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Important Belleza Press Release

The Belleza Team has had a DMCA filed against us regarding the VENUS mesh body. We received the email just a short time ago and are sharing this information with the public ASAP so as to keep you all informed.

We intend to take full action against these FALSE claims. We have reason to suspect the culprits behind it are the same people who have been sending constant harassing and threatening messages on our lives for months now. In addition, they have been terrorizing customers in the store as well as griefing the sim with graphic card crashers. All of these recent events have taken place while Tricky is out of the country on vacation, but rest assured he fully intends to shorten his trip and return home to counter all claims.

Tricky’s work has been copyrighted since day one, and we are completely confident we will have VENUS back up in store as soon as these charges have been thrown out the window. In the meantime, if you haven’t yet purchased VENUS, I would suggest visiting the store ASAP and picking her up – she might be gone for a month or so.

Lawyers have already been contacted and we will pursue this to the full extent of the law, even after the false DMCA has been removed – BELLEZA WILL NOT TOLEATE THIS SORT OF BULLYING.

We thank all of our customers and fellow creators during this time for your support of the brand, and thank you for your faith in our honesty and transparency throughout this process.

The Belleza Team

Tricky, Shyla & Felicity

For more informations: www.flickr.com/photos/shyladiggs/15309370624/

Nobina 2638 Malmo by tigercub66

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Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Angela Coaches R800 ACL by tigercub66

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Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Stagecoach 18172 by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Stagecoach 86010 Cambridge by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Gazimağusa - Famagusta, Turkish Republic Of North Cyprus. by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

Famagusta is a city on the east coast of the de facto state Northern Cyprus. It is located east of Nicosia and possesses the deepest harbour of the island. During the Middle Ages (especially under the maritime republics of Genoa and Venice), Famagusta was the island's most important port city and a gateway to trade with the ports of the Levant, from where the Silk Road merchants carried their goods to Western Europe. The old walled city and parts of the modern city are de facto part of Northern Cyprus as the capital of the Gazimağusa District.

The city was known as Arsinoe or Arsinoë (Greek: Ἀρσινόη, Arsinóē) in antiquity, after Ptolemy II of Egypt's sister and wife Arsinoe II.

By the 3rd century, the city appears as Ammochostos (Greek: Ἀμμόχωστος or Αμμόχωστος, Ammókhōstos, "Hidden in Sand") in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni.[5] This name is still used in modern Greek with the pronunciation [aˈmːoxostos], while it developed into Latin Fama Augusta, French Famagouste, Italian Famagosta, and English Famagusta during the medieval period. Its informal modern Turkish name Mağusa (Turkish pronunciation: [maˈusa]) came from the same source. Since 1974, it has formally been known to Turkey and Northern Cyprus as Gazimağusa ([ɡaːzimaˈusa]), from the addition of the title gazi, meaning "veteran" or "one who has faught in a holy war".

In the early medieval period, the city was also known as New Justiniana (Greek: Νέα Ἰουστινιανία, Néa Ioustinianía) in appreciation for the patronage of the Byzantine emperor Justinian, whose wife Theodora was born there.

The old town of Famagusta has also been nicknamed "the City of 365 Churches" from the legend that, at its peak, it boasted a church for every day of the year.

The city was founded around 274 BC, after the serious damage to Salamis by an earthquake, by Ptolemy II Philadelphus and named "Arsinoe" after his sister.[6] Arsinoe was described as a "fishing town" by Strabo in his Geographica in the first century BC. In essence, Famagusta was the successor of the most famous and most important ancient city of Cyprus, Salamis. According to Greek mythology, Salamis was founded after the end of the Trojan War by Teucros, the son of Telamon and brother of Aedes, from the Greek island of Salamis.

The city experienced great prosperity much later, during the time of the Byzantine emperor Justinian. To honor the city, from which his wife Theodora came, Justinian enriched it with many buildings, while the inhabitants named it New Justiniania to express their gratitude. In AD 647, when the neighboring cities were destroyed by Arab raiding, the inhabitants of these cities moved to Famagusta, as a result of which the city's population increased significantly and the city experienced another boom.

Later, when Jerusalem was occupied by the Arabs, the Christian population fled to Famagusta, as a result of which the city became an important Christian center, but also one of the most important commercial centers in the eastern Mediterranean.

The turning point for Famagusta was 1192 with the onset of Lusignan rule. It was during this period that Famagusta developed as a fully-fledged town. It increased in importance to the Eastern Mediterranean due to its natural harbour and the walls that protected its inner town. Its population began to increase. This development accelerated in the 13th century as the town became a centre of commerce for both the East and West. An influx of Christian refugees fleeing the downfall of Acre (1291) in Palestine transformed it from a tiny village into one of the richest cities in Christendom.

In 1372 the port was seized by Genoa and in 1489 by Venice. This commercial activity turned Famagusta into a place where merchants and ship owners led lives of luxury. By the mid-14th century, Famagusta was said to have the richest citizens in the world. The belief that people's wealth could be measured by the churches they built inspired these merchants to have churches built in varying styles. These churches, which still exist, were the reason Famagusta came to be known as "the district of churches". The development of the town focused on the social lives of the wealthy people and was centred upon the Lusignan palace, the cathedral, the Square and the harbour.

In 1570–1571, Famagusta was the last stronghold in Venetian Cyprus to hold out against the Turks under Mustafa Pasha. It resisted a siege of thirteen months and a terrible bombardment, until at last the garrison surrendered. The Ottoman forces had lost 50,000 men, including Mustafa Pasha's son. Although the surrender terms had stipulated that the Venetian forces be allowed to return home, the Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, was flayed alive, his lieutenant Tiepolo was hanged, and many other Christians were killed.

With the advent of the Ottoman rule, Latins lost their privileged status in Famagusta and were expelled from the city. Greek Cypriots natives were at first allowed to own and buy property in the city, but were banished from the walled city in 1573–74 and had to settle outside in the area that later developed into Varosha. Turkish families from Anatolia were resettled in the walled city but could not fill the buildings that previously hosted a population of 10,000. This caused a drastic decrease in the population of Famagusta. Merchants from Famagusta, who mostly consisted of Latins that had been expelled, resettled in Larnaca and as Larnaca flourished, Famagusta lost its importance as a trade centre. Over time, Varosha developed into a prosperous agricultural town thanks to its location away from the marshes, whilst the walled city remained dilapidated.

In the walled city, some buildings were repurposed to serve the interests of the Muslim population: the Cathedral of St. Nicholas was converted to a mosque (now known as Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque), a bazaar was developed, public baths, fountains and a theological school were built to accommodate the inhabitants' needs. Dead end streets, an Ottoman urban characteristic, was imported to the city and a communal spirit developed in which a small number of two-storey houses inhabited by the small upper class co-existed with the widespread one-storey houses.

With the British takeover, Famagusta regained its significance as a port and an economic centre and its development was specifically targeted in British plans. As soon as the British took over the island, a Famagusta Development Act was passed that aimed at the reconstruction and redevelopment of the city's streets and dilapidated buildings as well as better hygiene. The port was developed and expanded between 1903 and 1906 and Cyprus Government Railway, with its terminus in Famagusta, started construction in 1904. Whilst Larnaca continued to be used as the main port of the island for some time, after Famagusta's use as a military base in World War I trade significantly shifted to Famagusta. The city outside the walls grew at an accelerated rate, with development being centred around Varosha. Varosha became the administrative centre as the British moved their headquarters and residences there and tourism grew significantly in the last years of the British rule. Pottery and production of citrus and potatoes also significantly grew in the city outside the walls, whilst agriculture within the walled city declined to non-existence.

New residential areas were built to accommodate the increasing population towards the end of the British rule,[11] and by 1960, Famagusta was a modern port city extending far beyond Varosha and the walled city.

The British period saw a significant demographic shift in the city. In 1881, Christians constituted 60% of the city's population while Muslims were at 40%. By 1960, the Turkish Cypriot population had dropped to 17.5% of the overall population, while the Greek Cypriot population had risen to 70%. The city was also the site for one of the British internment camps for nearly 50,000 Jewish survivors of the Holocaust trying to emigrate to Palestine.

From independence in 1960 to the Turkish invasion of Cyprus of 1974, Famagusta developed toward the south west of Varosha as a well-known entertainment and tourist centre. The contribution of Famagusta to the country's economic activity by 1974 far exceeded its proportional dimensions within the country. Whilst its population was only about 7% of the total of the country, Famagusta by 1974 accounted for over 10% of the total industrial employment and production of Cyprus, concentrating mainly on light industry compatible with its activity as a tourist resort and turning out high-quality products ranging from food, beverages and tobacco to clothing, footwear, plastics, light machinery and transport equipment. It contributed 19.3% of the business units and employed 21.3% of the total number of persons engaged in commerce on the island. It acted as the main tourist destination of Cyprus, hosting 31.5% of the hotels and 45% of Cyprus' total bed capacity. Varosha acted as the main touristic and business quarters.

In this period, the urbanisation of Famagusta slowed down and the development of the rural areas accelerated. Therefore, economic growth was shared between the city of Famagusta and the district, which had a balanced agricultural economy, with citrus, potatoes, tobacco and wheat as main products. Famagusta maintained good communications with this hinterland. The city's port remained the island's main seaport and in 1961, it was expanded to double its capacity in order to accommodate the growing volume of exports and imports. The port handled 42.7% of Cypriot exports, 48.6% of imports and 49% of passenger traffic.

There has not been an official census since 1960 but the population of the town in 1974 was estimated to be around 39,000 not counting about 12,000–15,000 persons commuting daily from the surrounding villages and suburbs to work in Famagusta. The number of people staying in the city would swell to about 90,000–100,000 during the peak summer tourist period, with the influx of tourists from numerous European countries, mainly Britain, France, Germany and the Scandinavian countries. The majority of the city population were Greek Cypriots (26,500), with 8,500 Turkish Cypriots and 4,000 people from other ethnic groups.

During the second phase of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus on 14 August 1974 the Mesaoria plain was overrun by Turkish tanks and Famagusta was bombed by Turkish aircraft. It took two days for the Turkish Army to occupy the city, prior to which Famagusta's entire Greek Cypriot population had fled into surrounding fields. As a result of Turkish airstrikes dozens of civilians died, including tourists.

Unlike other parts of the Turkish-controlled areas of Cyprus, the Varosha suburb of Famagusta was fenced off by the Turkish army immediately after being captured and remained fenced off until October 2020, when the TRNC reopened some streets to visitors. Some Greek Cypriots who had fled Varosha have been allowed to view the town and journalists have been allowed in.

UN Security Council resolution 550 (1984) considers any attempts to settle any part of Famagusta by people other than its inhabitants as inadmissible and calls for the transfer of this area to the administration of the UN. The UN's Security Council resolution 789 (1992) also urges that with a view to the implementation of resolution 550 (1984), the area at present under the control of the United Nations Peace-keeping Force in Cyprus be extended to include Varosha.

Famagusta's historic city centre is surrounded by the fortifications of Famagusta, which have a roughly rectangular shape, built mainly by the Venetians in the 15th and 16th centuries, though some sections of the walls have been dated earlier times, as far as 1211.

Some important landmarks and visitor attractions in the old city are:

The Lala Mustafa Pasha Mosque

The Othello Castle

Palazzo del Provveditore - the Venetian palace of the governor, built on the site of the former Lusignan royal palace

St. Francis' Church

Sinan Pasha Mosque

Church of St. George of the Greeks

Church of St. George of the Latins

Twin Churches

Nestorian Church (of St George the Exiler)

Namık Kemal Dungeon

Agios Ioannis Church

Venetian House

Akkule Masjid

Mustafa Pasha Mosque

Ganchvor monastery

In an October 2010 report titled Saving Our Vanishing Heritage, Global Heritage Fund listed Famagusta, a "maritime ancient city of crusader kings", among the 12 sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing insufficient management and development pressures.

Famagusta is an important commercial hub of Northern Cyprus. The main economic activities in the city are tourism, education, construction and industrial production. It has a 115-acre free port, which is the most important seaport of Northern Cyprus for travel and commerce. The port is an important source of income and employment for the city, though its volume of trade is restricted by the embargo against Northern Cyprus. Its historical sites, including the walled city, Salamis, the Othello Castle and the St Barnabas Church, as well as the sandy beaches surrounding it make it a tourist attraction; efforts are also underway to make the city more attractive for international congresses. The Eastern Mediterranean University is also an important employer and supplies significant income and activity, as well as opportunities for the construction sector. The university also raises a qualified workforce that stimulates the city's industry and makes communications industry viable. The city has two industrial zones: the Large Industrial Zone and the Little Industrial Zone. The city is also home to a fishing port, but inadequate infrastructure of the port restricts the growth of this sector. The industry in the city has traditionally been concentrated on processing agricultural products.

Historically, the port was the primary source of income and employment for the city, especially right after 1974. However, it gradually lost some of its importance to the economy as the share of its employees in the population of Famagusta diminished due to various reasons. However, it still is the primary port for commerce in Northern Cyprus, with more than half of ships that came to Northern Cyprus in 2013 coming to Famagusta. It is the second most popular seaport for passengers, after Kyrenia, with around 20,000 passengers using the port in 2013.

The mayor-in-exile of Famagusta is Simos Ioannou. Süleyman Uluçay heads the Turkish Cypriot municipal administration of Famagusta, which remains legal as a communal-based body under the constitutional system of the Republic of Cyprus.

Since 1974, Greek Cypriots submitted a number of proposals within the context of bicommunal discussions for the return of Varosha to UN administration, allowing the return of its previous inhabitants, requesting also the opening of Famagusta harbour for use by both communities. Varosha would have been returned to Greek Cypriot control as part of the 2004 Annan Plan but the plan had been rejected by a majority(3/4) of Greek Cypriot voters.

The walled city of Famagusta contains many unique buildings. Famagusta has a walled city popular with tourists.

Every year, the International Famagusta Art and Culture Festival is organized in Famagusta. Concerts, dance shows and theater plays take place during the festival.

A growth in tourism and the city's university have fueled the development of Famagusta's vibrant nightlife. Nightlife in the city is especially active on Wednesday, Friday and Saturday nights and in the hotter months of the year, starting from April. Larger hotels in the city have casinos that cater to their customers. Salamis Road is an area of Famagusta with a heavy concentration of bars frequented by students and locals.

Famagusta's Othello Castle is the setting for Shakespeare's play Othello. The city was also the setting for Victoria Hislop's 2015 novel The Sunrise, and Michael Paraskos's 2016 novel In Search of Sixpence. The city is the birthplace of the eponymous hero of the Renaissance proto-novel Fortunatus.

Famagusta was home to many Greek Cypriot sport teams that left the city because of the Turkish invasion and still bear their original names. Most notable football clubs originally from the city are Anorthosis Famagusta FC and Nea Salamis Famagusta FC, both of the Cypriot First Division, which are now based in Larnaca. Usually Anorthosis Famagusta fans are politically right wing where Nea Salamis fans are left wing.

Famagusta is represented by Mağusa Türk Gücü in the Turkish Cypriot First Division. Dr. Fazıl Küçük Stadium is the largest football stadium in Famagusta. Many Turkish Cypriot sport teams that left Southern Cyprus because of the Cypriot intercommunal violence are based in Famagusta.

Famagusta is represented by DAÜ Sports Club and Magem Sports Club in North Cyprus First Volleyball Division. Gazimağusa Türk Maarif Koleji represents Famagusta in the North Cyprus High School Volleyball League.

Famagusta has a modern volleyball stadium called the Mağusa Arena.

The Eastern Mediterranean University was founded in the city in 1979. The Istanbul Technical University founded a campus in the city in 2010.

The Cyprus College of Art was founded in Famagusta by the Cypriot artist Stass Paraskos in 1969, before moving to Paphos in 1972 after protests from local hoteliers that the presence of art students in the city was putting off holidaymakers.

Famagusta has three general hospitals. Gazimağusa Devlet Hastahanesi, a state hospital, is the biggest hospital in city. Gazimağusa Tıp Merkezi and Gazimağusa Yaşam Hastahanesi are private hospitals.

Personalities

Saint Barnabas, born and died in Salamis, Famagusta

Chris Achilleos, illustrator of the book versions on the BBC children's series Doctor Who

Beran Bertuğ, former Governor of Famagusta, first Cypriot woman to hold this position

Marios Constantinou, former international Cypriot football midfielder and current manager.

Eleftheria Eleftheriou, Cypriot singer.

Derviş Eroğlu, former President of Northern Cyprus

Alexis Galanos, 7th President of the House of Representatives and Famagusta mayor-in-exile (2006-2019) (Republic of Cyprus)

Xanthos Hadjisoteriou, Cypriot painter

Oz Karahan, political activist, President of the Union of Cypriots

Oktay Kayalp, former Turkish Cypriot Famagusta mayor (Northern Cyprus)

Harry Luke British diplomat

Angelos Misos, former international footballer

Costas Montis was an influential and prolific Greek Cypriot poet, novelist, and playwright born in Famagusta.

Hal Ozsan, actor (Dawson's Creek, Kyle XY)

Dimitris Papadakis, a Greek Cypriot politician, who served as a Member of the European Parliament.

Ṣubḥ-i-Azal, Persian religious leader, lived and died in exile in Famagusta

Touker Suleyman (born Türker Süleyman), British Turkish Cypriot fashion retail entrepreneur, investor and reality television personality.

Alexia Vassiliou, singer, left here as a refugee when the town was invaded.

George Vasiliou, former President of Cyprus

Vamik Volkan, Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry

Derviş Zaim, film director

Famagusta is twinned with:

İzmir, Turkey (since 1974)

Corfu, Greece (since 1994)

Patras, Greece (since 1994)

Antalya, Turkey (since 1997)

Salamina (city), Greece (since 1998)

Struga, North Macedonia

Athens, Greece (since 2005)

Mersin, Turkey

Northern Cyprus, officially the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), is a de facto state that comprises the northeastern portion of the island of Cyprus. It is recognised only by Turkey, and its territory is considered by all other states to be part of the Republic of Cyprus.

Northern Cyprus extends from the tip of the Karpass Peninsula in the northeast to Morphou Bay, Cape Kormakitis and its westernmost point, the Kokkina exclave in the west. Its southernmost point is the village of Louroujina. A buffer zone under the control of the United Nations stretches between Northern Cyprus and the rest of the island and divides Nicosia, the island's largest city and capital of both sides.

A coup d'état in 1974, performed as part of an attempt to annex the island to Greece, prompted the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This resulted in the eviction of much of the north's Greek Cypriot population, the flight of Turkish Cypriots from the south, and the partitioning of the island, leading to a unilateral declaration of independence by the north in 1983. Due to its lack of recognition, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic, political and military support.

Attempts to reach a solution to the Cyprus dispute have been unsuccessful. The Turkish Army maintains a large force in Northern Cyprus with the support and approval of the TRNC government, while the Republic of Cyprus, the European Union as a whole, and the international community regard it as an occupation force. This military presence has been denounced in several United Nations Security Council resolutions.

Northern Cyprus is a semi-presidential, democratic republic with a cultural heritage incorporating various influences and an economy that is dominated by the services sector. The economy has seen growth through the 2000s and 2010s, with the GNP per capita more than tripling in the 2000s, but is held back by an international embargo due to the official closure of the ports in Northern Cyprus by the Republic of Cyprus. The official language is Turkish, with a distinct local dialect being spoken. The vast majority of the population consists of Sunni Muslims, while religious attitudes are mostly moderate and secular. Northern Cyprus is an observer state of ECO and OIC under the name "Turkish Cypriot State", PACE under the name "Turkish Cypriot Community", and Organization of Turkic States with its own name.

Several distinct periods of Cypriot intercommunal violence involving the two main ethnic communities, Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, marked mid-20th century Cyprus. These included the Cyprus Emergency of 1955–59 during British rule, the post-independence Cyprus crisis of 1963–64, and the Cyprus crisis of 1967. Hostilities culminated in the 1974 de facto division of the island along the Green Line following the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The region has been relatively peaceful since then, but the Cyprus dispute has continued, with various attempts to solve it diplomatically having been generally unsuccessful.

Cyprus, an island lying in the eastern Mediterranean, hosted a population of Greeks and Turks (four-fifths and one-fifth, respectively), who lived under British rule in the late nineteenth-century and the first half of the twentieth-century. Christian Orthodox Church of Cyprus played a prominent political role among the Greek Cypriot community, a privilege that it acquired during the Ottoman Empire with the employment of the millet system, which gave the archbishop an unofficial ethnarch status.

The repeated rejections by the British of Greek Cypriot demands for enosis, union with Greece, led to armed resistance, organised by the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, or EOKA. EOKA, led by the Greek-Cypriot commander George Grivas, systematically targeted British colonial authorities. One of the effects of EOKA's campaign was to alter the Turkish position from demanding full reincorporation into Turkey to a demand for taksim (partition). EOKA's mission and activities caused a "Cretan syndrome" (see Turkish Resistance Organisation) within the Turkish Cypriot community, as its members feared that they would be forced to leave the island in such a case as had been the case with Cretan Turks. As such, they preferred the continuation of British colonial rule and then taksim, the division of the island. Due to the Turkish Cypriots' support for the British, EOKA's leader, Georgios Grivas, declared them to be enemies. The fact that the Turks were a minority was, according to Nihat Erim, to be addressed by the transfer of thousands of Turks from mainland Turkey so that Greek Cypriots would cease to be the majority. When Erim visited Cyprus as the Turkish representative, he was advised by Field Marshal Sir John Harding, the then Governor of Cyprus, that Turkey should send educated Turks to settle in Cyprus.

Turkey actively promoted the idea that on the island of Cyprus two distinctive communities existed, and sidestepped its former claim that "the people of Cyprus were all Turkish subjects". In doing so, Turkey's aim to have self-determination of two to-be equal communities in effect led to de jure partition of the island.[citation needed] This could be justified to the international community against the will of the majority Greek population of the island. Dr. Fazil Küçük in 1954 had already proposed Cyprus be divided in two at the 35° parallel.

Lindley Dan, from Notre Dame University, spotted the roots of intercommunal violence to different visions among the two communities of Cyprus (enosis for Greek Cypriots, taksim for Turkish Cypriots). Also, Lindlay wrote that "the merging of church, schools/education, and politics in divisive and nationalistic ways" had played a crucial role in creation of havoc in Cyprus' history. Attalides Michael also pointed to the opposing nationalisms as the cause of the Cyprus problem.

By the mid-1950's, the "Cyprus is Turkish" party, movement, and slogan gained force in both Cyprus and Turkey. In a 1954 editorial, Turkish Cypriot leader Dr. Fazil Kuchuk expressed the sentiment that the Turkish youth had grown up with the idea that "as soon as Great Britain leaves the island, it will be taken over by the Turks", and that "Turkey cannot tolerate otherwise". This perspective contributed to the willingness of Turkish Cypriots to align themselves with the British, who started recruiting Turkish Cypriots into the police force that patrolled Cyprus to fight EOKA, a Greek Cypriot nationalist organisation that sought to rid the island of British rule.

EOKA targeted colonial authorities, including police, but Georgios Grivas, the leader of EOKA, did not initially wish to open up a new front by fighting Turkish Cypriots and reassured them that EOKA would not harm their people. In 1956, some Turkish Cypriot policemen were killed by EOKA members and this provoked some intercommunal violence in the spring and summer, but these attacks on policemen were not motivated by the fact that they were Turkish Cypriots.

However, in January 1957, Grivas changed his policy as his forces in the mountains became increasingly pressured by the British Crown forces. In order to divert the attention of the Crown forces, EOKA members started to target Turkish Cypriot policemen intentionally in the towns, so that Turkish Cypriots would riot against the Greek Cypriots and the security forces would have to be diverted to the towns to restore order. The killing of a Turkish Cypriot policeman on 19 January, when a power station was bombed, and the injury of three others, provoked three days of intercommunal violence in Nicosia. The two communities targeted each other in reprisals, at least one Greek Cypriot was killed and the British Army was deployed in the streets. Greek Cypriot stores were burned and their neighbourhoods attacked. Following the events, the Greek Cypriot leadership spread the propaganda that the riots had merely been an act of Turkish Cypriot aggression. Such events created chaos and drove the communities apart both in Cyprus and in Turkey.

On 22 October 1957 Sir Hugh Mackintosh Foot replaced Sir John Harding as the British Governor of Cyprus. Foot suggested five to seven years of self-government before any final decision. His plan rejected both enosis and taksim. The Turkish Cypriot response to this plan was a series of anti-British demonstrations in Nicosia on 27 and 28 January 1958 rejecting the proposed plan because the plan did not include partition. The British then withdrew the plan.

In 1957, Black Gang, a Turkish Cypriot pro-taksim paramilitary organisation, was formed to patrol a Turkish Cypriot enclave, the Tahtakale district of Nicosia, against activities of EOKA. The organisation later attempted to grow into a national scale, but failed to gain public support.

By 1958, signs of dissatisfaction with the British increased on both sides, with a group of Turkish Cypriots forming Volkan (later renamed to the Turkish Resistance Organisation) paramilitary group to promote partition and the annexation of Cyprus to Turkey as dictated by the Menderes plan. Volkan initially consisted of roughly 100 members, with the stated aim of raising awareness in Turkey of the Cyprus issue and courting military training and support for Turkish Cypriot fighters from the Turkish government.

In June 1958, the British Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, was expected to propose a plan to resolve the Cyprus issue. In light of the new development, the Turks rioted in Nicosia to promote the idea that Greek and Turkish Cypriots could not live together and therefore any plan that did not include partition would not be viable. This violence was soon followed by bombing, Greek Cypriot deaths and looting of Greek Cypriot-owned shops and houses. Greek and Turkish Cypriots started to flee mixed population villages where they were a minority in search of safety. This was effectively the beginning of the segregation of the two communities. On 7 June 1958, a bomb exploded at the entrance of the Turkish Embassy in Cyprus. Following the bombing, Turkish Cypriots looted Greek Cypriot properties. On 26 June 1984, the Turkish Cypriot leader, Rauf Denktaş, admitted on British channel ITV that the bomb was placed by the Turks themselves in order to create tension. On 9 January 1995, Rauf Denktaş repeated his claim to the famous Turkish newspaper Milliyet in Turkey.

The crisis reached a climax on 12 June 1958, when eight Greeks, out of an armed group of thirty five arrested by soldiers of the Royal Horse Guards on suspicion of preparing an attack on the Turkish quarter of Skylloura, were killed in a suspected attack by Turkish Cypriot locals, near the village of Geunyeli, having been ordered to walk back to their village of Kondemenos.

After the EOKA campaign had begun, the British government successfully began to turn the Cyprus issue from a British colonial problem into a Greek-Turkish issue. British diplomacy exerted backstage influence on the Adnan Menderes government, with the aim of making Turkey active in Cyprus. For the British, the attempt had a twofold objective. The EOKA campaign would be silenced as quickly as possible, and Turkish Cypriots would not side with Greek Cypriots against the British colonial claims over the island, which would thus remain under the British. The Turkish Cypriot leadership visited Menderes to discuss the Cyprus issue. When asked how the Turkish Cypriots should respond to the Greek Cypriot claim of enosis, Menderes replied: "You should go to the British foreign minister and request the status quo be prolonged, Cyprus to remain as a British colony". When the Turkish Cypriots visited the British Foreign Secretary and requested for Cyprus to remain a colony, he replied: "You should not be asking for colonialism at this day and age, you should be asking for Cyprus be returned to Turkey, its former owner".

As Turkish Cypriots began to look to Turkey for protection, Greek Cypriots soon understood that enosis was extremely unlikely. The Greek Cypriot leader, Archbishop Makarios III, now set independence for the island as his objective.

Britain resolved to solve the dispute by creating an independent Cyprus. In 1959, all involved parties signed the Zurich Agreements: Britain, Turkey, Greece, and the Greek and Turkish Cypriot leaders, Makarios and Dr. Fazil Kucuk, respectively. The new constitution drew heavily on the ethnic composition of the island. The President would be a Greek Cypriot, and the Vice-President a Turkish Cypriot with an equal veto. The contribution to the public service would be set at a ratio of 70:30, and the Supreme Court would consist of an equal number of judges from both communities as well as an independent judge who was not Greek, Turkish or British. The Zurich Agreements were supplemented by a number of treaties. The Treaty of Guarantee stated that secession or union with any state was forbidden, and that Greece, Turkey and Britain would be given guarantor status to intervene if that was violated. The Treaty of Alliance allowed for two small Greek and Turkish military contingents to be stationed on the island, and the Treaty of Establishment gave Britain sovereignty over two bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia.

On 15 August 1960, the Colony of Cyprus became fully independent as the Republic of Cyprus. The new republic remained within the Commonwealth of Nations.

The new constitution brought dissatisfaction to Greek Cypriots, who felt it to be highly unjust for them for historical, demographic and contributional reasons. Although 80% of the island's population were Greek Cypriots and these indigenous people had lived on the island for thousands of years and paid 94% of taxes, the new constitution was giving the 17% of the population that was Turkish Cypriots, who paid 6% of taxes, around 30% of government jobs and 40% of national security jobs.

Within three years tensions between the two communities in administrative affairs began to show. In particular disputes over separate municipalities and taxation created a deadlock in government. A constitutional court ruled in 1963 Makarios had failed to uphold article 173 of the constitution which called for the establishment of separate municipalities for Turkish Cypriots. Makarios subsequently declared his intention to ignore the judgement, resulting in the West German judge resigning from his position. Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution, which would have had the effect of resolving most of the issues in the Greek Cypriot favour. Under the proposals, the President and Vice-President would lose their veto, the separate municipalities as sought after by the Turkish Cypriots would be abandoned, the need for separate majorities by both communities in passing legislation would be discarded and the civil service contribution would be set at actual population ratios (82:18) instead of the slightly higher figure for Turkish Cypriots.

The intention behind the amendments has long been called into question. The Akritas plan, written in the height of the constitutional dispute by the Greek Cypriot interior minister Polycarpos Georkadjis, called for the removal of undesirable elements of the constitution so as to allow power-sharing to work. The plan envisaged a swift retaliatory attack on Turkish Cypriot strongholds should Turkish Cypriots resort to violence to resist the measures, stating "In the event of a planned or staged Turkish attack, it is imperative to overcome it by force in the shortest possible time, because if we succeed in gaining command of the situation (in one or two days), no outside, intervention would be either justified or possible." Whether Makarios's proposals were part of the Akritas plan is unclear, however it remains that sentiment towards enosis had not completely disappeared with independence. Makarios described independence as "a step on the road to enosis".[31] Preparations for conflict were not entirely absent from Turkish Cypriots either, with right wing elements still believing taksim (partition) the best safeguard against enosis.

Greek Cypriots however believe the amendments were a necessity stemming from a perceived attempt by Turkish Cypriots to frustrate the working of government. Turkish Cypriots saw it as a means to reduce their status within the state from one of co-founder to that of minority, seeing it as a first step towards enosis. The security situation deteriorated rapidly.

Main articles: Bloody Christmas (1963) and Battle of Tillyria

An armed conflict was triggered after December 21, 1963, a period remembered by Turkish Cypriots as Bloody Christmas, when a Greek Cypriot policemen that had been called to help deal with a taxi driver refusing officers already on the scene access to check the identification documents of his customers, took out his gun upon arrival and shot and killed the taxi driver and his partner. Eric Solsten summarised the events as follows: "a Greek Cypriot police patrol, ostensibly checking identification documents, stopped a Turkish Cypriot couple on the edge of the Turkish quarter. A hostile crowd gathered, shots were fired, and two Turkish Cypriots were killed."

In the morning after the shooting, crowds gathered in protest in Northern Nicosia, likely encouraged by the TMT, without incident. On the evening of the 22nd, gunfire broke out, communication lines to the Turkish neighbourhoods were cut, and the Greek Cypriot police occupied the nearby airport. On the 23rd, a ceasefire was negotiated, but did not hold. Fighting, including automatic weapons fire, between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and militias increased in Nicosia and Larnaca. A force of Greek Cypriot irregulars led by Nikos Sampson entered the Nicosia suburb of Omorphita and engaged in heavy firing on armed, as well as by some accounts unarmed, Turkish Cypriots. The Omorphita clash has been described by Turkish Cypriots as a massacre, while this view has generally not been acknowledged by Greek Cypriots.

Further ceasefires were arranged between the two sides, but also failed. By Christmas Eve, the 24th, Britain, Greece, and Turkey had joined talks, with all sides calling for a truce. On Christmas day, Turkish fighter jets overflew Nicosia in a show of support. Finally it was agreed to allow a force of 2,700 British soldiers to help enforce a ceasefire. In the next days, a "buffer zone" was created in Nicosia, and a British officer marked a line on a map with green ink, separating the two sides of the city, which was the beginning of the "Green Line". Fighting continued across the island for the next several weeks.

In total 364 Turkish Cypriots and 174 Greek Cypriots were killed during the violence. 25,000 Turkish Cypriots from 103-109 villages fled and were displaced into enclaves and thousands of Turkish Cypriot houses were ransacked or completely destroyed.

Contemporary newspapers also reported on the forceful exodus of the Turkish Cypriots from their homes. According to The Times in 1964, threats, shootings and attempts of arson were committed against the Turkish Cypriots to force them out of their homes. The Daily Express wrote that "25,000 Turks have already been forced to leave their homes". The Guardian reported a massacre of Turks at Limassol on 16 February 1964.

Turkey had by now readied its fleet and its fighter jets appeared over Nicosia. Turkey was dissuaded from direct involvement by the creation of a United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964. Despite the negotiated ceasefire in Nicosia, attacks on the Turkish Cypriot persisted, particularly in Limassol. Concerned about the possibility of a Turkish invasion, Makarios undertook the creation of a Greek Cypriot conscript-based army called the "National Guard". A general from Greece took charge of the army, whilst a further 20,000 well-equipped officers and men were smuggled from Greece into Cyprus. Turkey threatened to intervene once more, but was prevented by a strongly worded letter from the American President Lyndon B. Johnson, anxious to avoid a conflict between NATO allies Greece and Turkey at the height of the Cold War.

Turkish Cypriots had by now established an important bridgehead at Kokkina, provided with arms, volunteers and materials from Turkey and abroad. Seeing this incursion of foreign weapons and troops as a major threat, the Cypriot government invited George Grivas to return from Greece as commander of the Greek troops on the island and launch a major attack on the bridgehead. Turkey retaliated by dispatching its fighter jets to bomb Greek positions, causing Makarios to threaten an attack on every Turkish Cypriot village on the island if the bombings did not cease. The conflict had now drawn in Greece and Turkey, with both countries amassing troops on their Thracian borders. Efforts at mediation by Dean Acheson, a former U.S. Secretary of State, and UN-appointed mediator Galo Plaza had failed, all the while the division of the two communities becoming more apparent. Greek Cypriot forces were estimated at some 30,000, including the National Guard and the large contingent from Greece. Defending the Turkish Cypriot enclaves was a force of approximately 5,000 irregulars, led by a Turkish colonel, but lacking the equipment and organisation of the Greek forces.

The Secretary-General of the United Nations in 1964, U Thant, reported the damage during the conflicts:

UNFICYP carried out a detailed survey of all damage to properties throughout the island during the disturbances; it shows that in 109 villages, most of them Turkish-Cypriot or mixed villages, 527 houses have been destroyed while 2,000 others have suffered damage from looting.

The situation worsened in 1967, when a military junta overthrew the democratically elected government of Greece, and began applying pressure on Makarios to achieve enosis. Makarios, not wishing to become part of a military dictatorship or trigger a Turkish invasion, began to distance himself from the goal of enosis. This caused tensions with the junta in Greece as well as George Grivas in Cyprus. Grivas's control over the National Guard and Greek contingent was seen as a threat to Makarios's position, who now feared a possible coup.[citation needed] The National Guard and Cyprus Police began patrolling the Turkish Cypriot enclaves of Ayios Theodoros and Kophinou, and on November 15 engaged in heavy fighting with the Turkish Cypriots.

By the time of his withdrawal 26 Turkish Cypriots had been killed. Turkey replied with an ultimatum demanding that Grivas be removed from the island, that the troops smuggled from Greece in excess of the limits of the Treaty of Alliance be removed, and that the economic blockades on the Turkish Cypriot enclaves be lifted. Grivas was recalled by the Athens Junta and the 12,000 Greek troops were withdrawn. Makarios now attempted to consolidate his position by reducing the number of National Guard troops, and by creating a paramilitary force loyal to Cypriot independence. In 1968, acknowledging that enosis was now all but impossible, Makarios stated, "A solution by necessity must be sought within the limits of what is feasible which does not always coincide with the limits of what is desirable."

After 1967 tensions between the Greek and Turkish Cypriots subsided. Instead, the main source of tension on the island came from factions within the Greek Cypriot community. Although Makarios had effectively abandoned enosis in favour of an 'attainable solution', many others continued to believe that the only legitimate political aspiration for Greek Cypriots was union with Greece.

On his arrival, Grivas began by establishing a nationalist paramilitary group known as the National Organization of Cypriot Fighters (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion Agoniston B or EOKA-B), drawing comparisons with the EOKA struggle for enosis under the British colonial administration of the 1950s.

The military junta in Athens saw Makarios as an obstacle. Makarios's failure to disband the National Guard, whose officer class was dominated by mainland Greeks, had meant the junta had practical control over the Cypriot military establishment, leaving Makarios isolated and a vulnerable target.

During the first Turkish invasion, Turkish troops invaded Cyprus territory on 20 July 1974, invoking its rights under the Treaty of Guarantee. This expansion of Turkish-occupied zone violated International Law as well as the Charter of the United Nations. Turkish troops managed to capture 3% of the island which was accompanied by the burning of the Turkish Cypriot quarter, as well as the raping and killing of women and children. A temporary cease-fire followed which was mitigated by the UN Security Council. Subsequently, the Greek military Junta collapsed on July 23, 1974, and peace talks commenced in which a democratic government was installed. The Resolution 353 was broken after Turkey attacked a second time and managed to get a hold of 37% of Cyprus territory. The Island of Cyprus was appointed a Buffer Zone by the United Nations, which divided the island into two zones through the 'Green Line' and put an end to the Turkish invasion. Although Turkey announced that the occupied areas of Cyprus to be called the Federated Turkish State in 1975, it is not legitimised on a worldwide political scale. The United Nations called for the international recognition of independence for the Republic of Cyprus in the Security Council Resolution 367.

In the years after the Turkish invasion of northern Cyprus one can observe a history of failed talks between the two parties. The 1983 declaration of the independent Turkish Republic of Cyprus resulted in a rise of inter-communal tensions and made it increasingly hard to find mutual understanding. With Cyprus' interest of a possible EU membership and a new UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 1997 new hopes arose for a fresh start. International involvement from sides of the US and UK, wanting a solution to the Cyprus dispute prior to the EU accession led to political pressures for new talks. The believe that an accession without a solution would threaten Greek-Turkish relations and acknowledge the partition of the island would direct the coming negotiations.

Over the course of two years a concrete plan, the Annan plan was formulated. In 2004 the fifth version agreed upon from both sides and with the endorsement of Turkey, US, UK and EU then was presented to the public and was given a referendum in both Cypriot communities to assure the legitimisation of the resolution. The Turkish Cypriots voted with 65% for the plan, however the Greek Cypriots voted with a 76% majority against. The Annan plan contained multiple important topics. Firstly it established a confederation of two separate states called the United Cyprus Republic. Both communities would have autonomous states combined under one unified government. The members of parliament would be chosen according to the percentage in population numbers to ensure a just involvement from both communities. The paper proposed a demilitarisation of the island over the next years. Furthermore it agreed upon a number of 45000 Turkish settlers that could remain on the island. These settlers became a very important issue concerning peace talks. Originally the Turkish government encouraged Turks to settle in Cyprus providing transfer and property, to establish a counterpart to the Greek Cypriot population due to their 1 to 5 minority. With the economic situation many Turkish-Cypriot decided to leave the island, however their departure is made up by incoming Turkish settlers leaving the population ratio between Turkish Cypriots and Greek Cypriots stable. However all these points where criticised and as seen in the vote rejected mainly by the Greek Cypriots. These name the dissolution of the „Republic of Cyprus", economic consequences of a reunion and the remaining Turkish settlers as reason. Many claim that the plan was indeed drawing more from Turkish-Cypriot demands then Greek-Cypriot interests. Taking in consideration that the US wanted to keep Turkey as a strategic partner in future Middle Eastern conflicts.

A week after the failed referendum the Republic of Cyprus joined the EU. In multiple instances the EU tried to promote trade with Northern Cyprus but without internationally recognised ports this spiked a grand debate. Both side endure their intention of negotiations, however without the prospect of any new compromises or agreements the UN is unwilling to start the process again. Since 2004 negotiations took place in numbers but without any results, both sides are strongly holding on to their position without an agreeable solution in sight that would suit both parties.

Brighton and Hove 679 by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Buddha Wesak at Wat Chaiya Mangkalaram by Steffie's Stuff Update Pls read About Page ♥

11 23

Wesak is the most important of the Buddhist festivals and it is celebrated on the full moon in the month May. It commemorates the birth of Gautama Buddha , and for some Buddhists it also marks his enlightenment and death.

In Penang, it is customary for Buddhists to visit local temples for services and prayers, with offerings such as vegetarian food, candles and flowers.

Wat Chaiya Mangkalaram (Thai: วัดไชยมังคลาราม) is a Thai Buddhist temple in George Town, set just off Jalan Burma Penang, Malaysia, the yellow-and-blue temple is also known as Wat Buppharam. It is home to a 108ft (33m) long reclining Buddha image, said to be the 3rd largest in the world.

Draped in a gold-leafed saffron robe, the sprawling statue was erected as a monument to signify Buddha’s final resting position at his death and symbolizes his detachment from worldly matters. Located opposite the less extravagant Dharmmikarama Temple (which lights up beautifully at night) Wat Chaiya Mangakalaram Temple is a beautiful sight with ornate, gold pagodas, and mural-painted walls.

The temple was built on a piece of land ( 5 acres) given by Queen Victoria to four women trustees as a gesture of goodwill to boost trading relations with Thailand. The first monk was a Theravada Buddhist monk from Thailand, Phorthan Kuat, also known as the "Powerful Monk". Legend has it that he was very fond of asam laksa, (coconut-based sour gravy noodles a local specialty ) and even today devotees bring a bowl of laksa as an offering to his shrine to honour him.

In Penang, it is customary for Buddhists to visit local temples for services and prayers, with offerings such as vegetarian food, candles and flowers.

In the main shrine in front of the Reclining Buddha there are smaller shrines of different Buddhas and popular Thai deities. Also on the temple grounds many colored statues of Devas and other mythical creatures are on display.

Six statues of influential Dutch legal scholars made by important sculptors stand in front of the Supreme court, The Hague. by Ciska van Geer

5 1

Six statues of influential Dutch legal scholars were made by important sculptors for the building of the Supreme Court on the Square that was rebuilt in the 1930s. The images were on the platform and 'watched' over the entrance. The building had to be demolished for expansion of the House of Representatives and the Supreme Court moved in 1988. The six images moved with them and are placed on a small square (parking lot) in front of the entrance. In 2016, the Supreme Court moved to a new building on Korte Voorhout, where the six statues were given a prominent place In front of the façade.

P1180213 2019-03-09_03-59-44

Important business meeting by Jamie Slichter

16 7

Discussing tax evasion strategies, extortion and money washing schemes (in Minecraft) with my shareholders

ft: [Puddles] Office Oasis Clutter -- avail at Anthem tonight @ midnight

*Hentai mousepad not included*

Daish,s BV72 KOA by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting or removing water marks are liaIble to prosecution.

Ipswich Buses 71 by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Nova Bussing YD22BXX by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Important call by John Blower

21 1

I was in New York coming back from an extended tour of Mexico and Belize. This was 1980.

Stagecoach 26358 a by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

DSC_8734a Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019 by photographer695

Sbusi Zulu Umemulo Coming of Age Ceremony South African Zulu Cultural Singing and Dancing Umlazi Durban November 2019

Umemulo also known as the Coming of Age is an important Zulu ritual that celebrates a young girl's journey into womanhood. The ceremony indicates that the young girl has transitioned from a child and into an adult woman who can now get married

No - Smoking . by Mitsushiro Nakagawa

48 3

Title.

No - Smoking .

( FUJI FILM GFX 50R shot )

Tokyo Big Sight. Koto Ward. Tokyo. Japan. Nov. 11. 2023. … 1 / 8

(Today's photo. It is unpublished.)

Images

overpass - Beautiful (Official Video)

youtu.be/vuuQDPeemPQ?si=pkTqg5fZ_JsY4O_k

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Important Notices.

I have relaxed the following conditions.

I will distribute my T-shirt to the world for free.

m.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/50656401427/in/dateposted-p...

m.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/50613367691/in/dateposted-p...

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Exhibition in 2024

theme

I Thought About You . (tentative title)

Images

Miles Davis - I Thought About You (Live at Philharmonic Hall, New York, NY - February 1964)

youtu.be/Rc1Afa7k8TM?si=89sN4WDE7AUO-Kwu

Mitsushiro - Nakagawa

Sponsored by

design festa

designfesta.com

place

Tokyo Big Site

www.bigsight.jp

schedule

November 16 and 17, 2024.

exhibition.mitsushiro.nakagawa@gmail.com

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Notice regarding "Lot No.402_”.

From now on I will host "Lot No.402_".

The work of Leonardo da Vinci who was sleeping.

That is the number when it was put up for auction.

No sign was written on the work.

So this work couldn't conclude that it was his work.

However # as a result of various appraisals # it was exposed to the sun.

A work that no one notices. A work that speaks quietly without a title.

I will continue to strive to provide it to many people in various ways.

October 24 2020 by Mitsushiro - Nakagawa.

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Profile.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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Interviews and novels.

About my book.

I published a book a long time ago.

At that time # I uploaded my interview as a PDF on the internet.

Its Japanese and English.

I will publish it for free.

For details # I explained to the Amazon site.

How to write a novel.

How to take a picture.

A sense of distance to the work.

All of these have something in common.

I wrote down what I felt and left it.

I hope my text will be read by many people.

Thank you.

Mitsushiro.

1 Interview in English

2 novels. unforgettable 'English version.(This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

3 Interview Japanese version

4 novels. unforgettable ' JPN version.

5 A streamlined trajectory. only Japanese.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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iBooks. Electronic Publishing. It is free now.

0.about the iBooks.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

1.unforgettable '(ENG.ver.)(This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

itunes.apple.com/us/book/unforgettable/id1216576828?ls=1&...

2.unforgettable '(JNP.ver.)(This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

itunes.apple.com/us/book/unforgettable/id1216584262?ls=1&...

3. Streamlined trajectory.(For Japanese only.)

itunes.apple.com/us/book/%E6%B5%81%E7%B7%9A%E5%BD%A2%E3%8... =11

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My Novel : Unforgettable'

(This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

Synopsis

Kei Kitami, who is aiming for university, meets Kaori Uemura, an event companion who is 6 years older than her, on SNS.

Kaori's dream of coming to Tokyo is to become friends with a famous artist.

For that purpose, the radio station's producer, Ryo Osawa, was needed.

Osawa speaks to Kaori during a live radio broadcast.

"I have a wife and children. But I want to meet you."

Rika Sanjo, who is Kei's classmate and has feelings for him, has been looking into her girlfriend Kaori's movements. . . . .

Mitsushiro Nakagawa

All Translated by Yumi Ikeda .

www.fotolog.net/yuming/

images.

U2 - No Line On The Horizon Live in Dublin

www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oKwnkYFsiE&feature=related

Main story

There are two reasons why a person faces the sea.

One to enjoy a slice of shine in the sea like children bubbling over in the beach.

The other to brush the dust of memory like an old man who misses old days staring at the shine

quietly.

Those lead to only one meaning though they do not seem to overlap. It’s a rebirth.

I face myself to change tomorrow a vague day into something certain.

That is the meaning of a rebirth.

I had a very sweet girlfriend when I was 18.

After she left I knew the meaning of gentleness for the first time and also a true pain of loss. After

she left # how many times did I depend too much on her # doubt her # envy her and keep on telling lies

until I realized it is love?

I wonder whether a nobody like me could have given something to her who was struggling in the

daily life in those days. Giving something is arrogant conceit. It is nothing but self-satisfaction.

I had been thinking about such a thing.

However I guess what she saw in me was because I had nothing. That‘s why she tried to see

something in me. Perhaps she found a slight possibility in me # a guy filled with ambiguous unstable

tomorrow. But I wasted days depending too much on her gentleness.

Now I finally can convey how I felt in those days when we met.

1/9

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2/9

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3/9

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4/9

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5/9

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6/9

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7/9

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8/9

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9/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24100804163/in/dateposted...

Fin.

images.

U2 - No Line On The Horizon

www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oKwnkYFsiE&feature=related

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Title of my book : unforgettable'

Author : Mitsushiro Nakagawa

Out Now.

ISBN978-4-86264-866-2

in Amazon.

Unforgettable’ amzn.asia/d/eG1wNc5

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The schedule of the next novel.

Still would stand all time. (Unforgettable '2)

(It will not go away forever)

Please give me some more time. That is Japanese.

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My Works.

1 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48072442376/in/dateposted...

2 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48078949821/in/dateposted...

3 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48085863356/in/dateposted...

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Do you want to hear my voice?

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw

About the composition of the picture posted to Flicker. First type.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw

About the composition of the picture posted to Flicker. Second type.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=443

About when I started Fotolog. Architect 's point of view.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=649

Why did not you have a camera so far?

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=708

What is the coolest thing? The photo is as it is.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=776

About the current YouTube bar. I also want to tell # I want to leave.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=964

About Japanese photographers. Japanese YouTube bar is Pistols.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1059

The composition of the photograph is sensibility. Meet the designers in Milan. Two questions.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1242

What is a good composition? What is a bad composition?

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1482

What is the time to point the camera? It is slow if you are looking into the viewfinder or display.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1662

Family photos. I can not take pictures with others. The inside of the subject.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1745

About YouTube 's photographer. Camera technology etc. Sensibility is polished by reading books.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2144

About the Japanese newspaper. A picture of a good newspaper is Reuters. If you continue to look at useless photographs # it will be useless.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2305

About Japanese photographers. About the exhibition.

Summary. I wrote a novel etc. What I want to tell the most.

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2579

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I talked about how to make a work.

About work production 1/2

youtu.be/ZFjqUJn74kM

About work production 2/2

youtu.be/pZIbXmnXuCw

1 Photo exhibition up to that point. Did you want to go?

2 Well # what is an exhibition that you want to visit even if you go there?

3 Challenge to exhibit one work every month before opening a solo exhibition at the Harajuku Design Festa.

4 works are materials and silhouettes. Similar to fashion.

5 Who is your favorite artist? What is it? Make it clear.

6 Creating a collage is exactly the same as taking photos. As I wrote in the interview # it is the same as writing a novel.

7 I want to show it to someone # but I do not make a piece to show it. Aim for the work you want to decorate your own room as in the photo.

8 What is copycat? Nowadays # it is suspected to be beaten. There is something called Mimesis?

ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimesis

kotobank.jp/word/Mimesis-139464

9 What is Individuality? What is originality?

www.youtube.com/user/mitsushiro/

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Explanation of composition. 2

1.Composition explanation 2 ... 1/4

youtu.be/yVbvneBIMs8

2.Composition explanation 2 ... 2/4

youtu.be/LToFez9vOAw

3.Composition Explanation 2 ... 3/4

youtu.be/uTR0wVi9Z7M

4.Composition Explanation 2 ... 4/4

youtu.be/h2LjfU6Vvno

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My shutter feeling.

youtu.be/3JkbGiFLjAM

Today's photo.

It is a photo taken from Eurostar.

This video is an explanation.

I went to Milan in 2005.

At that time # I went from Milan to Venice.

We took Eurostar into the transportation.

This photo was not taken from a very fast Eurostar.

When I changed the track # I took a picture at the moment I slowed down.

Is there a Japanese beside you?

Please have my video translated.

In the Eurostar to Venice . 2005. shot ... 1 / 2

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/49127115021/in/dateposted...

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Miles Davis sheet 1955-1976.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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flickr.

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/

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instagram.

www.instagram.com/mitsushiro_nakagawa/

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Pinterest.

www.pinterest.jp/MitsushiroNakagawa/

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YouPic

youpic.com/photographer/mitsushironakagawa/

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twitter.

twitter.com/mitsushiro

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facebook.

www.facebook.com/mitsushiro.nakagawa

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threads.

www.threads.net/@mitsushiro_nakagawa

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Blue sky.

bsky.app/profile/mitsushironakagawa.bsky.social

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Amazon.

www.amazon.co.jp/gp/profile/amzn1.account.AHSKI3YMYPYE5UE...

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My statistics (as of August 1, 2024)

How many views have I had on Flickr and Youpic?

Flickr 23,192,383 Views

Youpic 7,574,603 Views

My statistics. (As of February 7, 2024)

What is the number of accesses to Flickr and YouPic?

Flickr 21,694,434 Views

Youpic 7,003,230 Views

What is the number of accesses to Flickr and YouPic?

(As of November 13, 2023)

Flickr 20,852,872 View

Youpic 6,671,486 View

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Japanese is the following.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

Title of my book unforgettable' Mitsushiro Nakagawa Out Now. ISBN978-4-86264-866-2

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Title.

( FUJIFILM GFX50R shot )

グアム。アメリカ. 2024。 … 　1 / 10

(今日の写真。それは未発表です。）

Images.

Hitsujibungaku(羊文学)- Burning (Eng Ver.)

youtu.be/ONIEzox_Duc?si=gpeuat01SSKFVcuG

::写真の音楽とiTunesプレイリストをリンク::

music.apple.com/jp/playlist/photo-music/pl.u-Eg8qefpy8Xz

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重要なお知らせ。

僕は以下の条件を緩和します。

僕はTシャツを無料で世界中へ配布します。

m.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/50656401427/in/dateposted-p...

m.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/50613367691/in/dateposted-p...

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２０２４年の展示

テーマ

Goodbye , Photo

Images

大塚愛 ( Ai Otsuka ) / 恋愛写真 ( Goodbye photo )

youtu.be/B2XfJCQ2Dy0?si=WN3UePWye5N03yi4

Live 1.

youtu.be/MjBYxuVgj70?si=K3TyYOGqa3Y8BdAt

Live 2.

youtu.be/Dccv85TarHs?si=BI-f4JfrihO3CTXD

Mitsushiro - Nakagawa

主催

デザインフェスタ

designfesta.com

場所

東京ビッグサイト

www.bigsight.jp

日程

2024年11月16日。17日。

exhibition.mitsushiro.nakagawa@gmail.com

_________________________________

” Lot No.402_ ” に関するお知らせ。

今後、僕は、” Lot No.402_ ”を主催します。

このロットナンバーは、眠っていたレオナルドダヴィンチの作品がオークションにかけらた際に付されたものです。

作品にはサインなどがいっさい記されていなかったため、彼の作品だと断定できませんでした。

しかし、様々な鑑定の結果、陽の光を浴びました。

誰にも気づかれない作品。肩書がなくとも静かに語りかける作品。

僕はこれから様々な形で、多くの皆様に提供できるよう努めてゆきます。

2020年10月24日 by Mitsushiro - Nakagawa.

_________________________________

プロフィール

2014年11月、たった1機種で世界を塗り替えた携帯電話の広告を請け負った選考者の目に留まり、秘密保持同意書を結ぶ。

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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インタビューと小説。

僕の本について。

僕は、昔に本を出版しました。

その際に、僕のインタビューをPDFでネット上へアップロードしていました。

その日本語と英語。

僕は、無料でを公開します。

詳細は、アマゾンのサイトへ解説しました。

小説の書き方。

写真の撮影方法。

作品への距離感。

これらはすべて共通項があります。

僕は、僕が感じたことを文章にして、残しました。

僕のテキストが多くの人に読んでもらえることを望みます。

ありがとう。

Mitsushiro.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

１　インタビュー　英語版

２　小説。unforgettable’ 英語版。

３　インタビュー　日本語版

４　小説。unforgettable’ 日本語版。(この小説は未来のアーティストへ捧げます)

(四百字詰め原稿用紙４５６枚)

　あらすじ

　大学を目指している北見ケイは、SNS上で、6歳年上のイベントコンパニオン、上村香織に出会う。

　上京してきた香織の夢は、有名なアーティストの友達になるためだ。

　そのためにはラジオ局のプロデューサー、大沢亮の存在が必要だった。

　大沢は、ラジオの生放送中、香織へ語りかける。

　「僕には妻子がある。しかし、僕は君に会いたいと思っている」

　ケイの同級生で、彼を想っている三條里香は、香織の動向を探っていた。。。。。

本編

人が海へ向かう理由には、二つある。

　ひとつは、波打ち際ではしゃぐ子供のように、今の瞬間の海の輝きを楽しむこと。

　もうひとつは、その輝きを静かに見据えて、過ぎ去った日々を懐かしむ老人のように記憶の埃を払うこと。

　二つは重なり合わないようではあるけれども、たったひとつの意味しか生まない。

　再生だ。

　明日っていう、曖昧な日を確実なものへと変えてゆくために、自分の存在に向き合う。

　それが再生の意味だ。

　十八歳だった僕には大切な人がいた。

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

５　流線形の軌跡。　日本語のみ。

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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iBooks.電子出版。（現在は無料）

0.about the iBooks.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

1.unforgettable’ ( ENG.ver.)(This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

itunes.apple.com/us/book/unforgettable/id1216576828?ls=1&...

For Japanese only.

2.unforgettable’ ( JNP.ver.)(この小説は未来のアーティストへ捧げます)

itunes.apple.com/us/book/unforgettable/id1216584262?ls=1&...

3.流線形の軌跡。

itunes.apple.com/us/book/%E6%B5%81%E7%B7%9A%E5%BD%A2%E3%8...

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僕の小説。英語版　

My Novel Unforgettable' (This book is Dedicated to the future artist.)

Mitsushiro Nakagawa

All Translated by Yumi Ikeda .

www.fotolog.net/yuming/

1/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24577016535/in/dateposted...

2/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24209330259/in/dateposted...

3/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/23975215274/in/dateposted...

4/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24515964952/in/dateposted...

5/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24276473749/in/dateposted...

6/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24548895082/in/dateposted...

7/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24594603711/in/dateposted...

8/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24588215562/in/dateposted...

9/9

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/24100804163/in/dateposted...

Fin.

images.

U2 - No Line On The Horizon Live in Dublin

www.youtube.com/watch?v=_oKwnkYFsiE&feature=related

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Title of my book : unforgettable'

Author : Mitsushiro Nakagawa

Out Now.

ISBN978-4-86264-866-2

in Amazon.

Unforgettable’ amzn.asia/d/eG1wNc5

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僕の作品。

1 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48072442376/in/dateposted...

2 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48078949821/in/dateposted...

3 www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/48085863356/in/dateposted...

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あなたは僕の声を聞きたいですか？

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw

フリッカーへ投稿した写真の構図について。１種類目。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw

フリッカーへ投稿した写真の構図について。２種類目。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=443

Fotologを始めた時について。建築家の視点。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=649

なぜ、今までカメラを手にしなかったのか？

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=708

何が一番かっこいいのか？　写真はありのままに。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=776

現在のユーチューバーについて。僕も伝え、残したい。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=964

日本人の写真家について。日本のユーチューバーはピストルズ。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1059

写真の構図は、感性。ミラノのデザイナーに会って。二つの質問。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1242

良い構図とは？　悪い構図とは？

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1482

カメラを向ける時とは？　ファインダーやディスプレイを覗いていては遅い。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1662

家族写真。他人では撮れない。被写体の内面。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=1745

ユーチューブの写真家について。カメラの技術等。感性は、本を読むことで磨く。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2144

日本の新聞について。良い新聞の写真はロイター。ダメな写真を見続けるとダメになる。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2305

日本の写真家について。その展示について。

まとめ。僕が書いた小説など。僕が最も伝えたいこと。

youtu.be/b1o6Xf-Mjhw?t=2579

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作品制作について 1/2

youtu.be/ZFjqUJn74kM

作品制作について 2/2

youtu.be/pZIbXmnXuCw

１　それまでの写真展。自分は行きたいと思ったか？

２　じゃ、自分が足を運んででも行きたい展示とは何か？

３　原宿デザインフェスタで個展を開くまでに、毎月ひとつの作品を展示することにチャレンジ。

４　作品とは、素材とシルエット。ファッションと似ている。

５　自分が好きなアーティストは誰か？　どんなものなのか？　そこをはっきりさせる。

６　コラージュの作成も写真の撮り方と全く同じ。インタビューに書いたように小説の書き方とも同じ。

７　誰かに見せたい、見せるがために作品は作らない。写真と同じように自分の部屋に飾りたい作品を目指す。

８　パクリとは何か？　昨今、叩かれるパクリ疑惑。ミメーシスとは？

　　https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/ミメーシス

　　https://kotobank.jp/word/ミメーシス-139464

９　個性とはなにか？　オリジナリティってなに？

おまけ　眞子さまについて

という流れです。

お時間がある方は是非聴いてください。

www.youtube.com/user/mitsushiro/

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構図の解説２

1.構図の解説２ ... 1/4

2.構図の解説２ ... 2/4

3.構図の解説２ ... 3/4

4.構図の解説２ ... 4/4

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僕のシャッター感覚

youtu.be/3JkbGiFLjAM

In the Eurostar to Venice . 2005. shot ... 1 / 2

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/49127115021/in/dateposted...

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Miles Davis sheet 1955-1976.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

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flickr.

www.flickr.com/photos/stealaway/

_________________________________

YouTube.

www.youtube.com/user/mitsushiro/

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instagram.

www.instagram.com/mitsushiro_nakagawa/

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Pinterest.

www.pinterest.jp/MitsushiroNakagawa/

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YouPic

youpic.com/photographer/mitsushironakagawa/

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fotolog

www.fotolog.com/stealaway/

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twitter.

twitter.com/mitsushiro

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facebook.

www.facebook.com/mitsushiro.nakagawa

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threads.

www.threads.net/@mitsushiro_nakagawa

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Blue sky.

bsky.app/profile/mitsushironakagawa.bsky.social

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Amazon.

www.amazon.co.jp/gp/profile/amzn1.account.AHSKI3YMYPYE5UE...

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僕の統計。（2024年8月1日現在）

フリッカー、ユーピクのアクセス数は？

Flickr 23,192,383 View

Youpic 7,574,603 View

僕の統計。（2024年2月7日現在）

フリッカー、ユーピクのアクセス数は？

Flickr 21,694,434 View

Youpic 7,003,230 View

僕の統計。（2023年11月13日現在）

フリッカー、ユーピクのアクセス数は？

Flickr 20,852,872 View

Youpic 6,671,486 View

_________________________________

Japanese is the following.

drive.google.com/drive/folders/1vBRMWGk29EmsoBV2o9NM1LIVi...

Title of my book unforgettable' Mitsushiro Nakagawa Out Now. ISBN978-4-86264-866-2

_________________________________

” Lot No.402_ ” に関するお知らせ。

今後、僕は、” Lot No.402_ ”を主催します。

このロットナンバーは、眠っていたレオナルドダヴィンチの作品がオークションにかけらた際に付されたものです。

作品にはサインなどがいっさい記されていなかったため、彼の作品だと断定できませんでした。

しかし、様々な鑑定の結果、陽の光を浴びました。

誰にも気づかれない作品。肩書がなくとも静かに語りかける作品。

僕はこれから様々な形で、多くの皆様に提供できるよう努めてゆきます。

2020年10月24日 by Mitsushiro - Nakagawa.

_________________________________

Country Lion L1 OND Tunbridge wells 1 (4) by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Atlantean columns on Pyramid B in form of Toltec warriors, Tula, Mexico by Alain Secretan (ASITRAC)

Tula is a Mesoamerican archeological site, which was an important regional center which reached its height as the capital of the Toltec Empire between the fall of Teotihuacan and the rise of Tenochtitlan. It has not been well studied in comparison to these other two sites, and disputes remain as to its political system, area of influence and its relations with contemporary Mesoamerican cities, especially with Chichen Itza. The site is located in the city of Tula de Allende in the Tula Valley, in what is now the southwest of the Mexican state of Hidalgo, northwest of Mexico City. The archeological site consists of a museum, remains of an earlier settlement called Tula Chico as well as the main ceremonial site called Tula Grande. The main attraction is the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl which is topped by four, four metre high basalt columns carved in the shape of Toltec warriors. Tula fell around 1150, but it had significant influence in the following Aztec Empire, with its history written about heavily in myth. The feathered serpent god Quetzalcoatl is linked to this city, whose worship was widespread from central Mexico to Central America at the time the Spanish arrived.

[en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tula_(Mesoamerican_site)]

Geelong. Ryrie Street with the 1858 Telegraph Station with the timeball and the 1890 Post Office. by denisbin

Building a city. Churches and schools were important structures for the early citizens as they signified civilisation. In 1855 Geelong Grammar School opened as an Anglican boarding school for boys. Its prestige grew as a boarding school for the wealthiest of the Western District pastoralists. It moved to its present location on Corio Bay in 1914 from 55 Maud Street Geelong. This is the school Prince Charles attended in the 1960s. The Church of England Girls’ Grammar School only opened in 1906. Yet another important educational milestone was the opening of the Gordon (named after General William Gordon from the Siege of Khartoum 1884-5) Technical College in 1888. This grand Scottish baronial style building was extended in 1891 and the matching northern wing was added in 1916. It makes a dramatic statement in Fenwick Street. Part of the campus incudes the Bostock Memorial textile laboratories and the Edward Lascelles wool laboratories. One of the city’s wool broker was T E Bostock who was also Mayor of Geelong 1905 to 1908. When he died in 1922 a public subscription fund was started to build a memorial to him. He was a founder of Strachan Bostock and Co a leading wool firm and employer in the city. The foundation stone for Gordon Institute textile laboratories was laid in 1928. The architects were Laird and Buchan. About the same time (1921) a public subscription fund was started as a memorial to Edward Lascelles another Geelong leader of the wool industry. The new Lascelles building in Art Deco style with strong vertical lines was to be joined to the Bostock Laboratories. Building started in 1944 and was completed in 1951. The architect of this Art Deco masterpiece was Percy Everett who also designed the old Courthouse into a Spanish Mission Art Deco building around 1930. Nearby is the Matthew Flinders Girls Secondary School which was established in 1856 and known as the Flinders National School for boys. It was named after the first white explorer to visit Corio Bay in 1802. It was the first state school in Geelong and became the first state school to offer high school studies. From 1864 it was also a primary school for girls and in 1939 it became a girls’ secondary school. Although the main building dates from 1856 it was extended, remodelled and given its current Italianate appearance with a three storey tower in 1880.

Outside the city centre are two other prestigious schools in Geelong from late in the 19th century –the Catholic Sacred Heart College in Newton and the former Presbyterian Geelong College. The main two storey Gothic buildings and chapel in Talbot Street Newton were designed by architects Davidson and Henderson in 1871 next to an 1860 building. Additions in 1873 and later have produced an outstanding college campus. The college began as a boy’s boarding school in 1861 and now offers co-education boarding. Presbyterian Girls College opened in 1920 in a grand house called Morongo in Newton which was built in 1860. This college amalgamated with Geelong College in 1994. Sacred Heart College for girls is in Retreat Road Newton. It was established in 1860 by the Sisters of Mercy from Dublin. The early school and chapel remained largely unchanged. The architect was T Kelly.

Early church services for Catholics, Methodists and Presbyterians were held in private homes and it took a few more years to build churches. The first church in Geelong appears to have been St Andrews Presbyterian Church in Yarra Street which for many years has been a Lutheran Church. Its foundation stone was laid in March 1841 and the simple Georgian style church opened as Scot’s Presbyterian in July 1842. It was changed to St Andrews Presbyterian in 1858. The current two storey classical façade was added in 1912 after it closed as a Presbyterian Church in 1911 and became a Scots Hall. It was purchased by the Lutherans in 1946. This heritage listed church is the first Presbyterian Church in Geelong and the oldest still standing in Victoria and the oldest Victorian church outside of Melbourne. The Catholics built an early church also in Yarra Street in 1842 which was demolished in 1872 when the nave of the current St Mary’s Church was completed. Work began on St Mary’s in 1854. Work continued on the current St Marys Basilica Church until it was completed in 1937. This grand cathedral like church with three towers and a huge rose window is befitting of Victoria’s second city. A fine two storey Catholic Presbytery is next to the church. Below the Catholic Basilica towards the harbour is the old Wesleyan Methodist Church which is now the Uniting Church and the two storey Methodist manse. This Wesleyan Church was built in 1845 but there is little of the early church visible from the street except the four partition mullion window on the street facing gable of the nave. There are several late 19th century additions around this 1845 nave. The oldest continuously used Anglican Church in Victoria is Christ Church Anglican Church in Moorabool Street. An early chapel school room was built around 1840 and it still stands on the site but the architect Edmund Blacket of NSW had work start on the church proper in 1843. It opened in 1847 with a nave and tower. It was enlarged with a transept which was completed in 1855. The spire on the tower was added later. Much of the sandstone, especially the buttressed are weathered in places.

Surprisingly Geelong also had a break away or Reformed Church of England congregation which built the magnificent Trinity Church on la Trobe Terrace in 1858. The church closed around the turn of the century and in 1907 it became the Churches of Christ Church, which it still is. It is the only independent Anglican Church known in Victoria and possibly in Australia. Almost next door to it in La Trobe Terrace and Myers Street is yet another Free Presbyterian Church built in 1858 which is now painted blue. Next to it is an earlier church and later church hall built in 1854. The Free or Reformed Presbyterians built quite a few churches in Geelong including a small church in 1862 in Fenwick Street. Almost next door to that church the Baptists built their early church around 1860 (with a raised roof) and a

later church in 1911. But the biggest Free Presbyterian Church in Geelong was built in 1861 in Gheringhap Street in basalt with sandstone quoins which are now badly weathered. Next door they began a Presbyterian school in 1854. Two school rooms of that early school remain. The church closed in 1977 with the formation of the Uniting Church but its magnificent mullion stained glass window in the gable by Ferghuson and Urie has been preserved. The main Presbyterian Church, St George’s in La Trobe Terrace was built in 1861. Behind it is a superb basalt two storey manse. The church closed in 2011 and is now vacant. By 1900 there were six Presbyterian churches in central Geelong including the Ryrie Street church of 1858 which is now incorporated into a modern building façade at 12 Ryrie Street. The Jewish community acquire land for a synagogue in 1851 in Yarra Street but they did not build a synagogue on it until 1861. It closed as a synagogue in 1984. There were Baptist, Congregational, Primitive Methodist and other Presbyterian churches in the town. Many have now been demolished but several (Catholic, Presbyterian and Anglican) still exist near the railway station. Although not a church the Protestant Hall erected in 1888 at 61 Yarra Street is worthy of mention. Conflict between Protestants and Irish Catholics in Victoria was always an issue and a lodge purely for Protestants was seen as appropriate in those times. In 1882 a Protestant Hall was built in Melbourne for the Protestant Alliance Friendly Society with the support of Orange Lodges. The Protestant Hall in Geelong survived until closure in 2013. It was basically a pro-British Empire association run by the Protestant Alliance Friendly Society which provided insurance for funerals and the like with an emphasis on loyalty to the Crown and Empire. Other lodge organisations including the Loyal Corio Lodge used the Geelong Protestant Hall for their meetings and the Protestant Alliance raised funds for the Geelong hospital and other charitable organisations. By the 1920s there were Protestant Halls in Mildura, Shepparton, Ballarat and several Melbourne suburbs.

Some of the commercial buildings of Geelong are of special historical importance. At 1 Malop St. is the former interwar stripped classical building of Dalgety Wool Merchants and shipping agents. It was built in 1924 and has now been incorporated into a 14 storey office block. Next door at 9 Malop St. is the former sandstone London Chartered Bank built in 1860 with classical elements and an almost fortress like appearance. It became an English Scottish and Australian bank in 1921. Across the street at 8 Malop St is the Trustees building. It was built in 1857. Additions in 1886 gave it the current appearance which is probably when it became the Trustees Building. On the next corner with Clare St. is the former Carlton Hotel. An old hotel on this site from the 1850s was rebuilt as a modern Art Deco building around 1930 with porthole windows, wrought iron on the doors, coloured tiled walls to the street etc .On the next corner with Moorabool St. is the National Mutual Building. It was built in stripped classical style in 1929. On the opposite corner is part of Market Square. This big square was once a park but the site was converted to shopping. The Market Square along Moorabool St. was built in 1912 and opened in 1913. It began life as Solomon’s store. Like many public buildings in Geelong it has a cupola on each street corner. Further along at 79 Malop St. is the fine CML or Colonial Mutual Life insurance building. It was built in 1923 and the fine stone and cement corner tower with its cupola has an historic clock in it dating to 1856. A clock tower was built in the middle of the 1850 square. When the square was redeveloped the clock was put into the CML tower. Further along Malop St at 138 are the Corio Chambers used for city lawyer offices. It was built in Queen Anne style in the 1890s and although it is on a corner with Yarra St. it does not have a cupola. Instead it has a small spire and three pediments in the steep angled roof. The decoration or entablature around the windows is superb. It was later known as Southern Union House as the Union Investment Company had offices here. It is still a city landmark.

In Ryrie St. A number of buildings are worthy of mention. The towered Post Office is on the corner of Ryrie and Gheringhap Streets. Postal services began around 1840. This Post Office was built 1890 but is now closed as a Post Office. At 137 Ryrie are the Hopetoun Chambers named after the then Governor of Victoria. Built in 1891 in classical style for businessman G.F. Belcher. Next door is Belchers Corner (with Moorabool St.) with another building that has Corinthian acanthus leaved pilasters against the walls. On the opposite corner is the landmark T and G Life Assurance Building with its fine Art Deco features and its six storey clock tower. When built in 1934 this would have been the tallest building in Geelong. Nearby at 161 Ryrie is the Geelong Gas Company building built in Art Deco style with bay windows, towers etc The Gas Works Co was founded in 1858 and operated until 1971 with the gas works at Geelong West. The offices in Ryrie St. were built in 1920. At 194 Ryrie is the Geelong Theatre now beautifully painted. It began theatre productions in 1913. Today it is a Village Cinema. On the next corner of Ryrie and Yarra note the Gatehouse or Ryrie Guest House. This pretty two storey red brick Art and Crafts house with some Art Nouveau decoration was erected in 1897. The plaster decoration in the gables is very Art Nouveau with a pseudo armorial shield and a French fleur de lys.

Down by the esplanade and Brougham St. the wool merchants erected their grand wool stores and offices near the port and piers. Right on the esplanade is the Sailors Rest Home built in the Art Deco style in 1912 with a cupola on the corner. The architect was Percy Everett and the building was originally known as the King Edward VII Sailors’ Rest home. It is heritage listed because it has the oldest electric advertising sign with flashing lights in Victoria which was erected in 1926. It was erected to keep sailors away from alcohol and city temptations but did it work? Just back from the Sailors’ Rest Home on the corner of Brougham St. is C. J Dennys & Co wool store. It was erected in 1872 in local basalt with cement render quoins on corners and around windows. It is now the Tourist Information Centre and the National Wool Museum. Dennys also had a tallow works and tannery. His company included his cousin Edward Harewood Lascelles who owned another wool broking company in his own right. The opening of three woollen textile mills in Geelong in 1874 helped his wool sales greatly. Later Sidney Austin of Barwon Park estate near Geelong later joined the company too. The other wool stores in Brougham St. are the Strachan and Co stores, the Dennys Lascelles red brick wool store, Dalgety and Co, Murray Shannon and Co etc. Most have been converted to offices or apartment accommodation. Also in Brougham St. is the Geelong Club. It was the wool pastoralists and the wool brokers who wanted a gentlemen’s’ club and Edward Lascelles, one of the city’s major wool brokers, worked for the opening of the club house. His son ran Dennys Lascelles wool stores. The club was formed in 1859 but Lascelles club house was only erected in 1889. The delightful Queen Anne style building still stands next to sombre three and four storey wool stores. More recently artist Jan Mitchell took hundreds of old bollard taken from the old wharves and transformed them into dozens and dozens of groups of wooden figures along the art walk on the esplanade. They are a bright and fascinating addition to the art scene in Geelong.

The civic precinct and buildings of Geelong are especially attractive around Johnstone Park. The park was named after a mayor Robert de Bruce Johnstone. When the town was laid out the area was a swamp. In the 1850s it became a dam to supply water for the growing town. Mayor Johnstone in 1865 wanted a fine park and garden there. Hence the naming of the park after him. An early bandstand was erected here but the park and gardens were beautified in 1917 when a new bandstand with a cupola was erected. In 1926 a war memorial and war memorial gates were built in the park. One the edge of the park is the Town Hall which dates from 1855 when it faced Little Malop St. Its grand classical style was befitting of a growing city. The rest of the original architectural plans for the Town Hall facing Gheringhap Street were completed in 1917. Just two years before that the Geelong Art Gallery was built on the edge of the park too. Behind the Art Gallery is the futuristic Dome (2015) which is now the city library. Although not part of the civic complex across the park is the stunning facade of the Gordon Technical College (1887) in Fenwick St. In the centre of the park is the Hitchcock Memorial Band Stand and gardens erected in 1919. On the axis from the Band Stand is the 1922 War Memorial Gates to the park. An attached building to the Art Gallery contains the War Memorial Shrine. On the north western corner of the park is the railway station. Malop St. begins at Johnstone Park and at the eastern end of it is another garden- the Geelong Botanic Gardens. 200 acres were set aside here as a reserve in 1851 when Victoria became a separate colony from NSW. An area for a botanic garden was established in 1857 when the first garden curator Daniel Bunce was appointed. In 1859 a conservatory and a greenhouse were erected as the plant collection from around the world was being established. In line with Victorian era trends a fernery was built in 1885 and a pond in 1886. The gardens contain the tiny wooden Customs House of 1838 - the oldest wooden building in Victoria.

!!!! important !!!! by neo - old account

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hello all xD

i.. i LOST this account !

only can use on mobile ㅠㅜ

so i make NEW account... plz add me if u want :)

i will add u guys too !

now never use this account! but cant delect...

www.flickr.com/photos/sl_briceneo/

Freud's Underbelly (Edward Bernays) by Marcel Mac Duchamp and Rroseeen Ní Shélavy in Infrat(h)in

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This is why I think scale is important. It is to do with a rather shoddy 'bill of goods', a new(-ish) religion even. It involves a taking back of the city, of our shared spaces, and learning to carve messages on our conurbations themselves, our termite hills.

Yes, I am writing. I sit with the stuff and grapple with it most days. It’s principally about what I call ‘drivers’, that is, more or less, everything else that isn’t the ‘self’, but including that self. It is primarily about there being no such thing as ‘free will’, nothing that might remotely resemble the idea of ‘choice’, that we are in that state of being constantly ‘driven’, with no real idea of who or what the ‘driver’ is.

Hormones were, of course, one of those out-of-control drivers, but so was the cup of coffee we probably both had this morning, as are the drugs, those drivers I am currently ‘enjoying’ that are designed to control the driver that is ‘HIV’ itself. Part of the story includes musings around Joyce and others (Duchamp, Goya, David etcetera), many others even, and how the syphilis spirochete, perhaps, wrote ‘Finnegan’s Wake’ (the blinding genius is in allowing it to do so), getting past that blood/brain barrier, in the same way that Opium wrote De Quincey’s ‘Confessions of an Opium Eater’. Dawkins posited the idea somewhat in ‘The Selfish Gene’, when he wrote about the parasite that infected the fluke, entering its brain and causing it to climb to the highest outward leaf, totally against its nature, to be eaten by a passing bird, thus assuring its own continuance, through laying it eggs in the gut of the bird to be shat out and, thereby, to start all over again. Dawkins also introduced us to the idea of the ‘meme’ in the same volume, how memes infect, even. The idea is that we are in a soup, a 'mere' ingredient, and all ingredients are equal, and we have no idea what we are imbibing from our surrounding, what ‘parasite’ or ‘influencers’ /memes are driving us. Freud’s nephew, Edward Bernays knew this well, and developed ‘public relations’ and ‘propaganda’. He was called ‘The Father of Spin’, and we are currently seeing the fruit of his life’s work coming to a perverse type of fulfilment.

Bernays knew about ‘drivers’, and how to exploit them.

Personally, I would also like to look at ‘shame’ and religion relative to all this. The shame meme was central to my Irish childhood, twinned with the religion meme. This is, and has been for a while, some brouhaha around Mr. Joyce and a theory, currently enjoying some literary attention, that he had syphilis. I am thinking here particularly of three books: 1. ‘Pox: Genius, Madness, and the Mysteries of Syphilis’, by Deborah Hayden, 2. ‘James Joyce & the Burden of Disease’, by Kathleen Ferris, and 3. ‘The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce’s Ulysses’ by Kevin Birmingham. There is some strong opposition to the idea at the same time, that ‘why besmirch the writer’s reputation with such a scandalous theory?’ school-of-thought, though there seems to be a lot of evidence suggesting this to be true. But I would like to posit another idea, and that is that syphilis, or HIV for that matter, is the same as any other disease or virus, and that the need to attach shame to a virus because it is sexually transmitted is erroneous, and that disease is disease, and sex itself, alone, or with one, or hundreds of partners (dare I say thousands), is not a shameful act. I feel, now at last, enough beyond the control of that ‘driver’ to be able to look at it straight on, unashamedly.

Then there is another idea I am working on, which is also a part of that mix, the idea of the universal equality of all matter and anti-matter, everything, and everything else, and the notion of us being to this planet as HIV, or any virus or ‘life-manifestation’, is to the body it inhabits (or infects, as it is called medically). The ideal would be to achieve a stasis, a symbiotic arrangement between the host and the visitor, the body and the virus, the planet and the inhabitant.

But life eats, it is what it does, and mostly it eats blindly, indifferent to what it is eating, so the visitor, or that inhabitant, will overcome the body, or planet, eventually. We can devise methods to slow it down, drugs whatever, we can all become vegan, stop breeding, and forgo flying, we can attempt to contain ourselves.

I would say that greed is a human foible, but it’s not, it’s a universal driver, acknowledged by Mr. Darwin. Life eats everything, every other manifestation of life, weaker than itself, is probably how I might best describe it. Then there is also that ‘driver’ idea Mr. Dawkins introduced in that book of his in the seventies, that the parasite itself can become the ‘driver’. That life determines ‘choices’ and ‘decisions’, and that this might not include the survival of the host, and invariably doesn’t.

The ‘struggle’ would appear to be how to celebrate this, to show this apparent striving in all its glory. There is a lineage, of course, from the Taittiriya Upanishad: “(O wonderful! O wonderful! O wonderful!) I am food, I am food, I am food! I am the eater of food, I am the eater of food, I am the eater of food!” It continues through the writings of Shaw and his ‘Life Force’, through Bertrand Russell, to modern day philosophical musings around ‘Universal Consciousness’, a discussion currently calling itself ‘Panpsychism’. Ideally, I would like to, and do attempt to, approach these ideas godlessly, but in absolute awe.

This cannot be done, or at least I cannot do it, scientifically. There can be no ‘Double-Blind’ test, no controller, no statistics to fall back on. I see it as a groping forward in that inspiring, but doomed to failure, blind-leading-the-blind sort of way. It must be a flight of imagination, with no roadmap, and acceptance of, or rather embracing of, failure. The worst that can happen is that you fall flat on your face and die.

Ho-hum, as they say, wasn’t that on the cards from the beginning anyway?

Important details by Saltish-Man

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Education is important by Thomas Hamel

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Kids get a lift to school in the morning in Pintag, Ecuador

Stagecoach 18160 by tigercub66

Important legal note.

All images are copyright and must not be re posted or water marks removed, anyone found reposting is liaIble to prosecution.

Important Message by Brian Evans

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gay art homosexual couple queer art paintings lgbt painter raphael perez life story האמנות הישראלית by Raphael Perez Israeli Artist

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Pride and Prejudice: on Raphael Perez's Artwork

Raphael Perez, born in 1965, studied art at the College of Visual Arts in Beer Sheva, and from 1995 has been living and working in his studio in Tel Aviv. Today Perez plays an important role in actively promoting the LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual) art and culture in Tel Aviv, and the internet portal he set up helps artists from the community reach large audiences in Israel and abroad. Hundreds of his artworks are part of private collections in Israel and abroad, and his artworks were shown in several group exhibitions: in Tel Aviv Museum of Art, "Zman Le'Omanut" art gallery, Camera Obscura, The Open House in Jerusalem, Ophir Gallery, The Haifa Forum and other private businesses and galleries.

In 2003-4 his paintings and studio appeared in a full-length movie, three student films and two graduation films.

Raphael Perez is the first Israeli artist to express his lifestyle as a Gay. His life and the life of the LGBT community are connected and unfold over hundreds of artwork pieces. His art creation is rare and extraordinary by every Israeli and international artistic standard. His sources of inspiration are first and foremost life events intertwined in Jewish and Israeli locality as well as influences and quotes from art history (David Hockney, Matisse). This uniqueness has crossed international borders and has succeeded in moving the LGBT and art communities around the world.

This is the first time we meet an Israeli artist who expresses all of his emotions in a previously unknown strength. The subjects of the paintings are the everyday life of couples in everyday places and situations, along with the aspiration to a homosexual relationship and family, equality and public recognition. Perez's works bring forward to the cultural space and to the public discourse the truth about living as LGBT and about relationships, with all of their aspects – casual relationships and sex, the yearning for love, the everyday life and the mundane activities that exist in every romantic relationship – whether by describing two men in an intimate scene in the bathroom, the bedroom or the toilet, a male couple raising a baby or the homosexual version of the Garden of Eden, family dinners, relationship ups and downs, the complexity in sharing a life as well as mundane, everyday life competing with the aspiration to self realization – through Perez's life.

Perez's first artworks are personal diaries, which he creates at 14 years of age. He makes sure to hide these diaries, as in them he keeps a personal journal describing his life events in the most genuine way. In these journals he draws thousands of drawings and sketches, next to which he alternately writes and erases his so-called "problematic texts", texts describing his struggle with his sexual orientation. His diaries are filled with obsessive cataloging of details, daily actions, friends and work, as well as repeating themes, such as thoughts, exhibits he has seen, movies, television, books and review of his work.

When he is done writing, Perez draws on his diaries. Each layer is done from beginning to end all along the journal. In fact, the work on the diaries never ends.

This struggle never ends, and when the emotion is passed on to paper, and it ends its role and becomes meaningless in a way, the visual-graphic side becomes dominant, due to the need to hide the written text, according to Perez. In books and diaries this stands out even more – when he chooses to draw in a style influenced by children's drawings, the characters are cheerful, happy, naïve and do not portray any sexuality, and when he tries drawing as an adult the sketches became more depressed and somber. During these years Perez works with preschool children, teaching them drawing and movement games. Perez says that during this period he completely abandoned the search for a relationship, either with a woman or a man, and working with children has given him existential meaning. This creation continues over 10 years, and Perez creates about 60 books-personal journals in various sizes (notepads, old notebooks, atlases and even old art books).

In his early paintings (1998-1999) the transition from relationships with women to relationships with men can be seen, from restraint to emotional outburst in color, lines and composition. Some characters display strong emotional expression. The women are usually drawn in restraint and passiveness, while a happy and loving emotional outburst is expressed in the colors and style of the male paintings.

"I fantasized that in a relationship with a woman I could fly in the sky, love, fly. However, I felt I was hiding something; I was choked up, hidden behind a mask, as if there was an internal scream wanting to come out. I was frustrated, I felt threatened…"

His first romance with a man in 1999 has drawn out a series of naïve paintings dealing with love and the excitement of performing everyday actions together in the intimate domestic environment.

"The excitement from each everyday experience of doing things together and the togetherness was great, so I painted every possible thing I liked doing with him."

From the moment the self-oppression and repression stopped, Perez started the process of healing, which was expressed in a burst of artworks, enormous in their size, amount, content and vivid colors – red, pink and white.

In 2000 Perez starts painting the huge artworks describing the hangouts of the LGBT community (The Lake, The Pool) and the Tel Avivian balcony paintings describing the masculine world, which, according to him, becomes existent thanks to the painting. Perez has dedicated this year to many series of drawings and paintings of the experience of love, in which he describes his first love for his new partner, and during these months he paints from morning to night. These paintings are the fruit of a long dialogue with David Hockney, and the similarity can be seen both in subjects and in different gestures.

In 2001 Perez creates a series of artworks, "Portraits from The Community". Perez describes in large, photorealistic paintings over 20 portraits of active and well-known members of the LGBT community. The emphasis is on the achievements that reflect the community's strong standing in Tel Aviv.

As a Tel-Avivian painter, in the past two years Perez has been painting urban landscapes of central locations in his city. Perez wanders around the city and chooses familiar architectural and geographical landmarks, commerce and recreation, and historical sites, and paints them from a homosexual point of view, decorated with the rainbow flag, which provide a sense of belonging to the place. His artworks are characterized by a cheerful joie de vivre and colors, and they also describe encounters and meetings. The touristic nature of his paintings makes them a declaration of Tel Aviv's image as a place where cultural freedom prevails.

Perez's Tel Aviv is a city where young families and couples live and fill the streets, the parks, the beach, the houses and the balconies – all the city's spaces. The characters in his paintings are similar, which helps reinforcing the belonging to the LGBT community in Tel Aviv. The collective theme in Perez's artwork interacts with the work of the Israeli artist Yohanan Simon, who dealt with the social aspects of the Kibbutz. Simon, who lived and worked in a Kibbutz, expressed the human model of the Kibbutznik (member of a Kibbutz) and the uniqueness of the Kibbutz members as part of a group where all are equal. Simon's works, and now Perez's, have contributed to the Israeli society what is has been looking for endlessly, which is a sense of identity and belonging.

Perez maps his territory and marks his boundaries, and does not forget the historical sites. Unlike other Tel Avivian artists, Perez wishes to present the lives of the residents of the city and the great love in their hearts. By choosing the historical sites in Tel Aviv, he also pays tribute to the artist Nachum Gutman, who loved the city and lived in it his whole life. In his childhood Gutman experienced historical moments (lighting the first oil lamp, first concert, first pavement), and as an adult he recreated the uniqueness of those events while keeping the city's magic.

Like Gutman, Perez has also turned the city into an object of love, and it has started adorning itself in rich colors and supplying the energy of a city that wishes to be "the city that never sleeps", combining old and new. Perez meticulously describes the uniqueness and style of the Bauhaus houses and balconies along the modern glass and steel buildings, all from unusual angles in a rectangular format that wishes to imitate the panorama of a diverse city in its centennial celebrations.

Daniel Cahana-Levensohn, curator.

Interview with the painter Raphael Perez about his family artist book

An interview with the painter Raphael Perez about an artist's book he created about his family, the Peretz family from 6 Nissan St. Kiryat Yuval Jerusalem

Question: Raphael Perez, tell me about the family artist book you created

Answer: I created close to 40 artist books, notebooks, diaries, sketch books and huge books. I dedicated one of the books to my dear family, a book in which I took a childhood photograph of my family, my parents and brothers and sisters.. I pasted the photographs inside a book (the photograph is 10 percent of the total painting) and I drew with acrylic paints, markers and ink on the book and the photograph, so that the image of the photograph was an inspiration to me Build the story that includes page by page..

Question: Tell me when you were born, where, and a little about your family

Answer: I was born on March 4, 1965 in the Kiryat Yuval neighborhood in Jerusalem

I have a twin brother named Miki Peretz and we are seven brothers and sisters, five boys and two girls

Question: Tell us a little about your parents

Answer: My parents were new immigrants from Morocco, both immigrated young.

My mother's name before the wedding was Alice - Aliza ben Yair and my father's name was Shimon Peretz,

My mother was born in the Atlas Mountains and was orphaned at a young age and was later adopted by my father's family at the age of 10, so that my mother and father spent childhood and adolescence together....

They had a beautiful and happy relationship but sometimes when they argued my mother would say "even when she was a child she was like that..." This means that their acquaintance and relationship dates back to childhood..

Question: What did your parents Shimon and Aliza Peretz work for?

Answer: My father, Shimon Perez, born in 1928 - worked in a building in his youth and then for thirty years worked as a receptionist at Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital in Jerusalem... My father's great love was actually art, he loved to draw as a hobby, write, read, solve crossword puzzles and research Regarding the issue of medicinal plants, as a breadwinner he could not fulfill his dream of becoming an artist, in order to support and feed seven children. But we are the next generation, his children are engaged in the world of creativity and education, a field in which both of my parents were engaged during their lives. My father died at the age of 69

My mother, Alice Aliza Perez, born in 1934, worked as an assistant to a kindergarten teacher, and later took care of a baby at home. She is a woman of wholehearted giving and caring for children and people, a warm, generous and humble woman.. and took care of us in our childhood for every emotional and physical deficiency.. My mother is right For the year 2023, the 89-year-old is partly happy and happy despite the difficulties of age.. May you have a long life..

My mother really loved gardening and nature and both of them together created a magnificent garden, my parents have a relatively large garden so they could grow many types of special and rare medicinal plants and my father even wrote a catalog (unpublished) of medicinal plants and we even had botany students come to us who were interested in the field... today they They also grow ornamental plants, and fruit trees...

Question: A book about the brothers and sisters

Answer: My elder brother David Perez repented in his mid-twenties.. He was a very sharp, opinionated, curious and very charismatic guy who brought many people back to repentance, and also helped people with problems through the yeshiva and the synagogue to return to the normal path of life, he died young at the age of 56

Hana Peretz: My lovely sister, raised eight children, worked in the field of education, a kindergarten teacher, and child care.

She has a very large extended family of grandchildren, great-grandchildren and great-great-grandchildren...

My brother Avi (Abraham) Peretz studied in Israel at the University of Philosophy and Judaism, he married a wonderful woman named Mira Drumi, a nurse by profession, and together they had three wonderful children, when they moved to the United States in their mid-twenties, where my brother Avi Peretz completed his master's degree in education, worked in the field Education and for the last twenty years is A conservative rabbi

The fourth brother is Asher Peretz - a great man of the world, very fond of traveling and has been to magical places all over the world, engaged in the creation of jewelry with two children.

I am Rafi Peretz english raphael perez the fifth and after fifteen minutes my twin brother was born

My mother still gets confused and can't remember who was born first :-)

My twin brother Miki micky - Michael Peretz, a beloved brother (everyone is beloved), a talented industrial designer, he has three children, his wife Revital Peretz Ben, who is a well-known art curator, active and responsible for the art field in Tel Aviv, they are a dynamic and talented couple, full of talents and action

The lovely little sister Shlomit Peretz - has been involved in the Bezeq telephone company for almost three decades, and is there in management positions, raising her lovely and beloved child.

The art book I dedicated to my family is colorful, rich in details, shows a very intense childhood, happy, cheerful, colorful, ... We were taught to be diligent and to be happy in our part and to see the glass half full in life, to have emotional intelligence and to put the relationship and love at the center with self-fulfillment in work that will interest you us and you will give us satisfaction.

Each of us is different in our life decisions and my family is actually a mosaic of the State of Israel that includes both religious and secular people from the entire political spectrum who understand that the secret to unity is mutual respect for each other... when my mother these days is also the family glue in everyone's gatherings on Shabbat and holidays..

The personification of the flower couple paintings by the Israeli painter Raphael Perez

Raphael Perez, also known as Rafi Peretz, is an Israeli painter who

explores his personal and sexual identity through his flower paintings. He created a series of flower paintings from 1995 to 1998, when he was in his early thirties and still in relationships with women, despite feeling gay. His flower paintings reflect his emotional turmoil and his struggle with his sexual orientation. He painted two flowers, one blooming and one wilting, to represent the contrast and conflict between his heterosexual relationships and his true self. He also painted single flowers or two flowers in their prime, to express his longing for a harmonious relationship that matches his nature. He chose sunflowers, white lilies, and red lilies as symbols of expression, purity, and joy, respectively. He painted from real flowers, using different styles and light to create drama and mood. Perez’s paintings of the flower couples are minimalist and focused on the theme of the complex relationship. He omitted any background or context, leaving only the canvas and the drawing of the flower couples. In some of the paintings, he added a very airy abstract surface with thin oil paints that give an atmosphere of watercolors. He also made drawings of flowers in ink, markers and gouache on paper. Later on, he created large acrylic paintings of flowers and still life. Perez’s flower paintings are not mere illustrations or decorations. They are autobiographical and psychological expressions of his inner state and his struggle with his sexuality. He wanted to reveal his loneliness, distress and concealment through these paintings, and to connect with people who are in a similar situation. He deliberately chose only two flowers and no more to intensify the engagement in the charged and complex relationship. Perez also painted and drew couples of men and women with charged psychological states, as well as states of desire for connection and realization of a heterosexual relationship that did not succeed. He used hyperrealism and expressive styles to convey his frozen and calculated state, as well as his mental stress. He used harsh lighting to create contrast and drama, with one side very bright and the other side darker. Perez was influenced by some of the famous artists who painted flowers, such as Van Gogh, who also used sunflowers as a symbol of expression. He also used white lilies and red lilies to convey freshness, cleanliness, purity, color, joy, movement, eruption, and splendor. Perez also painted some single flowers or two flowers in their prime, to show his aspiration for a future where he will have a harmonious relationship. Today, he is 58 years old and in a happy relationship for 10 years with his partner Assaf Henigsberg. He is surrounded by female friends and soulmates and not conflicted with heterosexual relationships as he used to be. He occasionally paints flowers in pots to symbolize home, stability, and peace. Sometimes I paint flowers in pots, which represent home, stability, and solid ground for me. I don’t paint just a couple of flowers, but pots full of flowers that overflow with life. This means that we also have a supportive network of family, friends, and peers around us. We live in a rich, supportive, and protective world. These paintings are a personification of my psychological state, when I had no words to express my feelings to myself. The painting began In 35 years of my creation (starting in 1998), you can read more about how my art and style evolved over time. Perez’s flower paintings are a unique and extraordinary artistic creation that reveals his personal journey and his sexual identity. His work is honest, expressive, and emotional, as well as beautiful and vibrant.

The characteristics of the naive painting of the painter Raphael Perez

A full interview with the Israeli painter Raphael Perez (Hebrew name: Rafi Peretz) about the ideas behind the naive painting, resume, personal biography and curriculum vitae Question: Raphael Perez Tell us about your work process as a naive painter? Answer: I choose the most iconic and famous buildings in every city and town that are architecturally interesting and have a special shape and place the iconic buildings on boulevards full of trees, bushes, vegetation, flowers. Question: How do you give depth in your naive paintings? Answer: To give depth to the painting, I build the painting with layers of vegetation, after those low famous buildings, followed by a tall avenue of trees, and behind them towers and skyscrapers, in the sky I sometimes put innocent signs of balloons, kites. A recurring motif in some of my paintings is the figure of the painter who is in the center of the boulevard and paints the entire scene unfolding in front of him, also there are two kindergarten teachers who are walking with the kindergarten children with the state flags that I paint, and loving couples hugging and kissing and family paintings of mother, father and child walking in harmony on the boulevard. Question: Raphael Perez, what characterizes your naive painting? Answer: Most naive paintings have the same characteristics (Definition as it appears in Wikipedia) • Tells a simple story to absorb from everyday life, usually with humans. • The representation of the painter's idealization to reality - the mapping of reality. • Failure to maintain perspective - especially details even in distant details. • Extensive use of repeating patterns - many details. • Warm and bright colors. • Sometimes the emphasis is on outlines. • Most of the characters are flat, lack volume • No interest in texture, expression, correct proportions • No interest in anatomy. • There is not much use of light and shade, the colors create a three-dimensional effect. I find these definitions to be valid for all my naive paintings Question: Raphael Perez, why do you choose the city of Tel Aviv? Answer: I was born in Jerusalem, the capital city which I love very much and also paint, I love the special Bauhaus buildings in Tel Aviv, the ornamental buildings that were built a century ago in the 1920s and 1930s, the beautiful boulevards, towers and modern skyscrapers give you the feeling of the hustle and bustle of a large metropolis and there are quite a few low and tall buildings that are architecturally fascinating in their form the special one Also, the move to Tel Aviv, which is the capital of culture, freedom, and secularism, allowed me to live my life as I chose, to live in a relationship with a man, Jerusalem, which is a traditional city, it is more complicated to live a homosexual life, also, the art world takes place mainly in the city of Tel Aviv, and it is possible that from a professional point of view, this allows I can support myself better in Tel Aviv than in any other city in Israel. Question: Raphael Perez, are the paintings of the city of Tel Aviv different from the paintings of the city of Jerusalem? Answer: Most of the paintings of Jerusalem have an emphasis on the color yellow, gold, the color of the old city walls, the subjects I painted in Jerusalem are mainly a type of idealization of a peaceful life between Jews and Arabs and paintings that deal with the Jewish religious world, a number of paintings depict all shades of the currents of Judaism today In contrast, the Tel Aviv paintings are more colorful, with skyscrapers, the sea, balloons and more secular motifs Question: Raphael Perez, tell me about which buildings and their architects you usually choose in your drawings of cities Answer: My favorite buildings are those that have a special shape that anyone can recognize and are the symbols of the city and you will give several examples: In the city of Tel Aviv, my favorite buildings are: the opera building with its unusual geometric shape, the Yisrotel tower with its special head, the Hail Bo Shalom tower that for years was the symbol of the tallest building in Tel Aviv, the Levin house that looks like a Japanese pagoda, the burgundy-colored Nordeau hotel with the special dome at the end of the building, A pair of Alon towers with the special structure of the sea, Bauhaus buildings typical of Tel Aviv with the special balconies and the special staircase, the Yaakov Agam fountain in Dizengoff square appears in a large part of the paintings, many towers that are in the stock exchange complex, the Aviv towers and other tall buildings on Ayalon, in some of the paintings I took plans An outline of future buildings that need to be built in the city and I drew them even before they were built in reality, In the paintings of Jerusalem, I mainly chose the area of the Old City and East Jerusalem, a painting of the walls of the Old City, the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, the El Akchea Mosque, the Tower of David, most of the famous churches in the city, the right hand of Moses, in most of the paintings the Jew is wearing a blue shirt with a red male cord I was in the youth movement and the Arab with a galabia, and in the paintings of the religious public then, Jews with black suits and white shirts, tallitas, kippahs, special hats, synagogues and more I also created three paintings of the city of Haifa and one painting of Safed In the Haifa paintings I drew the university, the Technion, the famous Egged Tower, the Sail Tower, well-known hotels, of course the Baha'i Gardens and the Baha'i Temple, Haifa Port and the boats and other famous buildings in the city Question: Raphael Perez, have you created series of other cities from around the world? Answer: I created series of New York City with all the iconic and famous buildings such as: the Guggenheim Museum, the famous skyscrapers - the Chrysler Building, the Empire State Building, Lincoln Center, the famous synagogue in the city, the Statue of Liberty, the flags of the United States and other famous buildings Two paintings of London and all its famous sites, Big Ben, famous monuments, the Ferris wheel, Queen Elizabeth and her family, the double bus, the famous public telephone, palaces, famous churches, well-known monuments I created 4 naive paintings of cities in China, a painting of Shanghai, two paintings of the city of Suzhou and a painting of the World Park in the city of Beijing... I chose the famous skyline of Shanghai with all the famous towers, the famous promenade, temples and old buildings, two Paintings of the city of Suzhou with the famous canals, bridges, special gardens, towers and skyscrapers of the city Question: Raphael Perez What is the general idea that accompanies your paintings Answer: To create a good, beautiful, naive, innocent world in which we will see the innovation of the modern city through the skyscrapers in front of small and low buildings that bring the history and past of each country, all with an abundance of vegetation, boulevards, trees Resume, biography, CV of the painter Rafi Peretz and his family Question: When was Raphael Perez born in hebrew his name rafi peretz? Answer: Raphael Perez in Hebrew his name Rafi Peretz was born on March 4, 1965 Question: Where was Raphael Perez born? Answer: Raphael Perez was born in Jerusalem, Israel Question: What is the full name of Raphael Perez? Answer: His full name is Raphael Perez Question: Which art institution did Raphael Perez graduate from? Answer: Raphael Perez graduated from the Visual Arts Center in Be'er Sheva Question: When did Raphael Perez start painting? Answer: Raphael Perez started painting in 1989 Question: When did you start making a living selling art? Answer: Raphael Perez started making a living selling art in 1999 Question: Where does Raphael Perez live and work? Answer: Since 1995, Raphael Perez has been living and working from his studio in Tel Aviv Question: In which military framework did Raphael Perez serve in the IDF? Answer: Raphael Perez served in the artillery corps Question: Raphael Perez, what jobs did he work after his military service? Answer: Raphael Perez worked for 15 years in education in therapeutic settings for children and taught arts and movement Question: How many brothers and sisters does Raphael Perez, the Israeli painter, have? Answer: There are seven children in total, with the painter 5 sons and two daughters, that means the painter Raphael Perez has 4 more brothers and two sisters Question: What do the brothers and sisters of the painter Raphael Perez do? Answer: The elder brother David Peretz Perez was involved in the field of religious studies, the sister Hana Peretz Perez is involved in the field of education, a kindergarten teacher and child care, the brother Avi Peretz Perez who is in the United States today is a conservative rabbi but in the past was involved in education and therapy, the brother Asher Peretz Perez is involved in the fields of creativity and jewelry The twin brother Mickey Peretz Perez is a well-known industrial designer and seller. The younger sister Shlomit Peretz Perez works in a managerial position at Bezeq. Question: Tell me about the parents of the painter Raphael PerezAnswer: The painter Raphael Perez's parents are Shimon Perez Peretz and Eliza Alice Ben Yair, they were married in 1950 in Jerusalem, both were born in Morocco and immigrated to Israel in 1949, Shimon Peretz worked in a building in his youth and later as a receptionist at the Hadassah Ein Kerem Hospital, Eliza Alice Peretz dealt in child care Kindergarten, working in kindergartens and of course taking care of and raising her seven children

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רפי פרץ צייר אמן ישראלי עכשווי מודרני אמנים ישראלים אומנים ישראליים עכשוויים מודרניים האמנים הישראלים העכשוויים המודרניים האומנים הישראליים העכשוויים המודרניים יוצר הומו הומוסקסואל קווירי הומוסקסואליות באמנות הישראלית מגדר אומנות ומגדר אמנות ישראלית עכשווית מודרנית האמנות הישראלית העכשווית המודרנית

erotic gay art painting artist raphael perez pintura homossexual da arte de gomoseksual badiiy rasm гомосексуальний художній живопис pittura di arte omosessuale lukisan seni homoseksual listmálun samkynhneigðra péintéireacht ealaíne homaighnéasach pikturë arti homoseksual homoseksuaalne kunstimaal хомосексуална художествена живопис homoseksualno likovno slikarstvo жывапіс гомасэксуальнага мастацтва সমকামী আর্ট পেইন্টিং homoseksuel kunstmaleri homoszexuális művészeti festmény рассоми санъати гомосексуалӣ gomoseksual sungat suratkeşligi homoseksuālas mākslas glezniecība homoseksualaus meno tapyba homoseksuell kunstmaleri homoseksualno likovno slikarstvo

queer artworks paintings homoerotic painter lgbt artwork glbt artworks homo erotica man nude male naked men image images picture pictures homosexual homosexualiy artists painters artist body realism realistic famous

مثلي الجنس الفن الغريبة الأعمال الفنية معرض معرض رجل عارية لوحة رجال عراة صورة الجسم الإسرائيلي فنان رسام مثلى الفنانين الرسامين لوحات واقعية مثلي الجنس الشهير صورة كبيرة

arte homosexual queer obras de arte galería exposición hombre desnudo pintura hombres desnudos retrato cuerpo artista israelí pintor artistas gay pintores pinturas realistas homoerótico famoso imagen grande

гомосексуальное искусство квир произведения искусства галерея выставка мужчина ню живопись голые мужчины портрет тело израильский художник художник геи художники художники реалистичные картины гомоэротика знаменитый большое изображение

ομοφυλοφιλική τέχνη queer artworks γκαλερί έκθεση άντρας γυμνή ζωγραφική γυμνοί άντρες πορτραίτο ισραήλ καλλιτέχνης ζωγράφος γκέι καλλιτέχνες ζωγράφοι ρεαλιστικοί πίνακες ομοιορωτική διάσημη μεγάλη εικόνα

homosexuelle kunst queer kunstwerke galerie ausstellung mann nackt malerei nackte männer porträtkörper israelischer künstler maler schwule künstler maler realistische gemälde homoerotisch berühmtes großes bild

homoseksuele kunst queer kunstwerken galerie tentoonstelling man naakt schilderij naakte mannen portret lichaam Israëlische kunstenaar schilder homo kunstenaars schilders realistische schilderijen homo-erotisch beroemd groot beeld

art homosexuel queer oeuvres d'art galerie exposition homme peinture nue hommes nus portrait corps artiste israélien peintre artistes gais peintres peintures réalistes homoérotique célèbre grande image

homoseksualna sztuka queer dzieła galeria wystawa mężczyzna nago malarstwo nagi mężczyzna portret ciało izraelski artysta malarz homoseksualiści malarze realistyczni obrazy homoerotyk sławny duży obraz

Eşcinsel sanat queer sanat eseri galeri sergi adam çıplak boyama çıplak erkekler portre vücut İsrail sanatçı ressam eşcinsel sanatçılar ressamlar gerçekçi resim sergisi homoerotik ünlü büyük resim

समलैंगिक कला क्वीर कलाकृतियों गैलरी प्रदर्शनी आदमी नग्न पेंटिंग नग्न पुरुषों चित्र शरीर इजरायल कलाकार चित्रकार समलैंगिक कलाकारों चित्रकारों यथार्थवादी चित्रों समलैंगिक प्रसिद्ध बड़ी छवि

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Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson by Jelltex

8 6

A fine son of Norfolk.

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Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, KB (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a British flag officer in the Royal Navy. He was noted for his inspirational leadership and superb grasp of strategy and unconventional tactics, which resulted in a number of decisive naval victories, particularly during the Napoleonic Wars. He was wounded several times in combat, losing one arm in the unsuccessful attempt to conquer Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the sight in one eye in Corsica. He was shot and killed during his final victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.

Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle, Maurice Suckling. He rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command in 1778. He developed a reputation in the service through his personal valour and firm grasp of tactics but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica and subsequent diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while in command of HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent.

Shortly after the battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where his attack was defeated and he was badly wounded, losing his right arm, and was forced to return to England to recuperate. The following year, he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion. In 1801, he was dispatched to the Baltic and won another victory, this time over the Danes at the Battle of Copenhagen. He subsequently commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle was Britain's greatest naval victory, but during the action Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a French sharpshooter. His body was brought back to England where he was accorded a state funeral.

Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. The significance of the victory and his death during the battle led to his signal, "England expects that every man will do his duty", being regularly quoted, paraphrased and referenced up to the modern day. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory and his legacy remains highly influential.

Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 in a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England, the sixth of eleven children of the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Suckling.[1] He was named after his godfather Horatio Walpole (1723–1809) then 2nd Baron Walpole, of Wolterton.[2] His mother, who died on 26 December 1767 when he was nine years old, was a grandniece of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first Prime Minister of Great Britain.[3] She lived in the village of Barsham, Suffolk, and married the Reverend Edmund Nelson at Beccles church, Suffolk, in 1749. Nelson's aunt, Alice Nelson was the wife of Reverend Robert Rolfe, Rector of Hilborough, Norfolk and grandmother of Sir Robert Monsey Rolfe.[4] Rolfe twice served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain.

Nelson attended Paston Grammar School, North Walsham, until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI’s Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate HMS Raisonnable as an ordinary seaman and coxswain under his maternal uncle, Captain Maurice Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered that he suffered from seasickness, a chronic complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life.

HMS Raisonnable had been commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when this passed, Suckling was transferred to the Nore guardship HMS Triumph and Nelson was dispatched to serve aboard the West Indiamen of the merchant shipping firm of Hibbert, Purrier and Horton, in order to gain experience at sea.[6] In this capacity he twice crossed the Atlantic, before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of Suckling's longboat, which carried men and dispatches to and from the shore. Nelson then learned of a planned expedition under the command of Constantine Phipps, intended to survey a passage in the Arctic by which it was hoped that India could be reached: the fabled Northwest Passage. At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain[7] to Commander Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, but, unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, was forced to turn back. By 1800 Lutwidge began to circulate a story that while the ship had been trapped in the ice, Nelson had seen and pursued a polar bear, before being ordered to return to the ship. Lutwidge's later version, in 1809, reported that Nelson and a companion had given chase to the bear, but on being questioned why, replied that "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father."[8]

Nelson briefly returned to the Triumph after the expedition's return to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to HMS Seahorse, one of two ships about to sail for the East Indies.

Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773 and arrived at the British outpost at Madras on 25 May 1774.[11] Nelson and the Seahorse spent the rest of the year cruising off the coast and escorting merchantmen. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of the East India Company and in early 1775 the Seahorse was dispatched to carry a cargo of the company's money to Bombay. On 19 February two of Hyder Ali's ketches attacked the Seahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first experience of battle.[12] The rest of the year he spent escorting convoys, during which he continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776 Nelson contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was discharged from the Seahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboard HMS Dolphin.[13] Nelson spent the six-month voyage recuperating and had almost recovered by the time he arrived in Britain in September 1776. His patron, Suckling, had risen to the post of Comptroller of the Navy in 1775, and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion.[3][14] Nelson was appointed acting lieutenant aboard HMS Worcester, which was about to sail to Gibraltar.[15]

The Worcester, under the command of Captain Mark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December and returned with another convoy in April 1777.[16] Nelson then travelled to London to take his lieutenant's examination on 9 April; his examining board consisted of Captains John Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle, Maurice Suckling. Nelson passed, and the next day received his commission and an appointment to HMS Lowestoffe, which was preparing to sail to Jamaica under Captain William Locker.[17] She sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July, and after reprovisioning, carried out several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of the American War of Independence the Lowestoffe took several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service as the tender Little Lucy. Nelson asked for and was given command of her, and took her on two cruises of his own.[18] As well as giving him his first taste of command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise, Nelson led an expeditionary party to the Caicos Islands,[19] where he made detailed notes of the wildlife and in particular a bird—now believed to be the white-necked jacobin.[20] Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, recommended him to the new commander-in-chief at Jamaica, Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson onto his flagship, HMS Bristol.[21] The entry of the French into the war, in support of the Americans, meant further targets for Parker's fleet and it took a large number of prizes towards the end of 1778, which brought Nelson an estimated £400 in prize money. Parker subsequently appointed him as Master and Commander of the brig HMS Badger on 8 December.[22]

Nelson and the Badger spent most of 1779 cruising off the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements at British Honduras and Nicaragua, but without much success at interception of enemy prizes.[23] On his return to Port Royal he learned that Parker had promoted him to post-captain on 11 June, and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over the Badger to Cuthbert Collingwood while he awaited the arrival of his new ship, the 28-gun frigate HMS Hinchinbrook,[a] newly captured from the French.[24] While Nelson waited, news reached Parker that a French fleet under the command of Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing, was approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organized his defences and placed Nelson in command of Fort Charles, which covered the approaches to Kingston.[25] D'Estaing instead headed north, and the anticipated invasion never materialised. Nelson duly took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September.[26]

The Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October 1779 and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American prizes.[27] On his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson began to be troubled by a recurrent attack of malaria, but remained in the West Indies in order to take part in Major-General John Dalling's attempt to capture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on the Inmaculada Concepción Fort, also called Castillo Viejo, on the San Juan River in Nicaragua.[28] The Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica in February 1780, as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson with some one thousand men and four small four-pounder cannons, obtained the surrender of Castillo Viejo and its 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege.[29] The British blew up the fort when they evacuated six months later after massive deaths due to disease and Nelson was praised for his efforts.[30] Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate HMS Janus.[31] Nelson had however fallen seriously ill in the jungles of Costa Rica, probably from a recurrence of malaria, and was unable to take command. During his time of convalescence he was nursed by a black "doctoress" named Cubah Cornwallis, the mistress of a fellow captain, William Cornwallis.[32] He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard HMS Lion,[33] arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months, and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigate HMS Albemarle on 15 August 1781.

Nelson received orders on 23 October to take the newly refitted Albemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of the Russia Company at Elsinore, and escort them back to Britain. For this operation, the Admiralty placed the frigates HMS Argo and HMS Enterprise under his command.[35] Nelson successfully organised the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but severe storms hampered him.[36] Gales almost wrecked Albemarle as she was a poorly designed ship and an earlier accident had left her damaged, but Nelson eventually brought her into Portsmouth in February 1782.[37] There the Admiralty ordered him to fit the Albemarle for sea and join the escort for a convoy collecting at Cork to sail for Quebec.[38] Nelson arrived off Newfoundland with the convoy in late May, then detached on a cruise to hunt American privateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he succeeded only in retaking several captured British merchant ships and capturing a number of small fishing boats and assorted craft.[39]

In August he had a narrow escape from a far superior French force under Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only evading them after a prolonged chase.[40] Nelson arrived at Quebec on 18 September.[41] He sailed again as part of the escort for a convoy to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to Admiral Samuel Hood, commander of the New York station.[42] At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet and Albemarle sailed in company with Hood, bound for the West Indies.[43] On their arrival, the British fleet took up position off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and the Albemarle were ordered to scout the numerous passages for signs of the enemy, but it became clear by early 1783 that the French had eluded Hood.[44] During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to assault the French garrison of the Turks Islands. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, he landed a force of 167 seamen and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment.[45] The French were found to be heavily entrenched and after several hours Nelson called off the assault. Several of the officers involved criticised Nelson, but Hood does not appear to have reprimanded him.[46] Nelson spent the rest of the war cruising in the West Indies, where he captured a number of French and Spanish prizes.[47] After news of the peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain in late June 1783.

Nelson visited France in late 1783, stayed with acquaintances at Saint-Omer, and briefly attempted to learn French. He returned to England in January 1784, and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage.[49] Influenced by the factional politics of the time, he contemplated standing for Parliament as a supporter of William Pitt, but was unable to find a seat.[50]

In 1784 he received command of the frigate HMS Boreas with the assignment to enforce the Navigation Acts in the vicinity of Antigua.[51] The Acts were unpopular with both the Americans and the colonies.[52] Nelson served on the station under Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, and often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Acts.[53] The captains of the American vessels Nelson had seized sued him for illegal seizure. Because the merchants of the nearby island of Nevis supported the American claim, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment; he remained sequestered on Boreas for eight months, until the courts ruled in his favour.[54]

In the interim, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family.[55] Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate on the island of Nevis on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.[56] The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church in St John's Parish on Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later.

Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November that year.[58] He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled at Nelson's childhood home at Burnham Thorpe.[59] Now in reserve on half pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood, to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy and Hood did not intercede on his behalf.[60] Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792 the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium), which were traditionally preserved as a buffer state. The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon in January 1793. On 1 February France declared war.

In May, 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division under the command of Vice-Admiral William Hotham, joined later in the month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet.[62] The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and, with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean, made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July.[63] Toulon was largely under the control of moderate republicans and royalists, but was threatened by the forces of the National Convention, which were marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested that Hood take the city under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced and sent Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples requesting reinforcements.[64] After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There Nelson met Ferdinand VI, King of Naples,[65] followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton.[66] At some point during the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wife, Emma Hamilton.[67] The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 men and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn, and then to Corsica.[68] He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found that a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari.

Early on the morning of 22 October 1793, the Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them, and discovered they were a French squadron. Nelson promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene.[70] He inflicted considerable damage but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle and, realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October.[70] After making repairs Nelson and the Agamemnon sailed again on 26 October, bound for Tunis with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee. On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of the Agamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica.[71] The fall of Toulon at the end of December 1793 severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provision for a withdrawal and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into republican hands.[72] Nelson's mission to Corsica took on added significance, as it could provide the British a naval base close to the French coast.[72] Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships during January 1794.[73]

A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off Bastia. For the rest of the month he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By late February St Fiorenzo had fallen and British troops under Lieutenant-General David Dundas entered the outskirts of Bastia.[74] However Dundas merely assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing the French were too well entrenched to risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant that Nelson did not receive permission to proceed until late March. Nelson began to land guns from his ships and emplace them in the hills surrounding the town. On 11 April the British squadron entered the harbour and opened fire, whilst Nelson took command of the land forces and commenced bombardment.[75] After 45 days, the town surrendered.[76] Nelson subsequently prepared for an assault on Calvi, working in company with Lieutenant-General Charles Stuart.[77]

British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's men began to advance . On 12 July Nelson was at one of the forward batteries early in the morning when a shot struck one of the sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and was forced to retire from the position, although his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action.[78] By 18 July most of the enemy positions had been disabled, and that night Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August.[79] However, Nelson's right eye had been irreparably damaged and he eventually lost sight in it.

After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state of Genoa, a strategically important potential ally.[81] Soon afterwards, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn, and while the Agamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with a local woman, Adelaide Correglia.[82] Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December; Nelson and the Agamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795.[83]

On 8 March, news reached Hotham that the French fleet was at sea and heading for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage and the two fleets shadowed each other throughout 12 March. The following day two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger 84-gun Ça Ira for two and a half hours until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.[84] The fleets continued to shadow each other before making contact again, on 14 March, in the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now under tow from the Censeur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender and Nelson took possession of the Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.

Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout the summer. On 4 July the Agamemnon sailed from St Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops, bound for Genoa. On 6 July he ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to St Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour.[86] Hotham pursued the French to the Hyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action. A number of small engagements were fought but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action.[86]

Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchants and cutting-out suspicious vessels in both enemy and neutral harbours.[87] He formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of the French Army of Italy that was now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham.[88] In November Hotham was replaced by Sir Hyde Parker but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating: the French were raiding around Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment was rife within the city itself.[89] A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them being surrounded, but he had too few ships and men to materially alter the strategic situation, and the British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed at the British failure and questioning his future in the navy.

In January 1796 the position of commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore.[91] Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite some minor successes in intercepting small French warships, Nelson began to feel the British presence on the Italian peninsula was rapidly becoming useless.[92] In June the Agamemnon was sent back to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gun HMS Captain.[92] In the same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transported them to Corsica, after which Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port.[93] In July he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French.[94] By October, the Genoese position and the continued French advances led the British to decide that the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied; they ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and by December 1796 was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar.[95]

During the passage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina and placed Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse and Thomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel, taking the Spanish captain on board Minerve. Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the following morning two Spanish ships-of-the-line and a frigate were sighted closing fast. Unable to outrun them Nelson initially determined to fight but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colours and sailed northeast, drawing the Spanish ships after them until being captured, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape.[96] Nelson went on to rendezvous with the British fleet at Elba, where he spent Christmas.[97] He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and after learning that the Spanish fleet had sailed from Cartagena, stopped just long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse, and the rest of the prize crew captured with Santa Sabina, before pressing on through the straits to join Sir John Jervis off Cadiz.

Nelson joined Jervis's fleet off Cape St Vincent, and reported the Spanish movements.[99] Jervis decided to give battle and the two fleets met on 14 February. Nelson found himself towards the rear of the British line and realised that it would be a long time before he could bring Captain into action.[99] Instead of continuing to follow the line, Nelson disobeyed orders and wore ship, breaking from the line and heading to engage the Spanish van, which consisted of the 112-gun San Josef, the 80-gun San Nicolas and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. Captain engaged all three, assisted by HMS Culloden which had come to Nelson's aid. After an hour of exchanging broadsides which left both Captain and Culloden heavily damaged, Nelson found himself alongside the San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying "Westminster Abbey! or, glorious victory!" and forced her surrender.[100] San Josef attempted to come to the San Nicolas’s aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of the San Nicolas onto the San Josef and captured her as well.[99] As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cadiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's captures.[101]

Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him,[101] but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle.[102] He did write a private letter to George Spencer in which he said that Nelson "contributed very much to the fortune of the day".[101] Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory, reporting that his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates".[100] Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear-Admiral William Parker, who had been aboard HMS Prince George. Parker claimed that Nelson had been supported by several more ships than he acknowledged, and that the San Josef had already struck her colours by the time Nelson boarded her.[103] Nelson's account of his role prevailed, and the victory was well received in Britain: Jervis was made Earl St Vincent and Nelson was made a Knight of the Bath.[104][105] On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority and unrelated to the battle, he was promoted to Rear-Admiral of the Blue.

Nelson was given HMS Theseus as his flagship, and on 27 May 1797 was ordered to lie off Cadiz, monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies.[107] He carried out a bombardment and personally led an amphibious assault on 3 July. During the action Nelson's barge collided with that of the Spanish commander, and a hand-to-hand struggle ensued between the two crews. Twice Nelson was nearly cut down and both times his life was saved by a seaman named John Sykes who took the blows and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed it back to the Theseus.[107][108] During this period Nelson developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.

The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost.[110] Nelson immediately ordered another assault but this was beaten back. He prepared for a third attempt, to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure: the Spanish were better prepared than had been expected and had secured strong defensive positions.[111] Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire and grapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point but as he stepped ashore he was hit in the right arm by a musketball, which fractured his humerus bone in multiple places.[111] He was rowed back to the Theseus to be attended to by the surgeon - Thomas Eshelby.[112] On arriving on his ship he refused to be helped aboard, declaring "Let me alone! I have got my legs left and one arm."[111] He was taken to surgeon Eshelby, instructing him to prepare his instruments and "the sooner it was off the better".[111] Most of the right arm was amputated and within half an hour Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains.[113] Years later he would excuse himself to Commodore John Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters due to not being naturally left-handed.[114] He developed the sensation of Phantom Limb in his lost arm later on and declared that he had 'found the direct evidence of the existence of soul'.[115]

Meanwhile a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had been sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were subsequently allowed to withdraw.[116] The expedition had failed to achieve any of its objectives and had left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded.[116][117] The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days and by 16 August had rejoined Jervis's fleet off Cadiz. Despondently Nelson wrote to Jervis: "A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state".[118] He returned to England aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome: the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St Vincent and his wound earned him sympathy.[119] They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St Vincent, the Secretary at War or even William Pitt.

Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October to seek expert medical attention concerning his amputated arm. Whilst in London news reached him that Admiral Duncan had defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown.[120] Nelson exclaimed that he would have given his other arm to have been present.[120] He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London and an annual pension of £1,000 a year. He used the money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny.[121] Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there.[121]

Although surgeons had been unable to remove the central ligature in his amputated arm, which had caused considerable inflammation and poisoning, in early December it came out of its own accord and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant. As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gun HMS Vanguard, to which he appointed Edward Berry as his flag captain.[122] French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern among the Admiralty: Napoleon was gathering forces in Southern France but the destination of his army was unknown. Nelson and the Vanguard were to be dispatched to Cadiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Earl St Vincent. St Vincent sent him on to Toulon with a small force to reconnoitre French activities.

Nelson passed through the Straits of Gibraltar and took up position off Toulon by 17 May, but his squadron was dispersed and blown southwards by a strong gale that struck the area on 20 May.[124] While the British were battling the storm, Napoleon had sailed with his invasion fleet under the command of Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. Nelson, having been reinforced with a number of ships from St Vincent, went in pursuit.[125] He began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates that could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived at Malta and, after a show of force, secured the island's surrender.[126] Nelson followed him there, but the French had already left. After a conference with his captains, he decided Egypt was Napoleon's most likely destination and headed for Alexandria. On his arrival on 28 June, though, he found no sign of the French; dismayed, he withdrew and began searching to the east of the port. While he was absent, Napoleon's fleet arrived on 1 July and landed their forces unopposed.[127]

Brueys then anchored his fleet in Aboukir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if required.[128] Nelson meanwhile had crossed the Mediterranean again in a fruitless attempt to locate the French and had returned to Naples to re-provision.[129] He sailed again, intending to search the seas off Cyprus, but decided to pass Alexandria again for a final check. In doing so his force captured a French merchant, which provided the first news of the French fleet: they had passed south-east of Crete a month before, heading to Alexandria.[130] Nelson hurried to the port but again found it empty of the French. Searching along the coast, he finally discovered the French fleet in Aboukir Bay on 1 August 1798.

Nelson immediately prepared for battle, repeating a sentiment he had expressed at the battle of Cape St Vincent that "Before this time tomorrow, I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey."[132] It was late by the time the British arrived and the French, anchored in a strong position with a combined firepower greater than that of Nelson's fleet, did not expect them to attack.[133] Nelson however immediately ordered his ships to advance. The French line was anchored close to a line of shoals, in the belief that this would secure their port side from attack; Brueys had assumed the British would follow convention and attack his centre from the starboard side. However, Captain Thomas Foley aboard HMS Goliath discovered a gap between the shoals and the French ships, and took Goliath into the channel. The unprepared French found themselves attacked on both sides, the British fleet splitting, with some following Foley and others passing down the starboard side of the French line.

The British fleet was soon heavily engaged, passing down the French line and engaging their ships one by one. Nelson on Vanguard personally engaged Spartiate, also coming under fire from Aquilon. At about eight o'clock, he was with Berry on the quarter-deck when a piece of French shot struck him in his forehead. He fell to the deck, a flap of torn skin obscuring his good eye. Blinded and half stunned, he felt sure he would die and cried out "I am killed. Remember me to my wife." He was taken below to be seen by the surgeon.[135] After examining Nelson, the surgeon pronounced the wound non-threatening and applied a temporary bandage.[136]

The French van, pounded by British fire from both sides, had begun to surrender, and the victorious British ships continued to move down the line, bringing Brueys's 118-gun flagship Orient under constant heavy fire. Orient caught fire under this bombardment, and later exploded. Nelson briefly came on deck to direct the battle, but returned to the surgeon after watching the destruction of Orient.[137]

The Battle of the Nile was a major blow to Napoleon's ambitions in the east. The fleet had been destroyed: Orient, another ship and two frigates had been burnt, seven 74-gun ships and two 80-gun ships had been captured, and only two ships-of-the-line and two frigates escaped,[138] while the forces Napoleon had brought to Egypt were stranded.[134] Napoleon attacked north along the Mediterranean coast, but Turkish defenders supported by Captain Sir Sidney Smith defeated his army at the Siege of Acre. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships. Given its strategic importance, some historians regard Nelson's achievement at the Nile as the most significant of his career, even greater than that at Trafalgar seven years later.

Nelson wrote dispatches to the Admiralty and oversaw temporary repairs to the Vanguard, before sailing to Naples where he was met with enthusiastic celebrations.[140] The King of Naples, in company with the Hamiltons, greeted him in person when he arrived at the port and William Hamilton invited Nelson to stay at their house.[141] Celebrations were held in honour of Nelson's birthday that September, and he attended a banquet at the Hamiltons', where other officers had begun to notice his attention to Emma. Jervis himself had begun to grow concerned about reports of Nelson's behaviour, but in early October word of Nelson's victory had reached London. The First Lord of the Admiralty, Earl Spencer, fainted on hearing the news.[142] Scenes of celebration erupted across the country, balls and victory feasts were held and church bells were rung. The City of London awarded Nelson and his captains with swords, whilst the King ordered them to be presented with special medals. The Tsar of Russia sent him a gift, and Selim III, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, awarded Nelson the Order of the Turkish Crescent for his role in restoring Ottoman rule in Egypt. Lord Hood, after a conversation with the Prime Minister, told Fanny that Nelson would likely be given a Viscountcy, similar to Jervis's earldom after Cape St Vincent and Duncan's viscountcy after Camperdown.[143] Earl Spencer however demurred, arguing that as Nelson had only been detached in command of a squadron, rather than being the commander in chief of the fleet, such an award would create an unwelcome precedent. Instead, Nelson received the title Baron Nelson of the Nile.

Nelson was dismayed by Spencer's decision, and declared that he would rather have received no title than that of a mere barony.[145] He was however cheered by the attention showered on him by the citizens of Naples, the prestige accorded him by the kingdom's elite, and the comforts he received at the Hamiltons' residence. He made frequent visits to attend functions in his honour, or to tour nearby attractions with Emma, with whom he had by now fallen deeply in love, almost constantly at his side.[146] Orders arrived from the Admiralty to blockade the French forces in Alexandria and Malta, a task Nelson delegated to his captains, Samuel Hood and Alexander Ball. Despite enjoying his lifestyle in Naples Nelson began to think of returning to England,[146] but King Ferdinand of Naples, after a long period of pressure from his wife Maria Carolina of Austria and Sir William Hamilton, finally agreed to declare war on France. The Neapolitan army, led by the Austrian General Mack and supported by Nelson's fleet, retook Rome from the French in late November, but the French regrouped outside the city and, after being reinforced, routed the Neapolitans. In disarray, the Neapolitan army fled back to Naples, with the pursuing French close behind.[147] Nelson hastily organised the evacuation of the Royal Family, several nobles and the British nationals, including the Hamiltons. The evacuation got under way on 23 December and sailed through heavy gales before reaching the safety of Palermo on 26 December.[148]

With the departure of the Royal Family, Naples descended into anarchy and news reached Palermo in January that the French had entered the city under General Championnet and proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic.[149] Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Red on 14 February 1799,[150] and was occupied for several months in blockading Naples, while a popular counter-revolutionary force under Cardinal Ruffo known as the Sanfedisti marched to retake the city. In late June Ruffo's army entered Naples, forcing the French and their supporters to withdraw to the city's fortifications as rioting and looting broke out amongst the ill-disciplined Neapolitan troops.[151] Dismayed by the bloodshed, Ruffo agreed to a general amnesty with the Jacobin forces that allowed them safe conduct to France. Nelson, now aboard the Foudroyant, was outraged, and backed by King Ferdinand he insisted that the rebels must surrender unconditionally.[152] He took those who had surrendered under the amnesty under armed guard, including the former Admiral Francesco Caracciolo, who had commanded the Neapolitan navy under King Ferdinand but had changed sides during the brief Jacobin rule.[153] Nelson ordered his trial by court-martial and refused Caracciolo's request that it be held by British officers, nor was Caracciolo allowed to summon witnesses in his defence. Caracciolo was tried by royalist Neapolitan officers and sentenced to death. He asked to be shot rather than hanged, but Nelson, following the wishes of Queen Maria Carolina (a close friend of his mistress, Lady Hamilton) also refused this request and even ignored the court's request to allow 24 hours for Caracciolo to prepare himself. Caracciolo was hanged aboard the Neapolitan frigate Minerva at 5 o'clock the same afternoon.[154] Nelson kept the Jacobins imprisoned and approved of a wave of further executions, refusing to intervene despite pleas for clemency from the Hamiltons and the Queen of Naples.[155] When transports were finally allowed to carry the Jacobins to France, less than a third were still alive.[156] On 13 August 1799, King Ferdinand gave Nelson the newly created Dukedom of Bronté in the Kingdom of Sicily, in perpetual property, enclosing the Maniace Castle, the accompanying Abbey, and the land and the city of Bronte, this as a reward for his support of the monarchy.[157]

Nelson returned to Palermo in August and in September became the senior officer in the Mediterranean after Jervis' successor Lord Keith left to chase the French and Spanish fleets into the Atlantic.[158] Nelson spent the rest of 1799 at the Neapolitan court but put to sea again in February 1800 after Lord Keith's return. On 18 February Généreux, a survivor of the Nile, was sighted and Nelson gave chase, capturing her after a short battle and winning Keith's approval.[159] Nelson had a difficult relationship with his superior officer: he was gaining a reputation for insubordination, having initially refused to send ships when Keith requested them and on occasion returning to Palermo without orders, pleading poor health.[160] Keith's reports, and rumours of Nelson's close relationship with Emma Hamilton, were also circulating in London, and Earl Spencer wrote a pointed letter suggesting that he return home:

You will be more likely to recover your health and strength in England than in any inactive situation at a foreign Court, however pleasing the respect and gratitude shown to you for your services may be.

The recall of Sir William Hamilton to Britain was a further incentive for Nelson to return, although he and the Hamiltons initially sailed from Naples on a brief cruise around Malta aboard the Foudroyant in April 1800. It was on this voyage that Horatio and Emma's illegitimate daughter Horatia was probably conceived.[162] After the cruise, Nelson conveyed the Queen of Naples and her suite to Leghorn. On his arrival, Nelson shifted his flag to HMS Alexander, but again disobeyed Keith's orders by refusing to join the main fleet. Keith came to Leghorn in person to demand an explanation, and refused to be moved by the Queen's pleas to allow her to be conveyed in a British ship.[163] In the face of Keith's demands, Nelson reluctantly struck his flag and bowed to Emma Hamilton's request to return to England by land.[164]

Nelson, the Hamiltons and several other British travellers left Leghorn for Florence on 13 July. They made stops at Trieste and Vienna, spending three weeks in the latter where they were entertained by the local nobility and heard the Missa in Angustiis by Haydn that now bears Nelson's name.[165] By September they were in Prague, and later called at Dresden, Dessau and Hamburg, from where they caught a packet ship to Great Yarmouth, arriving on 6 November.[166] Nelson was given a hero's welcome and after being sworn in as a freeman of the borough and received the massed crowd's applause. He subsequently made his way to London, arriving on 9 November. He attended court and was guest of honour at a number of banquets and balls. It was during this period that Fanny Nelson and Emma Hamilton met for the first time. During this period, Nelson was reported as being cold and distant to his wife and his attention to Emma became the subject of gossip.[167] With the marriage breaking down, Nelson began to hate even being in the same room as Fanny. Events came to a head around Christmas, when according to Nelson's solicitor, Fanny issued an ultimatum on whether he was to choose her or Emma. Nelson replied:

I love you sincerely but I cannot forget my obligations to Lady Hamilton or speak of her otherwise than with affection and admiration.[168]

The two never lived together again after this.

Shortly after his arrival in England Nelson was appointed to be second-in-command of the Channel Fleet under Lord St Vincent.[169] He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the Blue on 1 January 1801,[170] and travelled to Plymouth, where on 22 January he was granted the freedom of the city, and on 29 January Emma gave birth to their daughter, Horatia.[171] Nelson was delighted, but subsequently disappointed when he was instructed to move his flag from HMS San Josef to HMS St George in preparation for a planned expedition to the Baltic.[172] Tired of British ships imposing a blockade against French trade and stopping and searching their merchants, the Russian, Prussian, Danish and Swedish governments had formed an alliance to break the blockade. Nelson joined Admiral Sir Hyde Parker's fleet at Yarmouth, from where they sailed for the Danish coast in March. On their arrival Parker was inclined to blockade the Danish and control the entrance to the Baltic, but Nelson urged a pre-emptive attack on the Danish fleet at harbour in Copenhagen.[173] He convinced Parker to allow him to make an assault, and was given significant reinforcements. Parker himself would wait in the Kattegat, covering Nelson's fleet in case of the arrival of the Swedish or Russian fleets.

On the morning of 2 April 1801, Nelson began to advance into Copenhagen harbour. The battle began badly for the British, with HMS Agamemnon, HMS Bellona and HMS Russell running aground, and the rest of the fleet encountering heavier fire from the Danish shore batteries than had been anticipated. Parker sent the signal for Nelson to withdraw, reasoning:

I will make the signal for recall for Nelson's sake. If he is in a condition to continue the action he will disregard it; if he is not, it will be an excuse for his retreat and no blame can be attached to him.[175]

Nelson, directing action aboard HMS Elephant, was informed of the signal by the signal lieutenant, Frederick Langford, but angrily responded: 'I told you to look out on the Danish commodore and let me know when he surrendered. Keep your eyes fixed on him.'[176] He then turned to his flag captain, Thomas Foley, and said 'You know, Foley, I have only one eye. I have a right to be blind sometimes.' He raised the telescope to his blind eye, and said 'I really do not see the signal.'[176][177] The battle lasted three hours, leaving both Danish and British fleets heavily damaged. At length Nelson dispatched a letter to the Danish commander, Crown Prince Frederick, calling for a truce, which the Prince accepted.[178] Parker approved of Nelson's actions in retrospect, and Nelson was given the honour of going into Copenhagen the next day to open formal negotiations.[179][180] At a banquet that evening he told Prince Frederick that the battle had been the most severe he had ever been in.[181] The outcome of the battle and several weeks of ensuing negotiations was a 14-week armistice, and on Parker's recall in May, Nelson became commander-in-chief in the Baltic Sea.[182] As a reward for the victory, he was created Viscount Nelson of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, on 19 May 1801.[183] In addition, on 4 August 1801, he was created Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk, this time with a special remainder to his father and sisters.[184][185] Nelson subsequently sailed to the Russian naval base at Reval in May, and there learned that the pact of armed neutrality was to be disbanded. Satisfied with the outcome of the expedition, he returned to England, arriving on 1 July.

Nelson was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean Fleet and given the first-rate HMS Victory as his flagship. He joined her at Portsmouth, where he received orders to sail to Malta and take command of a squadron there before joining the blockade of Toulon.[192] Nelson arrived off Toulon in July 1803 and spent the next year and a half enforcing the blockade. He was promoted to Vice Admiral of the White while still at sea, on 23 April 1804.[193] In January 1805 the French fleet, under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve, escaped Toulon and eluded the blockading British. Nelson set off in pursuit but after searching the eastern Mediterranean he learned that the French had been blown back into Toulon.[194] Villeneuve managed to break out a second time in April, and this time succeeded in passing through the Strait of Gibraltar and into the Atlantic, bound for the West Indies.[194]

Nelson gave chase, but after arriving in the Caribbean spent June in a fruitless search for the fleet. Villeneuve had briefly cruised around the islands before heading back to Europe, in contravention of Napoleon's orders.[195] The returning French fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder and engaged in the Battle of Cape Finisterre, but managed to reach Ferrol with only minor losses.[196] Nelson returned to Gibraltar at the end of July, and travelled from there to England, dismayed at his failure to bring the French to battle and expecting to be censured.[197] To his surprise he was given a rapturous reception from crowds who had gathered to view his arrival, while senior British officials congratulated him for sustaining the close pursuit and credited him for saving the West Indies from a French invasion.[197] Nelson briefly stayed in London, where he was cheered wherever he went, before visiting Merton to see Emma, arriving in late August. He entertained a number of his friends and relations there over the coming month, and began plans for a grand engagement with the enemy fleet, one that would surprise his foes by forcing a pell-mell battle on them.[198]

Captain Henry Blackwood arrived at Merton early on 2 September, bringing news that the French and Spanish fleets had combined and were currently at anchor in Cádiz. Nelson hurried to London where he met with cabinet ministers and was given command of the fleet blockading Cádiz. It was while attending one of these meetings on 12 September, with Lord Castlereagh the Secretary of State for War and the Colonies, that Nelson and Major General Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, met briefly in a waiting room. Wellington was waiting to be debriefed on his Indian operations, and Nelson on his chase and future plans. Wellington later recalled, 'He (Nelson) entered at once into conversation with me, if I can call it conversation, for it was almost all on his side and all about himself and, in reality, a style so vain and so silly as to surprise and almost disgust me.'[199] However, after a few minutes Nelson left the room and having been told who his companion was, returned and entered into an earnest and intelligent discussion with the young Wellesley which lasted for a quarter of an hour, on the war, the state of the colonies and the geopolitical situation, that left a marked impression upon Wellesley. This was the only meeting between the two men.

Nelson returned briefly to Merton to set his affairs in order and bid farewell to Emma, before travelling back to London and then on to Portsmouth, arriving there early in the morning of 14 September. He breakfasted at the George Inn with his friends George Rose, the Vice-President of the Board of Trade, and George Canning, the Treasurer of the Navy. During the breakfast word spread of Nelson's presence at the inn and a large crowd of well wishers gathered. They accompanied Nelson to his barge and cheered him off, which Nelson acknowledged by raising his hat. Nelson was recorded as having turned to his colleague and stated, "I had their huzzas before: I have their hearts now".[200][201][202] Robert Southey reported that of the onlookers for Nelson's walk to the dock, "Many were in tears and many knelt down before him and blessed him as he passed".[203]

Victory joined the British fleet off Cádiz on 27 September, Nelson taking over from Rear-Admiral Collingwood.[204] He spent the following weeks preparing and refining his tactics for the anticipated battle and dining with his captains to ensure they understood his intentions.[205] Nelson had devised a plan of attack that anticipated the allied fleet would form up in a traditional line of battle. Drawing on his own experience from the Nile and Copenhagen, and the examples of Duncan at Camperdown and Rodney at the Saintes, Nelson decided to split his fleet into squadrons rather than forming it into a similar line parallel to the enemy.[206] These squadrons would then cut the enemy's line in a number of places, allowing a pell-mell battle to develop in which the British ships could overwhelm and destroy parts of their opponents' formation, before the unengaged enemy ships could come to their aid.

The combined French and Spanish fleet under Villeneuve's command numbered 33 ships of the line. Napoleon Bonaparte had intended for Villeneuve to sail into the English Channel and cover the planned invasion of Britain, but the entry of Austria and Russia into the war forced Napoleon to call off the planned invasion and transfer troops to Germany. Villeneuve had been reluctant to risk an engagement with the British, and this reluctance led Napoleon to order Vice-Admiral François Rosily to go to Cádiz and take command of the fleet, sail it into the Mediterranean to land troops at Naples, before making port at Toulon.[204] Villeneuve decided to sail the fleet out before his successor arrived.[204] On 20 October 1805 the fleet was sighted making its way out of harbour by patrolling British frigates, and Nelson was informed that they appeared to be heading to the west.[207]

The Battle of Trafalgar by J. M. W. Turner (oil on canvas, 1822–1824) shows the last three letters of the signal, "England expects that every man will do his duty" flying from Victory.

At four o'clock in the morning of 21 October Nelson ordered the Victory to turn towards the approaching enemy fleet, and signalled the rest of his force to battle stations. He then went below and made his will, before returning to the quarterdeck to carry out an inspection.[208] Despite having 27 ships to Villeneuve's 33, Nelson was confident of success, declaring that he would not be satisfied with taking fewer than 20 prizes.[208] He returned briefly to his cabin to write a final prayer, after which he joined Victory’s signal lieutenant, John Pasco.

Mr Pasco, I wish to say to the fleet "England confides that every man will do his duty". You must be quick, for I have one more signal to make, which is for close action.[209]

Pasco suggested changing 'confides' to 'expects', which being in the Signal Book, could be signalled by the use of a single flag, whereas 'confides' would have to spelt out letter by letter. Nelson agreed, and the signal was hoisted.[209]

As the fleets converged, the Victory’s captain, Thomas Hardy suggested that Nelson remove the decorations on his coat, so that he would not be so easily identified by enemy sharpshooters. Nelson replied that it was too late 'to be shifting a coat', adding that they were 'military orders and he did not fear to show them to the enemy'.[210] Captain Henry Blackwood, of the frigate HMS Euryalus, suggested Nelson come aboard his ship to better observe the battle. Nelson refused, and also turned down Hardy's suggestion to let Eliab Harvey's HMS Temeraire come ahead of the Victory and lead the line into battle.

Victory came under fire, initially passing wide, but then with greater accuracy as the distances decreased. A cannonball struck and killed Nelson's secretary, John Scott, nearly cutting him in two. Hardy's clerk took over, but he too was almost immediately killed. Victory’s wheel was shot away, and another cannonball cut down eight marines. Hardy, standing next to Nelson on the quarterdeck, had his shoe buckle dented by a splinter. Nelson observed 'this is too warm work to last long'.[211] The Victory had by now reached the enemy line, and Hardy asked Nelson which ship to engage first. Nelson told him to take his pick, and Hardy moved Victory across the stern of the 80-gun French flagship Bucentaure.[211] Victory then came under fire from the 74-gun Redoutable, lying off the Bucentaure’s stern, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. As sharpshooters from the enemy ships fired onto Victory’s deck from their rigging, Nelson and Hardy continued to walk about, directing and giving orders.

Shortly after one o'clock, Hardy realised that Nelson was not by his side. He turned to see Nelson kneeling on the deck, supporting himself with his hand, before falling onto his side. Hardy rushed to him, at which point Nelson smiled

Hardy, I do believe they have done it at last… my backbone is shot through.[211]

He had been hit by a marksman from the Redoutable, firing at a range of 50 feet (15 m). The bullet had entered his left shoulder, passed through his spine at the sixth and seventh thoracic vertebrae, and lodged two inches (5 cm) below his right shoulder blade in the muscles of his back.

Nelson was carried below by sergeant-major of marines Robert Adair and two seamen. As he was being carried down, he asked them to pause while he gave some advice to a midshipman on the handling of the tiller.[212] He then draped a handkerchief over his face to avoid causing alarm amongst the crew. He was taken to the surgeon William Beatty, telling him

You can do nothing for me. I have but a short time to live. My back is shot through.[213]

Nelson was made comfortable, fanned and brought lemonade and watered wine to drink after he complained of feeling hot and thirsty. He asked several times to see Hardy, who was on deck supervising the battle, and asked Beatty to remember him to Emma, his daughter and his friends.[213]

Hardy came belowdecks to see Nelson just after half-past two, and informed him that a number of enemy ships had surrendered. Nelson told him that he was sure to die, and begged him to pass his possessions to Emma.[214] With Nelson at this point were the chaplain Alexander Scott, the purser Walter Burke, Nelson's steward, Chevalier, and Beatty. Nelson, fearing that a gale was blowing up, instructed Hardy to be sure to anchor. After reminding him to "take care of poor Lady Hamilton", Nelson said "Kiss me, Hardy".[214] Beatty recorded that Hardy knelt and kissed Nelson on the cheek. He then stood for a minute or two before kissing him on the forehead. Nelson asked, "Who is that?", and on hearing that it was Hardy, he replied "God bless you, Hardy."[214] By now very weak, Nelson continued to murmur instructions to Burke and Scott, "fan, fan … rub, rub … drink, drink." Beatty heard Nelson murmur, "Thank God I have done my duty", and when he returned, Nelson's voice had faded and his pulse was very weak.[214] He looked up as Beatty took his pulse, then closed his eyes. Scott, who remained by Nelson as he died, recorded his last words as "God and my country".[215] Nelson died at half-past four, three hours after he had been shot.

Nelson's body was placed in a cask of brandy mixed with camphor and myrrh, which was then lashed to the Victory's mainmast and placed under guard.[216] Victory was towed to Gibraltar after the battle, and on arrival the body was transferred to a lead-lined coffin filled with spirits of wine.[216] Collingwood's dispatches about the battle were carried to England aboard HMS Pickle, and when the news arrived in London, a messenger was sent to Merton Place to bring the news of Nelson's death to Emma Hamilton. She later recalled,

They brought me word, Mr Whitby from the Admiralty. "Show him in directly", I said. He came in, and with a pale countenance and faint voice, said, "We have gained a great Victory." – "Never mind your Victory", I said. "My letters – give me my letters" – Captain Whitby was unable to speak – tears in his eyes and a deathly paleness over his face made me comprehend him. I believe I gave a scream and fell back, and for ten hours I could neither speak nor shed a tear.[217]

King George III, on receiving the news, is alleged to have said, in tears, "We have lost more than we have gained."[218] The Times reported

We do not know whether we should mourn or rejoice. The country has gained the most splendid and decisive Victory that has ever graced the naval annals of England; but it has been dearly purchased.[218]

The first tribute to Nelson was fittingly offered at sea by sailors of Vice-Admiral Dmitry Senyavin's passing Russian squadron, which saluted on learning of the death.

Nelson's body was unloaded from the Victory at the Nore. It was conveyed upriver in Commander Grey's yacht Chatham to Greenwich and placed in a lead coffin, and that in another wooden one, made from the mast of L'Orient which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile. He lay in state in the Painted Hall at Greenwich for three days, before being taken upriver aboard a barge, accompanied by Lord Hood, chief mourner Sir Peter Parker, and the Prince of Wales.[220] The Prince of Wales at first announced his intention to attend the funeral as chief mourner, but later attended in a private capaci

1:72 Grumman F8F-1B ‘Bearcat’; aircraft ‘A-223’ of the Aviación Naval Uruguaya (ANU; Uruguayan Naval Aviation); Laguna del Sauce airfield, 1962 (What-if/Frog kit) by Dizzyfugu

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

Some background:

The Grumman F8F Bearcat is an American single-engine carrier-based fighter aircraft introduced in late World War II and it was Grumman Aircraft's last piston-engine fighter aircraft.

The Bearcat concept began during a meeting between Battle of Midway veteran F4F Wildcat pilots and Grumman Vice President Jake Swirbul at Pearl Harbor on 23 June 1942. At the meeting, Lieutenant Commander Jimmie Thach emphasized one of the most important requirements in a good fighter plane was "climb rate". Climb performance is strongly related to the power-to-weight ratio and is maximized by wrapping the smallest and lightest possible airframe around the most powerful available engine. Another goal was that the G-58 (Grumman's design designation for the aircraft) should be able to operate from escort carriers, which were then limited to the obsolescent F4F Wildcat as the Grumman F6F Hellcat was too large and heavy. A small, lightweight aircraft would make this possible. After intensively analyzing carrier warfare in the Pacific Theater of Operations for a year and a half, Grumman began development of the G-58 Bearcat in late 1943.

In 1943, Grumman was in the process of introducing the F6F Hellcat, powered by the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 engine which provided 2,000 horsepower (1,500 kW). The R-2800 was the most powerful American engine available at that time, so it would be retained for the G-58. This meant that improved performance would have to come from a lighter airframe. To meet this goal, the Bearcat's fuselage was about 5 feet (1.5 m) shorter than the Hellcat and was cut down vertically behind the cockpit area. This allowed the use of a bubble canopy, the first to be fitted to a US Navy fighter. The vertical stabilizer was the same height as the Hellcat's, but increased aspect ratio, giving it a thinner look. The wingspan was 7 feet (2.1 m) less than the Hellcat's. Structurally the fuselage used flush riveting as well as spot welding, with a heavy gauge 302W aluminum alloy skin suitable for carrier landings. Armor protection was provided for the pilot, engine and oil cooler.

The Hellcat used a 13 ft 1 in (3.99 m) three-bladed Hamilton Standard propeller. A slight reduction in size was made by moving to a 12 ft 7 in (3.84 m) Aeroproducts four-bladed propeller. Keeping the prop clear of the deck required a long landing gear, though, which, combined with the shortened fuselage, gave the Bearcat a significant "nose-up" profile on the ground. The hydraulically operated undercarriage used an articulated trunnion which extended the length of the oleo legs when lowered; as the undercarriage retracted the legs were shortened, enabling them to fit into a wheel well which was entirely in the wing. An additional benefit of the inward retracting units was a wide track, which helped counter propeller torque on takeoff and gave the F8F good ground and carrier deck handling.

The design team had set the goal that the G-58 should weigh 8,750 pounds (3,970 kg) fully loaded. As development continued it became clear this was impossible to achieve as the structure of the new fighter had to be made strong enough for aircraft carrier landings. Ultimately much of the weight-saving measures included restricting the internal fuel capacity to 160 US gallons (610 l) (later 183 US gallons [690 l]) and limiting the fixed armament to just four .50 cal Browning M2/AN machine guns, two in each wing. The limited range due to the reduced fuel load would mean it would be useful in the interception role but meant that the Hellcat would still be needed for longer range patrols. A later role was defending the fleet against airborne kamikaze attacks. Compared to the Hellcat, the Bearcat was 20% lighter, had a 30% better rate of climb and was 50 mph (80 km/h) faster.

Another weight-saving concept the designers came up with was detachable wingtips. The wings were designed to fold at a point about 2⁄3 out along the span, reducing the space taken up on the carrier. Normally, the hinge system would have to be built very strong to transmit loads from the outer portions of the wing to the main spar in the inner section, which adds considerable weight. Instead of building the entire wing to be able to withstand high-g loads, only the inner portion of the wing was able to do this. The outer portions were more lightly constructed, and designed to snap off at the hinge line if the g-force exceeded 7.5 g. In this case the aircraft would still be flyable and could be repaired after returning to the carrier. This saved 230 pounds (100 kg) of weight.

The F8F prototypes were ordered in November 1943 and first flew on 21 August 1944, a mere nine months later. The first production aircraft was delivered in February 1945 and the first squadron, Fighter Squadron 19 (VF-19), was operational by 21 May 1945, but World War II was over before the aircraft saw combat service.

Postwar, the F8F became a major U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps fighter, equipping 24 fighter squadrons in the Navy and a smaller number in the Marines. Often mentioned as one of the best-handling piston engine fighters ever built, its performance was sufficient to outperform many early jets. However, in United States service the F9F Panther and McDonnell F2H Banshee soon replaced the Bearcat as their performance and other advantages eclipsed piston-engine fighters. Therefore, many Bearcats with low flying hours were put in storage and/or sold to other nations.

One of these post-war operators became Uruguay, even though only with few aircraft. In 1942, Uruguay had received Grumman J4F Widgeon, Vought OS2U Kingfisher and Fairchild PT-23A trainers from the US under Lend-Lease, and after the war these were returned. A fundamental modernization of the Uruguayan Navy’s aviation branch started directly after WWII, though. During the years 1949 to 1957, a large supply of American aircraft was delivered. Among these were North American SNJ-4, Grumman Avenger, Martin Mariner and a mixed bunch of 12 old Grumman F6F Hellcats (-3, -5, -5N), delivered in 1952, even though not without trouble: to avoid the appearance of the United States supporting a small South American country, the planes were indirectly sold by a private company, Cobell Industries, and this meant that the planes came without armament to make the deal legal. However, after arriving in Uruguay, the planes were retrofitted with armament and other military hardware, while the pilots received training in the United States.

Attrition among the Hellcats was high and several F6Fs were soon lost in accidents. To fill these operational gaps, Uruguay closed a similar private deal, but this time for ten F8F Bearcat airframes, once more without armament and other military equipment. These arrived disassembled in crates in 1959 by ship. Upon re-assembly the former, all-blue USN aircraft were re-armed with 20 mm cannon instead of the original 0.5” (12.7 mm) machine guns, and they received new radio and navigational equipment. An additional oil cooler was mounted, too, visibly protruding from the cowling in front of the windscreen. When the Bearcats became operational in 1960, only six F6F had survived so far, and the Hellcats were soon withdrawn from service and fully replaced by the Bearcats.

During the mid-1960s, most of the ANU’s WWII-era planes reached the end of their operational lives and were written off. The Bearcats remained the only dedicated fighter aircraft of the Uruguayan Naval Aviation, and to expand the ANU’s ranks and build a stock of spare airframes to cannibalize, four more F8Us were ordered in late 1960. During this period, more aircraft from U.S. stock arrived and Beechcraft T-34 A, Beechcraft C-45, Grumman S-2A Tracker, Bell TH-13 and Sikorsky CH-34J were incorporated. Some more T-34A/B Mentors were exchanged from the Uruguayan Air Force for SNJ spare parts. During this phase, the Uruguayan Navy aircraft adopted a new high-visibility livery that had been introduced by the U.S. Navy in 1955, consisting of light gull grey over white. It replaced the former common overall dark sea blue paint scheme (sometimes with light grey undersides, as on the F6Fs).
The former tactical codes and large national insignia in four positions on the wings were initially retained, but this later changed into smaller wing roundels and “Armada” lettering replaced the large tactical codes on the fuselage – these were replaced with smaller markings on cowling and fin, now without the typical “A-“ (for Armada = Navy) prefix. The codes superficially resembled USN modex style codes now, but they were still just consecutive numbers as before. Another detail all ANU aircraft retained after their general livery update was the Uruguayan flag on the fin instead of a stylized banner version of the roundels, which were carried by the air force.

Towards the late Sixties, Uruguay was caught by political turmoil. In the late 1950s, partly because of a worldwide decrease in demand for Uruguayan agricultural products, Uruguayans suffered from a steep drop in their standard of living, which led to student militancy and labor unrest. An armed group, known as the Tupamaros, emerged in the 1960s, engaging in activities such as bank robbery, kidnapping and assassination, in addition to attempting an overthrow of the government.
President Jorge Pacheco declared a state of emergency in 1968, followed by a further suspension of civil liberties in 1972. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces, asked by the President Juan María Bordaberry, disbanded Parliament and established a civilian-military regime. The CIA-backed campaign of political repression and state terror involving intelligence operations and assassination of opponents was called Operation Condor. The Uruguayan Naval Aviation did not get directly involved in the inner tensions and the F8Fs saw only sporadic use during this phase, primarily in “show of force” appearances. They did not fire in anger, though, and served on well into the Seventies, even though maintenance became more and more complicated and expensive. In consequence, more and more machines had to be grounded or even fully retired and cannibalized to keep the small fleet flightworthy.

In 1979 nine North American T-28D Fennec and three C-45 were donated by the Argentinian Navy, and in 1980 the ANU’s F8Fs, which were now primarily used as attack aircraft, were retired, after only five of the original fourteen aircraft had been left operational. The Fennecs were used as a light attack platform until 2000.

General characteristics:

Crew: 1

Length: 28 ft 3 in (8.61 m)

Wingspan: 35 ft 10 in (10.92 m)

Height: 13 ft 10 in (4.22 m)

Wing area: 244 sq ft (22.7 m²)

Aspect ratio: 5.02

Airfoil: root: NACA 23018; tip: NACA 23009

Empty weight: 7,650 lb (3,470 kg)

Max takeoff weight: 13,460 lb (6,105 kg)

Powerplant:

1× Pratt & Whitney R-2800-30W Double Wasp 18-cylinder air-cooled radial piston engine,

with 2,250 hp (1,680 kW), driving an Aeroproducts 4-bladed constant-speed propeller

Performance:

Maximum speed: 455 mph (732 km/h, 395 kn)

Range: 1,105 mi (1,778 km, 960 nmi)

Service ceiling: 40,800 ft (12,400 m)

Rate of climb: 4,465 ft/min (22.68 m/s)

Wing loading: 42 lb/sq ft (210 kg/m²)

Power/mass: 0.22 hp/lb (0.36 kW/kg)

Armament:

4× 20 mm (.79 in) AN/M3 cannon with a total of 820 rounds

1× ventral (1.600 lb /725 kg) plus 2× underwing hardpoints (1.000 lb /454 kg each)

for a total ordnance of 3.600 lb (1.600 kg), including 150 and 200 gal. drop tanks,

4× 5” (127 mm) and/or bombs of up to 1,000 lb (454 kg) caliber

The kit and its assembly:

This rather simple what-if project is #2 in my current “Uruguayan What-if Series”. I had a surplus FROG 1:72 F8F in the Stash™ that I had bought in a cheap lot a while ago, but never had – beyond tentatively switching the engine to a Centaurus and painting it in Royal Navy colors – a good plan for it. This changed when I came across the Mistercraft F6F-5, a re-boxed Heller kit that comes with a vast decal set for no less than eight aircraft that also includes the exotic Uruguayan Navy markings from the Fifties. The idea: couldn’t the nimble F8F be a good complement or even a replacement for the ill-fated Uruguayan Hellcats?

Therefore, this became a simple “re-badging” of an unmodified Bearcat, just with some minor cosmetic twists. These included cockpit implants like a tub with side consoles (IIRC from a Heller Me 262) and a dashboard (of uncertain origin), some additional antennae (including a scratched IDF loop antenna fairing) on the back as well as a small pitot under the left wing. As a pure fighter I outfitted the Bearcat just with its OOB ventral drop tank (the bombs and HVARs that come with the kit look rather fishy). The propeller was replaced, too, with a (much) better alternative left over from an ArtModel F8F-2, the (by far) best kit of the Bearcat I have come across yet. It was mounted on a plastic rod which perfectly matched the opening/channel in the engine block, spinning free.

The FROG F8F is a simple, if not primitive and crude, affair, and fit is only mediocre – especially the wing/fuselage intersection did not fit at all. There are huge trenches around the flaps on the lower wing surfaces, and the landing gear is rather massive – just like anything else about the model. You get raised panel lines, but they are rather fine and there are not too many of them.

After having built the FROG kit I think it’s (even) weaker than the vintage Monogram kit, which is riddled with rivets and panel lines, but leaves overall a better impression. Gotta try the relatively new Hobby Boss 1:72 F8F someday, too – it looks like a compromise between all other kits.

Painting and markings:

A secondary factor behind this build was the plan to paint an F8F in the later USN grey-over-white high-viz livery, which some very late USMC AUs carried in real life. Since many aircraft of the Uruguayan Navy adopted this livery style in the late Sixties, too (e. g. the S-2 Trackers), it would look very natural on an ANU Bearcat.

The model was molded in dark-blue plastic and applying white was quite challenging. I relied upon a special, highly opaque white acrylic paint (rattle can) as a primer, Light Gull Grey (FS 36440, Humbrol 40) was added with a brush later. A dirty black (Revell 06) anti-glare panel was added in front of the windscreen. As an individual detail the propeller boss was painted red – inspired by a USN F8F I saw in literature with such a marking, and the real ANU Hellcats had their propeller bosses painted red, too.

The cockpit interior as well as the inside of the cowling were painted in chromate green (I used Humbrol 150), while the landing gear and its respective wells became, after long consideration, white. Being former USN aircraft, the F8Fs would certainly have had green bays with dark blue landing gear struts and wheel discs upon delivery – but I referred to pictures from the real ANU F6Fs as benchmark, and these had apparently all-white landing gear surfaces, matching their undersides, so I adopted this style for the Bearcat, too.

The kit received a light overall washing with black ink and some post-panel shading. As mentioned above, the decals came from a Mistercraft F6F (roundels and fin flash), while an Croco Models aftermarket sheet with decals for south American T-34s provided the basis for the tactical codes. The unit emblems on the cowling were taken from the same sheet, even though the actually belong to a Uruguayan Air Force T-34.

After some detail painting (exhaust stubs, oil cooler, position lights) and weathering (exhaust and gun soot with graphite) the model was sealed with matt acrylic varnish. Because the Bearcat would have been rather freshly painted, I omitted oil stains around the engine and the oil cooler.

Not a complex project, and the FROG Bearcat was a bit of a disappointment – but what could I expect from a mold dating back to 1975? Well, it found a good use – and in the Sixties’ USN high-viz livery the compact F8F looks a bit like a juvenile Douglas AD/A-1 Skyraider?

XE3F7686 - San Petersburgo - Saint Petersburg - Санкт-Петербург by Enrique RG

Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, tr. Sankt-Peterburg,) is Russia's second-largest city after Moscow, with 5 million inhabitants in 2012, part of the Saint Petersburg agglomeration with a population of 6.2 million (2015). An important Russian port on the Baltic Sea, it has a status of a federal subject (a federal city).

Situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on 27 May [O.S. 16 May] 1703. During the periods 1713–1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of Imperial Russia. In 1918, the central government bodies moved to Moscow, which is about 625 km (388 miles) to the south-east.

Saint Petersburg is often considered Russia's cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Saint Petersburg is home to the Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. Many foreign consulates, international corporations, banks and businesses have offices in Saint Petersburg.

A proponent of westernising Russia, Peter the Great, who established the city, originally named it, Sankt-Peterburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербург; note that the Russian name lacks the letter s between Peter and burg). On 1 September 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, the Imperial government renamed the city Petrograd (Russian: Петрогра́д, meaning "Peter's city", in order to expunge the German name Sankt and Burg. On 26 January 1924, shortly after the death of Vladimir Lenin, it was renamed to Leningrad (Russian: Ленингра́д), meaning "Lenin's City". On 6 September 1991, the original name, Sankt-Peterburg, was returned. Today, in English the city is known as "Saint Petersburg". Local residents often refer to the city by its shortened nickname, Piter (Russian: Пи́тер,).

The city's traditional nicknames among Russians are the Window to the West and the Window to Europe. The northernmost metropolis in the world St. Petersburg is often called the Venice of the North or Russian Venice because of its structure which is built on water and its strongly European-inspired architecture, which is combined with the Russian heritage too. Furthermore, St. Petersburg is called Venice of the North because of an annual natural phenomenon called White Nights which arise due to the closeness to the polar region. Just as Venice is associated with romance, in St. Petersburg the White Nights have a high value for love couples.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg

www.thoughtco.com/when-was-st-petersburg-known-as-petrogr...

San Petersburgo (en ruso, Санкт-Петербург /sankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk/ Sankt-Peterburg) es la segunda ciudad más poblada de Rusia después de la capital nacional Moscú, con 5 351 935 habitantes (2018) y un área metropolitana de 5,85 millones. Está situada en la Región de Leningrado, nombre que compartía con la ciudad durante la época soviética (1924-1991). Los otros nombres de la ciudad fueron Petrogrado (en ruso, Петроград, Petrograd; del 31 de agosto de 1914 hasta el 24 de enero de 1924) y Leningrado (en ruso, Ленинград, Leningrad; después de la muerte de Lenin, el 24 de enero de 1924 hasta el 6 de septiembre de 1991). Conocida también como la “Venecia del Norte”, debido a sus más de 400 puentes que atraviesan a los numerosos canales que por ella pasan.

Fue fundada por el zar Pedro el Grande el 27 de mayo de 1703 con la intención de convertirla en la "ventana de Rusia hacia el mundo occidental". A partir de entonces se convirtió en capital del Imperio ruso durante más de doscientos años. Cuando estalló la Revolución rusa, la ciudad fue el centro de la rebelión. En marzo de 1918 la capital fue trasladada a Moscú. En enero de 1924, tras la victoria bolchevique, la creación de la Unión Soviética (1922) y el fallecimiento de Lenin (1924), San Petersburgo (en ese entonces llamado Petrogrado) cambió su nombre a Leningrado, en honor al dirigente comunista Lenin. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, tuvo lugar el sitio de Leningrado, que duró 29 meses, en los cuales los alemanes bombardearon constantemente la ciudad y la bloquearon para que no pudiera abastecerse. Tras la derrota de Alemania en 1945, la ciudad fue nombrada Ciudad heroica por las autoridades soviéticas. Al desaparecer la URSS con el consiguiente colapso del comunismo, la ciudad fue renombrada San Petersburgo y se ha convertido en un importante centro económico y político de la actual Rusia.

San Petersburgo es hoy en día la segunda ciudad más grande de la Federación Rusa y una de las más grandes de Europa. El centro de la ciudad y otros monumentos de sus alrededores son considerados Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO desde 1990. San Petersburgo es, además, sede de la Corte Constitucional de Rusia.

El nombre de San Petersburgo es de origen alemán y significa "ciudad de San Pedro". Pedro el Grande la nombró así en honor a su santo patrono, rechazando el de Petrograd, que quisieron darle, en su honor, sus súbditos alemanes que había contratado para construir y trabajar en los astilleros y la ciudad.

La ciudad cambió de nombre varias veces: Se llamó Petrogrado (Петроград Petrograd, que significa ciudad de Pedro, adaptación al ruso del alemán Petersburg) entre 1914 y 1924, a raíz del conflicto con Alemania durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, y Leningrado (Ленинград Leningrad tras la muerte de Lenin) entre 1924 y 1991; y nuevamente San Petersburgo después de un plebiscito. Coloquialmente los peterburgueses y rusos en general llaman a esta metrópolis Peterburg o de manera aún más familiar Piter (en ruso Питер).

Fue fundada por el zar Pedro el Grande el 16 (27) de mayo de 1703 con el propósito de deslocalizar la capital ubicada en Moscú, y de hecho fue capital de Rusia de 1712 a 1918. Por ello y por su ubicación geográfica le dio el sobrenombre de "La ventana a Europa". Pedro había vivido y estudiado en los Países Bajos por algún tiempo, por eso decidió bautizar su nueva ciudad con un nombre derivado del holandés Sint Pietersburg: Sankt Piterburj; pero pronto se germanizó a Sankt Petersburg.

En la misma desembocadura del río Nevá los suecos tenían anteriormente una fortaleza llamada Nyenschantz (Nevanlinna en finés) y un arrabal llamado Nyen. Todo el entorno geográfico de la desembocadura del Nevá estaba ocupado por marismas antes de que se construyese la ciudad.

A fines del siglo XVII, Rusia veía estancado su crecimiento económico por no tener salida al mar. El sueño del joven zar, Pedro el Grande, era corregir la situación abriendo una “ventana a Europa”. Dado que no podía hacerlo por el sur, pues el Imperio otomano impedía el acceso al mar Negro, apuntó en dirección contraria, a un territorio de Suecia cercano al Báltico. A fin de materializar sus aspiraciones, en agosto de 1700 declaró la guerra a los suecos, Guerra del Norte, quienes al principio lograron repeler sus ataques. Pero él no se dio por vencido, y en octubre de 1702 los hizo retirarse del Ládoga, el mayor lago de Europa, que está unido por el Nevá al Báltico, del cual dista unos 60 kilómetros. Aunque los suecos se atrincheraron en la fortaleza insular de Nóteburg, cerca del punto donde el río sale del lago, Pedro logró tomar aquella plaza militar y le cambió el nombre a Shlissel’burg (ciudad clave).

Posteriormente, una guarnición sueca defendió el fortín de Nienshants, cerca de la desembocadura del Nevá. Rusia la derrotó el 26 de abril de 1703 y asumió el dominio de todo el delta. Sin demora, Pedro comenzó a construir una ciudadela en la cercana isla Záyachi (de las liebres) para controlar la boca del río. Así, el 16 de mayo de 1703, hace poco más de tres siglos, puso la primera piedra de lo que hoy se conoce como la Fortaleza de San Pedro y San Pablo. Esta es la fecha aceptada de la fundación de San Petersburgo, llamada así en honor del apóstol Pedro, santo patrón del zar.

La construcción de la ciudad bajo condiciones climáticas adversas produjo una intensa mortalidad entre los trabajadores y requirió un continuo aporte de nuevos obreros. Dado que aquella zona estaba muy poco poblada, Pedro el Grande utilizó su prerrogativa de zar para atraer forzosamente a siervos trabajadores de todas las partes del país. Una cuota anual de 40.000 siervos llegaba a la ciudad equipados con sus herramientas y sus propios suministros de comida. Habitualmente recorrían cientos de kilómetros a pie en filas, escoltados por guardas que, para evitar las deserciones, no dudaban en usar la violencia física. Como consecuencia de su exposición al clima, las deficientes condiciones higiénicas y las enfermedades, la mortalidad durante estos primeros años fue muy elevada, llegando a perecer año tras año hasta el 50% de los trabajadores que llegaban.

Dado que la construcción de la ciudad se inició en tiempos de guerra, el primer edificio nuevo de la ciudad fue un fuerte militar que se llamaría fortaleza de San Pedro y San Pablo y que se levanta aún sobre la isla Záyachi en la ribera derecha del río Nevá. Los diseñadores de la nueva fortaleza eran ingenieros alemanes invitados por el propio Zar, pero la mayor parte de la mano de obra la pusieron los siervos rusos también para las labores de drenaje de los alrededores del río y los palacios y otros edificios de piedra de las afueras. Era la ciudad más artificial del mundo, diseñada para convertirse en la capital de Rusia. Una ciudad con relativo paralelismo es Venecia, en la cual se inspiró asimismo el zar Pedro, que prohibió los puentes permanentes sobre el Nevá para que se asemejase al Gran Canal y fomentó la construcción de canales en las calles siguiendo el patrón de Ámsterdam.

Pese a los inconvenientes de su ubicación en el lejano norte, el zar siguió adelante con su empresa. Trajo la madera de la región del Ládoga y de Nóvgorod. Las piedras para las edificaciones las obtuvo de diversos modos. Uno de ellos fue estipular que todo ruso que introdujera productos comerciales en la localidad aportara unas cuantas a modo de cuota. Además, prohibió hacer viviendas de este material, primero en Moscú y luego en el resto de su imperio, lo que indujo a los albañiles desempleados a mudarse a la nueva población.

Según la Bol’shaya Sovyetskaya Entsiklopedia (la gran enciclopedia soviética), los trabajos marcharon “a un ritmo vertiginoso para la época”. No tardaron en aparecer canales de drenaje, pilotes, calles, casas, iglesias, hospitales y oficinas del gobierno. El mismo año de la fundación se iniciaron las obras de un astillero, conocido como el Almirantazgo, que llegaría a ser el cuartel general de la armada rusa.

En 1710 se comenzó el Palacio de verano, residencia estival de los zares. En 1712, la capitalidad pasó de Moscú a San Petersburgo, y con ella muchas dependencias oficiales. Como fue el caso del traslado de la Casa de la Moneda de Moscú a San Petersburgo en 1724. El primer palacio de piedra, construido en 1714 y aún en pie, tenía por ocupante a Aleksandr Ménshikov, primer gobernador de la zona. Aquel mismo año se colocaron en la Fortaleza de Pedro y Pablo los cimientos de la catedral de igual nombre, cuya imponente aguja dorada se distingue en la silueta urbana. También se erigió a orillas del Nevá el Palacio de Invierno, que fue reedificado en diversas ocasiones. Más tarde se levantó en su lugar el actual, que cuenta con unas mil cien habitaciones y que hoy forma parte de un céntrico museo estatal, el famosísimo Ermitage.

En su primer decenio de existencia, San Petersburgo registró un asombroso crecimiento, hasta el punto de estimarse en 34.500 el número de edificios existentes en 1714. Siguieron añadiéndose palacios e inmensas construcciones, muchas de las cuales demuestran el gran influjo de la religión en la historia de Rusia.

Entre ellas figura la catedral de Kazán, con su columnata frontal en semicírculo. Su imponente presencia contribuye a que la arteria más famosa de la ciudad, la avenida Nevski, sea considerada una de las más grandiosas avenidas del mundo. De fecha posterior es la catedral de San Isaac, edificada sobre 24.000 pilotes hundidos en suelo pantanoso y que ostenta una enorme cúpula revestida de 100 kilos de oro puro.

La arquitectura avanzó igualmente a pasos agigantados en el extrarradio. Así, en 1714 se empezó a edificar una residencia para el zar, el palacio Peterhof, en Peterhof (hoy Petrodvoréts). Al mismo tiempo, en la cercana localidad de Tsárskoye Seló (hoy Pushkin) se construía el suntuoso palacio de Catalina, la esposa de Pedro el Grande. En la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII se concluyeron otras dos lujosas mansiones en las afueras: Pávlovsk y Gátchina.

Realzaban la belleza de la nueva capital los centenares de puentes que cruzaban los brazos fluviales y los múltiples canales, por los que se ha ganado el apelativo de “Venecia del norte”. Arquitectos franceses, alemanes e italianos colaboraron con colegas rusos de gran talento para producir “uno de los núcleos urbanos más espléndidos y armoniosos de Europa”

La abolición de la servidumbre en 1861 por el zar Alejandro II de Rusia provocó una fuerte corriente de inmigrantes pobres provenientes de todas las regiones del país. La mano de obra barata permitió un intenso incremento de la industria en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX y San Petersburgo llegó a ser uno de los ejes industriales más grandes de Europa. En consecuencia, surgieron a su vez los movimientos obreros radicales.

La revolución de 1905 tras la derrota en la guerra ruso-japonesa comenzó en San Petersburgo y se extendió rápidamente por otras provincias. Como consecuencia el zar Nicolás II autorizó la creación del primer parlamento ruso o Duma.

Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, se decidió que San Petersburgo era un nombre demasiado germánico para la ciudad y se le cambió por el de Petrogrado el 31 de agosto de 1914.

En 1917 San Petersburgo vio los primeros movimientos de la Revolución rusa. En primer lugar se destituyó al zar Nicolás II de su trono y se instaló en la ciudad el Gobierno provisional. En octubre una segunda fase de la revolución hizo que el poder pasase a los Sóviets y se formó el primer gobierno soviético de bolcheviques y socialistas revolucionarios (SR) de izquierda, el Sovnarkom. El líder bolchevique Lenin decidió trasladar la sede del gobierno de San Petersburgo a Moscú, por estar más alejada de los frentes de la Guerra Mundial y de los núcleos antirrevolucionarios. Moscú se convirtió en capital desde entonces hasta el día de hoy. Al morir Lenin en 1924, San Petersburgo tomó el nombre de Leningrado en su honor.

La pérdida de la capitalidad trajo un descenso poblacional a la ciudad, que se redujo a un tercio de lo que era en 1915.

Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Leningrado fue sitiada por las fuerzas armadas de la Alemania nazi (Wehrmacht) desde el 8 de septiembre de 1941 hasta el 27 de enero de 1944, un total de 29 meses. Por orden de Adolf Hitler, la ciudad era constantemente bombardeada y sistemáticamente privada de sus suministros. Se calcula que este asedio produjo la muerte de más de 1.500.000 personas, de las cuales cerca de 1.000.000 eran civiles. El 1 de mayo de 1945 (oficialmente el 8 de mayo de 1965) le fue otorgado a la ciudad el título de Ciudad Heroica.

Antes de la disolución de la Unión Soviética el 12 de junio de 1991, el 54 % de la población decidió restaurar el antiguo nombre de la ciudad, los de 39 calles emblemáticas y los de seis puentes. Tres meses después también se recuperó el escudo concedido a la ciudad por la emperatriz Catalina la Grande en 1780.

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