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YORK, ENGLAND - OCTOBER 04: during an i2i Soccer Academy Training Session at Haxby Road on October 4th 2022 in North Yorkshire, United Kingdom. (Photo by Matthew Appleby)
One from the archives.
Given a spot of straightening and a sepia tint. Please enjoy and any comments welcomed.
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TOPICS
The Vienna Opera Ball
Viennese Opera Ball
Just as already the operetta and the waltz had been imported from Paris to Vienna, comes also the model for the Vienna Opera Ball from the Seine metropolis. By a corresponding approval of Duke Philip of Orleans, on 2 January 1716 a "public ball" can be held for the first time, to which everyone has access who can pay the admission fee of five livres. First, the balls take place at the Comédie française, but already in 1717 was given the Académie de Musique, the Paris Opera House, the special right of the organization. Nevertheless, in the Comédie furthermore take place balls, with the audience far more popular than the 'opera balls'.
In 1861 the construction of an opera house begins at the Ringstrasse, on the explicit desire of Emperor Franz Joseph not solely intended for performances of operas and ballets, but also for the staging of the Opera Ball. With this, have been created both the spatial and the official conditions for a genuine Viennese Opera Ball according to Parisian model. It should, however, take another eight years before a dance event in the opera could be held for the first time after the completion of the house in 1869.
Initially, due to the increasing violence at the Paris balls but only Court Opera soirees take place. This includes elegant evening soirees with musical entertainment, but without dancing. On 11 December 1877 opened the court musical director Wilhelm Gericke the first Court Opera Soirée with the "Wedding March" by Felix Mendelssohn. After several concert pieces the baton is handed over to the Strauss family. First, Johann Strauss son conducts the Vienna Philharmonic with a waltz, followed by his brother Edward with a specially for this day composed "Opera Soirée Polka". After that, the dance-crazed Viennese are no longer stoppable: all chairs were put to the side, and the evening, which was thought without dance pleasure, ends like a ball. This is the hour of birth of the opera ball, even though for the time being still far away from being called so.
Already the second event on 15 January 1878 is announced officially as "Second Hofopernsoirée (Ball)". The third, for 12 February 1878 scheduled Soirée, is canceled for reasons of piety, since Pope Pius IX. a few days earlier had died. After the uncomplicated election of Leo XIII. to new head of the Church the ball is on 23 February rescheduled.
After these three opera soirees from March of the same year take place redoutes in the Court Opera, continuing the tradition of masked balls and linked with strict dress code: "in the hall, with the exception of the lodges, the ladies the stay is only permitted in an elegant mask, short costumes are not allowed. The gentlemen of civil appear in evening dress with white cravat, cylinder or Claquehut (opera hat - chapeau claque). "During the next twenty years during the carnival time each year should be organized two, in some seasons even three redoutes. However, at these festivals the Viennese society is not as boundless as once united in the common ball pleasure, because in the meantime the guests are spread across three different levels, not only differing in space but also in the appearance of guests from each other. Are the boxes the aristocratic guests in elaborate ball gowns reserved, so gather in the stalls the bourgeois guests, for which there is no mask constraint. In addition, there are the galleries that are accessible to every viewer without special admission ticket.
1899 the popular balls for the time being come to an abrupt end, as is discovered that the opera for such festivals does not comply with the safety regulations. Since an appropriate conversion proves to be too costly, the redoutes are discontinued for an unforeseen period of time. A certain compensation for those festivals offers in the following years the in the new town hall held "Ball der Stadt Wien".
Only in 1921, the tradition of the redoutes in the Court Opera has been resumed, but without being able to follow on the success of previous years. After several breaks followed in 1924, 1928 and 1929 again opera redoutes, neither musically nor stylistically corresponding with the level of the defunct imperial monarchy-time and they are not characterized by the former wit, charm and temperament. The twenties are not only politically, but also culturally a very different time in which with the progressive emancipation of women the meaning of a redoute became obsolete.
And so 1935 is launched the first as such referred to Opera Ball. In a time of political uncertainty, it complied in addition to social also with diplomatic and official representative purposes. Therefore, it takes no wonder that the guest list has many personalities from politics. The last opera ball before the outbreak of the Second World War should be organized in 1939, when Austria was already 'connected' by Adolf Hitler to the German Reich. Therefore respectively stiff and artificial resulted according to that this night on which no happiness will raise, previously the rule.
Image
Reopening of the Vienna State Opera, 1955
© wissenmedia
Shortly before the end of World War II, the Vienna Opera House on 12 March 1945 almost completely was destroyed by a bomb. It should take ten years until the house was rebuilt and with Ludwig van Beethoven's opera "Fidelio" at the 5th November 1955 ceremoniously could be opened. In the following carnival season with this also the first opera ball of the post-war period can be celebrated, but which has changed its face much: "Actually, the Opera Ball is not a Viennese event anymore, but already a pan-European one. A ball night for which the world envies us".
This new image has remained to this day, with the only difference that the Opera Ball is now no longer considered only as a pan-European, but as an international event. A highlight of the evening is the annual opening of the ball by about 180 debutantes who on the arm of the to them for this evening assigned Cavaliers in a Polonaise move in. After the Vienna Philharmonic for many years had taken over the musical interpretation of the evening, there is since 1982 a Vienna Opera Ball Orchestra grounded specifically for this purpose. In addition, since 1984, there is also a Viennese Opera Ball Ladies Ensemble, made up of 15 musicians and beyond the ball unfolding a very busy concert schedule.
Today on the Opera Ball there is not exclusively danced just waltz anymore. Up to ten orchestras or soloists play at the same time in different places of the house, and as a concession to modern times there is since some years even a nightclub. And yet, the waltz enjoys as the king of dances to this day unbroken popularity, without which for many no Viennese Opera Ball is thinkable. Another innovation is also the since 1981 in the Schwind Foyer installed Viennese Opera Ball Casino, which is a special attraction especially for the younger guests. Collectors will also appreciate the annually by the casino issued special Opera Ball chips.
How to become a debutante?
Proposals are now mostly send in by the dance schools of the country. The first condition is the perfect mastery of the links waltz, which is checked at a Vortanztermin (dance audition date - don't worry, the Lipizzans are doing the same!). Has the potential debutante overcome this hurdle with flying colors, it is about to find a suitable partner for the big night. The criteria for this choice are less situated in personal relationships than in pure dance qualities. After finally the couples have found each other, for five days under the expert guidance of several ballet master not only the links waltz, but also the choreography of the marching in is practiced until everything is perfectly rehearsed. The question of clothes is strictly regulated for the couples: the ladies in white dresses with a little crown on the head and the gentlemen in evening dress. To underline the internationality of the ball, every year also Debütantinnen and Debütanten from around the world are invited.
Guests
Artists from the world of the theater and the music, film and television can be found on the Vienna Opera Ball as well as well-known athletes and fashion designers. Diplomats and politicians from home and abroad appreciate the special atmosphere, and every now and then you meet also members of the European nobility. The Opera Ball today is no longer just a lavish celebration in which together a whole evening and a full night is celebrated, but increasingly also a social forum that connects professional and political contacts in a pleasant way with a social event.
Scandals
In recent decades, the Vienna Opera Ball, however, has not only found unanimous support, but has been increasingly criticized. In the 80s made fights between angry citizens that characterized the event as a "festival of the political and monetary bigwigs" and the police the headlines. Unforgettable is also the demonstration against the reprocessing plant Wackersdorf when in 1987 the Bavarian Prime Minister Franz-Josef Strauss participated in the Opera Ball. In addition, now almost every year during the opera ball take place demonstrations against these seemingly senseless waste of funds in the face of hardship and misery, hunger and wars, social and health problems in the world.
Nevertheless, the Opera Ball has lost none of its fascination and all over the world - from Bangkok via Kuala Lumpur and Korea to Tokyo, Singapore, Seoul and Dubai, Ankara, Istanbul, Kiev, Prague and Budapest to Rome, New York, Los Angeles and Washington - it found imitation, without being able to ever really come close to the Viennese model. Even if the question of the contemporaneity of the Vienna Opera Ball ever and again was controversially discussed, at the latest in 2005 has been shown that even this traditional event cannot stop short before general social changes: for the first time a smoking ban for the Opera Ball was pronounced.
www.wissen.de/thema/der-wiener-opernball?chunk=wiener-ope...
Carlisle Castle is situated in Carlisle, in the English county of Cumbria, near the ruins of Hadrian's Wall. The castle is over 900 years old and has been the scene of many historical episodes in British history. Given the proximity of Carlisle to the border between England and Scotland, it has been the centre of many wars and invasions. Today the castle is managed by English Heritage and is open to the public. The castle until recently was the administrative headquarters of the former King's Own Royal Border Regiment now county headquarters to the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment and a museum to the regiment is within the castle walls.
History
Carlisle Castle was first built during the reign of William II of England, the son of William the Conqueror who invaded England in 1066. At that time, Cumberland (the original name for north and west Cumbria) was still considered a part of Scotland. William II ordered the construction of a Norman style motte and bailey castle in Carlisle on the site of an old Roman fort, with construction beginning in 1093. The need for a castle in Carlisle was to keep the northern border of England secured against the threat of invasion from Scotland. In 1122, Henry I of England ordered a stone castle to be constructed on the site. Thus a keep and city walls were constructed. The existing Keep dates from somewhere between 1122 and 1135.
Entrance to Carlisle Castle. (De Ireby's tower)
The act of driving out the Scots from Cumberland led to many attempts to retake the lands. The result of this was that Carlisle and its castle would change hands many times for the next 700 years. The first attempt began during the troubled reign of Stephen of England.
On 26 March 1296, John 'The Red' Comyn, since the fourth quarter of 1295 Lord of Annandale, led a Scottish host across the Solway to attack Carlisle. The then governor of the castle, one Robert de Brus, deposed Lord of Annandale, successfully withstood the attack, before forcing the raiders to retreat back through Annandale to Sweetheart Abbey.
From the mid-13th century until the unification of England and Scotland in 1603, Carlisle castle was the vital headquarters of the Western March, a buffer zone to protect the western portion of the Anglo-Scottish border.
Henry VIII converted the castle for artillery, employing the engineer Stefan von Haschenperg. For a few months in 1567, Mary, Queen of Scots was imprisoned within the castle, in the Warden’s Tower, which was demolished in 1835.[2] Later, the castle was besieged by the Parliamentary forces for eight months in 1644, during the English Civil War.
The most important battles for the city of Carlisle and its castle were during the second Jacobite rising against George II of Great Britain in 1745. The forces of Prince Charles Edward Stuart travelled south from Scotland into England reaching as far south as Derby. Carlisle and the castle were seized and fortified by the Jacobites. However they were driven north by the forces of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, the son of George II. Carlisle was recaptured, and the Jacobites were jailed and executed. That battle marked the end of the castle's fighting life, as defending the border between England and Scotland was not necessary with both countries again one in Great Britain.
After 1746, the castle became somewhat neglected, although some minor repairs were undertaken such as that of the drawbridge in 1783.
Some parts of the castle were then demolished for use as raw materials in the 19th century to create more or less what is visible to the visitor today. The Army moved in to take hold of the castle and in 1873 a system of recruiting areas based on counties was instituted under the Cardwell Reforms and the castle became the depot for the 34th (Cumberland) Regiment of Foot and the 55th (Westmorland) Regiment of Foot. Under the Childers Reforms, the 34th and 55th regiments amalgamated to form the Border Regiment with its depot in the castle in 1881. The castle remained the depot of the Border Regiment until 1959, when the regiment amalgamated with the King's Own Royal Regiment (Lancaster) to form the King's Own Royal Border Regiment. The Army Reserve still use parts of the castle: 8 Platoon C Company 4th Battalion the Duke of Lancaster's Regiment are based within the Burma Block alongside a Multi Cap-Badge detachment of the Army Reserve, including Medics, Engineers, Logisticicians, Intelligence and Infanteers from other Cap Badges. The Castle also houses The King’s Own Border Regiment Museum.
List of Governors
Governors appointed by:
Henry II:
Robert de Vaux, Baron of Gillesland
John:
William de Stuteville, Baron of Lyddal
Henry III:
Robert de Vaux
Robert de Veteripont
William de Dacre
Thomas de Multon
John Baliol (later King of Scotland)
Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale (-1255 & 1267-)
William III de Forz, 4th Earl of Albemarle
Eustace de Baliol
Roger de Leiburne
Edward I:
Robert de Hampton
Richard de Holebrok
John de Swinburn
Gilbert de Curwen of Workington
William de Boyville
Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale (1295-)
Michael de Harela
John de Halton, Bishop of Carlisle
Alexander de Bassenthwaite
Edward II:
John de Castre
Andrew de Harcla, 1st Earl of Carlisle
Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall
Ralph Fitz William, baron of Greystoke
John de Halton, Bishop of Carlisle (2nd time)
Edward III:
Ralph Dacre, 1st Baron Dacre
Anthony Lord Lucy of Cockermouth
John de Glanton
John Kirby, Bishop of Carlisle
Sir Hugh de Moresby
Thomas, Lord Lucy
Roland de Vaux
Sir Richard de Denton
Sir Hugh de Lowther
Richard II:
Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland
Ralph Lord Neville de Raby
John Lord Moss of Hamlake
John Halland, Earl of Huntington
Sir Lewis Clifford
Henry IV;
Henry Lord Percy, surnamed Hotspur, Governor and General of the Marches
Edward IV;
Richard Duke of Gloucester (later Richard III of England)
Richard III:
Sir Richard Salkeld of Corby
Henry VII;
Sir Richard Salkeld of Corby
Henry VIII;
Thomas Lord Warton
William Lord Dacre of Gillesland
Edward VI:
William Lord Dacre of Gillesland
Mary I:
William Lord Dacre of Gillesland
Elizabeth I:
Henry Lord Scrope of Bolton
William Lord Dacre of Gillesland
Charles I:
Sir Nicholas Byron
Sir Henry Stradling
Sir John Brown
Sir William Douglas
Sir William Levingston
Sir Philip Musgrave Bart.
Jeremiah Tolhurst Esq.
Colonel Thomas Fitch
Post-Restoration
Charles II:
December 1660: Sir Philip Musgrave, 2nd Baronet
1678: Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle
1684/5: Sir Christopher Musgrave, 4th Baronet
James II:
1687: Sir Francis Howard of Corby
December 1688: Sir Christopher Musgrave, 4th Baronet
William III:
1689: Sir John Lowther, 2nd Baronet
1690: Jeremiah Bubb
March 1693: Charles Howard, 3rd Earl of Carlisle
George II:
1739: Lt Gen. John Folliot
12 August 1749: Gen. Sir Charles Howard
1752: Gen. John Stanwix
George III:
July 1763: Henry Vane, 2nd Earl of Darlington
22 September 1792: Lt Gen. Montgomery Agnew
8 September 1818: Lt Gen. Robert Burne
George IV:
18 June 1825: Maj. Gen. Sir George Adam Wood Kt.
William IV:
28 April 1831: Lt Gen. Hon. James Ramsay, son of the Earl of Dalhousie
Victoria:
The post of Governor of Carlisle was abolished in 1838.
Given that it’s freezing cold up here in Minneapolis right now so this pic of a gun frozen inside of a block of ice feels very appropriate to me. The first in a limited series of frozen items. If it weren’t for lack of space in my freezer I’d freeze a lot more objects and photograph them.
Towards the end of 1914, early in World War I, disturbing rumours began to circulate that the newest German submarines were capable of a much higher surface speed than British boats, one report giving their speed at about 22 knots. The rumours were sufficiently strong to force serious consideration of the matter by the Admiralty, and at the same time consideration was given to the idea that submarines should have a high enough surface speed to be able to work with the fleet. The reports concerning the speed of the German submarines proved to be spurious, but the idea of a British submarine with a high surface speed gained ground. The immediate result of this concern was the development of the J Class, which were unique with their three shafts. Originally eight boats were planned but this was reduced to six and then increased to seven. As a result of these changes the boats originally intended to be J7 and J8 were renumbered in April 1915 as J3 and J4 respectively.
J7's submerged displacement of 1,760 tons was 60 tons less than that of her sister boats. Her conning tower was located further aft and the gun was mounted in a lower position.
HMS J7 commissioned in the Royal Navy on 15 September 1917 under the command of Lieutenant Commander F.H.D. Byron RN and was allocated to a flotilla based at Blyth, Northumberland.
On 5 November 1917 J7 departed Blyth for her first patrol. Whilst on patrol in the North Sea on 6 March 1918 an enemy submarine was sighted, but J7 was unable to attack and the enemy passed from sight.
The submarine was under refit during April and May 1918 at Walker Naval Yard on the River Tyne. She sailed for patrol on 25 May and evaded a U-boat attack the same day.
On 10 July an enemy submarine was sighted and both vessels dived. Shortly after a sighting was made of an enemy submarine on the surface, going away, J7 surfaced, challenged and opened fire. The enemy dived. An enemy submarine was sighted on 23 July, but J7 was unable to attack and the enemy disappeared.
On 5 October 1918 J7 dived to intercept a reported submarine, but broke off the search without contact.
The boat was at sea when the Armistice was signed on 11 November 1918. She returned to Blyth on 15 November. On 19 February 1919 she proceeded to Jarrow.
Following the conclusion of hostilities in World War I, the Admiralty in 1918 presented the six remaining boats of the J Class to the Australian Government - J6 had been sunk in error in 1918 by a British ship. All the submarines commissioned into the Royal Australian Navy at Portsmouth on 25 March 1919, as tenders to the submarine depot ship HMAS Platypus, J7 being the senior boat, under the command of Lieutenant Commander Oswald E. Hallifax DSO RN.
The beam tubes were removed from all six J Class submarines before they sailed for Australia. The tubes were despatched separately to Garden Island. The reasons given for the removal were that the beam tubes were not a success and that increased accommodation was required.
HMS Submarine J7 off the River Tyne prior to sailing for Australia in February, 1919.
On 9 April 1919 Platypus and the submarines, escorted by the light cruiser HMAS Sydney, sailed from Portsmouth for Australia, their first two ports of call being Gibraltar and Valetta.
On the night of 28 April, the night before the vessels arrived at Port Said, J3's starboard main engine shaft snapped. Thus handicapped she could not keep up with the others and consequently on departure for Aden on 30 April, J3 was in tow of Sydney.
The vessels arrived at Aden on 5 May. On the same day the light cruiser HMAS Brisbane, which had left Portsmouth on 17 April, also arrived. On 7 May all the vessels sailed for Colombo. Brisbane took over the tow of J3 while Sydney took J5 in tow as that boat had also developed engine trouble. Three days after arrival at Colombo on 15 May, Brisbane sailed with J5 in tow, taking her all the way to Sydney, where they arrived on 27 June.
J3 was taken in hand at Colombo for repairs. On 31 May Sydney, J1, J2, J4 and J7 sailed for Singapore, followed on 2 June by Platypus and J3. The vessels were reunited at Singapore from where all except Sydney sailed on 18 June. Sydney sailed for Australia a few days later but did not rejoin the other vessels. On 29 June Platypus and the five submarines arrived at Thursday Island, although J7 was three hours late because of trouble with her engine lubricating system. The last call before Sydney was Brisbane, Sydney being reached on 15 July.
Having arrived in poor condition, the submarines were taken in hand at Garden Island Dockyard for refitting. After her refit was completed J7 sailed for the submarine base at Geelong, Victoria.
After uneventful service, little of which was spent at sea, J7 and her five sisters paid off into Reserve at Westernport on 12 July 1922. The boats had become victims of the worsening economic conditions of the time, coupled with their high cost of maintenance.
On 1 November 1929 J7 was sold to Morris and Watt Pty Ltd of South Melbourne. She was towed from Flinders Naval Depot, Crib Point, where she had served as a reserve source of electric power, on 4 December 1929. She was dismantled and the hull sunk in 1930 as a breakwater at the Sandringham Yacht Club, Sandringham, Port Phillip Bay, where it remain
Given that jet fighters might be tricky to fly for pilots used to flying propeller aircraft, let alone new trainee pilots, Lockheed proposed in 1945 that a two-seat conversion trainer be built for the P-80 Shooting Star. The US Army Air Force rejected the idea on cost grounds, citing that the T-6 Texan already in service would be sufficient enough. After a series of fatal crashes of the P-80, the USAAF revisited Lockheed’s proposal, which included extending the P-80’s fuselage by three feet, extending the canopy backwards, and adding a second cockpit with full flight controls. This aircraft, designated first TP-80C on its maiden flight in March 1948, then TF-80C, then finally T-33A, would go on to be far more successful than the fighter it was based on.
The T-33 was designed to be simple, robust, and easy to fly for trainee pilots, though it was intended at first to be only used for propeller-qualified pilots to transition into jets. As propeller aircraft were mostly phased out of the independent US Air Force’s inventory, the service made the decision to go to an “all-jet” training syllabus, and as a result pilots began flying T-33s in flight school.
The “T-Bird,” as it became known, could still be unforgiving in certain circumstances, and was less forgiving as the T-37 Tweet or the T-38 Talon that would eventually replace it. It also was an aircraft for practical jokers: the in-and-outs of the T-33 was something only experienced pilots knew well, and trainees could be subjected to all kinds of tricks by the instructor pilot. The T-33 was, however, eminently reliable. Even after it was withdrawn from training units in the mid-1950s, it soldiered on as a “hack” aircraft for units, a familiarization aircraft, advanced trainer, and aggressor aircraft, especially in Air Defense Command and Air National Guard units.
Well into the 1980s, T-33s could be found in frontline USAF units, and it was said that, when the last F-16 was retired, the pilot would hitch a ride home in a T-Bird. While this did not prove true, it was not off by much—the last USAF T-33s did not leave the inventory until around 1988. The US Navy also used T-33s, including both standard Shooting Stars and the heavily modified TV-1 Seastar, which had a larger engine, reworked tail, and strengthened fuselage for carrier operations. While the Seastar was replaced in the 1960s by the T-2 Buckeye, standard T-33s remained as test and chase aircraft for the Navy’s test squadrons into the 1990s.
Because of its robustness and cheap flyaway price, the T-33 was also popular with foreign air forces: no less than 41 nations operated T-33s at one time or another, and it was license-built in Japan by Kawasaki and in Canada as the CT-133 Silver Star, which differed from US-built aircraft only in using a Rolls-Royce Nene engine. While it was usually used in the trainer role, many were modified for a variety of roles, including armed AT-33s and reconnaissance RT-33s (some of which were also used by the USAF). AT-33s, which were basically two-seat F-80s, were used in several conflicts worldwide, mainly in South America; Bolivia still uses its AT-33s as frontline counterinsurgency aircraft. While Bolivia remains the only air force to still operate T-33s on a regular basis, many of these nations did not retire their Shooting Stars until the late 1990s—Canada did not retire its last CT-133s until 2008, and Boeing Aircraft has two T-33As on charge as chase aircraft. 6557 T-33s were built overall, and today over 80 and possibly as many as a hundred survive, with many still flyable.
T-33 histories are very hit or miss, but it is known that this one, 55-7768 did actually fly with the 119th Fighter-Interceptor Group (North Dakota ANG) at Fargo, probably in the late 1960s as the unit equipped with F-101 Voodoos. 55-7768 enjoyed a long career with the famous "Happy Hooligans," staying with the unit in both the F-101 and F-4D years, and was still there as late as 1996--by which time the 119th was in the F-16! 55-7768 was retired sometime after that, and donated to the little town of Wimbledon, North Dakota as a war memorial.
While so many (too many) city and town memorial aircraft are not well-maintained, Wimbledon does not have that problem: 55-7768 looks like it flew in yesterday! The town takes great care of this aircraft, and it was worth the drive off the highway to find this T-33.
The assistant vicar Carl Lampert, murdered by the Nazis, was beatified on November 13, 2011.
Exactly 67 years after his execution by the National Socialists, the Catholic Church on November 13, 2011 beatified the Austrian priest Carl Lampert.
The beatification service took place at 15.30 in the parish church of St. Martin in Dornbirn. Representing Pope Benedict XVI, the Prefect of the Vatican Congregation for the Causes of Saints, Cardinal Angelo Amato, led the celebration. The sermon was given by Innsbruck bishop Manfred Scheuer. At the Mass were more than 20 bishops and abbots from home and abroad in Dornbirn.
In memory of Carl Lampert, the church bells in Vorarlberg and at his place of death in the German Halle on the Saale rang for 15 minutes from 4 pm onwards.
Assistant vicar Carl Lampert - "Most dangerous man in the clergy"
Carl Lampert was born on 9 January 1894 in Göfis and ordained a priest in 1918 in Brixen (Bressanone). After several years as a chaplain in Dornbirn and years of study in Rome, assistant vicar Lampert became the then Apostolic Administrator of Innsbruck-Feldkirch and thus deputy to Bishop Paulus Rusch. With the seizure of power by the National Socialists, the Catholic Church in Tyrol and Vorarlberg also faced repressive measures.
Protests against expropriations
Assistant vicar Lampert protested with the Gestapo when priests and religious were imprisoned and tried to get them released. Nazi Gauleiter Franz Hofer wanted to see Tyrol as the first "monastery-free district". When the Innsbruck Monastery of Eternal Worship was to be expropriated on March 5, 1940, the religious women resisted. Assistant vicar Lampert handed a protest letter to the Gestapo, after which he was arrested for the first time for ten days. About a week later, "Vatican Radio" reported measures of the Gestapo against the Catholic Church in Tyrol. Gestapo boss Hilliges blamed Lampert for the reports and the assistant vicar was imprisoned again for two weeks.
Commitment to Otto Neururer
(Blessed Otto Neururer (25 March 1882 – 30 May 1940) was an Austrian Roman Catholic priest and martyr. He was the first priest to die in a Nazi concentration camp and was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1996 on account of his martyrdom)
Decisive for the fate of Lampert was finally his commitment to Otto Neururer. The pastor of Götzens, blessed in 1996, was murdered in the Buchenwald concentration camp - under cruel torture and hung on his feet. In the obituary, for which Lampert took responsibility, it was noted that Neururer had died "after much suffering" (an allusion to the torture) and "far from his pastoral community, in Weimar / Buchenwald" (an indication of the concentration camp as the place of death).
Because the National Socialists had identified him as the "most dangerous man within the clergy", Lampert then began a martyrdom through two concentration camps (Dachau and Sachsenhausen) and three prisons of Gestapo and Wehrmacht. After a year of concentration camp, Lampert, "emaciated and marked by heavy work", as the Tyrolean old bishop Reinhold Stecher recalls, was released, but "expelled from his Gau" and banished to Szczecin. The Berlin bishop Konrad von Preysing housed him in the local monastery Carolstift, where Lampert preached and held hours of faith for young people.
Beatification since 1998
Lampert is the highest ranking Austrian priest who was murdered by the National Socialists. Through a Gestapo spy he was involved in an alleged "spy affair" and arrested together with members of the "Szczecin Priest Circle" in February 1943.
On November 13, 1944, the assistant vicar was beheaded in Halle an der Saale together with the chaplain Herbert Simoneit and the Oblate father Friedrich Lorenz. At the same time, another three civilians and five soldiers were executed.
In the case of beatification or canonization, the Catholic Church, through the judgment of the Pope, states that a deceased person lived exemplary from faith and that this one has followed Christ a special way.
The result is the official recommendation to accept this person as a role model and as an advocate with God.
The beatification allows the blessed one to be publicly worshiped in a particular region. The beatification can be followed by a canonization. Only then may the person officially be worshiped worldwide.
Without putting the time and the victims of National Socialism on the same level as the present, the memory of the assistant vicar is a reminder and a challenge for today, emphasized Innsbruck Bishop Manfred Scheuer. Carl Lampert died "for justice."
Der von den Nazis ermordete Provikar Carl Lampert wurde am 13. November 2011 selig gesprochen.
Genau 67 Jahre nach seiner Hinrichtung durch die Nationalsozialisten spricht die katholische Kirche am 13. November 2011 den österreichischen Priester Carl Lampert selig.
Der Seligsprechungsgottesdienst famd um 15.30 Uhr in der Pfarrkirche St. Martin in Dornbirn statt. In Vertretung von Papst Benedikt XVI. hat der Präfekt der vatikanischen Selig- und Heiligsprechungskongregation, Kardinal Angelo Amato, die Feier geleitet. Die Predigt hielt der Innsbrucker Bischof Manfred Scheuer. Bei der Messe waren mehr als 20 Bischöfe und Äbte aus dem In- und Ausland in Dornbirn.
Im Gedenken an Carl Lampert läuteten ab 16 Uhr die Kirchenglocken in ganz Vorarlberg und an seinem Todesort im deutschen Halle an der Saale 15 Minuten lang.
Provikar Carl Lampert - "Gefährlichster Mann im Klerus"
Carl Lampert wurde am 9. Jänner 1894 in Göfis geboren und 1918 in Brixen zum Priester geweiht. Nach einigen Jahren als Kaplan in Dornbirn und Studienjahren in Rom wurde Lampert Provikar der damaligen Apostolischen Administratur Innsbruck-Feldkirch und damit Stellvertreter von Bischof Paulus Rusch. Mit der Machtergreifung der Nationalsozialisten sah sich auch die katholische Kirche in Tirol und Vorarlberg repressiven Maßnahmen ausgesetzt.
Proteste gegen Enteignungen
Provikar Lampert protestierte bei der Gestapo, wenn Priester und Ordensleute eingesperrt wurden, und versuchte sie wieder frei zu bekommen. NS-Gauleiter Franz Hofer wollte Tirol als ersten "klosterfreien Gau" sehen. Als am 5. März 1940 das Innsbrucker Kloster der Ewigen Anbetung enteignet werden sollte, wehrten sich die Ordensfrauen. Provikar Lampert übergab der Gestapo ein Protestschreiben, woraufhin er zum ersten Mal für zehn Tage in Haft genommen wurde. Rund eine Woche danach berichtete "Radio Vatikan" von Maßnahmen der Gestapo gegen die katholische Kirche in Tirol. Gestapo-Chef Hilliges machte Lampert für die Berichte verantwortlich und der Provikar wurde erneut zwei Wochen lang inhaftiert.
Einsatz für Otto Neururer
Entscheidend für das Schicksal Lamperts war schließlich sein Eintreten für Otto Neururer. Der 1996 selig gesprochene Pfarrer von Götzens wurde im KZ Buchenwald - unter grausamsten Folterungen und an den Füßen aufgehängt - ermordet. In der Todesanzeige, für die Lampert die Verantwortung übernahm, war vermerkt, dass Neururer "nach großem Leid" (eine Anspielung auf die Folterungen) sowie "fern seiner Seelsorgegemeinde, in Weimar/Buchenwald" (ein Hinweis auf das KZ als Todesort) gestorben sei.
Weil ihn die Nationalsozialisten als "gefährlichsten Mann innerhalb des Klerus" identifiziert hatten, begann für Lampert daraufhin ein Martyrium durch zwei Konzentrationslager (Dachau und Sachsenhausen) und drei Gefängnisse von Gestapo und Wehrmacht. Nach einem Jahr Konzentrationslager wurde Lampert, "abgemagert und von Schwerstarbeit gekennzeichnet", wie sich der Tiroler Altbischof Reinhold Stecher erinnert, zwar freigelassen, aber "gauverwiesen" und nach Stettin verbannt. Der Berliner Bischof Konrad von Preysing brachte ihn im dortigen Carolusstift unter, wo Lampert predigte und Glaubensstunden für Jugendliche abhielt.
Seligsprechungsverfahren seit 1998
Lampert ist der ranghöchste österreichische Priester, der von den Nationalsozialisten ermordet wurde. Durch einen Gestapo-Spitzel wurde er in eine angebliche "Spionage-Affäre" verwickelt und gemeinsam mit Mitgliedern des "Stettiner Priesterkreises" im Februar 1943 verhaftet.
Am 13. November 1944 wurde der Provikar in Halle an der Saale gemeinsam mit dem Kaplan Herbert Simoneit und dem Oblatenpater Friedrich Lorenz enthauptet. Zeitgleich wurden weitere drei Zivilisten und fünf Soldaten hingerichtet.
Bei der Seligsprechung oder Beatifikation stellt die katholische Kirche durch das Urteil des Papstes fest, dass eine verstorbene Person vorbildlich aus dem Glauben gelebt hat und Christus in besonderer Weise nachgefolgt ist.
Daraus ergibt sich die offizielle Empfehlung, diesen Menschen als Vorbild und als Fürsprecher bei Gott anzunehmen.
Mit der Seligsprechung wird erlaubt, dass der Seliggesprochene in einer bestimmten Region öffentlich verehrt werden darf. Der Seligsprechung kann eine Heiligsprechung folgen. Erst dann darf die betreffende Person offiziell weltweit verehrt werden.
Ohne die Zeit und die Opfer des Nationalsozialismus mit der Gegenwart auf eine Ebene zu stellen, sei das Gedächtnis an den Provikar eine mahnende Erinnerung und Herausforderung für heute, betonte der Innsbrucker Bischof Manfred Scheuer. Carl Lampert sei „für die Gerechtigkeit gestorben.“
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***** Selected for sale in the GETTY IMAGES COLLECTION on Monday 6th January 2025
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This photograph became my 6,987th frame to be selected for sale in the Getty Images collection and I am very grateful to them for this wonderful opportunity.
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Photograph taken at an altitude of Fifty eight metres at 06:44am on Tuesday 4th August 2020, of a Common wood pigeon (Columba palumbus), off Chessington Avenue in Bexleyheath, Kent, England.
Belonging to genus Columba, these are members of the Dove and pigeon family, and known in Southeast England as the Culver.
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Nikon D850 Focal length 600mm Shutter speed: 1/125s Aperture f/6.3 iso80 Image area FX (36 x 24) NEF RAW L (8256 x 5504). NEF RAW L (14 bit uncompressed) Image size L (8256 x 5504 FX). Focus mode AF-C focus. AF-C Priority Selection: Release. Nikon Back button focusing enabled. AF-S Priority selection: Focus. 3D Tracking watch area: Normal 55 Tracking points.AF-Area mode single point & 73 point switchable. Exposure mode: Shutter Priority mode. Matrix metering. Auto ISO sensitivity control on (Max iso 800/ Miniumum shutter speed 125). White blance on: Auto1. Colour space: RGB. Actve D-lighting: Normal. Vignette control: Normal. Nikon Distortion control: Enabled. Picture control: Auto (Sharpening A +1/Clarity A+1
Sigma 60-600mm f/4.5-6.3DG OS HSM SPORTS. Lee SW150 MKI filter holder with MK2 light shield and custom made velcro fitting for the Sigma lens. Lee SW150 circular polariser glass filter.Lee SW150 Filters field pouch.Nikon GP-1 GPS module. Hoodman HEYENRG round eyepiece oversized eyecup.Two Nikon EN-EL15a batteries (Priority to battery in Battery grip). Matin quick release neckstrap. My Memory 128GB Class 10 SDXC 80MB/s card. Lowepro Flipside 400 AW camera bag.
LATITUDE: N 51d 28m 28.03s
LONGITUDE: E 0d 8m 10.42s
ALTITUDE: 58.0m
RAW (TIFF) FILE: 130.00MB NEF: 90.0MB
PROCESSED (JPeg) FILE: 35.00MB
PROCESSING POWER:
Nikon D850 Firmware versions C 1.10 (9/05/2019) LD Distortion Data 2.018 (18/02/20) LF 1.00
HP 110-352na Desktop PC with AMD Quad-Core A6-5200 APU 64Bit processor. Radeon HD8400 graphics. 8 GB DDR3 Memory with 1TB Data storage. 64-bit Windows 10. Verbatim USB 2.0 1TB desktop hard drive. WD My Passport Ultra 1tb USB3 Portable hard drive. Nikon ViewNX-1 64bit Version 1.4.1 (18/02/2020). Nikon Capture NX-D 64bit Version 1.6.2 (18/02/2020). Nikon Picture Control Utility 2 (Version 2.4.5 (18/02/2020). Nikon Transfer 2 Version 2.13.5. Adobe photoshop Elements 8 Version 8.0 64bit.
Given this bustling scene in this fascinating photo, you wouldn't know this was the dustbowl decade. This week's Saturday Timewatch features the downtown area of the small town of Rusk, TX, on June 12th 1934 when the population was around 4000, about 1000 less than the current population.
Established by an act of the Texas Legislature on April 11, 1846, Rusk was named after Thomas Jefferson Rusk. 10 years earlier he had signed the Texas Declaration of Independence.........from Mexico.
Other claims to fame?? Not too many but according to Wiki it does have the longest footbridge in the nation. I thought you'd like to know that.
PS : Can any of the vehicle aficionados identify the cars?
When we first brought Loraine home, no other cats were in the house. She was given full reign to explore while the others were outside. Sparky, our Maine Coon, was the first to come back in the house. He had no idea that there was a new addition to the family. As he rounded the corner from the kitchen to the foyer, Loraine, who was perched on our bookcase, startled him with a 'wooooo'. (that type of cat growl that is really low and quiet - almost as if they were swearing under their breath). Notice that Loraine's ears are not pinned back, indicating that she was not in a combative or fearful state. I can't tell if her tail was puffed up because she has not tail, being a Manx mix.
The expression on Sparky's face is priceless. That, and the fact that she stopped him dead in his tracks, just as he was rounding the corner.
Update since this picture was taken approximately 3 weeks ago. Loraine is closest to Sparky over the other 3 cats in the house. Although they're not quite bosom buddies just yet, they enjoy each others company and teasing one another.
(This pic was taken with my Samsung Galaxy S2 and having said that, there is only so much editing and such that I could do to make it look halfway decent, but the cuteness factor of this photo was irresistible so I added it here to my Flickr Photostream)
10-02-12, Πολυχώρος "Λάσπη"
Performance given by the dance team "Mud"
Shot with a 25/1.4 cctv lens @f/1.4
Kentucky horse park hall of champions - Point Given
Feel free to use this photo however you like, just attribute atthepaddock.com. Thanks!
Given the extreme cold temps this day, track speed was limited to 25 mph, which allowed many opportunities to get shots along the next 52 miles of the CP Emerson Sub.
CP 8950 heading south on the CP Emerson Sub at MP 12 outside Grande Pointe, MB.
Given the stripes in the amazing lawn of Worcester College I thought it might be a good candidate for a pseudo infra-red conversion. Am I right though ?
06/07/2015
Stunning storm structure associated with remnant sub-severe thunderstorms in extreme southern Champaign County, Illinois yesterday evening. I was mostly impressed with the inflow feeding into the storm!
I was shooting lightning from this location (see "Stack of Lightning..." / previous photo) and primarily was focused on getting the good bolts. I was somewhat pleased with the lightning activity, despite that I was having ISO issues and properly exposing the storm structure, given it was so dark, and the bolts were too bright.
I ended up with this shot here after shooting quite a few, thus taking up space on the memory card, I called it quits at this location and went south towards northern Coles County near home because an approaching line of severe thunderstorms (a squall line) was soon coming into my area. I made it past Villa Grove, and blasted by the IL-133/IL-130 intersection just in time as I was paged and heard on my VHF radio that the Coles EMA needed spotters. I was out of course, so I instantly came across my radio and said where I was heading. My final goal location was east of Humboldt, that was actually on IL-130 north of Charleston lol. Things got intense way too quick, and the sky was a pitch black color. I knew we were under a severe thunderstorm warning, although I got a weird feeling that a tornado warning was going to be issued, and of all locations, it ended up smack dab right east and west of my hometown, Ashmore. The warning went off on my VHF radio and the EOC said that he was going to sound the tornado sirens for Ashmore. At that point, I was kind of worried because there was a ton of precipitation, mostly heavy rain and gusty winds coming from these storms which immediately prevented us spotters from seeing anything. Lightning didn't really help much, there was too much rain. All while that was going on I didn't even care that as soon as I left Villa Grove that Douglas and Champaign Counties would get tornado warnings. I was mad at myself for not coming south sooner, so I could have been in Ashmore and near home in time before the tornado warning was issued. There were two areas of rotation (radar indicated) by the National Weather Service in Lincoln, IL heading east from Loxa towards Ashmore that ended up prompting the tornado warning. I was still north of Charleston and decided to leave my spotting location to head home to Ashmore and check out the town, make sure no trees or stuff was in the road. Turns out we had some minor wind damage; a couple powerlines were downed by wind and a couple tree limbs fell in the road. Charleston ended up with downed powerlines too, and loss of power (as did some spots in Ashmore). Ameren has their hands full tonight, as they have been working in wet conditions to restore power to people across Central Illinois.
So I probably typed way too much for these images, but all is good and I ended up home in one piece. Everyone in Ashmore was fine, thankfully there is only spotty damage from wind gusts and hopefully nothing more. I don't think we had a tornado touchdown or anything, it was radar detected rotation only. Successfully shot my first wedding, and some storms on the same day, I totally can't complain :D
Enjoy, thanks for reading.
I was given a sheet of magazine scraps which had been applied to a background in a haphazard manner and was asked to use this as a source of inspiration!
I find this sort of challenge VERY difficult as I usually work to an idea, not an image.
After a mild panic I decided to gesso the whole page in an attempt to tone down the images and then I used it to create a folder which I then die cut and embossed.
I then grabbed the scrap bag and started to machine embroider images which started to leap from the page.
This is one sample.
Sometimes I need a reminder of just how blessed I am to live where I live, to have what I have, and to have been able to have learned from those who came before me.
This story was recently sent to me, and contains information about my grandfather's grandfather, Alma Spafford. These are not my words, but they mean a great deal to me since they are the experiences of my ancestors. The mountains and the lake described at the end of this story are the mountains and lake that I get to take pictures of often and share with you here on Flickr.
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Horace Spafford was the son of an army man, born in Bergennes County, Vermont on January 23, 1797. His parents were Colonel Elijah Spafford and Irinda Skinner. Horace grew to manhood in the neighboring county of the birthplace of Joseph Smith, founder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormon church).
In early manhood, Horace married Martha Stiles and they had eleven children, six girls and five boys. He was a quiet, unassuming man, devoted to his family and community. Through his industry he was able to provide some comforts for his family who were reared in the prevailing religious teachings of that time.
When the LDS religion was introduced to Horace and his family they became very interested and soon joined the church. At this time they moved to Pike County, Missouri. In January of 1840, Alma was born. The family endured all the persecutions of the members of the church at that time. It was during this same time that their oldest daughter, Caroline, married Joshua Kimball and left the church. They never heard from her again. This was one of the first of many sorrows.
In the spring of 1850, unable to endure the persecutions any longer, they sold their possessions and outfitted themselves to make the trek across the plains to what is now Utah. At this time there was another wedding in the family. [Daughter] Irinda married Spicer Crandall. Spicer was also a member of the church and he and bride planned to go west with the family. They joined a company with Aaron Johnson as captain. There were 135 wagons in this train of pioneers.
All seemed to go well with them until they reached the Platte River. As they made camp one night, Martha made biscuits with flour and alkali dust for her family. That night many members of the family became very ill. That morning Irinda and her infant daughter were dead. Within the next four days, two other daughters and two sons and their mother were also dead, victims of cholera.
Alma was just a small boy [of ten] and was also very ill with the dread disease. While he was burning with a high fever, he crawled to the edge of the river and sat with his feet in the water all night. By morning his fever had left and he was apparently well. He often said this saved his life. He was the only member of the family who had cholera and lived.
After the deaths of his wife, five children, and one granddaughter, Horace wrapped their bodies in a feather bed and quilts and placed them in one grave on the edge of the Platte River in June of 1850. They placed large stones over the grave to keep wolves and other wild animals from digging up the bodies.
If any man's faith was tested, it was Horace's, for now he was fifty- three years old, had no home, owned only his wagon and a few possessions, his wife was dead, and only three sons and two daughters were left from this once large and happy family. But his faith was strong and he squared his shoulders and once more joined the company to come west.
On September 2, 1850, this weary company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley and camped at Emigration Square. There they rested from the long journey. That night, Brigham Young, the President of the LDS Church, came to the camp to greet these weary people. He counted out the first eight wagons and told them that he wanted them to go south to the shores of Utah Lake and there build a fort and make their homes. Horace's wagon was one of the eight. They rested for seven days and then started out. It took three days of travel and on September 18, 1850 they arrived at the future site of Springville and camped on a little bluff. Here they corralled their wagons and their long journey of 1,100 miles was over. The previous five years had been a state of unrest and uncertainty but here they found rest and a place to expand their energies. Now they were all settled as far as future wandering was concerned.
On the day of arrival they nooned at Bullock's Springs, south of Provo, Utah. About 2:00 that afternoon they drove down across the big pasture and crossed Spring Creek where it is now spanned by the the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad.
The location was one of natural beauty, one to fill their hearts with joy and thanksgiving. High mountains surrounded the beautiful valley, tall grass waved in the breeze, and the beautiful lake to the west made it a picture never to be forgotten by these delighted home seekers.
Early the next morning, these hearty pioneers were up and busy. Some gathered grass for hay and others hauled logs for the fort which was built on the rising ground just south of the corralled wagons. The fort covered one and a half acres and was constructed to serve also as a home. The fort was completed before the winter storms set in and it served as a protection for the members of this new church.
In the spring, the town site and lots were surveyed and Horace and his family were given a plot of ground between Center Street and 100 North and between 200 and 300 West [in present-day Springville]. He built his log house on the northwest corner and set up homemaking for his motherless family. During the year of 1851 he married Rachel Robison Ford, a widow. She was a wonderful woman and loved Horace's children and raised them to adulthood. She was called Grandmother Ford.
After nineteen years of peace and rest from persecutions, Horace passed away in Springville on December 12, 1869 [at the age of 72].
- Compiled and written by Helen McKenzie Jackson
Note: Both Horace Spafford and his son, Alma, are buried in the old pioneer cemetery near downtown Springville. I have visited those grave sites and plan to again with renewed interest in the lives of these wonderful people.
Given to me this morning by a cow-orker who no longer wanted it. Silver and mother of pearl, with a snakes' head detail.
Canon EOS 1V + Kodak Ektachrome + Ps
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Please do not edit | crop | manipulate | remove my watermark | transmit | copy | or reproduce this photo in any form. Sharing this image without proper credit and using it without permission, is punishable by law. Please respect the artists involved. Thank you.
Given myself an alphabet soup game. Two new photos and another two from my photostream or archives, when possible.
I'd gone out for a Sunday drive to Congerville-Thionville in May 2011, which is where I found this toy tractor and trailer. It was badly parked in a large drive of what I presumed was the Farm House.
Thank you for your favourites. :O)
Zoom into this map at maps.bpl.org.
Author: Duffield, Thomas W.
Publisher: Duffield, Thomas W.
Date: 1823
Location: Jerusalem, Palestine
Dimensions: 56 x 144 cm.
Scale: Scale not given
Call Number: G7504.J4 1823 .D84x
May not seem like it but at this point I’d completely given up with the film script I was in the middle off and I was in the tunnel looking for the light at the end of the hallway.
Aankomst in Rotterdam van het containerschip EVER GIVEN , VB TIGER , ROTTERDAM , SD STINGRAY en RT ROB van Boluda Towage assisteerden naar de ECT in de Amazonehaven.29-7-2021 gezien vanaf de KRVE 71
Given the concerns over Covid-19 and the associated international response, social pressure referred to as ‘Social Distancing’, the good Mr T decided it was time to chill and hang out in the pool on the Southern Shores of Lake Ontario in tropical Grimsby, Ontario, for the duration of March Break. Some of the online paranoia suggested he may never get another chance. So grasp life by the horns and enjoy it while you can. Suitably protected from the sun by a cool set of sun glasses, a glass of wine to help take the edge off, and a good book to pass the time, Mr T reclined in the pool and settled in for the duration. - JW
Date Taken: 2020-03-17
Tech Details:
Taken using a tripod-mounted Nikon D800 fitted with an AF-S Nikkor 24-120mm 1:4.0 lense set to 28mm, ISO100, Auto WB, Aperture Priority Mode, f/9.0, 1/3 sec. PP in free Open Source RAWTherapee from Nikon RAW/NEF source file: convert image to B&W/monochrome using green channel gamma adjustment to somewhat darken the image, crop image to 1:1 aspect ratio, set final image size to 7000 px wide, apply Tone Mapping at default levels, boost contrast in L-A-B mode, enable Shadows/Highlights and recover highlight detail, sharpen, save. PP in free Open Source GIMP: use the levels tool in Auto mode to establish a good base overall tonality, sharpen, save, scale image to 6000px wide, sharpen, save, add fine black-and-white frame, add bar and text on left, save, scale image to 2048 px wide for posting online, sharpen very slightly, save.
free below email and its “law” like from:
LawDay__Real_Time_News_Corp_rsyvzgr@cmpgnr.com
SEXUAL DISCRIMINATION claim given green light to proceed against law firm
NEW YORK – In what is being described as the makings of a ‘wake up call’ for law firms across the United States, a federal Judge in New York has allowed a sexual discrimination lawsuit to proceed against a law firm that fired an associate two days after she complained that women lawyers at the firm were “relegated to non-partnership track support roles.”
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Question: Is it only in Texas where missing sex toys concern police property room?
Learn below at www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/5930980.html
By DANE SCHILLER Copyright 2008 Houston Chronicle, Aug. 7, 2008, 6:05PM
The Emperor is gone. So is Cyber Wabbit.
Three years after Houston police seized these and hundreds of other sex toys worth $50,000 from the Adult Video Megaplexxx, the devices may be missing from the department's property room.
The discovery came to light when a lawyer for the adult-entertainment shop sought to reclaim the 564 items that the 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals recently declared legal to sell.
After initially telling attorney Richard Kuniansky the sex toys would be returned, Houston police then said they were destroyed.
"They said no problem you can send somebody by to pick them up, and then we get another call and it's 'Whoops, we don't have them,' " Kuniansky said.
Kuniansky said police told him they were destroyed, but he doubts that explanation.
"There is apparently no court order authorizing destruction of the property or any record of what happened to the property," he said.
A check of Harris County court files did not turn up a destruction order in any of the cases involving the store's employees.
A Houston Chronicle request to interview a police supervisor who could discuss the toys' whereabouts was not immediately answered.
"There does need to be a court order for the destruction of any property," said Victor Senties, a police spokesman.
The last time the products were seen by Adult Video Megaplexxx employees was in 2005, when they were carried away by vice officers.
They were to be locked in a property room as evidence. The charges against employees were dropped. And in February,a federal appeals court ruled that Texas' 35-year-old law banning the sale of sex toys was unconstitutional.
Kuniansky sought to resolve the matter in May by asking police in writing where his clients could retrieve the property.
A copy of a 9-page police inventory lists the sometimes comical, sometimes crude, names of the devices as well as the prices.
The most expensive sold for $89.99, the least was $11.99.
The police property room, actually more of a warehouse given the massive number of cases it handles, has had its share of woes.
A police supervisor who was fired after roughly 30 guns went missing got his job back in June after telling a Houston Civil Service Commission that lapses in security allowed people with criminal records to get access to the property room.
Richard Segura, acting director of the Criminal Defense Clinic at the University of Texas School of Law, said Kuniansky has a right to ask for the devices back, but police shouldn't have to safeguard them forever.
"If I go over to your house and spend the night there and leave my shoes, can I expect my shoes to be there three years later?" he said.
Still, he said whether they were destroyed and under what authority would likely be set by department policy.
No matter how much time had passed, the department can't destroy property without following regulations, Kuniansky said.
Ray Hill, who has been a consultant for adult businesses, said sex toys were too tantalizing for police to destroy.
"I think the cops stole them," he said. "We've got these gifts to give our girlfriends and friends, and as gags."
04.15 aankomst in Rotterdam van het Suezkanaal blokkade containerschip EVER GIVEN , VB TIGER , ROTTERDAM , SD STINGRAY en RT ROB van Boluda Towage assisteerden naar de ECT in de Amazonehaven.29-7-2021 gezien vanaf de KRVE 71
Label for my 32nd batch of ale. The image is from our 2015 Alaska trip and is titled "Sam McGee, of poet Robert Service fame's, cabin" and was taken on 2015-06-15. The ale was made using Galaxy and Waimea hops as well as Simpsons Double Roasted Crystal Malt, I was given at the Duluth AHA Rally this summer.
Any given Sunday Paseo de la reforma Mexico City
If you like this shot please go see my ALBUM "Any given Sunday in Mexico City"
www.flickr.com/photos/luajr/albums/72157638501177336
Or "street Shots"
Description given as father and son by the ebay seller. From what I could find using Ancestry and the WW1 and WW2 military records, their war service is as follows:
WW1 - Robert Conroy Parrott:
Religion - Church of England
Occupation - Soldier
Address - Parkside, South Australia
Marital status - Married
Age at embarkation - 42
Next of kin - Wife, Mrs R A Parrott, 31 Jaffrey Street, Parkside, South Australia
Previous military service - Inst'l Staff
Enlistment date - 18 February 1918
Rank on enlistment - 2nd Lieutenant
Unit name - 48th Battalion, 11th Reinforcement
AWM Embarkation Roll number - 23/65/4
Embarkation details - Unit embarked from Sydney, New South Wales, on board HMAT A54 Runic on 22 March 1918
Rank from Nominal Roll - 2nd Lieutenant
Unit from Nominal Roll - 43rd Battalion
Fate - Returned to Australia 25 June 1919
Miscellaneous details (Nominal Roll)*second given name two spellings Conroy and Conway
WW2 William Robert Conway Parrott:
Service - Australian Army
Service Number - SX4310
Date of Birth - 13 Oct 1907
Place of Birth - SOUTHAMPTON, ENGLAND
Date of Enlistment - 03 Jun 1940
Locality on Enlistment - BRIGHTON ST, SA
Place of Enlistment - ADELAIDE, SA
Next of Kin - PARROTT, ROBT
Date of Discharge - 04 Oct 1945
Rank - Staff Sergeant
Posting at Discharge - 9 Australian Division
Prisoner of War - No
Honours - None for display
(found on ebay)
In fact, given how wildly out the colours I originally blocked in the blue bits were with it's not looking too bad now. The left wall was dreadful at first, as I'd got the colour and the approach for the underpainting wrong, and it's taken a fair bit of reworking to rescue it - just need to adjust it's shape now and do the final texture and shading. The acrylics paint over earlier coats nicely as I thought they would - and I think the wash for the shadow on the pavement may well be possible - thinned some of the paint for shading the green part.
Overall, fairly pleased with progress so far.
photographer's description: "Bicycle taxi."
These photos belong to the IIT Downtown Campus Library as part of the Library of International Relations Collection.
The photos were taken by a member of the U.S. Marines who was in Japan in the fall of 1945, shortly after the end of World War II. At this point we do not have the name of the photographer and we do not know how these photos were given to the library. There are 100 photos in this collection.
Given her age, it is perfect surgery she could have hoped for and since there is no point hiding it, we do hope that she would give a public statement soon. After all not every day do you get to see a surgery gone so well as the Beverly D'Angelo plastic surgery celebsplasticsurgery.com/beverly-d-angelo-plastic-surgery/
Given that non-LED street lights are almost extinct in Chilwell, I was pleased to see a couple of local GEC Z9538s were still extant, and as far as I know are still operational. I even found a Simplex Aries that was still in situ, potentially still working if the puddle inside hasn't affected the electricals.
There are still a few GEC Z5718s and Z5698Us if you know where to look, plus a couple of dead Simples Aries, Gemini and GEC Z9538s. Funnily enough it seems the Thorn Beta 2 might be rarer than all of the above, since I know of just two remaining and one has been marked for removal (unsurprisingly it's the Kirkbride Ct one missing its bowl). I keep checking back to see if I can catch the lighting crew in the act of replacing it and invariably not convince them to let me have the old lantern.
Claremont Ave used to have an impressive installation of GEC Z5718s that ran SON, with some SOX ones nearby, but unfortunately within the past year or-so they've been V-MAXed... on their original, incredibly short concrete columns. The whole reason they had post-tops in the first place was because it was an upmarket street, yet now the LED replacements look worse there than on your average 'hockey stick' column.
Given that lanterns tend to disappear a few months after I find and photograph them, I won't mention where the one in the photo above is located, just to see if that makes it last longer...
Housesteads Roman Fort is the remains of an auxiliary fort on Hadrian's Wall, at Housesteads, Northumberland, England, south of Broomlee Lough. The fort was built in stone around AD 124, soon after the construction of the wall began in AD 122 when the area was part of the Roman province of Britannia. Its name has been variously given as Vercovicium, Borcovicus, Borcovicium, and Velurtion. The 18th-century farmhouse Housesteads gives the modern name. The site is owned by the National Trust and is in the care of English Heritage. Finds can be seen at the site, in the museum at Chesters, and in the Great North Museum: Hancock in Newcastle upon Tyne.
Hadrian's Wall was begun in AD 122. A fort was built in stone at the Housesteads Roman Fort site around AD 124 overlying the original Broad Wall foundation and Turret 36B, about two miles north east of an existing fort at Vindolanda. The fort was repaired and rebuilt several times, its northern defences being particularly prone to collapse. A substantial civil settlement (vicus) existed to the south, outside the fort, and some of the stone foundations can still be seen, including the so-called "Murder House", where two skeletons were found beneath an apparently newly-laid floor when excavated.
In the 2nd century AD, the garrison consisted of an unknown double-sized auxiliary infantry cohort and a detachment of legionaries from Legio II Augusta. In the 3rd century, it comprised Cohors I Tungrorum, augmented by the numerus Hnaudifridi and the Cuneus Frisiorum, a Frisian cavalry unit, cuneus referring to a wedge formation. The Tungrians were still there in the 4th century, according to the Notitia Dignitatum. By 409 AD the Romans had withdrawn.
The northern granary at Vercovicium, looking east. The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin. They are not part of a hypocaust.
The latrines at Housesteads on Hadrian's Wall, hygienically placed at the lowest corner of the fort. The water tank at left still has original lead sealing between its slabs.
Most other early forts straddle the Wall and therefore protrude into barbarian territory. It is also unusual for Britain in that it has no running water supply and is dependent upon rainwater collection (for which purpose there is a series of large stone-lined tanks around the periphery of the defences). It also has one of the best-preserved stone latrines in Roman Britain.
The name of the fort has been given as Borcovicus, Borcovicium, and Velurtion. An inscription found at Housesteads with the letters VER, is believed to be short for Ver(covicianorum) – the letters ver being interchangeable with bor in later Latin. The name of the 18th-century farmhouse of Housesteads provides the modern name.
The site is now owned by the National Trust and is currently in the care of English Heritage. Finds from Vercovicium can be seen in the site museum, in the museum at Chesters, and in the Great North Museum: Hancock in Newcastle upon Tyne.
Housesteads is a former farm whose lands include the ruins of the fort. In 1604 Hugh Nixon, "Stealer of cattle and receiver of stolen goods", became the tenant of Housesteads farm. From 1663, Housesteads was the home of the Armstrongs, a notorious family of Border Reivers. Nicholas Armstrong bought the farm in 1692, only to have to sell it again in 1694 to Thomas Gibson of Hexham for the sum of £485. They remained as tenants. They were a well-known band of horse thieves and cattle rustlers who used the old fort as a place to hold the stolen horses and cattle. They traded as far afield as Aberdeen and the south of England. At one time every male member of the family was said to have been a 'broken man', formally outlawed by English or Scottish authorities. Nicholas was hanged in 1704, and his brothers fled to America. The Armstrongs lived in a typical 16th-century defensive bastle house of two storeys: the ground floor for livestock and the upper level for living quarters. Its ruins remain built up against the south gate of the Roman fort, with external stone steps and narrow loop windows. A corn-drying kiln was inserted into the gate's guard chamber in the 17th century.
In 1698, the farm had been sold to Thomas Gibson who turned the land around the fort to agriculture and thus ploughed up numerous Roman artefacts. The 17th-century bastle house was replaced by a farmhouse located over the Roman hospital, which was sketched by William Stukeley in 1725. Throughout the 18th century Housesteads was farmed by a single tenant farming family. Since Hodgson recorded the presence of William Magnay as the tenant during that period this fixes the tenure. In particular, the well (thought to be Roman) was documented as having actually been built by William, and used by the family as a bath. Interest in the fort increased in the 19th century, particularly after the farm was purchased by the amateur historian John Clayton in 1838, to add to his collection of Roman Wall farms. The Roman site was cleared of later buildings by Clayton, and the present farmhouse built about 1860. John Maurice Clayton attempted to auction the fort in 1929. It did not reach its reserve and was donated to the National Trust in 1930. The farm was later owned by the Trevelyans who gave the land for the site museum.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
"Wake up at 5am, I fell in love again. Something wrong with living life like this. At work can't help but stare, long legs, her dark brown hair."
- Self
{Sooo...Have I mentioned that I'm sick of me being the only thing I can find pictures to take of lately?}
Thou hast given so much to me,
Give one thing more, - a grateful heart;
Not thankful when it pleaseth me,
As if Thy blessings had spare days,
But such a heart whose pulse may be Thy praise.
~George Herbert
this old beauty was given to me by my girlfriend´s dad who found it amongst his dad´s stuff. her solid metal body is somewhat battered and bruised but the lens seemed to be fully intact and clear. so i got some 120 roll film and gave it a try. the roll will be developed soon and i´m anxious to see if the shutter is still working properly.
the nettar folding cams were made by the zeiss ikon company from the 1930´s till the late 50´s. this one is a nettar 515/2 which i learned were released in 1937. more info about the nettar series here
EXP 2 is the oldest surviving Bentley, the second ever made and the first to win a race. EXP is the prefix given by Bentley to all pre-production models. EXP 2 was built at Bentley's new works in Criclewood using the chassis exhibited at Olympia in November 1919. It appeared as the first "works" racing Bentley in the 1921 Essex Car Club and Whitsun meetings at Brooklands on May, 16th. As a works race car EXP 2 achieved 11 first and 7 second places. It was sold to lorry manufacturer JE Foden in 1923 for £ 425.
Class VII : 100 Years Bentley
Zoute Concours d'Elegance
The Royal Zoute Golf Club
Zoute Grand Prix 2019
Knokke - Zoute
België - Belgium
October 2019
Thanks for your visit, hope you enjoyed, kindly leave your comment that will be very rewarding
Wish you all a very happy Bijjoya Dasami (Bijoya Dasami is the last day of celebrations.
Godess Durga departs for her own house in the mountains of the Himalayas).
Friends , I was so busy in my non profit event, Durga Puja festival at Milpitas, California organized by pashchimi (www.pashchimi.org) . Many thanks for your visit and support.
All my images are copyrighted.
If you intend to use any of my pictures, for any usage, you need to contact me first.
Thank you.
Maa Durga (Mother Durga)
Goddess Durga is the mother of the universe and believed to be the power behind the work of creation, preservation, and destruction of the world. Since time immemorial she has been worshipped as the supreme power of the Supreme Being and has been mentioned in many scriptures - Yajur Veda, Vajasaneyi Samhita and Taittareya Brahman.
In Hinduism, the Goddess Durga ("the inaccessible" or "the invincible") or Maa Durga (Mother Durga) "one who can redeem in situations of utmost distress". Durga is a form of Devi, the supremely radiant goddess, depicted as having ten arms, riding a lion or a tiger, carrying weapons (including a lotus flower), maintaining a meditative smile, and practicing mudras, or symbolic hand gestures.
An embodiment of creative feminine force (Shakti), Durga exists in a state of svātantrya (dependence on the universe and nothing/nobody else, i.e., self-sufficiency) and fierce compassion. Durga is considered by Hindus to be an aspect of Kali, and the mother of Ganesha, Saraswati, Lakshmi and Kartikeya. She is thus considered the fiercer, demon-fighting form of Lord Shiva's wife, Goddess Parvati. Durga manifests fearlessness and patience, and never loses her sense of humor, even during spiritual battles of epic proportion.
The word Shakti, means divine feminine force, and Durga is the warrior aspect of the Divine Mother, where She wins over evil.
About the Shot :
I tried to capture Maa ( Mother) Durga , which we worship. She is made from the holy clay of river Ganges and every ornaments and details are hand made.
The shot
Camera Canon 5D
Photoshop post processing:
A bit of post processing in raw editor.
A bit of desaturation to reduce the intensities of colours
Unsharp mask
Border
I would highly appreciate, if constructive criticisms are given for improvement.