at scheduled times daily next to a large gate, where everyone except royalty was required to dismount.

 

DIWAN-I-AAM

The inner main court to which the Nakkar Khana led was 160 m wide and 130 m deep, surrounded by guarded galleries. On the far side is the Diwan-i-Aam, the Public Audience Hall.

 

The hall's columns and engrailed arches exhibit fine craftsmanship, and the hall was originally decorated with white chunam stucco. In the back in the raised recess the emperor gave his audience in the marble balcony (jharokha).

 

The Diwan-i-Aam was also used for state functions. The courtyard (mardana) behind it leads to the imperial apartments.

 

NAHR-I-BEHISHT

The imperial apartments consist of a row of pavilions on a raised platform along the eastern edge of the fort, overlooking the Yamuna. The pavilions are connected by a canal, known as the Nahr-i-Behisht ("Stream of Paradise"), running through the centre of each pavilion. Water is drawn from the Yamuna via a tower, the Shahi Burj, at the northeast corner of the fort. The palace is designed to emulate paradise as described in the Quran. In the riverbed below the imperial apartments and connected buildings was a space known as zer-jharokha ("beneath the latticework").

 

MUMTAZ MAHAL

The two southernmost pavilions of the palace are zenanas (women's quarters), consisting of the Mumtaz Mahal and the larger Rang Mahal. The Mumtaz Mahal houses the Red Fort Archaeological Museum.

 

RANG MAHAL

The Rang Mahal housed the emperor's wives and mistresses. Its name means "Palace of Colours", since it was brightly painted and decorated with a mosaic of mirrors. The central marble pool is fed by the Nahr-i-Behisht.

 

KHAS MAHAL

The Khas Mahal was the emperor's apartment. Connected to it is the Muthamman Burj, an octagonal tower where he appeared before the people waiting on the riverbank.

 

DIWAN-I-KHAS

A gate on the north side of the Diwan-i-Aam leads to the innermost court of the palace (Jalau Khana) and the Diwan-i-Khas (Hall of Private Audience). It is constructed of white marble, inlaid with precious stones. The once-silver ceiling has been restored in wood. François Bernier described seeing the jewelled Peacock Throne here during the 17th century. At either end of the hall, over the two outer arches, is an inscription by Persian poet Amir Khusrow:

 

If heaven can be on the face of the earth,

It is this, it is this, it is this.

 

HAMMAM

The hammam were the imperial baths, consisting of three domed rooms floored with white marble.

 

MOTI MASJID

West of the hammam is the Moti Masjid, the Pearl Mosque. A later addition, it was built in 1659 as a private mosque for Aurangzeb. It is a small, three-domed mosque carved in white marble, with a three-arched screen leading down to the courtyard.

 

HIRA MAHAL

The Hira Mahal is a pavilion on the southern edge of the fort, built under Bahadur Shah II and at the end of the Hayat Baksh garden. The Moti Mahal on the northern edge, a twin building, was destroyed during (or after) the 1857 rebellion.

 

SHAHI BURJ

The Shahi Burj was the emperor's main study of the; its name means "Emperor's Tower", and it originally had a chhatri on top. Heavily damaged, the tower is undergoing reconstruction. In front of it is a marble pavilion added by Aurangzeb.

 

HAYAT BAKHSH BAGH

The Hayat Bakhsh Bagh is the "Life-Bestowing Garden" in the northeast part of the complex. It features a reservoir (now dry) and channels, and at each end is a white marble pavilion (Savon and Bhadon). In the centre of the reservoir is the red-sandstone Zafar Mahal, added about 1842 under Bahadur Shah II.

 

Smaller gardens (such as the Mehtab Bagh or Moonlight Garden) existed west of it, but were destroyed when the British barracks were built. There are plans to restore the gardens. Beyond these, the road to the north leads to an arched bridge and the Salimgarh Fort.

 

PRINCES´ QUARTER

North of the Hayat Bakhsh Bagh and the Shahi Burj is the quarter of the imperial princes. This was used by member of the Mughal royal family and was largely destroyed by the British forces after the rebellion. One of the palaces was converted into a tea house for the soldiers.

 

WIKIPEDIA

Role players from the fictional village of Bayan conversing amoungst each other during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.

 

Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson

 

Garrison Wainwright Imaging

 

WT07-2019-0013-002

The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.

 

The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.

 

Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.

 

Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.

 

The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.

Droplets of cooking oil in a glass of water. Camera on tripod and self timer to avoid camera shake. Macro lens used. Light from table lamp bouncing off coloured card. Colours adjusted later with computer. Droplets may be in slight motion from stirring of the water.

 

Strange or obscure science fiction influenced title chosen without any good reason.

 

All of my bubbly oil droppiness images are also on Youtube. See,

 

www.youtube.com/watch?v=SB2TGttn91A

Reservists from 38 Brigade Group’s Influence Activities Company conduct patrols and execute key leader engagements in the fictional village of Bayan during Exercise MAPLE RESOLVE 19 at 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright on May 11th, 2019.

 

Image By: Private Jordyn Anderson

 

Garrison Wainwright Imaging

 

WT07-2019-0013-008

Free download under CC Attribution (CC BY 4.0). Please credit the artist and rawpixel.com.

Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) was one of the greatest French painters of Post-Impressionism. He was known as the "Master of Aix" because of how he portrayed the beauty of nature in Aix-en-Provence, his ancestral home in the South of France. His artistic style of repetitive and exploratory brushstrokes made his works recognizable and paved the way for modern art and Cubism. Cezanne transitioned the art world and influenced many of the 20th-century artists. We have digitally enhanced Cezanne's artworks in high-resolution printable quality. They are free to download under the CC0 license.

Higher resolutions with no attribution required can be downloaded: https://www.rawpixel.com/board/1218369/paul-cezanne-original-post-impressionist-paintings

 

Rom - Mars-Ultor-Tempel

 

The Temple of Mars Ultor was a sanctuary erected in Ancient Rome by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 2 BCE and dedicated to the god Mars in his guise as avenger. The centerpiece of the Forum of Augustus, it was a peripteral style temple, on the front and sides, but not the rear (sine postico), raised on a platform and lined with eight columns in the Corinthian order style.

 

According to Suetonius and Ovid, the young Octavian vowed to build a temple to Mars in 42 BCE just before the Battle of Philippi if the god would grant him and Marcus Antonius victory over two of the assassins of Julius Caesar, Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. However, work did not commence on the temple until after the recovery of the Aquilae in 20 BCE that had been lost by Marcus Licinius Crassus in the disastrous Battle of Carrhae 33 years earlier. Originally, the Roman Senate had decreed that the returned standards were to be housed in a temple to Mars Ultor that was to be built on the Capitoline Hill. Augustus however, declared that he would build it at his own expense on the site of his new forum. Augustus’s decision to wait to fulfill his vow has been speculated to have been due to a reluctance to celebrate his victory over those who were seen as the defenders of Libertas, whereas the return of the standards, and its symbolic revenge against the Parthians, was a more acceptable victory to commemorate.

 

The temple was dedicated, albeit in an incomplete state, in 2 BCE, to coincide with Augustus’s celebration of his 13th consulship as well as his acceptance of the title Pater Patriae. The temple (and the forum within which it was placed) was part of imperial propaganda campaign to glorify and bring about an acceptance of the authority of the new Augustan empire. To the imperial regime, it was vital to accentuate the favour of the gods, as well as glorifying the ancestral figures and past of Rome, and so overcome the disorder of the civil wars that had plagued the state for over 50 years. In the words of Augustus himself, “I have fashioned this to lead the citizens to require me, while I live, and the rulers of later times as well, to attain the standard set by those great men of old.”

 

On the pediment of the temple was inscribed the name of Augustus, along with a series of reliefs honouring the divinities that played a part in influencing the outcome of battles and wars through their intercession. In the centre was the figure of Mars, flanked by the goddesses Fortuna and Venus. Next to these were the seated figures of Romulus (in the guise of an augur) and the goddess Roma in arms. Finally, in the gable corners were reclining figures of the personification of the Palatine Hill and Father Tiber.[6] It was to these divinities that Augustan propaganda ascribed the self-styled “victory” over the Parthians that saw the return of the lost standards during Augustus’s visit to Syria in 20 BCE (and to a lesser extent, his victory at the Battle of Philippi as an act of filial vengeance against the assassins of his adoptive father, Julius Caesar). Further, it also emphasized the role that the goddess Fortuna played his triple victory in Illyria (33 BCE), at the Battle of Actium and in Egypt defeating Cleopatra. Finally, the role of Mars Ultor was critical in Augustus’s attempts to refashion the events of his coming to power in a way that obscured the illegality of much of his actions during those years.

 

Within the temple there stood three statues. In the middle, a colossal Mars Ultor depicted in full military dress, holding a large spear in his right hand and a shield in his left. On the right side of the god stood a statue of the goddess Venus, with Cupid – it was Venus whom all of the gens Julia claimed descent from. To the left of the god was a statue of Julius Caesar, or more specifically ‘Divus Julius’, as he had been deified after a comet was seen in the sky during his funeral games.

 

In 19 CE, the emperor Tiberius added two arches, one on either side of the temple, and it was later restored during the reign of Hadrian. The temple was used by the Senate as a meeting place to discuss matters of foreign policy, discussions around declarations of war, and to make decisions for awarding triumphs. It also served as a reception place to meet foreign embassies. By the end of the 4th century, the temple would have been closed during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire, when the Christian Emperors issued edicts prohibiting non-Christian worship. During the ninth century, an oratory church was built in the ruins of the temple, and was called the church of San Basilio in Scala Mortuorum. This church was mentioned in the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae and by the late 19th century, the temple ruins was home to the convent of the nuns of Santa Annunziata.

 

(Wikipedia)

 

Im Jahr 2 v. Chr. wurde das Augustusforum mit dem dazugehörigen Mars-Ultor-Tempel von Kaiser Augustus in Rom eingeweiht. Das Zentrum des Augustusforums bildet der Tempel des Mars Ultor, des rächenden Mars. Dieses Forum war das zweite der vier Kaiserforen in Rom. Es handelte sich dabei um eine Erweiterung des Forum Romanum.

 

Der Komplex mit Forum und Tempel wurde von Augustus schon im Jahre 42 v. Chr. geplant, jedoch dauerte es bis zu dessen Einweihung noch 40 Jahre. Ursprünglich erdacht zur Demonstration der Nachfolge Octavians und zum Andenken an die Schlacht bei Philippi (42 v. Chr.), diente es bei der Fertigstellung als Symbol der Prinzipatsideologie und der Versöhnung des Kaisers mit dem Senat.

 

Architektur und Standort

 

Das Tempelinnere war prachtvoll ausgestattet. Das Gebäude bestand aus Carrara-Marmor und acht korinthische Säulen säumten die Front, sowie die Seiten des Gebäudes. Im Zentrum des Tempels (Giebelfeld bzw. große Apsis) befand sich eine Statue von Mars, dargestellt als Friedensstifter und nicht wie üblich als Kriegsgott – aber, durch einen Fuß auf der Weltkugel, immer noch als Zeichen römischer Weltherrschaft. Zu seiner Rechten standen Venus und Rom, zur Linken Fortuna und Romulus. Kapitol und Tiber waren durch allegorische Figuren dargestellt.

 

In den Säulenhallen und Exedren standen Statuen und Büsten von siegreichen Feldherrn, verdienten Beamten, Königen, mythologischen Figuren und Dichtern. Sechzig Karyatiden sowie weibliche Gebälkträgerinnen verkörperten die Unterwerfung fremder Völker. Vor dem Tempel stand mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit eine Quadriga, die Augustus im Triumph zeigte. Die Sockelinschrift lautete "pater patriae" – Vater des Vaterlandes. Die Ruinen des Augustusforums wurden ab 1200 für Paläste genutzt. Der Komplex befand sich im Zentrum Roms, nordöstlich des Kapitols. Er schloss unmittelbar an das Forum Iulium an.

 

Funktion und Bedeutung

 

Das Tempelareal wurde bewusst direkt in den Wohnsiedlungen errichtet, um Augustus als Herrscher darzustellen, der die Kommunikation zu seinem Volk sucht. Es diente zur Aufbewahrung von Caesars Schwert sowie der 20 v. Chr. von den Parthern wiedergewonnenen Feldzeichen. Außerdem wurden hier die Lorbeerkränze der Triumphatoren niedergelegt. Weiterhin wurden Statthalter, die man in die Provinzen entsandte, verabschiedet und der Senat traf Entscheidungen über Kriege und Triumphe. Des Weiteren fand hier die Anlegung der „toga virilis“ statt.

 

Durch das Augustusforum sollte der Kaiser als Teil der römischen Geschichte dargestellt werden. Er wurde hier mit den großen Persönlichkeiten der römischen Geschichte und Mythologie gleichgesetzt. Zudem diente es zur religiösen Darstellung Augustus, der seit 41 v. Chr. immer mehr Priesterämter übernahm.

 

(Wikipedia)

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Copyright Helge Eisenberg, Willow Creek Deutschland

The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.

 

The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.

 

Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.

 

Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.

 

The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.

Women Influencer Dinner

 

Influenced by two great photographers, Brian Day and Jon DeBoer, thought I would try my hand at some street photography.

Loreto College Ballarat, a Catholic school for girls was established in 1875 by Mother Gonzaga Barry (1834 – 1915) a member of the order of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary whose members are commonly known as the Sisters of Loreto; a courageous woman with a truly visionary approach that saw her create educational opportunities for girls never before considered in the society of that day. The Loreto Sisters arrived in Australia in response to a request by the Bishop of Ballarat, Bishop O'Connell. The group of ten sisters from Ireland, led by Mother Gonzaga Barry, set up a convent in Ballarat, Victoria and their first girls school, known as Mary's Mount, which today is known as Loreto College.

 

The Loreto Chapel, or Children’s Chapel as it is known, was built between 1898 and 1902. The architect was William Tappin and the builder George Lorimer. It is built in an English Gothic style with French influences. The stone from which it is constructed is Barrabool Hills sandstone taken from a quarry near Geelong. It also features white stone detailing from Oamaru in New Zealand. Building was interrupted through lack of funds, but the project was finally completed with a large bequest from the German Countess Elizabeth Wolff-Metternich, who had arrived at Ballarat unannounced in 1898, was captivated by the post Gold Rush city and decided to teach German to the Loreto students. A direct descendent of St Elizabeth of Hungary, Countess Elizabeth later found that she loved the peace and simplicity of the Mary's Mount cloister, and informed Mother Gonzaga that she wished to be accepted as a novice. The Mother Superior urged the young woman to return to Germany to discuss her future with her family prior to making a decision. Sadly, Countess Elizabeth was never to return to Ballarat: tragedy struck the RMS India, in the Straits of Messina en route Europe, when Countess Elizabeth died suddenly in April 1899, possibly from cholera, as she was nursing sick passengers on board the ship during its journey. When her will was read, it was found that Countess Elizabeth had left a generous 16,000 pounds to the astonished Mother Gonzaga to `be used as she thought fit'. Funds were once again available to finish the Children's Chapel, but there was to be another, seemingly impenetrable, obstacle: Germany had instituted a law forbidding money to be sent out of the country, so the funds remained frozen in Germany indefinitely. However, Countess Elizabeth's relatives contacted their distant relative, Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany (eldest grandson of England's Queen Victoria and Prince Albert) to petition that the funds be released for the Australian convent. It was only through the direct intervention of the Kaiser that the law was waived in this particular case. The Children’s Chapel was officially opened in December 1902.

 

The inside of the Children’s Chapel is decorated in soft pastel colours with artwork and statuary donated to the Sisters of Loreto by families in Ballarat and back in Ireland. The Rose Window over the Organ Gallery depicts Saint Cecilia the patron saint of music, surrounded by symbols of the four Evangelists, Matthew Mark Luke and John. The windows over the alter depict the instruments of the Passion of Christ. The marble alter features the Nativity scene as was requested by the girls attending Loreto at the time.

  

The Jaswant Thada is a cenotaph located in Jodhpur, in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It was built by Maharaja Sardar Singh of Jodhpur State in 1899 in memory of his father, Maharaja Jaswant Singh II, and serves as the burial ground for the rulers of Marwar.

 

The mausoleum is built out of intricately carved sheets of marble. These sheets are extremely thin and polished so that they emit a warm glow when illuminated by the sun.

 

The cenotaph's grounds feature carved gazebos, a tiered garden, and a small lake. There are three other cenotaphs in the grounds. The cenotaph of Maharaja Jaswant Singh displays portraits of the rulers and Maharajas of Jodhpur.

_______________________________________________

 

CENOTAPH

A cenotaph is an "empty tomb" or a monument erected in honour of a person or group of people whose remains are elsewhere. It can also be the initial tomb for a person who has since been reinterred elsewhere. The word derives from the Greek: κενοτάφιον = kenotaphion (kenos, one meaning being "empty", and taphos, "tomb"). Although the vast majority of cenotaphs honour individuals, many noted cenotaphs are instead dedicated to the memories of groups of individuals, such as the lost soldiers of a country or of an empire.

 

HISTORY

Cenotaphs were common in the ancient world with many built in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and across Northern Europe (in the shape of Neolithic barrows).

 

Sir Edwin Lutyens' cenotaph in Whitehall, London influenced the design of many other war memorials in Britain and the British sectors of the Western Front, as well as those in other Commonwealth nations.

 

The Church of Santa Engrácia, in Lisbon, Portugal, turned into a National Pantheon since 1966, holds six cenotaphs, namely to Luís de Camões, Pedro Álvares Cabral, Afonso de Albuquerque, Nuno Álvares Pereira, Vasco da Gama and Henry the Navigator.

 

The Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy, contains a number of cenotaphs including one for Dante Alighieri,who is buried in Ravenna.

 

REGIONAL

ASIA

Among Asian countries, the Cenotaph in Central of Hong Kong Island, Hong Kong, the Cenotaph in George Town, Penang, the Cenotaph in Kuala Lumpur, the Cenotaph in Singapore and the Cenotaph in Colombo were erected as memorials to the war dead of World War I.

 

The concrete Memorial Cenotaph at the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park was designed by Kenzo Tange to commemorate the 200,000 victims of the August 1945 atomic bomb attack.

 

A cenotaph was erected inside the Manila North Cemetery in the Philippines in honour of the 24 Scouts who died in a plane crash en route to the 11th World Scout Jamboree.

 

ARGENTINA

A monument which has come to be known to as the "Cenotaph" was erected in Plaza San Martín, in downtown Buenos Aires, to commemorate the Argentinian soldiers who died during the Falklands War, in 1982. The monument consists of a series of plaques of black marble with the names of the fallen, surrounding a flame, and during the day is guarded by two soldiers.

 

Another cenotaph, which is a replica of the Argentine Military Cemetery in Darwin on the Falkland Islands, exists in Campo de Mayo, a large Army facility and training field just outside Buenos Aires.

 

AUSTRALIA

In Australia, Anzac Day commemorations are usually held at all of the nation's many war memorials, but not all of them are cenotaphs. The Sydney Cenotaph is in Martin Place and the Hobart Cenotaph is in the Queens Domain. An Anzac Day commemoration is held in the regional city of Bendigo at the cenotaph which is located in Charing Cross.

 

BERMUDA

A limestone replica of the Cenotaph at Whitehall in London was erected outside the Cabinet Building in Hamilton, Bermuda in 1920.

 

CANADA

In Canada, major cenotaphs commemorating the nation's war dead in World War I and later conflicts include the National War Memorial (a cenotaph surmounted by a bronze sculpture entitled "The Response") in Ottawa; Montreal, Toronto, Hamilton, Victoria, St. John's, Halifax, and the Victory Square Cenotaph, in Vancouver, British Columbia.

 

SOUTH AFRICA

A cenotaph is the focal point of the Voortrekker Monument in Pretoria, South Africa. It is situated below the other main point of interest, a marble Historical Frieze in the Hall of Heroes, and is visible through a round opening in the floor. The Hall of Heroes itself has a dome from the summit of which one can view the interior of the monument. At noon on 16 December each year the sun shines through another opening in the dome onto the middle of the cenotaph, where the words Ons vir Jou, Suid-Afrika (from Die Stem van Suid-Afrika; Afrikaans for "We for Thee, South Africa") are inscribed. The ray of sunshine symbolises God's blessing on the lives and endeavours of the Voortrekkers. 16 December is the date in 1838 that the Battle of Blood River was fought.

 

Durban, South Africa, has a striking and unusual cenotaph made of granite and lavishly decorated with brightly coloured ceramics.

 

Port Elizabeth, South Africa, has a cenotaph. Located on the edge of St George's Park in Rink Street, it was designed by Elizabeth Gardner to commemorate the men who died in the First World War (1914 - 1918) and was erected by the monumental mason firm of Pennachini Bros. On either side of the central sarcophagus are statues by Technical College Art School principal, James Gardner, who served in the trenches during the war. One depicts St George and the Dragon, the other depicts the sanctity of family life. Surrounding the sarcophagus are a number of bas-relief panels depicting scenes and people during World War One. It was unveiled by Mrs W F Savage and dedicated by Canon Mayo on 10 November 1929. A surrounding memorial wall commemorates the men and women killed during the Second World War.

 

UNITED KINGDOM

LONDON

A cenotaph in the UK that stands in Whitehall, London, was designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens and replaced Lutyens' identical wood-and-plaster cenotaph erected in 1919 for the Allied Victory Parade, and is a Grade I listed building. It is undecorated save for a carved wreath on each end and the words "The Glorious Dead," chosen by Lloyd George. It was intended to commemorate specifically the victims of the First World War, but is used to commemorate all of the dead in all wars in which British servicemen and women have fought. The dates of the First World War and the Second World War are inscribed on it in Roman numerals. The design was used in the construction of many other war memorials throughout the British Empire.

 

There is another Cenotaph that stands on Victoria Square in Aberdare Glamorgan, also designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens.

 

BELFAST

The Cenotaph in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is located in the grounds of Belfast City Hall and is set within a Garden of Remembrance. It is about 9.5 metres high and presents several carvings including laurel wreaths, symbolising victory and honour. The Cenotaph is the site of the annual Northern Ireland memorial held on Remembrance Sunday, the closest Sunday to 11 November (Armistice Day).

 

UNITED STATES

In the United States, a cenotaph in Yale University's Hewitt Quad (or Beinecke Plaza) honours men of Yale who died in battle. The John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial in Dallas is often described as a cenotaph.

 

The Battle Monument in Baltimore, Maryland commemorates the Battle of Baltimore, the Battle of North Point on 12 September 1814, the Bombardment of Fort McHenry on 13–14 September, and the stand-off on Loudenschlager's Hill (now Hampstead Hill in Patterson Park). It has an Egyptian Revival cenotaph base, surmounted by a fasces bound together with ribbons bearing the names of the dead. It was designed by French émigré architect Maximilian Godefroy in 1815, and construction was completed in 1827. It is considered the first war memorial in America, and an early example of a memorial to individual soldiers. The Monument appears on the Seal and the Logo of the City of Baltimore, and serves as a symbol for any agencies of the municipal government.

 

A cenotaph for the defenders of the Battle of the Alamo (March 1836) stands in front of the Alamo mission chapel in San Antonio, Texas. The cenotaph is empty because the remains of the fallen were cremated.

 

Atop War Memorial Chapel at Virginia Polytechnic Institute, there is a cenotaph honouring all Virginia Tech cadets who have been killed in battle. Inscribed upon the cenotaph are the names of the seven Virginia Tech Alumni who have been awarded the Medal of Honor.

 

ZAMBIA

In Livingstone there is a cenotaph at the Eastern Cataract of The Victoria Falls with the names of the men of Northern Rhodesia who died during the Great War 1914–18. It was unveiled by HRH Prince Arthur of Connaught on 1 August 1923.

 

There is also a cenotaph in Lusaka at Embassy Park, opposite the Cabinet Office along Independence Avenue, and commemorates those Zambians who fought and died in World Wars I & II. The cenotaph was commemorated in 1977.

 

CENOTAPHS FOR THE MISSING

Although most notable cenotaphs commemorate notable individuals buried elsewhere, many cenotaphs pay tribute to people whose remains have never been located, particular those lost at sea. Two such cenotaphs are dedicated to victims of the RMS Titanic, whose bodies were not recovered after the sinking. The cenotaph of Ida Straus serves as the gravestone for her husband Isidor Straus at Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, and the striking cenotaph of Major Archibald Butt, aide to U.S. President William Taft, is located at Arlington National Cemetery.

 

In Inishmore, Aran Islands, Ireland, drowning was formerly such a common cause of death for island fishermen that each family had a memorial to those lost at sea. Known as leachtaí cuimhneacháin (memorial cairns). Most were erected in the 19th century, although some date back to the eighteenth. A modern memorial was erected in 1997.

 

CHHATRIS

In India, cenotaphs are a basic element of Hindu architecture, later used by Moghuls as seen in most of the mausoleums of Mughal Emperors which have two burial chambers, the upper one with a cenotaph, as in Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, or the Taj Mahal, Agra, while the real tomb often lies exactly below it, or further removed. The Chhatri(s) trace their origin at 2000 years ago at Fort Kangara. The term chhatri, used for these canopylike structures, comes from Hindustani word literally meaning umbrella, and are found throughout the northwestern region of Rajasthan as well as in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. In the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan, chhatris are built on the cremation sites of wealthy or distinguished individuals. Chhatris in Shekhawati may consist of a simple structure of one dome raised by four pillars to a building containing many domes and a basement with several rooms. In some places, the interior of the chhatri is painted in the same manner as the Haveli.

 

_______________________________________________

 

HISTORY OF JASWANT SINGH II

Jaswant Singh II, GCSI, (1838- 11 October 1895) was Maharaja of Jodhpur in India between 1873 and 1895.

 

BIRTH

He was born in 1838 at Ahmadnagar in Gujarat and was eldest son of Takht Singh.

 

MARRIAGE

He had eight wives, of which the first–the daughter of the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, Puariji–was chief consort.

 

ACCESSION

He acceded to the throne of Jodhpur in 1873 upon death of his father, Takhat Singh

 

REIGN

The reign of Jaswant Singh II was marked with remarkable prosperity and reforms and development works. He established Courts of Justice, introduced system of revenue settlement and reorganizing all the state departments. Further, he developed infrastructure of the state by introducing telegraphs, railways (Jodhpur State Railway), and developing roads. He formed Imperial Service Cavalry Crops, which later rendered active service in European War. He was honored and created the Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India in 1875

 

SWAMI DAYANANDA INCIDENT

Jawant Singh had invited Swami Dayananda as he was influenced by his ideas. But the tragedy occurred that Dawayanda was poisoned on 29th September 1883, when he was the royal guest of Jaswant Singh II by Dayananda's own cook, who had conspired with a court dancer. Maharaja was quick to arrange services of doctor and arranged for Swamiji to be sent to Mount Abu upon advice of Residency.

 

DEATH

He died 11 October 1895 and was succeeded by his only son Sardar Singh.

 

WIKIPEDIA

¿Apple le paga?

Loreto College Ballarat, a Catholic school for girls was established in 1875 by Mother Gonzaga Barry (1834 – 1915) a member of the order of the Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary whose members are commonly known as the Sisters of Loreto; a courageous woman with a truly visionary approach that saw her create educational opportunities for girls never before considered in the society of that day. The Loreto Sisters arrived in Australia in response to a request by the Bishop of Ballarat, Bishop O'Connell. The group of ten sisters from Ireland, led by Mother Gonzaga Barry, set up a convent in Ballarat, Victoria and their first girls school, known as Mary's Mount, which today is known as Loreto College.

 

The Loreto Chapel, or Children’s Chapel as it is known, was built between 1898 and 1902. The architect was William Tappin and the builder George Lorimer. It is built in an English Gothic style with French influences. The stone from which it is constructed is Barrabool Hills sandstone taken from a quarry near Geelong. It also features white stone detailing from Oamaru in New Zealand. Building was interrupted through lack of funds, but the project was finally completed with a large bequest from the German Countess Elizabeth Wolff-Metternich, who had arrived at Ballarat unannounced in 1898, was captivated by the post Gold Rush city and decided to teach German to the Loreto students. A direct descendent of St Elizabeth of Hungary, Countess Elizabeth later found that she loved the peace and simplicity of the Mary's Mount cloister, and informed Mother Gonzaga that she wished to be accepted as a novice. The Mother Superior urged the young woman to return to Germany to discuss her future with her family prior to making a decision. Sadly, Countess Elizabeth was never to return to Ballarat: tragedy struck the RMS India, in the Straits of Messina en route Europe, when Countess Elizabeth died suddenly in April 1899, possibly from cholera, as she was nursing sick passengers on board the ship during its journey. When her will was read, it was found that Countess Elizabeth had left a generous 16,000 pounds to the astonished Mother Gonzaga to `be used as she thought fit'. Funds were once again available to finish the Children's Chapel, but there was to be another, seemingly impenetrable, obstacle: Germany had instituted a law forbidding money to be sent out of the country, so the funds remained frozen in Germany indefinitely. However, Countess Elizabeth's relatives contacted their distant relative, Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany (eldest grandson of England's Queen Victoria and Prince Albert) to petition that the funds be released for the Australian convent. It was only through the direct intervention of the Kaiser that the law was waived in this particular case. The Children’s Chapel was officially opened in December 1902.

 

The inside of the Children’s Chapel is decorated in soft pastel colours with artwork and statuary donated to the Sisters of Loreto by families in Ballarat and back in Ireland. The Rose Window over the Organ Gallery depicts Saint Cecilia the patron saint of music, surrounded by symbols of the four Evangelists, Matthew Mark Luke and John. The windows over the alter depict the instruments of the Passion of Christ. The marble alter features the Nativity scene as was requested by the girls attending Loreto at the time.

  

Big Sky Montana, Summit Hotel

 

In 1968 Chet Huntley floated the idea that he would build a resort in his home state Montana. Huntley's NBC news partner David Brinkley said Huntley had an almost mystical love for his native Montana. That year Chet Huntley and his wife Tippy, vacationed at Jim and Patty Goodrich's 320 Guest Ranch near Lone Mountain. Lone Mountain made a big impression. Huntley asked the Goodriches to keep an eye out for some land he could buy. Huntley's earliest plan was to build a dude ranch which could be used as a tax shelter for investors. The Goodriches sent Huntley a flyer on Sam Smeding's Lone Mountain Dude Ranch. Huntley's investor friend was Ed Homer, an executive with Chrysler Realty, a wholly owned subsidiary of the number 3 auto maker Chrysler Corp. Chrysler Realty Corp. was founded in 1967 as an off shoot from owning so many warehouses office buildings, and dealer buildings. Homer bought in to the idea but with bigger plans - he hired a ski consultant to study the idea of a ski resort. The ski area consultant was Kingsbury Pitcher, from Santa Fe, NM. Pitcher was a former ski insturctor, rancher and a graduate of Stanford Univery in economics. Pitcher was an advisor for the developers of Snowmass at Aspen, Sun Valley, Idaho and Jay Peak, VT. He developed the Sierra Blanca ski resort near Ruidoso for Robert O. Anderson. A one day consultant in 1970 was three-time Olympic gold medalist Jean-Claude Killy who heli-skied in perfect powder on the run now known as Ambush. Killy told Huntley and Pitcher conditions were "magnifique". A feasibility study was made by David J. Flood of Manduco Corp. The consultants recommendation was to build two villages - one at the base of Lone Mountain, the other in an open meadow three miles from U.S. 191. Huntley and Homer moved quickly.

 

Lone Mountain Ranch consisted of the Emmett Crail Cattle Ranch and later the B-K Ranch which was owned by Jack M. Hume in the 50's and 60's. Hume was the early owner and manufacturer of Sun Rite products. Sam S. Smeding bought the cattle ranch from Hume in 1962. He sold the 1,880 acres in the Gallatin River Canyon for $350,000 to Chrysler Realty. Smeding's Lone Mountain ranch land was primarily used for the Arnold Palmer and Francis Duane designed golf course. Palmer was age 41 when he designed the $500,000 golf course. Palmer teamed with Francis Duane and they also designed the Bay Course at Kapalua, Hawaii in 1974.

 

The land for Mountain Village would be secured from Burlington Northern in a land swap. The term "Big Sky" was used by the state of Montana as a marketing adjective for the entire state. Chet Huntley made a visit to Helena to ask the Governor Forest Anderson of Montana for permission to use "Big Sky" for the resort's name which was enthusiastically granted. The $1.1 million 9-mile road from US 191 was funded by the Office of Economic Opportunity and Gallatin and Madison Counties.

 

In 1969 Chrysler hired Gustav "Gus" Raaum, who helped develop Teton Village in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, to be president and chief executive of Big Sky - calling it an opportunity to start from scratch. Raaum, during his younger days, was a Norwegian Ski Jumping champion.

 

Chet Huntley's title was Chairman of the Board of Big Sky but also the celebrity fronting for the five corporations that owned the resort - Chrysler Realty Corp., Continental Oil (Conoco), Burlington Northern Railroad, Montana Power Co. and Northwest Orient Airlines pooled about $20 million to build the world class resort from scratch. Chet Huntley would own about 1% of the stock but as chairman of the board he had enormous influence. Huntley incurred the rath of environmental groups and many Montanans fought the development tooth and nail. Big Sky managed to open a year behind schedule in March 1974.

 

Huntley died of lung cancer at age 62 three days before the grand opening ceremonies. Tippy Huntley took over Chet’s marketing role. Owner Chrysler Realty decided to divest its real estate development assets and sold to Boyne USA Resorts in 1976 for $7.5 million the 204-room Huntley Lodge, 4 lifts, a shopping and convention center, and a golf course located on 2,500 acres. Everett Kircher said he had a romance with Lone Mountain after skiing it. He stated Big Sky with its 2,700 skiable vertical drop is the finest ski terrain in the country. Kircher, the sole owner of Boyne Mountain in Michigan, was well known for adapting new methods of ski instruction, and innovations in artificial snow and grooming equipment.

 

Gustav Raaum said the deal split Big Sky ownership in two, with Boyne Mountain/Kircher taking over the former Big Sky of Montana Inc. and a new company named Big Sky of Montana Realty Inc., who kept ownership of remaining acres and unsold condominiums. On Aug 13, 1977 Big Sky of Montana Realty auctioned off 149 condominiums raising $4.1 million to which paid off the $2.3 million in construction loans owed to First National Bank of Bozeman and Security Trust Bank of Billings. Nationally recognized Kennedy, Kenison and Wison were the auctioneers. Montana Governor Thomas Judge bought a condo for $21,000. Raaum departed Big Sky in 1977 to start an investment company in Seattle known as Hill-Raaum-Pietromonaco.

 

By 1999 Big Sky was averaging 300,000 skier days per year and by 2018 skier days were 500,000.

 

In 1999 the 10-story Summit Hotel opened, it was the largest single development undertaken in Big Sky since the resort's inception in 1974. The $45 million luxury condominium hotel has 106 units with capability of locking off to 222 hotel rooms. Some said you could ski right out your hotel window. Stephen Kircher, the project coordinator and vice president of Boyne USA said within 300 feet of the hotel's entrance are 3 high capacity lifts. The Summit included 8 two story, $1.5 million penthouses. Condo prices started at $290,000 or $337 per square foot for an 857-square-foot condo. In August 2009 the Summit hosted President Obama and family.

 

The Kircher family continues to operate Big Sky. Many of the college-age folks who served as bellman and bartenders in the late 70s and early 80s now serve in leadership roles at Big Sky Resort. They’ve seen Big Sky Resort grow and evolve and have played an integral part in making it happen. Now there are a combination of 21 different hotels and outside condo options. Named after Everett Kircher, the founder of Boyne USA is Everett 8800, a restaurant located at the top of Andesite Mountain (elevation 8,800 ft) and accessable only by the Ramcharger chair lift.

 

In 2016 Big Sky Resort' parent company, family owned Boyne Resorts, unveiled Big Sky 2025, a plan to invest $150-million dollars in mostly on-mountain improvements over the next 10 years, but the plan is already underway. This summer, the resort installed two brand new chairlifts – one of them state-of-the art. Powder Seeker, the high-speed, six-seat chairlift with heated seats, head rests and blue bubble covers, is not only the most technologically-advanced chairlift installed this year in the country, but it’s also the highest bubble chairlift in North America with the top terminal sitting at 9,812 feet.

 

The plan also calls for 12 upgraded or new chairlifts, including a 10-person gondola, new on-mountain restaurants, a high-alpine zip line, a new hotel, new restaurants and retail shops, a new gondola and night skiing. Also renovations of the Summit Hotel and Huntley Lodge is planned.

 

compiled by Dick Johnson

October 2019

There is no doubt that St Leonard's is a very remarkable building indeed. I will leave the desriptions to people who know about such things, much better than I.

 

St Leonard's lays now on the edge of the town, on the border with its neighbouring parish, Sholden. It now sits next to a very busy mini roundabout, but towers over all buildings around, with it's jaunty cupola.

 

Inside, the original church has been greatly enlarged reminding me slightly of King Charles the Martyr in Tonbridge Wells, or that could just be my memory playing tricks.

 

I received another warm welcome here, for which I thankful, but also to finally see inside this wholly remarkable church.

 

----------------------------------------------------

 

There can be no more remarkable church in Kent than this. St Leonard's incorporates work of every century but you do need to search out its architectural gems so closely are the different periods overlaid. Its chief period are Norman and early and late Georgian, although there is something for everyone here. From the outside it is obvious that the church has been clothed in an outer layer of brick and render, but just here and there medieval stonework appears from under the skirts. The fine west tower is obviously a Georgian structure and it is through this that the church is entered. The vestibule contains the first of what will be a fine collection of 15 hatchments and benefaction boards showing that this was one a very wealthy place. On entering the church one is baffled by an illogical layout. In front of you is an empty space that should be the nave, leading into a very small medieval chancel. To the south is an aisle and chapel but to the north is a veritable auditorium facing south and surrounded on three sides by huge balconies improbably lit by circular windows! You really do have to see it. Occupying the nave is a most elaborate nineteenth century font but it isn't until you are in and look back that you realise that this area too has an enormous gallery now holding one of the grandest organs in Kent, rising like a slightly bedraggled wedding cake! Of the contents one must choose a favourite. For me the Norman pillar piscina of sandstone is an oddity and would not look out of place in a cathedral, whilst the east window of the south aisle with its garish depiction of The Crucifixion cannot be ignored. It is by William Morris and Co of Westminster and is about as far removed from the famous William Morris as it possibly could be! Apart from the hatchments the church contains many fine monuments mostly to Naval men and two Royal Arms. It is not a church to rush as something new is to be found at every turn. To those interested in structures, how it all fits together is a mystery in itself with the lovely Norman arcade having been stretched out to support two elliptical arches. Somehow it works and draws us in.

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Deal+1

 

--------------------------------------------------

 

St Leonard's is still the Parish Church of Deal, despite now lying on the outskirts of the town and there being several other churches within the town. It gains its name from the Saint to whom it is dedicated - St Leonard of Limoges an Abbot who lived in France during the 6th century and who is now the Patron Saint of Prisoners.

 

Today, St Leonard's serves the local community as the mother church of a Benefice (group of churches) which includes three other local churches;

St Richards, Mill Hill; St Nicholas, Sholden; and St Martins, Great Mongham. Services are held several times a week in all four churches, with each church having its own unique look and feel.

 

Although some sources give credence to a place of worship having been on the site since Saxon times, no evidence of this building exists now, however parts of the current Church of St Leonard's certainly date to approximately 1100 although over the centuries since, it has seen many alterations. This leaves the building now standing, as a confusion of architectural styles. The Nave and chancel contain the earliest remaining arcitecture, with the original tower being added some 80 to 100 years later.

 

The chancel was remodeled in the 13th century, and during this period the narrow north and south aisles were enlarged and doors added to each (These doors are both now gone, although the southern can be detected in the outside wall and parts of the northern doorway were reused in the current north door, leading from the early 19th century extension to the church, into the north porch.)

 

The current tower is of 17th century construction (completed in 1686) having been built to replace the 12th century one which had collapsed due to the church falling in to ill repair prior to the reformation. Many other repairs and alterations have obviously occurred over the centuries and in this history, I will try and lead you through them and show how they have influenced what we have today.

 

While this amalgam of architectural styles has led to what some would call an aesthetically unattractive building, certainly from the outside, as evidenced in the picture above, it has along with various changes in fashion and the foibles of its congregations over the ages, led to an intriguing, if no less confusing, interior. This is very lopsided and results in the bulk of the congregation facing south, rather than the traditional east and therefore sitting side on to the Altar.

 

The picture alongside is a view from the gallery over the north door and shows how the orientation leaves the choir and high altar hidden in the chancel off to the left and the congregation facing the end of the new altar which has been installed forward of its more usual position. One Bishop is said to have commented that it is "The most cockeyed church in Christendom". It does however mean that the church contains features of architectural importance and interest spanning nine centuries.

 

The current tower is surmounted by a cupola which featured on charts as an important landmark for ships approaching the Goodwin Sands. This cupola has recently been completely refurbished, at a total cost in excess of £69,000.

 

The original 12th century tower that collapsed in the mid 17th century had possessed a steeple ( at least according to Philip Symond's Map of Kent which can normally be relied upon in these matters. I am not aware of any pictorial evidence either way)

 

The tower now has a clock on the north and south faces and a peal of six bells. Originally there was a peal of five, first cast and hung in 1686. These were recast in 1887, with a sixth bell being added, as a jubilee gift (interestingly to the town rather than the church) from Captain George Coleman who later became mayor of Deal. The current clock is dated 1866, the earliest record of the tower having a clock is for 1715, but the current one dates from 1866.

 

One normally enters St Leonard's via the west door in the tower, however the north door to the church is available to to give access for wheel chair users etc and also serves as the entrance for the bride at weddings as it allows her a longer procession, passing through the congregation.

 

Once through the main doors of the tower, the visitor passes down several steep steps into a lobby notable for a spiral staircase to the bell tower and two hatchments (those numbered 12 and 15 in the separate article) The table on which the Deal Charter was displayed after its signing by William III in 1699 also stands here. It is also worth noting the insides of the entrance doors and the large lock, which are probably original to the present tower

 

. If you are lucky and the inner doors into the body of the church are open and the sun shining in the right direction, you will be struck by the splendour of the view this allows of the altar, chancel and ascension window. Unfortunately, they are normally kept closed to help keep the heat in and drafts out.

 

As you enter the main body of the church, take time to look back the way you came; as well as the modern interior doors, you will have passed by an earlier door which is a fine example of Jacobean panelled work complete with a hand wrought latch and bolt. This door is now kept open, but it is worth closing it as far as possible, to better view its splendour from both sides.

 

Once inside the main body of the church, you begin to sense the "ordered chaos" that has resulted from the many extensions. To the south the aisle is still the width it became when the church was expanded in the 13th century, the northern aisle however was extended both in the 13th century to a similar width to that of the current south, and again in the 19th century, which created the current lopsided interior. Prior to the Reformation, St Leonard's, in common with most churches had many side altars and images of Saints, where candles were kept burning in both these aisles, these are all now gone..

 

It should be noted that the extensions of the 13th C were not symmetrical, the south aisle was always longer than the north, both to the east where the Lady Chapel altar now stands and to the west where it stretches almost as far as the west wall of the tower. Part of this was divided off to form the clergy vestry in 1709 and a further section in 1979.

 

The second extension to the northern aisle took place in 1819 when the whole north wall was taken down and the current dimensions reached. It was with the building of this extension that the pews in the northern aisle were turned to face south so giving the bulk of the seating in St Leonard's a most unusual orientation. For a long period of time after this it meant that any acts of worship carried out at the main altar in the chancel were hidden from the bulk of the congregation.

 

In 1979 this changed. Worship was becoming much more centred around Holy Communion and moving away from people attending church primarily to hear the clergy preaching, so leading to a bigger need for people to be able to see the altar. Rather than a wholesale redesign of the seating, screens at the front of the chancel were moved and placed on the walls of the vestry, the pulpit which stood by the side of the small 15th century door linking the chancel and northern aisle was removed and a new, forward altar and communion rails placed where they stand today, just outside the chancel (see picture right) At the same time several pews were removed, leaving an open space from the altar to the west door. It was also at this time that a further section of the western end of the south aisle was partitioned off to increase the size of the vestry and provide today's toilet and kitchen facilities, such as they are.

 

Standing in front of the altar and looking around the church, another feature stands out apart from the unusual shape - the galleries. St Leonard's is rare, if not unique as a parish church, in having galleries from three different periods still intact. Galleries were another way of meeting the needs of the expanding population of Deal over the centuries and these, as with the basic structure of the church have evolved several times over the years.

 

he Georgian gallery over the north aisle is contemporary with the extension (1819) and is rated as being of great significance by the Georgian Society among others as an excellent example of its type. Although at first glance the benches and kneelers in this gallery appear quite sad, they are for the most part original and I am told by the Georgian Society, well worth retaining. This picture shows the North aisle. The original extent of the aisle was as far as the two iron pillars which now support the ceiling. The georgian gallery runs round three sides of the new extension. The bulk of the panneling is unfortunatly concealed behind murals currently, but I hope to be able to take a picture with these temporarily removed in the near future,

 

The gallery which now houses the Bevington Organ is known as the Pilots Gallery and while not the original, which suffered when the tower collapsed, still dates to 1705 and is clearly of 'Restoration period' style. On the front, either side of the picture of an 18th century Man O' War can still be seen the inscription from its most recent rebuild and some interesting paintings of the globe and pilots in traditional uniform although these are now much faded. The date shown on the picture of 1705 is the date of painting, rather than the Great Storm of 1703 which it commemorates, where some 1,200 men were lost on the Goodwin Sands.

 

The final gallery is Victorian, erected in 1860 over the entrance to the vestry, and of interest for several reasons. The front bears the carved Arms of William III (after Mary's death) which had originally been on the front of a gallery built in 1696 by Thomas Bowles (who later became Mayor of Deal) which sat over the chancel until it was removed in 1860. The old Gallery is believed to have been made of panels from Northbourne church. Incidentally, it was at this time (1860) that the old 'horsebox' pews were replaced with those we now have. The picture to the left, shows not only the gallery, but also the screening that was removed from the front of the chancel when that area was reordered in 1979. Was it a quirk of fate or a plan which brought the gallery and the screens which for many years had existed in close proximity back together after almost 120 years?

 

www.stleonardsdeal.co.uk/

Collaboration beetween Biennalist and Ultracontemporay

 

Art Format

www.emergencyrooms.org/formats.html

  

Documenta From Wikipedia,

 

The Fridericianum during documenta (13)

documenta is an exhibition of contemporary art which takes place every five years in Kassel, Germany. It was founded by artist, teacher and curator Arnold Bode in 1955 as part of the Bundesgartenschau (Federal Horticultural Show) which took place in Kassel at that time.[1] It was an attempt to bring Germany up to speed with modern art, both banishing and repressing the cultural darkness of Nazism.[2] This first documenta featured many artists who are generally considered to have had a significant influence on modern art (such as Picasso and Kandinsky). The more recent documentas feature art from all continents; nonetheless most of it is site-specific.

 

Every documenta is limited to 100 days of exhibition, which is why it is often referred to as the "museum of 100 days".[3] Documenta is not a selling exhibition. It rarely coincides with the three other major art world events: the Venice Biennale, Art Basel and Skulptur Projekte Münster, but in 2017, all four were open simultaneously.

  

Etymology of documenta

The name of the exhibition is an invented word. The term is supposed to demonstrate the intention of every exhibition (in particular of the first documenta in 1955) to be a documentation of modern art which was not available for the German public during the Nazi era. Rumour spread from those close to Arnold Bode that it was relevant for the coinage of the term that the Latin word documentum could be separated into docere (Latin for teach) and mens (Latin for intellect) and therefore thought it to be a good word to describe the intention and the demand of the documenta.[4]

 

Each edition of documenta has commissioned its own visual identity, most of which have conformed to the typographic style of solely using lowercase letters, which originated at the Bauhaus.[5]

 

History

 

Stadtverwaldung by Joseph Beuys, oaktree in front of the museum Fridericianum, documenta 7

Art professor and designer Arnold Bode from Kassel was the initiator of the first documenta. Originally planned as a secondary event to accompany the Bundesgartenschau, this attracted more than 130,000 visitors in 1955. The exhibition centred less on "contemporary art“, that is art made after 1945: instead, Bode wanted to show the public works which had been known as "Entartete Kunst" in Germany during the Nazi era: Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, Blauer Reiter, Futurism and Pittura Metafisica. Therefore, abstract art, in particular the abstract paintings of the 1920s and 1930s, was the focus of interest in this exhibition.

 

Over time, the focus shifted to contemporary art. At first, the show was limited to works from Europe, but soon covered works by artists from the Americas, Africa and Asia. 4. documenta, the first ever to turn a profit, featured a selection of Pop Art, Minimal Art, and Kinetic Art.[6] Adopting the theme of Questioning Reality – Pictorial Worlds Today, the 1972 documenta radically redefined what could be considered art by featuring minimal and conceptual art, marking a turning point in the public acceptance of those styles.[7] Also, it devoted a large section to the work of Adolf Wolfli, the great Swiss outsider, then unknown. Joseph Beuys performed repeatedly under the auspices of his utopian Organization for Direct Democracy.[8] Additionally, the 1987 documenta show signaled another important shift with the elevation of design to the realm of art – showing an openness to postmodern design.[9] Certain key political dates for wide-reaching social and cultural upheavals, such as 1945, 1968 or 1976/77, became chronological markers of documenta X (1997), along which art's political, social, cultural and aesthetic exploratory functions were traced.[10] Documenta11 was organized around themes like migration, urbanization and the post-colonial experience,[11] with documentary photography, film and video as well as works from far-flung locales holding the spotlight.[7] In 2012, documenta (13) was described as "[a]rdently feminist, global and multimedia in approach and including works by dead artists and selected bits of ancient art".[12]

 

Criticism

documenta typically gives its artists at least two years to conceive and produce their projects, so the works are often elaborate and intellectually complex.[13] However, the participants are often not publicised before the very opening of the exhibition. At documenta (13), the official list of artists was not released until the day the show opened.[14] Even though curators have often claimed to have gone outside the art market in their selection, participants have always included established artists. In the documenta (13), for example, art critic Jerry Saltz identified more than a third of the artists represented by the renowned Marian Goodman Gallery in the show.[14]

 

Directors

The first four documentas, organized by Arnold Bode, established the exhibition's international credentials. Since the fifth documenta (1972), a new artistic director has been named for each documenta exhibition by a committee of experts. Documenta 8 was put together in two years instead of the usual five. The original directors, Edy de Wilde and Harald Szeemann, were unable to get along and stepped down. They were replaced by Manfred Schneckenburger, Edward F. Fry, Wulf Herzogenrath, Armin Zweite, and Vittorio Fagone.[15] Coosje van Bruggen helped select artists for documenta 7, the 1982 edition. documenta IX's team of curators consisted of Jan Hoet, Piero Luigi Tazzi, Denys Zacharopoulos, and Bart de Baere.[16] For documenta X Catherine David was chosen as the first woman and the first non-German speaker to hold the post. It is also the first and unique time that its website Documenta x was conceived by a curator (swiss curator Simon Lamunière) as a part of the exhibition. The first non-European director was Okwui Enwezor for Documenta11.[17]

  

TitleDateDirectorExhibitorsExhibitsVisitors

documenta16 July – 18 September 1955Arnold Bode148670130,000

II. documenta11 July – 11 October 1959Arnold Bode, Werner Haftmann3381770134,000

documenta III27 June – 5 October 1964Arnold Bode, Werner Haftmann3611450200,000

4. documenta27 June – 6 October 196824-strong documenta council1511000220,000

documenta 530 June – 8 October 1972Harald Szeemann218820228,621

documenta 624 June – 2 October 1977Manfred Schneckenburger6222700343,410

documenta 719 June – 28 September 1982Rudi Fuchs1821000378,691

documenta 812 June – 20 September 1987Manfred Schneckenburger150600474,417

documenta IX12 June – 20 September 1992Jan Hoet1891000603,456

documenta X21 June – 28 September 1997Catherine David120700628,776

documenta118 June – 15 September 2002Okwui Enwezor118450650,924

documenta 1216 June – 23 September 2007Roger M. Buergel/Ruth Noack[19]114over 500754,301

documenta (13)9 June – 16 September 2012Carolyn Christov-Bakargiev187[20]904,992[21]

documenta 148 April – 16 July 2017 in Athens, Greece;

10 June – 17 September 2017 in KasselAdam Szymczykmore than 1601500339.000 in Athens

891.500 in Kassel

documenta fifteen18 June 2022 – 25 September 2022 in Kasselruangrupa[22]

2012's edition was organized around a central node, the trans-Atlantic melding of two distinct individuals who first encountered each other in the "money-soaked deserts of the United Arab Emirates". As an organizing principle it is simultaneously a commentary on the romantic potentials of globalization and also a critique of how digital platforms can complicate or interrogate the nature of such relationships. Curatorial agents refer to the concept as possessing a "fricative potential for productive awkwardness," wherein a twosome is formed for the purposes of future exploration.[23]

 

Venues

documenta is held in different venues in Kassel. Since 1955, the fixed venue has been the Fridericianum. The documenta-Halle was built in 1992 for documenta IX and now houses some of the exhibitions. Other venues used for documenta have included the Karlsaue park, Schloss Wilhelmshöhe, the Neue Galerie, the Ottoneum, and the Kulturzentrum Schlachthof. Though Okwui Enezor notably tried to subvert the euro-centric approach documenta had taken, he instigated a series of five platforms before the Documenta11 in Vienna, Berlin, New Delhi, St Lucia, and Lagos, in an attempt to take documenta into a new post-colonial, borderless space, from which experimental cultures could emerge. documenta 12 occupied five locations, including the Fridericianum, the Wilhelmshöhe castle park and the specially constructed "Aue-Pavillon", or meadow pavilion, designed by French firm Lacaton et Vassal.[24] At documenta (13) (2012), about a fifth of the works were unveiled in places like Kabul, Afghanistan, and Banff, Canada.[13]

 

There are also a number of works that are usually presented outside, most notably in Friedrichsplatz, in front of the Fridericianum, and the Karlsaue park. To handle the number of artworks at documenta IX, five connected temporary "trailers" in glass and corrugated metal were built in the Karlsaue.[25] For documenta (13), French architects Anne Lacaton and Jean-Philippe Vassal constructed the temporary "Aue-Pavillon" in the park.

  

Rahmenbau (1977) by Haus Rucker und Co.

A few of the works exhibited at various documentas remained as purchases in Kassel museums. They include 7000 Eichen by Joseph Beuys; Rahmenbau (1977) by Haus-Rucker-Co; Laserscape Kassel (1977) by Horst H. Baumann; Traumschiff Tante Olga (1977) by Anatol Herzfeld; Vertikaler Erdkilometer by Walter De Maria; Spitzhacke (1982) by Claes Oldenburg; Man walking to the sky (1992) by Jonathan Borofsky; and Fremde by Thomas Schütte (one part of the sculptures are installed on Rotes Palais at Friedrichsplatz, the other on the roof of the Concert Hall in Lübeck).

 

documenta archive

The extensive volume of material that is regularly generated on the occasion of this exhibition prompted Arnold Bode to create an archive in 1961. The heart of the archive’s collection comes from the files and materials of the documenta organization. A continually expanding video and image archive is also part of the collection as are the independently organized bequests of Arnold Bode and artist Harry Kramer.

 

Management

Visitors

In 1992, on the occasion of documenta IX, for the first time in the history of the documenta, more than half a million people traveled to Kassel.[26] The 2002 edition of documenta attracted 650,000 visitors, more than triple Kassel's population.[27] In 2007, documenta 12 drew 754,000 paying visitors, with more than one-third of the visitors coming from abroad and guests from neighboring Netherlands, France, Belgium and Austria among the most numerous.[28] In 2012, documenta (13) had 904,992 visitors.[21]

 

References

Adrian Searle (June 11, 2012), "Documenta 13: Mysteries in the mountain of mud", The Guardian.

Roberta Smith (June 14, 2012), Art Show as Unruly Organism The New York Times.

Arnold Bode coined this phrase for the first time in the prologue of the first volume of the catalogue: documenta III. Internationale Ausstellung; Catalogue: Volume 1: Painting and Sculpture; Volume 2: Sketches; Volume 3: Industrial Design, Print; Kassel/Köln 1964; p. XIX

Kimpel, Harald: documenta, Mythos und Wirklichkeit. Köln 1997, ISBN 3-7701-4182-2

Alice Rawsthorn (June 3, 2012), A Symbol Is Born The New York Times.

The documenta IV Exhibition in Kassel (1968) German History in Documents and Images (GHDI).

Helen Chang (June 22, 2007), "Catching the Next Wave In Art at Documenta", The Wall Street Journal.

Roberta Smith (September 7, 2007), "Documenta 5" The New York Times.

Gimeno-Martinez, Javier; Verlinden, Jasmijn (2010). "From Museum of Decorative Arts to Design Museum: The Case of the Design museum Gent". Design and Culture. 2 (3).

dX 1997 Archived 2013-06-14 at the Wayback Machine, documenta XII.

Stephan Valentin (June 12, 2007), An art show in Kassel, Germany, rivals Venice Biennale The New York Times.

Roberta Smith (June 14, 2012), Art Show as Unruly Organism The New York Times.

Kelly Crow (June 8, 2012), A Party, Every Five Years, for 750,000 Guests The Wall Street Journal.

Jerry Saltz (June 15, 2012), Jerry Saltz: "Eleven Things That Struck, Irked, or Awed Me at Documenta 13" New York Magazine.

Michael Brenson (June 15, 1987), "Documenta 8, Exhibition In West Germany", The New York Times.

Michael Kimmelman (July 5, 1992) "At Documenta, It's Survival Of the Loudest", The New York Times.

Jackie Wullschlager (May 19, 2012) Vertiginous doubt Financial Times.

Julia Halperin, Gareth Harris (July 18, 2014) How much are curators really paid? Archived July 20, 2014, at the Wayback Machine The Art Newspaper.

Holland Cotter (22 June 2007). "Asking Serious Questions in a Very Quiet Voice". The New York Times. Retrieved 2014-08-29.

Ulrike Knöfel (8 June 2012). "What the 13th Documenta Wants You to See". Der Spiegel.

"904,992 people visit documenta (13) in Kassel". documenta und Museum Fridericianum Veranstaltungs-GmbH. 16 September 2012. Archived from the original on 25 February 2014. Retrieved 8 August 2013.

Russeth, Andrew (2019-02-22). "Ruangrupa Artist Collective Picked to Curate Documenta 15". ARTnews.com. Retrieved 2020-01-05.

"In Germany, Disguising Documentary As Art". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-09-28.

Stephan Valentin (June 12, 2007), An art show in Kassel, Germany, rivals Venice Biennale International Herald Tribune.

Roberta Smith (June 22, 1992), A Small Show Within an Enormous One The New York Times.

d9 1992 Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine, documenta XII.

Adrian Searle (June 19, 2007), 100 days of ineptitude The Guardian.

Catherine Hickley (September 24, 2007), "Documenta Contemporary Art Show Draws Record 754,000 to Kassel", Bloomberg.

Carly Berwick (May 17, 2007), "Documenta 'Mystery' Artists Are Revealed; Buzz Strategy Fizzles", Bloomberg.

Rachel Donado (April 5, 2017), German Art Exhibition Documenta Expands Into Athens, The New York Times.

Catherine Hickley (November 27, 2017), Documenta manager to leave post after budget overruns The Art Newspaper.

Further reading

Hickley, Catherine (2021-06-18). "This Show Sets the Direction of Art. Its Past Mirrored a Changing World". The New York Times.

Nancy Marmer, "Documenta 8: The Social Dimension?" Art in America, vol. 75, September 1987, pp. 128–138, 197–199.

 

other biennales :

Venice Biennial , Documenta Havana Biennial,Istanbul Biennial ( Istanbuli),Biennale de Lyon ,Dak'Art Berlin Biennial,Mercosul Visual Arts Biennial ,Bienal do Mercosul Porto Alegre.,Berlin Biennial ,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial .Yokohama Triennial Aichi Triennale,manifesta ,Copenhagen Biennale,Aichi Triennale

Yokohama Triennial,Echigo-Tsumari Triennial.Sharjah Biennial ,Biennale of Sydney, Liverpool , São Paulo Biennial ; Athens Biennale , Bienal do Mercosul ,Göteborg International Biennial for Contemporary Art

 

www.emergencyrooms.org

www.emergencyrooms.org

  

www.colonel.dk/

 

lumbung

Short concept by ruangrupa for documenta 15

"We want to create a globally oriented, cooperative, interdisciplinary art and culture platform that will remain effective beyond the 100 days of documenta fifteen. Our curatorial approach aims at a different kind of collaborative model of resource use—economically, but also in terms of ideas, knowledge, programs, and innovation."

  

ruangrupa’s central curatorial approach for documenta fifteen is based on the principles of collectivity, resource building, and equal sharing. They aim to appeal not just to an art audience but to a variety of communities, and to promote local commitment and participation. Their approach is based on an international network of local, community-based organizations from the art and other cultural contexts and can be outlined by the Indonesian term lumbung. lumbung, directly translatable as “rice barn,” is a collective pot or accumulation system used in rural areas of Indonesia, where crops produced by a community are stored as a future shared common resource and distributed according to jointly determind criteria. Using lumbung as a model, documenta fifteen is a collective resource pot, operating under the logics of the commons. It is an agglomeration of ideas, stories, (wo)manpower, time, and other shareable resources. At the center of lumbung is the imagination and the building of these collective, shared resources into new models of sustainable ideas and cultural practices. This will be fostered by residencies, assemblies, public activities, and the development of tools.

 

Interdisciplinarity is key in this process. It is where art meets activism, management, and networking to gather support, understand environments, and identify local resources. These elements then create actions and spaces, intertwine social relations and transactions; they slowly grow and organically find a public form. This is a strategy “to live in and with society.” It imagines the relations an art institution has with its community by being an active constituent of it. Strategies are then developed based on proximity and shared desires.

 

The main principles of the process are:

• Providing space to gather and explore ideas

• Collective decision making

• Non-centralization

• Playing between formalities and informalities

• Practicing assembly and meeting points

• Architectural awareness

• Being spatially active to promote conversation

• A melting pot for and from everyone’s thoughts, energies, and ideas

  

#documentakassel

#documenta

#documenta15

#artformat

#formatart

#rundebate

#thierrygeoffroy

#Colonel

#CriticalRun

#venicebiennale

#documentafifteen

#formatart

#documentacritic

#biennalist

#ultracontemporary art

protestart

 

O Teatro de Dionísio, século IV a.c. Dionísio patrono do teatro. Honrado com uma elaborada procissão que acontecia um concurso onde cada poeta selecionado apresentava uma tetralogia. Em frente ao teatro, o templo de Apolo.

At the foot of Mount Parnassos, within the angle formed by the twin rocks of the Phaedriades, lies the Pan-Hellenic sanctuary of Delphi, which had the most famous oracle of ancient Greece. Delphi was regarded as the centre of the world. According to mythology, it is here that the two eagles sent out by Zeus from the ends of the universe to find the navel of the world met. The sanctuary of Delphi, set within a most spectacular landscape, was for many centuries the cultural and religious centre and symbol of unity for the Hellenic world. The history of Delphi begins in prehistory and in the myths of the ancient Greeks. In the beginning the site was sacred to Mother Earth and was guarded by the terrible serpent Python, who was later killed by Apollo. Apollo's sanctuary was built here by Cretans who arrived at Kirrha, the port of Delphi, accompanied by the god in the form of a dolphin. This myth survived in plays presented during the various Delphic festivals, such as the Septerion, the Delphinia, the Thargelia, the Theophania and, of course. the famous Pythia, which celebrated the death of Python and comprised musical and athletic competitions.

 

The earliest finds in the area of Delphi, which date to the Neolithic period (4000 BC), come from the Korykeion Andron, a cave on Parnassos, where the first rituals took place. The remains of a Mycenaean settlement and cemetery were discovered within the sanctuary, but traces of occupation are rare and very fragmentary until the eighth century BC, when the cult of Apollo was established and the development of the sanctuary and the oracle began. The first stone temples of Apollo and Athena, who was also officially venerated under the name of “Pronaia” or “Pronoia” and had her own sanctuary, were built towards the end of the seventh century BC. According to literary and archaeological evidence other gods were associated with the sanctuary; these included Artemis, Poseidon, Dionysus, Hermes, Zeus Polieus, Hygeia and Eileithyia.

 

The sanctuary was the centre of the Amphictyonic League, an association of twelve tribes of Thessaly and the Sterea (south-central Greece), with religious and later political significance. The Amphictyonic League controlled the operation and finances of the sanctuary, as it designated its priests and other officials chosen from among the inhabitants of Delphi. In the sixth century BC, under the League's protection and administration, the sanctuary was made autonomous (First Sacred War), it increased its territory and political and religious influence throughout Greece, and reorganised the Pythian Games, the second most important games in Greece after the Olympics, which were held every four years.

 

Between the sixth and fourth centuries BC, the Delphic oracle, which was regarded as the most trustworthy, was at its peak. It was delivered by the Pythia, the priestess, and interpreted by the priests of Apollo. Cities, rulers and ordinary individuals alike consulted the oracle, expressing their gratitude with great gifts and spreading its fame around the world. The oracle was thought to have existed since the dawn of time. Indeed, it was believed to have successfully predicted events related to the cataclysm of Deukalion, the Argonaut's expedition and the Trojan War; more certain are the consultations over the founding of the Greek colonies. It was the oracle's fame and prestige that caused two Sacred Wars in the middle of the fifth and fourth centuries BC. In the third century BC, the sanctuary was conquered by the Aetolians, who were driven out by the Romans in 191 BC. In Roman times, the sanctuary was favoured by some emperors and plundered by others, including Sulla in 86 BC.

 

The rise of the Rationalist movement in philosophy in the third century BC, damaged the oracle's authority, yet its rituals continued unchanged into the second century AD, when it was consulted by Hadrian and visited by Pausanias. The latter's detailed description of the buildings and more than three hundred statues has greatly contributed to our reconstruction of the area. The Byzantine emperor Theodosius finally abolished the oracle and the Slavs destroyed the precinct in 394 BC. With the advent of Christianity, Delphi became an episcopal see, but was abandoned in the sixth-seventh centuries AD. Soon after, in the seventh century AD, a new village, Kastri, grew over the ruins of the ancient sanctuary, attracting in modern times several travellers interested in antiquities.

 

Archaeological research in Delphi began in 1860 by Germans. In 1891, the Greek government granted the French School at Athens permission for long-term excavations on the site. It is then that the village of Kastri was removed to allow for the so-called “Great Excavation' to take place. The Great Excavation uncovered spectacular remains, including about three thousand inscriptions of great importance for our knowledge of public life in ancient Greece. Today, the Greek Archaeological Service and the French School at Athens continue to research, excavate and conserve the two Delphic sanctuaries. Of all the monuments, only the Treasury of the Athenians had enough of its original building material preserved to allow for its almost complete reconstruction. The project was financed by the City of Athens and carried through by the French School in 1903-1906. The Chiot altar, the temple of Apollo and the Tholos were also partially restored. In 1927 and 1930, the poet Angelos Sikelianos and his wife, Eva, attempted to revive the Delphic idea and make of Delphi a new cultural centre of the earth, through a series of events that included performances of ancient theatre.

If the 1960's was the era made most defined by choices made under the influence of mind altering substances, then the 1980's would be the equivalent time period for toys.

 

This is Sky Lynx, one of the multitude of G1 toys reissued under the Encore label from Takara, the Japanese half of the Transformers partnership. In case your memory is hazy, fellow 80's child, Sky Lynx is the one with the pretentious sounding English accent on the show, and is kind of a dick.

 

If I remember my history right, during the mid 80's, the popularity of Transformers exploded, which left Hasbro/Takara scrambling to find new product in order to sell.

 

As a result, there was an external search to bring third party toys under the Transformers label. This in itself was not unique, as Transformers started off under the Diaclone line, with some Microman and others thrown into the mix. Omega Supreme. Shockwave, Predaking, and Reflector, I believe, were all not developed in-house.

 

Having said all that, the 80's were a strange and wonderful time for toys. All sorts of weird stuff was being developed and sold - certainly, while the toys were of a simpler design, when you went to a toy store there was probably a better chance of you being surprised by something on the shelf. By comparison, toys these days are pretty tame, with the only exotic things being Barbie's latest fashion accessory, or some of the more questionable WWE figure designs.

 

So.. Sky Lynx. Created by Tomy (back when Takara and Tomy were not one as it is these days).. I honestly have no idea what they were thinking.

 

The set comes in two parts - a space shuttle that transforms into a bird with a long tail and skinny chicken feet, and a blue.. thing that transforms into a Lynx, I guess, but really it's a vague cat creature of sorts. I don't have a memory of the parts ever separating on the show, but that could just be me. The blue part is where the characters boarded Sky Lynx for transportation.

 

Transformation is pretty straight forward, with the more delicate of the two being the Shuttle as it has various panels and uses an archaic sliding system for its tail and neck. This is probably the first Encore release I ever handled that I felt had flimsier plastic.

 

The two parts "combine" for lack of better terms (held together by three pegs) and would either walk or roll depending on what setting you had it on

 

Sky Lynx was one of the bigger Transformers toys. I know it can be hard to tell from the photos, but even without extending the tail the shuttle has to be close to a foot long, and for sure with it extended it exceeds 12 inches in length.

 

Colour scheme is pretty attractive, consisting primarily of the Ultra Magnus palette of white & blue with some red thrown in for good measure. There are,also gold chrome stickers and plastics that pop quite nicely. Detailing on the various parts was well done, even by modern standards.

 

Of course, as a toy goes, it's kind of boring even by 80's standards. The fun part was the shuttle, as it could actually transform into something, albeit a bird thing with generally limited articulation (which wasn't really a thing back in the day). The blue thing, well, really just became a set of legs for the upper half, and I remember being disappointed as a kid that other than walking, Sky Lynx didn't do much. He didn't come with any weapons or any other accessories, and the only offence he had was the laser embedded in his mouth.

 

It also didn't help that he was the anal retentive one on the show.

 

Another problem with the toy was that Sky Lynx also fell apart.. alot.. especially when you were flying around with him in combined mode.

 

Or maybe I had man hands as a child.

 

So, there you have it - an interesting relic of the past. But I suppose it could be worse. At least Sky Lynx had some sort of transformation.

 

He could have been a Pretender.. or worse - an Actionmaster.

Main influence is Zizy on flickr

The Springfield Art Association will host an opening reception for a nationally juried ceramic exhibition entitled Shapes of Influence on Friday evening, August 3rd, from 5:30-7:30 PM. Awards and a gallery talk by juror Simon Levin will occur at 6:45 PM.

 

The show will be on display in the SAA's M.G. Nelson Family Gallery from August 3-September 1 and features work from over two dozen states and Canada.

 

Juried artists include Morgan Barton, Kenneth Baskin, Casey Beck, Irina Bondarenko, Robert Bruch, Danielle Callahan, Michelle Coakes, John Cohorst, Louis Colomarini, John Costanza, Paula Diaz-Sylvester, Auguste Elder, Karen Ellis-Phillips, Curtis and Karen Frederick, Verne Funk, John Gargano, Kaitlyn Getz, Sarah Gross, Lois Harbaugh, Ian Hazard-Bill, Jason Hess, Jennifer Holt, Drew Ippoliti, Iskra Ivanova, Anna Kats, Patty Kochaver, Robert Kokenyesi, Lucien Koonce, Joe Kraft, Annie Lee, Andrew Mcintyre, Jessie Martin, Paul McCoy, Avra Messe, Molly Morning-glory, Matthew Patton, Sara Prigodich, Jenny Reed, Masa Sasaki, Jessica Sallay-Carrington, Kourtney Stone, Suzanne Storer, Sam Thompson, Austin Wieland, Nicole Winning, Matthew Wright, Kensuke Yamada, Lisa York, and David Zahn.

 

Invited artists include Dan Anderson, Kahil Irving, Peter Pincus, and Kelsie Rudolph.

 

The M.G. Nelson Gallery is open to the public M-F from 9 AM-5 PM and Saturdays from 10 AM-3 PM.

Influenced by Surrealism