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Title: United States Naval Medical Bulletin Vol. 7, Nos. 1-4, 1913

Creator: U.S. Navy. Bureau of Medicine and Surgery

Publisher:

Sponsor:

Contributor:

Date: 1913

Language: eng

Table of Contents

Number 1

Preface VII

Special articles:

Rotch method of roentgenographic age determination, by Harold W. Smith,

passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 1

Physical training in the United States naval service, by J. A. Murphy, surgeon,

United States Navy 20

The present status of color blindness, by G. B. Trible, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 28

The organization and finances of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, by

W. S. Gibson, chief clerk Bureau Medicine and Surgery 39

The United States Naval Hospital, Las Animas, Colo., the Navy's sanatorium

for tuberculosis, by Philip Leach, medical director, United States Navy 53

Hospital ships for fishing fleets, by J. L. Neilson, surgeon, United

States Navy 64

Prevention of the spread of infectious diseases on shipboard, by E. R. Stitt,

medical inspector, United States Navy 70

The treatment of the insane in the Navy, by G. A. Riker, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 77

Intestinal parasites and diseases found in Guam, by C. P. Kindleberger,

surgeon, United States Navy 86

The clinical manifestations of pityriasis rosea, by W. D. Owens, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 93

An easy method for the cultivation of the gonococcus, by G. F. Clark, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 99

Some statistical observations concerning tattooing as seen by the

recruiting surgeon, by A. Farenholt, surgeon, United States Navy 100

Report on flat foot, by Bruce Elmore, acting assistant surgeon, United States

Navy 102

A note in regard to the height and weight, at different ages, of

applicants at the recruiting station, Cleveland, Ohio, by J. E. Gill, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 103

United States Naval Medical School laboratories:

Additions to the pathological collection 105

Additions to the miscellaneous collection 105

Suggested devices:

Apparatus for obtaining blood from a vein, or from the heart of an

animal, by G. F. Clark, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 107

Diet list for use on board ship, designed by B. F. Jenness, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 108

Clinical notes:

Three cases demonstrating the need for care in diagnosis of lead

poisoning and appendicitis, by J. S. Woodward, passed assistant surgeon, United

States Navy 109

Loose bodies in the knee joint, with report of two cases, by A. M.

Fauntleroy, surgeon, and L. M. Schmidt, passed assistant surgeon, United States

Navy 110

Korsakow's psychosis, with report of a case, by Heber Butts, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 113

Multiple compound fracture of the skull, with hemorrhage from longitudinal

sinus, by E. W. Phillips, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 121

A case of sudden death during thoracentesis, by E. O. J. Eytinge,

passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 124

Extensive carcinoma of stomach and omentum complicating pulmonary tuberculosis,

by G. D. Hale, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 125

Eighteen cases resembling climatic bubo, by R. G. Heiner, passed assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 126

Editorial comment:

The present status of first aid in the Navy 127

Naval Medical School laboratories 128

Fractures of the long bones 129

Progress in medical sciences:

General medicine. — -Auricular fibrillation. The rapid cure of amoebic dysentery

and hepatitis by hypodermic injections of soluble salts of emetine. The effects

of college athletics on after life. ByA.W. Dunbar and J. L. Neilson 131

Surgery. —Neprectomy without drainage for tuberculous kidney. Embryonic

bands and membranes about the caecum. The recognition and treatment of lesions

of the right iliac fossae other than appendicitis. By R. Spear and H. C. Curl

136

Hygiene and sanitation. —A device for keeping garbage cans in place. The

sanitary aspect of a besieged town. Sunstroke —a heresy. The Bimple life. By C.

N. Fiske and R. C. Ransdell 139

Tropical medicine. —Notes on a hitherto unknown "summer

fever" of the German East African coast. By R. 0. Ransdell. Climatic bubo.

The value of certain vermifuges in the treatment of ankylostomiasis. Quinine

prophylaxis in malaria. Some observations upon the healing of wounds in

sleeping-sickness patients. By E. R.

Stitt 141

Pathology, bacteriology, and animal parasitology. —Structure of the posterior

extremity in the female ankylostoma and necator. The cultivation of malarial

plasmodia. The periodicity-lacking microfilariae. On

the length of life of the rat-flea apart from its host. By E. R. Stitt.

The occurrence and virulence of pneumococci in the circulating blood during

lobar pneumonia and the susceptibility of pneumococcus strains to univalent

antipneumococcus serum. The complement fixation test in the differential

diagnosis of acute and chronic gonococcic arthritis. A diluting fluid for

standardization of vaccines with the hvmocytometer. By M. E. Higgins and G. F.

Clark 145

Chemistry and pharmacy. —Studies in bacterial metabolism, by C. N.

Fiske. Improvement in the technique of sampling urine for microscopic examination.

Surgical disinfection of the hands with iodine, followed by decolorization with

sodium bisulphate. Determination of the chemical reaction of urine. Detection

of blood in urine and other physiological fluids. Chemistry of silver therapy.

Sensitive test for the detection of albumin in urine. The influence of dry and

moist air on gaseous metabolism. Has the temperature of the blood any influence

on the gaseous metabolism of man? Estimation of dirt in milk. By E.W. Brown and

O. G. Ruge . 149

Eye, ear, nose, and throat. —Chronic irido-cyclitis. The cerebrospinal fluid

as an aid to diagnosis in suppurative meningitis of otitic origin. Additional

experiments on the excretion of hexamethylenamine in the ocular humers. By G.

B. Trible 155

Miscellaneous.— Care of surgical and laboratory instruments in the

Tropics, by E. R. Stitt 156

Reports and letters:

Administration of typhoid prophylactic at the Naval Hospital, Yokohama,

Japan, by E. M. Shipp, surgeon, United States Navy 159

Report of laboratory work performed at Cafiacao Naval Hospital, by C.

S. Butler, surgeon, United States Navy 161

Number 2

Preface vii

Special articles:

Mental and moral training for war, by J. P. Leys, surgeon, United

States Navy 165

A few remarks on the detention and probation system of punishment, and

a classification of the offenses of the personnel of the United States Naval

Disciplinary Barracks, by W. L. Mann, passed assistant surgeon, United States

Navy 174

Some of the opinions of Baron Larrey, by John Chalmers Da Costa,

assistant surgeon, Medical Reserve Corps, United States Navy 183

Gangosa, by W. M. Kerr, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy

188

Some laboratory notes upon the bacillus of dysentery, by C. S. Butler,

surgeon, United States Navy 200

Traumatic dislocation of the patella, by Morris B. Miller, assistant

surgeon, Medical Reserve Corps, United States Navy 215

Further observations on the value of studying the pulse rate with the

blood pressure in croupous pneumonia, by H. A. Hare, assistant surgeon, Medical

Reserve Corps, United States Navy..., 218

Treatment of frambesia with salvarsan, by E. U. Reed, passed assistant surgeon,

United States Navy 220

Cutaneous anthrax, with report of a case, by E. C. White, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 222

Essence of orange-ether anaesthesia, by C. M. Oman, surgeon, United

States Navy 231

Iodine sterilization as now used at the United States Naval Hospital,

Norfolk, Va., by W. M. Garton, surgeon, United States Navy 234

Hygiene of the personnel below decks, by B. F. Jenness, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 236

United States Naval Medical School laboratories:

Additions to pathological collection 243

Additions to the helrainthological collection 243

Suggested devices:

A collapsible chair for eye, ear, nose, and throat work on board ship,

by A. H. Robnett, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 245

An apparatus for intravenous medication, by N. T. McLean, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 246

Chart for the correction of gas volumes, by E. R. Noyes, chief

pharmacist, United States Navy 247

Clinical notes:

A case of cholecystitis presenting some interesting features and some

knotty points in diagnosis, by N. J. Blackwood, surgeon, United States Navy. .

. 249

Report of a case of cholera on the U. S. S. Helena and notes on a

Shanghai epidemic, by W. A. Bloedorn, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 251

Report of a case of membraneous pericolitis, by E. L. Woods, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 252

Report of a case of chronic urticaria showing dermography, by George C.

Thomas, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 253

Report of a case of poisoning by sea-urchin, by W. S. Pugh, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 254

A case of malaria treated with salvarsan, by E. U. Reed, passed

assistant surgeon, United States Navy 255

Editorial comment:

The physical qualification of recruits, by C. F. Stokes, Surgeon

General, United States Navy k 257

Statistical report of the health of the British Navy, covering the year

1911. .258

Progress in medical sciences:

General medicine. —The relation of anaphylaxis to immunity and disease.

By G. F.Clark. Disorders of the pituitary body. Induced pneumothorax in the

treatment of pulmonary disease. Antityphoid vaccination in children. By A. W.

Dunbar and J. L. Neilson 261

Surgery. —Principles of general naval war surgery. Post-anaesthetic

paralyses. By H. G. Beyer. Extraocular hernia. Spontaneous rupture of the malarial

spleen. By R. Spear and H. C. Curl 269

Hygiene and sanitation. —Gaseous disinfection of equipment in the

field. By J. L. Neilson. New rapid method for the bacteriological examination

of water and application for the testing of springs and filter beds. Decomposition

and its microscopical detection in some food products. By E. W. Brown. A

substitute for fresh air. Some observations on metabolism in connection with an

experimental march. El servicio de desratizacion y la peste bubonica. Report on

water purification by chloride of lime at Bir-id-Dehib camp, Malta. By C. N.

Fiske and R. C. Ransdell 277

Tropical medicine. — The etiology of beriberi. Recent research on

cholera in India. The destruction of crescents: conclusions regarding the

prevention of malaria by the administration of quinine. A case of blackwater fever,

showing the cell inclusions of Leishman. The kala-azar problem. By E. R. Stitt

283

Pathology, bacteriology, and animal parasitology. —Insect porters of

bacterial infections. Experimental amoebic dysentery and liver abscess in cats.

Uber das Vorkommen und die Lebensbedingiuigen von Ankylostomen und Strongyloides

Larven in Daressalam. By E. R. Stitt. The demonstration of the treponema

pallidum in the brain in cases of general paralysis. On anaphylatoxina and

endotoxins of the typhoid bacillus. By M. E. Higgins and G. F. Clark 287

Chemistry and pharmacy. —The chemical interpretations of the

serological content of the blood and cerebrospinal fluid, with some reference

to cytology and chemistry of the latter, in mental diseases. Mett's method for determining

the activity of pepsin and the acidity maximum of peptic

digestion. A new method for determining sugar. The relations of phenol and

M-cresol to proteins. The mechanism of disinfection. Ointment bases. Merck's

Annual Report, Vol. XXV. By E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge . . 292

Eye, ear, nose, and throat.— The ozena problem. Paths of encephalic

infection in otitis. General anesthesic in cataract work. Studies of ocular tonometry.

By G. B. Trible 297

Miscellaneous. —Athletics and candidates for service abroad. Direct

Roentgen pictures without the use of plates. By J. L. Neilson 299

Reports and letters:

Account of an outbreak of malaria on the U. S. S. Tacoma resultant upon

a visit to Tampico, Mexico, by J. B. Kaufman, passed assistant surgeon, United

States Navy 301

Expedition to Santo Domingo, by S. S. Rodman, surgeon, United States Navy

303

Sanitary conditions found in, and surgical aid rendered to the wounded

at Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi, Santo Domingo, by R. A. Warner, passed assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 305

Medico-military report on a cruise in Santo Domingan waters, by H. E.

Jenkins, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 308

A brief note on the Cape Cruz-Caailda surveying expedition from a

medical officer's point of view, by E. E. Woodland, assistant surgeon, United

States Navy 309

Medico-military report on ports of the west coast of Central America

and Mexico, by C. B. Camerer, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 311

Note upon temperature of Filipino applicants for enlistment, by Allan

E. Peck, surgeon, United States Navy 320

Number 3

Preface vii

Special articles:

Weak foot, by R. C. Holcomb, surgeon, United States Navy 321

A new theory of ventilation and its application in certain situations

aboard ship, by F. L. Pleadwell, surgeon, United States Navy 332

Aural affections dependent upon visceral lesions and functional nervous

disorders, by J. J. Richardson, assistant surgeon, Medical Reserve Corps, United

States Navy 339

The detection of the feeble-minded applicant for enlistment; value of

the Binet-Simon scale as a diagnostic aid, by A. R. Schier, acting assistant surgeon,

United States Navy 345

Lost trails, a plea for naval medical biographies, by J. D. Gatewood,

medical director, United States Navy 360

Absorbable animal ligatures, by T. A. Berryhill, medical director,

United States Navy 367

A model camp hospital ashore, by E. Thompson, surgeon, United States Navy

375

Defensive elements of the body, by W. W. Wilkinson, assistant surgeon, Medical

Reserve Corps, United States Navy 381

Advantages of Paris from a medical postgraduate point of view, by R. A.

Bachmann, surgeon, United States Navy 391

Estimation of total nitrogen, by E. R. Noyes, chief pharmacist, United States

Navy 394

United States Naval Medical School laboratories:

Additions to the pathological collection 397

Additions to the helminthological collection 397

Suggested devices:

The use of a three-way cock in the intravenous administration of

salvarsan, by R. E. Stoops, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 399

A suggested improvement of the present form of the sanitary scuttle

butt, by W. E. Eaton, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 400

Clinical notes:

Report of a case showing mirror writing and associated movements

without palsy, by G. B. Crow, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy 403

Transplantation of bone, by C. M. Oman, surgeon, United States Navy 406

Prevention of the complications of gonorrheal infection, by F. L.

Benton, surgeon, United Slates Navy 409

The first aid treatment of burns and scalds by live steam, by A.

Stuart, surgeon, United States Navy 410

A case of six-day fever, by M. S. Elliott, surgeon, United States Navy

412

Punctured wound of knee joint by the spine of a stingray, by N. J.

Black wood, surgeon, United States Navy 413

A case of cocaine poisoning with suicidal tendencies, by W. A.

Bloedorn, assistant surgeon, United States Navy 415

Poisoning by petroleum spirits, by M. S. Elliott, surgeon, United

States Navy 416

Editorial comment :

Mental fitness. Biographical data, by C. F. Stokes, surgeon general, United

States Navy 417

Progress in medical sciences:

General medicine. — Diseases observed at Derna during the Italo-Turkish

War. Mumps with orchitis and absence of parotiditis. By H. G. Beyer. Treatment

of gonorrhea with heated bougies. By W. E. Eaton. Diagnosis between pneumonia

and appendicitis. By L. W. Johnson. Experiments to determine the rate of

absorbability and intensity of action of quinine given hypodermically and by

the mouth. By C. N. Fiske. The use of antityphoid vaccine during the course of

an epidemic. Measles. Clinical observations of carbonic acid brine baths on the

circulation. High arterial tension; high tension hypertrophy of the heart.

The relation of bronchial asthma to pathological conditions of the

nose. "Osier's sign" and cutaneous phenomena sometimes associated

with heart disease. Nephritic hypertension. By A. W. Dunbar and G. B. Crow 421

Surgery. —Rapid cure of suppurating buboes and of abscesses. Gunshot wounds

of the thorax, observed at Bengasi during the Italo-Turkish War. Gunshot wounds

treated in the military hospital at Palermo. By H. G. Beyer. The sterilization

of skin and wounds. By C. N. Fiske. Bastedo's sign: a new symptom of chronic

appendicitis. Adrenalin in chloroform anesthesia. A simple method of blood

transfusion. By L. W. Johnson. Excision and suture in the treatment of dense,

close urethral strictures. Operative fixation as a cause of delay in union of fractures.

The arrest of hemorrhage from bone by plugging with soft tissues. Membranous

pericolitis and allied conditions of the ileocecal region. Acute perforation of

duodenal and gastric ulcers. Observati6ns on the anatomy of inguinal hernia.

Osteoplasty. By H. C. Curl and R. A. Warner 434

Hygiene and sanitation. — The action on man of vapors of technical and hygienic

importance. XXX, Nitric acid. XXXI, The "nitrous gases." By E. W.

Brown. On the discolored spots sometimes found on chilled beef. Bacteriology of

incinerator smoke and ash. Leprosy and the bedbug. The regulation of body

temperature in extremes of dry heat. Experiences with spraying mosquitoes.

Artificial house cooling in the Tropics. Portable ozone outfit for military

use. By C. N. Fiske and R.C. Ransdell 449

Tropical medicine. — Cases of beri-beri. By H. G. Beyer. Glossina morsitans

as carriers of sleeping sickness. By R. C. Ransdell. Salvarsan treatment of

ulcerating processes. Chinese spenomegaly. Relapse in malarial infections. The

leprosy bacillus. By E. R. Stitt. . 454

Pathology, bacteriology, and animal parasitology. — Transmission of

relapsing fever by lice. Trichostrongylus colubriformis, a human parasite. By

E. R. Stitt. Spirochneta pallida in conjunctival secretions. By H. G. Beyer. A

method of staining the capsule of the pueumococcus. By. G. B. Crow. Experiments

in the transmission of scarlet fever to the lower monkeys. Studies in smallpox

and vaccination. Protozoallike structures in the blood in a case of black-water

fever. By A. B. Clifford and G. F. Clark 461

Chemistry and pharmacy. — On a new test for indican in the urine. By H.

G. Beyer. Adrenalin in emergency treatment of noncorrosive poisoning. By L. W.

Johnson. Determination of pepsin activity. Test for the detection of albumen in

urine. Behavior of mercury in the human and animal organism?. Estimation of

mercury in the urine and in the tissues. Method of estimating sugar. Quantitative

reduction of methylene blue by milk bacteria. By E. W. Brown 465

Eye, ear, nose, and throat. — Blinding by sunlight. Enucleation in the treatment

of panophthalmitis. Ocular headache. On the tolerance of the vitreous to

dislocated lenses, as an index to reclination in given cases. Treatment of

nasal synechiae with mica plates. By G. B. Trible 469

Reports and letters:

Report of work done in the wards of the naval hospital, Norfolk, during

the year 1912, by L. M. Schmidt, passed assistant surgeon, United States Navy

471

Report of relief work in Turkey, by D. C. Walton, assistant surgeon,

United States Navy 473

Notes on sanitary conditions along the Yangtze River, by R. H. Laning, assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 475

The Yangtze Valley, by J. J. O'Malley, assistant surgeon, United States

Navy 478

Number 4

Preface vii

Special articles:

Some aspects of the prophylaxis of typhoid fever by the injection of

killed cultures, by C. S. Butler, surgeon, United States Navy 489

William Longshaw, jr., assistant surgeon, United States Navy, by J. D. Gatewood,

medical director, United States Navy 503

Intraperitoneal rupture of the bladder, by R. B. Williams, surgeon,

United States Navy 517

Nitrous oxide-oxygen anesthesia. Rebreathing method of administration

in general surgery, by H. F. Strine, surgeon. United States Navy. . 521

Leukaemia, with report of a case of the lymphatic type, by H. L.

Kelley, passed assistant surgeon. United States Navy 524

The Hospital Corps, by G. A. Riker, passed assistant surgeon, United

States Navy 533

Veru montanitis, by H. W. Cole, passed assistant surgeon. United States

Navy 537

Tests for color blindness, by G. B. Trible, passed assistant surgeon,

United States Navy 542

Medical work in American Samoa, by E. U. Reed, passed assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 546

Recurrent dislocation of shoulder, by R. B. Williams, surgeon. United States

Navy 552

The medical department in warfare, by A. W. Dunbar, surgeon, United States

Navy 555

United States Naval Medical School laboratories:

Additions to the pathological collection 573

Additions to the helminthological collection 573

Suggested devices:

Iodized gauze for the first aid packet, by F. E. McCullough, surgeon,

United States Navy 575

Incinerator, by A. Farenholt, surgeon, United States Navy 576

Clinical notes:

Two cases of thermic fever occurring in the fireroom of a battleship,

by J. L. Neilson, surgeon, United States Navy 579

Traumatic neuritis of brachial plexus, by W. A. Bloedorn, assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 583

Typhoid fever with perforation, by N. J. Blackwood, surgeon, United States

Navy 584

Anaphylaxis with death, by W. H. Connor, passed assistant surgeon, United

States Navy 586

Two cases simulating appendicitis, by F. M. Furlong, surgeon, United States

Navy 588

Editorial comment: Page.

Medical Corps representation at the Naval War College 591

Training school for native nurses in Samoa 592

Annual report of the health of the Imperial Japanese Navy for the year

1910. 592

Progress in medical sciences:

General medicine. — On the origin of dreams. By H. G. Beyer. Occurrence

of the syphilitic organism in the brain in paresis. By G. A. Riker. Solubility

of white lead in human gastric juice and its bearing on the

hygiene of the lead industries. By L. W. Johnson. Psychosis following carbon-monoxide

poisoning with complete recovery. Relations of internal secretions to mental

conditions. Administration of ox bile in the

treatment of hyperacidity and of gastric and duodenal ulcer. New laboratory

test for cancer and sarcoma, also a method of separating bile acids and

pigment, indican being obtained if present. Pathology of syphilitic aortitis

with a contribution to the formation of aneurism. Tests for hepatic function

and diseases under experimental conditions. By A. W. Dunbar and G. B. Crow -.

595

Surgery. — Hernial formations caused by deficiencies in the peritoneum.

By H. G. Beyer. Chronic intestinal stasis. By R. Spear. Surgical method of

clearing up chronic typhoid carriers. By L. \Y. Johnson. An analysis and study

of 724 major amputations. Arthroplasty. Proctoclysis —an experimental study.

The first successful case of resection of the thoracic portion of the esophagus

for carcinoma. The kinetic theory of shock and its prevention through

anoci-association. By H. C. Curl and R. A. Warner 605

Hygiene and sanitation. — Search for pathogenic microbes in raw river water

and in crude sewage. Observations on the effects of muscular exercise upon man.

By E. W. Brown. On the physiology of the open-air treatment. My experiences

relative to malarial prophylaxis on board a battleship. By C. N. Fiske and R.

C. Ransdell 618

Tropical medicine. — Two cases of climatic bubo. By L. W. Johnson. Polyueuritis

gallinarum caused by different foodstuffs. By E. R. Stitt. 625

Pathology, bacteriology, and animal parasitology. —Treponemata in the brain

in general paresis. Identity of entameba histolytica and entameba tetragena,

with observations upon the morphology" and life cycle of entameba

histolytica. The breeding places of phlebotomus. By E. R. Stitt. An

experimental investigation of the cytological changes produced in epithelial

cells by long-continued irritation. Effect of Rontgen and radium radiations

upon the vitality of the cells of mouse carcinoma. A contribution to the

etiology of pernicious anemia. The complement

content of the blood in malignant disease. By A. B. Clifford and G. F.

Clark 626

Chemistry and pharmacy. — Some modern problems in nutrition. By H. G. Beyer.

New reagent for detecting blood. Rapid clinical method for the estimation of

urea in urine. Preservation of milk samples for analysis. Dentifrices and their

ingredients. By E. W. Brown and O. G. Ruge. . . 633

Eye, ear, nose, and throat. — Treatment of persistent otorrhea in

infants and young children by the establishment of post-auricular drainage. Parinaud'a

conjunctivitis; a mycotic disease due to a hitherto undescribed filamentous

organism. The significance of anaphylaxis in ear work. The difficulties of

tonsillectomy and how to deal with them. Notes on the vaccine treatment of

infections which involve the cornea. Intracranial division of the auditory

nerve for persistent tinnitus. By G. H. Trible 637

Miscellaneous. —The sanitary service in the Japanese Navy during the Russo-Japanese

War. Sanitatsbericht viber die Kaiserlieh Deutsche Marine fur den Zeitraum. By

H. G. Beyer. Annual Report of the Bureau of Health for the Philippine Islands,

1912. By L. W. Johnson. . 640

Reports and letters:

Report of cases of lead poisoning, by L. C. Whiteside, passed assistant

surgeon, United States Navy 647

Two cases of cerebrospinal fever, by P. S. Rossiter, surgeon, United

States Navy 649

Lead poisoning 651

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Detail of an Art Nouveau Stained Glass Window in the Dressing Room of "The Gables" Queen Anne Villa - Finch Street, East Malvern by raaen99

2 2

The "The Gables" has a beautiful, light filled tea room which they call the "Peacock Room" because of the beautiful Art Nouveau inspired blue peacock wallpaper they have decorated the room with. It used to be "The Gables" best, or master bedroom and dressing room. Now turned into one room it has a high ceiling featuring Art Nouveau mouldings and several elegant stained glass windows featuring stylised Art Nouveau flowers depicted in a striking combination of blue and gold, and one window full of golden yellow pears. The window of pears has a similar window in the entrance hall.

"The Gables" is a substantial villa that sits proudly on leafy Finch Street in the exclusive inner city suburb of East Malvern.

Built in 1902 for local property developer Lawrence Alfred Birchnell and his wife Annie, "The Gables" is considered to be one of the most prominent houses in the Gascoigne Estate. The house was designed by Melbourne architect firm Ussher and Kemp in what was the prevailing style of the time, Queen Anne, which is also known as Federation style (named so after Australian Federation in 1901). Ussher and Kemp were renowned for their beautiful and complex Queen Anne houses and they designed at least six other houses in Finch Street alone. "The Gables" remained a private residence for many years. When Lawrence Birchnell sold it, the house was converted into a rooming house. It remained so throughout the tumultuous 1920s until 1930 when it was sold again. The new owners converted "The Gables" into a reception hall for hire for private functions. The first wedding reception was a breakfast held in the formal dining room in 1930, followed by dancing to Melbourne’s first jukebox in the upstairs rooms. Notorious Melbourne gangster Joseph Theodore Leslie "Squizzy" Taylor was reputed to have thrown a twenty-first birthday party for his girlfriend of the day in the main ballroom (what had originally been the house's billiards room). "The Gables" became very famous for its grand birthday parties throughout the 1930s and 1940s. With its easy proximity to the Caulfield Race Course, "The Gables" ran an underground speakeasy and gambling room upstairs and sold beer from the back door during Melbourne’s restrictive era of alcohol not sold after six o'clock at night. Throughout its history, "The Gables" has been a Melbourne icon, celebrating generation after generation of Melbourne’s wedding receptions, parties and balls. Lovingly restored, the atmosphere and charm of "The Gables" have been retained for the future generations.

Grand in its proportions, "The Gables" is a sprawling villa that is built of red brick, but its main feature, as the name suggests, is its many ornamented gables. The front façade is dominated by six different sized gables, each supported by ornamental Art Nouveau influenced timber brackets. The front and side of the house is skirted by a wide verandah decorated with wooden balustrades and rounded fretwork. "The Gables" features two grand bay windows and three other large sets of windows along the front facade, all of which feature beautiful and delicate Art Nouveau stained glass of stylised flowers or fruit. Impressive Art Nouveau stained glass windows can also be found around the entrance, which features the quote made quite popular at the time by Australian soprano Nellie Melba "east, west, home's best." Art Nouveau stained glass can be found in all of the principal rooms of the house; both upstairs and down. “The Gables” also features distinctive chimneys and the classic Queen Anne high pitched gable roofs with decorative barge-boards, terra-cotta tiles and ornate capping.

As a result of Federation in 1901, it was not unusual to find Australian flora and fauna celebrated in architecture. This is true of "The Gables", which features intricate plaster work and leadlight throughout the mansion showing off Australian gum leaves and flowers. "The Gables" has fifteen beautifully renovated rooms, many of which are traditionally decorated, including beautiful chandeliers, ornate restored wood and tile fireplaces, leadlight windows, parquetry flooring, sixteen foot ceilings and a sweeping staircase. The drawing room still also features the original leadlight conservatory "The Gables" boasted when it was first built.

"The Gables", set on an acre of land, still retains many of the original trees, including the original hedge and two enormous cypress trees in the front. The garden was designed by William Guilfoyle, the master landscape architect of the Royal Botanical Gardens, and "The Gables" still retains much of it original structure. It features a rose-covered gazebo, a pond and fountain, as well as the tallest Norfolk Island pine in the area, which can be seen from some of the tallest skyscrapers in the Melbourne CBD.

Henry Hardie Kemp was born in Lancashire in 1859 and designed many other fine homes around Melbourne, particularly in Kew, including his own home “Held Lawn” (1913). He also designed the APA Building in Elizabeth Street in 1889 (demolished in 1980) and the Melbourne Assembly Hall on Collins Street between 1914 and 1915. He died in Melbourne in 1946.

Beverley Ussher was born in Melbourne in 1868 and designed homes and commercial buildings around Melbourne, as well as homes in the country. He designed "Milliara" (John Whiting house) in Toorak, in 1895 (since demolished) and "Blackwood Homestead" in Western Australia. He died in 1908.

Beverley Ussher and Henry Kemp formed a partnership in 1899, which lasted until Beverley's death in 1908. Their last building design together was the Professional Chambers building in Collins Street in 1908. Both men had strong Arts and Crafts commitments, and both had been in partnerships before forming their own. The practice specialised in domestic work and their houses epitomize the Marseilles-tiled Queen Anne Federation style houses characteristic of Melbourne, and considered now to be a truly distinctive Australian genre. Their designs use red bricks, terracotta tiles and casement windows, avoid applied ornamentation and develop substantial timber details. The picturesque character of the houses results from a conscious attempt to express externally with gables, dormers, bays, roof axes, and chimneys, the functional variety of rooms within. The iconic Federation houses by Beverley Ussher and Henry Kemp did not appear until 1892-4. Then, several of those appeared in Malvern, Canterbury and Kew.

Queen Anne style was mostly a residential style inspired by the Arts and Crafts movement in England, but also encompassed some of the more stylised elements of Art Nouveau, which gave it an more decorative look. Queen Anne style was most popular around the time of Federation. With complex roofline structures and undulating facades, many Queen Anne houses fell out of fashion at the beginning of the modern era, and were demolished.

teapot with leaves by Cathie Cantara

6

wheel thrown stoneware - reduction fired to cone 10

Functional city? by U-ichiro

1

Strasbourg dans la nuit, Strasbourg, Alsace, France by Paul

1

Strasbourg (/ˈstræzbɜrɡ/, French pronunciation: [stʁaz.buʁ, stʁas.buʁ]; German: Straßburg, [ˈʃtʁaːsbʊɐ̯k]) is the capital and principal city of the Alsace region in north eastern France and is the official seat of the European Parliament. Located close to the border with Germany, it is the capital of the Bas-Rhin département. The city and the region of Alsace were historically Alemannic-speaking, hence the city's Germanic name.[5] In 2006, the city proper had 272,975 inhabitants and its urban community 467,375 inhabitants. With 759,868 inhabitants in 2010, Strasbourg's metropolitan area (only the part of the metropolitan area on French territory) is the ninth largest in France. The transnational Eurodistrict Strasbourg-Ortenau had a population of 884,988 inhabitants in 2008.[6]

Strasbourg is the seat of several European institutions, such as the Council of Europe (with its European Court of Human Rights, its European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines and its European Audiovisual Observatory) and the Eurocorps, as well as the European Parliament and the European Ombudsman of the European Union. The city is also the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and the International Institute of Human Rights.[7]

Strasbourg's historic city centre, the Grande Île (Grand Island), was classified a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1988, the first time such an honour was placed on an entire city centre. Strasbourg is immersed in the Franco-German culture and although violently disputed throughout history, has been a bridge of unity between France and Germany for centuries, especially through the University of Strasbourg, currently the second largest in France, and the coexistence of Catholic and Protestant culture. The largest Islamic place of worship in France, the Strasbourg Grand Mosque, was inaugurated by French Interior Minister Manuel Valls on 27 September 2012.[8]

Economically, Strasbourg is an important centre of manufacturing and engineering, as well as a hub of road, rail, and river transportation. The port of Strasbourg is the second largest on the Rhine after Duisburg, Germany.

Etymology and Names

The city's Gallicized name (Lower Alsatian: Strossburi, [ˈʃd̥rɔːsb̥uri]; German: Straßburg, [ˈʃtʁaːsbʊɐ̯k]) is of Germanic origin and means "Town (at the crossing) of roads". The modern Stras- is cognate to the German Straße and English street, all of which are derived from Latin strata ("paved road"), while -bourg is cognate to the German Burg and English borough, all of which are derived from Proto-Germanic *burgz ("hill fort, fortress").

Geography

Strasbourg seen from Spot Satellite

Strasbourg is situated on the eastern border of France with Germany. This border is formed by the River Rhine, which also forms the eastern border of the modern city, facing across the river to the German town Kehl. The historic core of Strasbourg however lies on the Grande Île in the River Ill, which here flows parallel to, and roughly 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from, the Rhine. The natural courses of the two rivers eventually join some distance downstream of Strasbourg, although several artificial waterways now connect them within the city.

The city lies in the Upper Rhine Plain, at between 132 metres (433 ft) and 151 metres (495 ft) above sea level, with the upland areas of the Vosges Mountains some 20 km (12 mi) to the west and the Black Forest 25 km (16 mi) to the east. This section of the Rhine valley is a major axis of north-south travel, with river traffic on the Rhine itself, and major roads and railways paralleling it on both banks.

The city is some 400 kilometres (250 mi) east of Paris. The mouth of the Rhine lies approximately 450 kilometres (280 mi) to the north, or 650 kilometres (400 mi) as the river flows, whilst the head of navigation in Basel is some 100 kilometres (62 mi) to the south, or 150 kilometres (93 mi) by river.

Climate

In spite of its position far inland, Strasbourg's climate is classified as Oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb), with warm, relatively sunny summers and cold, overcast winters. Precipitation is elevated from mid-spring to the end of summer, but remains largely constant throughout the year, totaling 631.4 mm (24.9 in) annually. On average, snow falls 30 days per year.

The highest temperature ever recorded was 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) in August 2003, during the 2003 European heat wave. The lowest temperature ever recorded was −23.4 °C (−10.1 °F) in December 1938.

Strasbourg's location in the Rhine valley, sheltered from the dominant winds by the Vosges and Black Forest mountains, results in poor natural ventilation, making Strasbourg one of the most atmospherically polluted cities of France.[10][11] Nonetheless, the progressive disappearance of heavy industry on both banks of the Rhine, as well as effective measures of traffic regulation in and around the city have reduced air pollution.

Prehistory

The first traces of human occupation in the environs of Strasbourg go back many thousands of years.[16] Neolithic, bronze age and iron age artifacts have been uncovered by archeological excavations. It was permanently settled by proto-Celts around 1300 BC. Towards the end of the third century BC, it developed into a Celtic township with a market called "Argentorate". Drainage works converted the stilthouses to houses built on dry land.[17]

From Romans

The Romans under Nero Claudius Drusus established a military outpost belonging to the Germania Superior Roman province at Strasbourg's current location, and named it Argentoratum. (Hence the town is commonly called Argentina in medieval Latin.[18]) The name "Argentoratum" was first mentioned in 12 BC and the city celebrated its 2,000th birthday in 1988. "Argentorate" as the toponym of the Gaulish settlement preceded it before being Latinized, but it is not known by how long. The Roman camp was destroyed by fire and rebuilt six times between the first and the fifth centuries AD: in 70, 97, 235, 355, in the last quarter of the fourth century, and in the early years of the fifth century. It was under Trajan and after the fire of 97 that Argentoratum received its most extended and fortified shape. From the year 90 on, the Legio VIII Augusta was permanently stationed in the Roman camp of Argentoratum. It then included a cavalry section and covered an area of approximately 20 hectares. Other Roman legions temporarily stationed in Argentoratum were the Legio XIV Gemina and the Legio XXI Rapax, the latter during the reign of Nero.

The centre of Argentoratum proper was situated on the Grande Île (Cardo: current Rue du Dôme, Decumanus: current Rue des Hallebardes). The outline of the Roman "castrum" is visible in the street pattern in the Grande Ile. Many Roman artifacts have also been found along the current Route des Romains, the road that led to Argentoratum, in the suburb of Kœnigshoffen. This was where the largest burial places were situated, as well as the densest concentration of civilian dwelling places and commerces next to the camp. Among the most outstanding finds in Kœnigshoffen were (found in 1911–12) the fragments of a grand Mithraeum that had been shattered by early Christians in the fourth century. From the fourth century, Strasbourg was the seat of the Bishopric of Strasbourg (made an Archbishopric in 1988). Archaeological excavations below the current Église Saint-Étienne in 1948 and 1956 unearthed the apse of a church dating back to the late fourth or early fifth century, considered to be the oldest church in Alsace. It is supposed that this was the first seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Strasbourg.

The Alemanni fought the Battle of Argentoratum against Rome in 357. They were defeated by Julian, later Emperor of Rome, and their King Chonodomarius was taken prisoner. On 2 January 366, the Alemanni crossed the frozen Rhine in large numbers to invade the Roman Empire. Early in the fifth century, the Alemanni appear to have crossed the Rhine, conquered, and then settled what is today Alsace and a large part of Switzerland.

In the fifth century Strasbourg was occupied successively by Alemanni, Huns, and Franks. In the ninth century it was commonly known as Strazburg in the local language, as documented in 842 by the Oaths of Strasbourg. This trilingual text contains, alongside texts in Latin and Old High German (teudisca lingua), the oldest written variety of Gallo-Romance (lingua romana) clearly distinct from Latin, the ancestor of Old French. The town was also called Stratisburgum or Strateburgus in Latin, from which later came Strossburi in Alsatian and Straßburg in Standard German, and then Strasbourg in French. The Oaths of Strasbourg is considered as marking the birth of the two countries of France and Germany with the division of the Carolingian Empire.[19]

A major commercial centre, the town came under the control of the Holy Roman Empire in 923, through the homage paid by the Duke of Lorraine to German King Henry I. The early history of Strasbourg consists of a long conflict between its bishop and its citizens. The citizens emerged victorious after the Battle of Oberhausbergen in 1262, when King Philip of Swabia granted the city the status of an Imperial Free City.

Around 1200, Gottfried von Straßburg wrote the Middle High German courtly romance Tristan, which is regarded, alongside Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival and the Nibelungenlied, as one of great narrative masterpieces of the German Middle Ages.

A revolution in 1332 resulted in a broad-based city government with participation of the guilds, and Strasbourg declared itself a free republic. The deadly bubonic plague of 1348 was followed on 14 February 1349 by one of the first and worst pogroms in pre-modern history: over a thousand Jews were publicly burnt to death, with the remainder of the Jewish population being expelled from the city.[20] Until the end of the 18th century, Jews were forbidden to remain in town after 10 pm. The time to leave the city was signalled by a municipal herald blowing the Grüselhorn (see below, Museums, Musée historique);.[21] A special tax, the Pflastergeld (pavement money), was furthermore to be paid for any horse that a Jew would ride or bring into the city while allowed to.[22]

Construction on Strasbourg Cathedral began in the twelfth century, and it was completed in 1439 (though, of the towers, only the north tower was built), becoming the World's Tallest Building, surpassing the Great Pyramid of Giza. A few years later, Johannes Gutenberg created the first European moveable type printing press in Strasbourg.

In July 1518, an incident known as the Dancing Plague of 1518 struck residents of Strasbourg. Around 400 people were afflicted with dancing mania and danced constantly for weeks, most of them eventually dying from heart attack, stroke or exhaustion.

In the 1520s during the Protestant Reformation, the city, under the political guidance of Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck and the spiritual guidance of Martin Bucer embraced the religious teachings of Martin Luther. Their adherents established a Gymnasium, headed by Johannes Sturm, made into a University in the following century. The city first followed the Tetrapolitan Confession, and then the Augsburg Confession. Protestant iconoclasm caused much destruction to churches and cloisters, notwithstanding that Luther himself opposed such a practice. Strasbourg was a centre of humanist scholarship and early book-printing in the Holy Roman Empire, and its intellectual and political influence contributed much to the establishment of Protestantism as an accepted denomination in the southwest of Germany. (John Calvin spent several years as a political refugee in the city). The Strasbourg Councillor Sturm and guildmaster Matthias represented the city at the Imperial Diet of Speyer (1529), where their protest led to the schism of the Catholic Church and the evolution of Protestantism. Together with four other free cities, Strasbourg presented the confessio tetrapolitana as its Protestant book of faith at the Imperial Diet of Augsburg in 1530, where the slightly different Augsburg Confession was also handed over to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

After the reform of the Imperial constitution in the early sixteenth century and the establishment of Imperial Circles, Strasbourg was part of the Upper Rhenish Circle, a corporation of Imperial estates in the southwest of Holy Roman Empire, mainly responsible for maintaining troops, supervising coining, and ensuring public security.

After the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the first printing offices outside the inventor's hometown Mainz were established around 1460 in Strasbourg by pioneers Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein. Subsequently, the first modern newspaper was published in Strasbourg in 1605, when Johann Carolus received the permission by the City of Strasbourg to print and distribute a weekly journal written in German by reporters from several central European cities.

From Thirty Years' War to First World War

The Free City of Strasbourg remained neutral during the Thirty Years' War 1618-1648, and retained its status as a Free Imperial City. However, the city was later annexed by Louis XIV of France to extend the borders of his kingdom.

Louis' advisors believed that, as long as Strasbourg remained independent, it would endanger the King's newly annexed territories in Alsace, and, that to defend these large rural lands effectively, a garrison had to be placed in towns such as Strasbourg.[23] Indeed, the bridge over the Rhine at Strasbourg had been used repeatedly by Imperial (Holy Roman Empire) forces,[24] and three times during the Franco-Dutch War Strasbourg had served as a gateway for Imperial invasions into Alsace.[25] In September 1681 Louis' forces, though lacking a clear casus belli, surrounded the city with overwhelming force. After some negotiation, Louis marched into the city unopposed on 30 September 1681 and proclaimed its annexation.[26]

This annexation was one of the direct causes of the brief and bloody War of the Reunions whose outcome left the French in possession. The French annexation was recognized by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697). The official policy of religious intolerance which drove most Protestants from France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 was not applied in Strasbourg and in Alsace, because both had a special status as a province à l'instar de l'étranger effectif (a kind of foreign province of the king of France). Strasbourg Cathedral, however, was taken from the Lutherans to be returned to the Catholics as the French authorities tried to promote Catholicism wherever they could (some other historic churches remained in Protestant hands). Its language also remained overwhelmingly German: the German Lutheran university persisted until the French Revolution. Famous students included Goethe and Herder.

The Duke of Lorraine and Imperial troops crossing the Rhine at Strasbourg during the War of the Austrian Succession, 1744

During a dinner in Strasbourg organized by Mayor Frédéric de Dietrich on 25 April 1792, Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle composed "La Marseillaise". The same year François Christophe Kellermann, a child of Strasbourg was appointed the head of the Mosel Army. He led his company to victory at the battle of Valmy and saved the young French republic. He was later appointed Duke of Valmy by Napoléon in 1808.

During this period Jean-Baptiste Kléber, also born in Strasbourg, led the French army to win several decisive victories. A statue of Kléber now stands in the centre of the city, at Place Kléber, and he is still one of the most famous French officers. He was later appointed Marshal of France by Napoléon.

Strasbourg's status as a free city was revoked by the French Revolution. Enragés, most notoriously Eulogius Schneider, ruled the city with an increasingly iron hand. During this time, many churches and monasteries were either destroyed or severely damaged. The cathedral lost hundreds of its statues (later replaced by copies in the 19th century) and in April 1794, there was talk of tearing its spire down, on the grounds that it was against the principle of equality. The tower was saved, however, when in May of the same year citizens of Strasbourg crowned it with a giant tin Phrygian cap. This artifact was later kept in the historical collections of the city until it was destroyed by the Germans in 1870 during the Franco-Prussian war.[27]

In 1805, 1806 and 1809, Napoléon Bonaparte and his first wife, Joséphine stayed in Strasbourg.[28] In 1810, his second wife Marie Louise, Duchess of Parma spent her first night on French soil in the palace. Another royal guest was King Charles X of France in 1828.[29] In 1836, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte unsuccessfully tried to lead his first Bonapartist coup in Strasbourg.

During the Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Strasbourg, the city was heavily bombarded by the Prussian army. The bombardment of the city was meant to break the morale of the people of Strasbourg.[30] On 24 and 26 August 1870, the Museum of Fine Arts was destroyed by fire, as was the Municipal Library housed in the Gothic former Dominican church, with its unique collection of medieval manuscripts (most famously the Hortus deliciarum), rare Renaissance books, archeological finds and historical artifacts. The gothic cathedral was damaged as well as the medieval church of Temple Neuf, the theatre, the city hall, the court of justice and many houses. At the end of the siege 10,000 inhabitants were left without shelter; over 600 died, including 261 civilians, and 3200 were injured, including 1,100 civilians.[31]

In 1871, after the end of the war, the city was annexed to the newly established German Empire as part of the Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen under the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt. As part of Imperial Germany, Strasbourg was rebuilt and developed on a grand and representative scale, such as the Neue Stadt, or "new city" around the present Place de la République. Historian Rodolphe Reuss and Art historian Wilhelm von Bode were in charge of rebuilding the municipal archives, libraries and museums. The University, founded in 1567 and suppressed during the French Revolution as a stronghold of German sentiment,[citation needed] was reopened in 1872 under the name Kaiser-Wilhelms-Universität.

Strasbourg in the 1890s.

A belt of massive fortifications was established around the city, most of which still stands today, renamed after French generals and generally classified as Monuments historiques; most notably Fort Roon (now Fort Desaix) and Fort Podbielski (now Fort Ducrot) in Mundolsheim, Fort von Moltke (now Fort Rapp) in Reichstett, Fort Bismarck (now Fort Kléber) in Wolfisheim, Fort Kronprinz (now Fort Foch) in Niederhausbergen, Fort Kronprinz von Sachsen (now Fort Joffre) in Holtzheim and Fort Großherzog von Baden (now Fort Frère) in Oberhausbergen.[32]

Those forts subsequently served the French army (Fort Podbielski/Ducrot for instance was integrated into the Maginot Line[33]), and were used as POW-camps in 1918 and 1945.

Two garrison churches were also erected for the members of the Imperial German army, the Lutheran Église Saint-Paul and the Roman Catholic Église Saint-Maurice.

1918 to the present

A lost, then restored, symbol of modernity in Strasbourg : a room in the Aubette building designed by Theo van Doesburg, Hans Arp and Sophie Taeuber-Arp.

Following the defeat of the German empire in World War I and the abdication of the German Emperor, some revolutionary insurgents declared Alsace-Lorraine as an independent Republic, without preliminary referendum or vote. On 11 November 1918 (Armistice Day), communist insurgents proclaimed a "soviet government" in Strasbourg, following the example of Kurt Eisner in Munich as well as other German towns. French troops commanded by French general Henri Gouraud entered triumphantly in the city on 22 November. A major street of the city now bears the name of that date (Rue du 22 Novembre) which celebrates the entry of the French in the city.[34][35][36] Viewing the massive cheering crowd gathered under the balcony of Strasbourg's town hall, French President Raymond Poincaré stated that "the plebiscite is done".[37]

In 1919, following the Treaty of Versailles, the city was annexed by France in accordance with U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points" without a referendum. The date of the assignment was retroactively established on Armistice Day. It is doubtful whether a referendum in Strasbourg would have ended in France's favour since the political parties striving for an autonomous Alsace or a connection to France accounted only for a small proportion of votes in the last Reichstag as well as in the local elections.[38] The Alsatian autonomists who were pro French had won many votes in the more rural parts of the region and other towns since the annexation of the region by Germany in 1871. The movement started with the first election for the Reichstag; those elected were called "les députés protestataires", and until the fall of Bismarck in 1890, they were the only deputies elected by the Alsatians to the German parliament demanding the return of those territories to France.[39] At the last Reichstag election in Strasbourg and its periphery, the clear winners were the Social Democrats; the city was the administrative capital of the region, was inhabited by many Germans appointed by the central government in Berlin and its flourishing economy attracted many Germans. This could explain the difference between the rural vote and the one in Strasbourg. After the war, many Germans left Strasbourg and went back to Germany; some of them were denounced by the locals or expelled by the newly appointed authorities. The Saverne Affair was vivid in the memory among the Alsatians.

In 1920, Strasbourg became the seat of the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine, previously located in Mannheim, one of the oldest European institutions. It moved into the former Imperial Palace.

When the Maginot Line was built, the Sous-secteur fortifié de Strasbourg (fortified sub-sector of Strasbourg) was laid out on the city's territory as a part of the Secteur fortifié du Bas-Rhin, one of the sections of the Line. Blockhouses and casemates were built along the Grand Canal d'Alsace and the Rhine in the Robertsau forest and the port.[40]

Between the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and the Anglo-French declaration of War against the German Reich on 3 September 1939, the entire city (a total of 120,000 people) was evacuated, like other border towns as well. Until the arrival of the Wehrmacht troops mid-June 1940, the city was, for ten months, completely empty, with the exception of the garrisoned soldiers. The Jews of Strasbourg had been evacuated to Périgueux and Limoges, the University had been evacuated to Clermont-Ferrand.

After the ceasefire following the Fall of France in June 1940, Alsace was annexed to Germany and a rigorous policy of Germanisation was imposed upon it by the Gauleiter Robert Heinrich Wagner. When, in July 1940, the first evacuees were allowed to return, only residents of Alsatian origin were admitted. The last Jews were deported on 15 July 1940 and the main synagogue, a huge Romanesque revival building that had been a major architectural landmark with its 54-metre-high dome since its completion in 1897, was set ablaze, then razed.[41]

In September 1940 the first Alsatian resistance movement led by Marcel Weinum called La main noire (The black hand) was created. It was composed by a group of 25 young men aged from 14 to 18 years old who led several attacks against the German occupation. The actions culminated with the attack of the Gauleiter Robert Wagner, the highest commander of Alsace directly under the order of Hitler. In March 1942, Marcel Weinum was prosecuted by the Gestapo and sentenced to be beheaded at the age of 18 in April 1942 in Stuttgart, Germany. His last words will be: "If I have to die, I shall die but with a pure heart". From 1943 the city was bombarded by Allied aircraft. While the First World War had not notably damaged the city, Anglo-American bombing caused extensive destruction in raids of which at least one was allegedly carried out by mistake.[42] In August 1944, several buildings in the Old Town were damaged by bombs, particularly the Palais Rohan, the Old Customs House (Ancienne Douane) and the Cathedral.[43] On 23 November 1944, the city was officially liberated by the 2nd French Armoured Division under General Leclerc. He achieved the oath that he made with his soldiers, after the decisive Capture of Kufra. With the Oath of Kuffra, they swore to keep up the fight until the French flag flew over the Cathedral of Strasbourg.

Many people from Strasbourg were incorporated in the German Army against their will, and were sent to the eastern front, those young men and women were called Malgré-nous. Many tried to escape from the incorporation, join the French Resistance, or desert the Wehrmacht but many couldn't because they were running the risk of having their families sent to work or concentration camps by the Germans. Many of these men, especially those who did not answer the call immediately, were pressured to "volunteer" for service with the SS, often by direct threats on their families. This threat obliged the majority of them to remain in the German army. After the war, the few that survived were often accused of being traitors or collaborationists, because this tough situation was not known in the rest of France, and they had to face the incomprehension of many. In July 1944, 1500 malgré-nous were released from Soviet captivity and sent to Algiers, where they joined the Free French Forces. Nowadays history recognizes the suffering of those people, and museums, public discussions and memorials have been built to commemorate this terrible period of history of this part of Eastern France (Alsace and Moselle). Liberation of Strasbourg took place on 23 November 1944.

In 1947, a fire broke out in the Musée des Beaux-Arts and devastated a significant part of the collections. This fire was an indirect consequence of the bombing raids of 1944: because of the destruction inflicted on the Palais Rohan, humidity had infiltrated the building, and moisture had to be fought. This was done with welding torches, and a bad handling of these caused the fire.[44]

In the 1950s and 1960s the city was enlarged by new residential areas meant to solve both the problem of housing shortage due to war damage and that of the strong growth of population due to the baby boom and immigration from North Africa: Cité Rotterdam in the North-East, Quartier de l'Esplanade in the South-East, Hautepierre in the North-West. Between 1995 and 2010, a new district has been built in the same vein, the Quartier des Poteries, south of Hautepierre.

In 1958, a violent hailstorm destroyed most of the historical greenhouses of the Botanical Garden and many of the stained glass windows of St. Paul's Church.

In 1949, the city was chosen to be the seat of the Council of Europe with its European Court of Human Rights and European Pharmacopoeia. Since 1952, the European Parliament has met in Strasbourg, which was formally designated its official 'seat' at the Edinburgh meeting of the European Council of EU heads of state and government in December 1992. (This position was reconfirmed and given treaty status in the 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam). However, only the (four-day) plenary sessions of the Parliament are held in Strasbourg each month, with all other business being conducted in Brussels and Luxembourg. Those sessions take place in the Immeuble Louise Weiss, inaugurated in 1999, which houses the largest parliamentary assembly room in Europe and of any democratic institution in the world. Before that, the EP sessions had to take place in the main Council of Europe building, the Palace of Europe, whose unusual inner architecture had become a familiar sight to European TV audiences.[45] In 1992, Strasbourg became the seat of the Franco-German TV channel and movie-production society Arte.

In 2000, a terrorist plot to blow up the cathedral was prevented thanks to the cooperation between French and German police that led to the arrest in late 2000 of a Frankfurt-based group of terrorists.

On 6 July 2001, during an open-air concert in the Parc de Pourtalès, a single falling Platanus tree killed thirteen people and injured 97. On 27 March 2007, the city was found guilty of neglect over the accident and fined €150,000.[46]

In 2006, after a long and careful restoration, the inner decoration of the Aubette, made in the 1920s by Hans Arp, Theo van Doesburg, and Sophie Taeuber-Arp and destroyed in the 1930s, was made accessible to the public again. The work of the three artists had been called "the Sistine Chapel of abstract art".

Architecture

Strasbourg, Cathedral of Our Lady

The city is chiefly known for its sandstone Gothic Cathedral with its famous astronomical clock, and for its medieval cityscape of Rhineland black and white timber-framed buildings, particularly in the Petite France district or Gerberviertel ("tanners' district") alongside the Ill and in the streets and squares surrounding the cathedral, where the renowned Maison Kammerzell stands out.

Notable medieval streets include Rue Mercière, Rue des Dentelles, Rue du Bain aux Plantes, Rue des Juifs, Rue des Frères, Rue des Tonneliers, Rue du Maroquin, Rue des Charpentiers, Rue des Serruriers, Grand' Rue, Quai des Bateliers, Quai Saint-Nicolas and Quai Saint-Thomas. Notable medieval squares include Place de la Cathédrale, Place du Marché Gayot, Place Saint-Étienne, Place du Marché aux Cochons de Lait and Place Benjamin Zix.

Maison des tanneurs.

In addition to the cathedral, Strasbourg houses several other medieval churches that have survived the many wars and destructions that have plagued the city: the Romanesque Église Saint-Étienne, partly destroyed in 1944 by Allied bombing raids, the part Romanesque, part Gothic, very large Église Saint-Thomas with its Silbermann organ on which Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Albert Schweitzer played,[49] the Gothic Église protestante Saint-Pierre-le-Jeune with its crypt dating back to the seventh century and its cloister partly from the eleventh century, the Gothic Église Saint-Guillaume with its fine early-Renaissance stained glass and furniture, the Gothic Église Saint-Jean, the part Gothic, part Art Nouveau Église Sainte-Madeleine, etc. The Neo-Gothic church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Catholique (there is also an adjacent church Saint-Pierre-le-Vieux Protestant) serves as a shrine for several 15th-century wood worked and painted altars coming from other, now destroyed churches and installed there for public display. Among the numerous secular medieval buildings, the monumental Ancienne Douane (old custom-house) stands out.

The German Renaissance has bequeathed the city some noteworthy buildings (especially the current Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie, former town hall, on Place Gutenberg), as did the French Baroque and Classicism with several hôtels particuliers (i.e. palaces), among which the Palais Rohan (1742, now housing three museums) is the most spectacular. Other buildings of its kind are the "Hôtel de Hanau" (1736, now the city hall), the Hôtel de Klinglin (1736, now residence of the préfet), the Hôtel des Deux-Ponts (1755, now residence of the military governor), the Hôtel d'Andlau-Klinglin (1725, now seat of the administration of the Port autonome de Strasbourg) etc. The largest baroque building of Strasbourg though is the 150 m (490 ft) long 1720s main building of the Hôpital civil. As for French Neo-classicism, it is the Opera House on Place Broglie that most prestigiously represents this style.

Strasbourg also offers high-class eclecticist buildings in its very extended German district, the Neustadt, being the main memory of Wilhelmian architecture since most of the major cities in Germany proper suffered intensive damage during World War II. Streets, boulevards and avenues are homogeneous, surprisingly high (up to seven stories) and broad examples of German urban lay-out and of this architectural style that summons and mixes up five centuries of European architecture as well as Neo-Egyptian, Neo-Greek and Neo-Babylonian styles. The former imperial palace Palais du Rhin, the most political and thus heavily criticized of all German Strasbourg buildings epitomizes the grand scale and stylistic sturdiness of this period. But the two most handsome and ornate buildings of these times are the École internationale des Pontonniers (the former Höhere Mädchenschule, girls college) with its towers, turrets and multiple round and square angles[50] and the École des Arts décoratifs with its lavishly ornate façade of painted bricks, woodwork and majolica.[51]

Notable streets of the German district include: Avenue de la Forêt Noire, Avenue des Vosges, Avenue d'Alsace, Avenue de la Marseillaise, Avenue de la Liberté, Boulevard de la Victoire, Rue Sellénick, Rue du Général de Castelnau, Rue du Maréchal Foch, and Rue du Maréchal Joffre. Notable squares of the German district include: Place de la République, Place de l'Université, Place Brant, and Place Arnold

As for modern and contemporary architecture, Strasbourg possesses some fine Art Nouveau buildings (such as the huge Palais des Fêtes and houses and villas like Villa Schutzenberger and Hôtel Brion), good examples of post-World War II functional architecture (the Cité Rotterdam, for which Le Corbusier did not succeed in the architectural contest) and, in the very extended Quartier Européen, some spectacular administrative buildings of sometimes utterly large size, among which the European Court of Human Rights building by Richard Rogers is arguably the finest. Other noticeable contemporary buildings are the new Music school Cité de la Musique et de la Danse, the Musée d'Art moderne et contemporain and the Hôtel du Département facing it, as well as, in the outskirts, the tramway-station Hoenheim-Nord designed by Zaha Hadid.

Place Kléber

The city has many bridges, including the medieval and four-towered Ponts Couverts that, despite their name, are no longer covered. Next to the Ponts Couverts is the Barrage Vauban, a part of Vauban's 17th-century fortifications, that does include a covered bridge. Other bridges are the ornate 19th-century Pont de la Fonderie (1893, stone) and Pont d'Auvergne (1892, iron), as well as architect Marc Mimram's futuristic Passerelle over the Rhine, opened in 2004.

The largest square at the centre of the city of Strasbourg is the Place Kléber. Located in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after general Jean-Baptiste Kléber, born in Strasbourg in 1753 and assassinated in 1800 in Cairo. In the square is a statue of Kléber, under which is a vault containing his remains. On the north side of the square is the Aubette (Orderly Room), built by Jacques François Blondel, architect of the king, in 1765–1772.

Parks

The Pavillon Joséphine (rear side) in the Parc de l'Orangerie

The Château de Pourtalès (front side) in the park of the same name

Strasbourg features a number of prominent parks, of which several are of cultural and historical interest: the Parc de l'Orangerie, laid out as a French garden by André le Nôtre and remodeled as an English garden on behalf of Joséphine de Beauharnais, now displaying noteworthy French gardens, a neo-classical castle and a small zoo; the Parc de la Citadelle, built around impressive remains of the 17th-century fortress erected close to the Rhine by Vauban;[52] the Parc de Pourtalès, laid out in English style around a baroque castle (heavily restored in the 19th century) that now houses a small three-star hotel,[53] and featuring an open-air museum of international contemporary sculpture.[54] The Jardin botanique de l'Université de Strasbourg (botanical garden) was created under the German administration next to the Observatory of Strasbourg, built in 1881, and still owns some greenhouses of those times. The Parc des Contades, although the oldest park of the city, was completely remodeled after World War II. The futuristic Parc des Poteries is an example of European park-conception in the late 1990s. The Jardin des deux Rives, spread over Strasbourg and Kehl on both sides of the Rhine opened in 2004 and is the most extended (60-hectare) park of the agglomeration. The most recent park is Parc du Heyritz (8,7 ha), opened in 2014 along a canal facing the hôpital civil.

Functional Zone by Pavigym

SATS

Functional Zone

Bicycle Design Archeology Series by Mikael Colville-Andersen

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So many fantastic, and often functional, bicycle design and accessory details have gone lost over the decades.

We went digging in the annals of bicycle history and ended up with this archeological finding.

Here are Copenhagenize's Top 10 List of Design Details that we want back.

The Outside Room Garden by Earth Designs. www.earthdesigns.co.uk. London Garden Design and landscape build. by Earth Designs

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Earth Designs Garden Design and Build were asked to created a landscape and propose garden design in Balham, London*. Here are the details of the project

The Outside Room Garden in Balham, London SW12

BRIEF:

The space was formerly a double garage nestled between two houses. The roof had been removed, leaving behind a worn concrete and cobble floor, garage doors, and two rusted steel girders crossing the space. In creative terms, the brief was fairly open: to design a clean and contemporary space, suitable for entertaining yet functional enough to accommodate off-street parking for a family car.

SOLUTION:

The design was inspired by the strong sense of enclosure to the space, taking elements of a typical lounge to create something that was very much an exterior room. New railway sleepers, chosen for their clean look and contemporary feel, featured heavily as a construction material.

These were used to create raised beds around the boundaries, an integrated 'sofa' and coffee table, and a dresser-style shelving unit down one side of the space. Judicious lighting within the beds and shelving units served to create ambient lighting similar to that found in a well-planned drawing room.

The 'living room' theme was further enhanced by the inclusion of a bespoke wrought iron chandelier hanging from the cross-point of the girders. To allow for off-street parking, the existing garage doors were replaced with two large bespoke wooden gates, and pattern-imprinted concrete was laid to provide attractive and durable flooring. Planting was used to blur the linear appearance of the space, with architectural, spiky evergreens and lush, leafy climbers taking pride of place. A water feature constructed from a Heath Robinson-esque series of copper piping and funnels provided the finishing touch to the garden.

TESTIMONIAL:

"The phrase 'making a silk purse from a sow's ear' comes to mind! What we had grown used to fondly referring to as 'The Prison Yard' is now a tropical oasis that gets more use than any other "room" in the house. Katrina and her team interpreted our brief perfectly and delivered, through wind, rain, and on one notable occasion a violent thunderstorm, our perfect garden. We can't thank them enough for what is, as one old chap commented in passing, 'The most remarkable transformation I have ever seen'. Thank you. We love it!"

If you dig this and would like to find out more about this or any of other of our designs, please stop by our web-site and have a look at our work.

Earth Designs is a bespoke London Garden Design and build company specialising in classic, funky and urban contemporary garden design.

Our Landscape and Garden build teams cover London, Essex and parts of South East England, while garden designs are available nationwide.

Please visit www.earthdesigns.co.uk to see our full portfolio. If you would like a garden designer in London or have an idea of what you want and are looking for a landscaper London to come and visit your garden, please get in touch.

Follow our Bespoke Garden Design and Build and Blog to see what we get up to week by week, our free design clinic as well as tips and products we recommend for your garden projects www.earthdesigns.co.uk/blog/.

Earth Designs is located in East London, but has built gardens in Essex , gardens in Hertfordshire Hertfordshire and all over the South East. Earth Designs was formed by Katrina Wells in Spring 2003 and has since gone from strength to strength to develop a considerable portfolio of garden projects. Katrina, who is our Senior Garden Designer, has travelled all over the UK designing gardens. However we can design worldwide either through our postal garden design service or by consultation with our senior garden designer. Recent worldwide projects have included garden designs in Romania. Katrina’s husband. Matt, heads up the build side of the company, creating a unique service for all our clients.

If you a not a UK resident, but would like an Earth Designs garden, Earth Designs has a worldwide design service through our Garden Design Postal Design Vouchers. If you are looking for an unique birthday present or original anniversary present and would like to buy one of our Garden Design Gift Vouchers for yourself or as a present please our sister site www.gardenpresents.co.uk. We do also design outside of the UK, please contact us for details.

Front Desk Reception / Rome Cavalieri by Richard Johnson

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Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts

Via Alberto Cadlolo 101

00136 Rome, Italy

*** In the Beginning ***

In 1954 Fred Joyce, the publicity Director for Hilton Hotels Corporation, issued the following press release:

"The Societa Generale Immobiliare (Real Estate), in cooperation with Hilton Hotels International have formed the company to be known as Italo American Nuovo Alberghi (New Hotel) which will have an eventual capitalizaiton of some $3 million. The hotel will be known as the Albergo dei Cavalieri Hilton and will cost approximately $7 million. Emilio Pifferi, a famous Italian architect is presently consulting in Rome with John W. Houser, executive vice president of Hilton Hotels International regarding the design and planning for the new hotel. It is expected that Rome's municipal government will build a new expressway from the heart of the city to the hotel."

Houser was a former Marine intelligence officer who became a director at Hilton Hotels International. Houser had negotiated with the pro-Batista Cuban faction for the casino in the Havana Hilton which opened in 1958 and nationalized in 1960.

The hotel would be owned by the Rome real estate Sociata General Immobiliare (The General Company of Real Estate). At that time the Vatican was the largest shareholder in Sociata General Immobiliare. The proposed name of the hotel was Albergo Dei Cavalieri Hilton (The hotel of knights Hilton). Societa General Immobiliare is known to have the Vatican among its stockholders. It has also built the Watergate Complex in Washington, D.C. The name Cavalieri pays tribute to the riders or knights who for centuries rode the path known as Via Francigene from Canterbury in England through France and on to Rome. Travellers used to rest on the hill of Monte Mario.

Conrad Hilton made a trip in 1955 to work with Italian concerns for the construction of the hotel. Hilton's plans were fought by the Left-wing parties in the Rome Municipal Council. The Communists (as Left-wingers were known then) contended the proposed Hilton Hotel was ugly and would ruin the sky line of Monte Mario. A proposal for a smaller, lower hotel was finally approved in 1959. Opposition to the hotel, led by Antonio Cederna, one of the founders of Italian Nostra, began immediately referring to the hotel site as a "wound" in the green of Monte Mario. The site of the hotel was expected to be a public green such as on the Janiculum Hill, the second tallest hill in Rome with Monte Mario the tallest. The Italian Nostra organisation was founded in 1955 with the specific aim of opposing the projected demolition of part of the city’s historic centre. The hotel is located in the residential area of Monte Mario, Rome’s highest hill. The Rome Cavalieri is 3 km from the Vatican and 5 km from the historic city centre and is nestled in a 15-acre private Mediterranean park, overlooking the Eternal City.

On September 13, 1960 Conrad Hilton watched as the cornerstone of a six-story hotel bearing his name was laid on Monte Mario. Designed by Ugo Luccichenti (1898 - 1976), Emilio Pifferi and Alberto Ressa the hotel was under construction from 1960 -1963.

*** Cavalieri Hilton Hotel opened in June 1963 ***

The hotel has 400 rooms and suites and sits high atop Monte Mario northwest of Rome. It has a panoramic view of almost the entire city. The italian architectural team of Ugo Luccichenti, Emillio Pisseri and Alberto Rossa designed the 8 story hotel. An opposing planner and architect, Italo Insolera, was quoted "the hotel was even worse in reality than one would expect." Others say the hotel belongs in Miami Beach. In the hotel lobby's atrium, the spiral fountain was designed by Franco Albini (1905/77) and Franca Helg (1920/89).

When opened in 1963 the building was an admirable example of modular architecture, resulting in a style which is both clean-lined and functional. The hotel resembled a Mediterranean vacation village, including olympic size swimming pool, tennis courts and a 7 acre park filled with pines, cyprus, olive pal and lemon trees. The hotel's original restaurants were the roof terrace restaurant night club La Pergolia with a cosmopolitan cuisine with specialties from around the world. At the garden level is a night club/restaurant known as L'Ellisse with French cuisine. La Belle Arti specialized in Italian food. The coffee shop (note the lower case) served Italian and American food with prices from $1.25 to $2.25. The coffee shop had an American style soda fountain and two pizza ovens. The hotel's massive ballroom, Salone dei Cavalieri, could seat 1,600. The hotels opening rates were $10.50 for a single to $74.00 for a two room suite. There was a 18% service charge and a 3% government tax. The ballroom was the largest space without column support at that time in Italy. Italians called it the most beautiful hotel in Rome "l'albergo più bello di Roma".

In 2001 the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, started a four-year, $45-million renovation designed to enhance the guest experience across all touchpoints of the resort. Each of the 370 guestrooms were modernized and refurbished, welcoming travelers with opulent new amenities and a higher level of convenience and connectivity. Also new is a collection of 25 individually designed and decorated suites. The property received extensive landscaping attention, the lobby received a face-lift, new fitness offerings were added and meeting space upgraded.

The Rome Cavalieri Hilton lobby received new reception and concierge desks by Italian architect Gaetano Castelli which feature surfaces made of Sodalite, a rare Brazilian semi-precious stone dramatically shaded in blue, gray and green. This stone is believed to facilitate communication between people, stimulate creativity and soothe and relax the soul. Antique multi-chrome marble panels, originally decorative features of an aristocratic southern Italian palazzo, adorn the center of each desk, encased at the sides by contemporary curved blue crystal. Also displayed in the lobby are some rare Old Master paintings, furniture, tapestries and artifacts dating from the 17th and 18th centuries.

In 2002 the Rome Cavalieri Hilton had 372 rooms. A standard double was US $474, Continental breakfast is US $29. The use of the fitness center was US $28; a massage, US $80. Dinner at La Pergola for two with wine, about US $320.

In 2008 the hotel was rebranded from "just a Hilton" to Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts. Guestrooms were refurbished in 2011. The Imperial La Pergola is Rome’s only 3 star Michelin rooftop restaurant.

*** Hotel Art Collection ***

The Rome Cavalieri possibly has the world’s most prestigious art collection housed within a hotel worldwide. Among the over one thousand works of art kept in the hotel:

Paintings

"Ulysses discovering Achilles among the daughters of Nicomedes" by G.B. Tiepolo (1696/1770)

"Judgement of Paris" by Giuseppe Bazzani (1690/1769)

"Landscape with Hermit" by Alessandro Magnasco (1667/1749)

"Flora" by Carlo Cignani (1628/1719) a pupil of Francesco Albani

"Arrival of the Bucintoro in St. Mark's Square" by Josef Heintz the Younger (about 1600/78)

"Country landscape with bridge" by Giuseppe Zaïs (1709/84) artist from Belluno who died in poverty, exponent of the Arcadian school

"Dollar Sign" by Andy Warhol (1928/87)

Sculptures

Bronze statue "Boy with Dog" by Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770/1844)

Marble sculpture "The Kiss" by Antonio Tantardini (1829/79)

*** General Managers ***

Franz Schutzman (1915-2001) was the opening general manager. He served from 1962-1964. Prior to the Rome Cavalieri Hilton he was the Manager Raffles Hotel, Singapore, 1950-1959 and general manager Nile Hotel, Cairo, 1960-1961. From Rome Schutzman went on to general manager Hyatt Regency Toronto, Ontario, 1971-1974. Vice president, general manager United Nations Plaza Hotel, New York City, 1974-1976 and general manager The Manila Hotel, 1976-1987.

It is said Franz Schutzman concocted the popular cocktail, the Singapore Sling, while at the Raffles Hotel. Paul Schreiber was the opening Food and Beverage Manager, previously he was at the Hilton Hawaiian Village. In 1964 Berne Hal-Mann and Group played for seven months in the La Pergola - they were the house band at the Garden Bar at the Hilton Hawaiian Village for many years.

From 1964 to 1967 Gabor Olah De Garab (1924-2014) was the general manager. He also managed the Watergate Hotel in Washington DC for 18 years from 1967 to 1985. Gabor Olah de Garab was born in Paszto, Hungary on August 8, 1924. After studying hotel management at the world-renowned Ecole Hoteliere in Lausanne, Switzerland, he held managerial positions at the Gallia Excelsior in Milan, the Hotel Splendido in Portofino and the Cavalieri Rome Hilton. In 1967, at the request of Giuseppe Cecchi, one of Washington, DC's foremost real estate developers and then project manager for the Watergate complex development, Olah assumed leadership of the Watergate Hotel that year and served as its General Manager for 18 years.

When Hilton took over the Kaiser Hawaiian Village in 1961 it appointed Olaf S. Bonde as Executive Assistan Manager. German born Bonde came to the U.S. in 1952 and worked for the Statler hotel chain until it was purchased by Hilton. He arrived in Hawaii from the Berlin Hilton which he helped to open. Bonde has a Bachelor of Science in Hotel Administration, Heidelberg University, Germany, 1948. Bonde went on to be the general manager Tokyo Hilton, 1963-1965, and the Cavalieri Hilton-Rome from 1965-1972. He was appointed Area director, vice president Hilton International (central Europe, eastern Mediterranean), officed in Rome from 1973-1988. Currently semi-retired running Bonde Consulting.

Serge Ethuin was the Cavalieri general manager from 2008 thru 2014. Serge graduated in 1982 from the Ecole Hôtelière in Strasbourg, and began his career in 1983 working for the Hilton Group as a receptionist at Hilton Paris, Strasbourg Hilton and the Orly Hilton. In 1997, he was appointed general manager of the Hilton Madagascar and followed by Hilton Rome Airport and Hilton Arc de Triomphe. In 2008 he moved to head the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, which became the first European hotel to integrate the prestigious Waldorf-Astoria Collection. Serge Ethuin inspired a new dynamic through the three Michelin Star restaurant La Pergola, the Grand Spa Club, the hotel's unique Art collection. In 2011, he was awarded “Best General Manager” by Waldorf Astoria Worldwide. After 30 years within the Hilton Group, Serge Ethuin moved on to managed the Royal Monceau Raffles Paris and most recently as General Manager of the Hotel Metropole Monte-Carlo.

In 2014 Alessandro Maurizio Cabella was appointed general manager of the Rome Cavalieri, Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts. He previously served as general manager at Hilton Molino Stucky Venice, the Hilton Vilamoura As Cascatas Golf Resort & Spa in Portugal and Hotel Mirabeau - Société des Bains de Mer Monte Carlo in Monaco.

It seems the best chef in Rome is German. Heinz Beck has presided over Pergola, the panoramic restaurant at the Rome Cavalieri Hilton, since 1994. The dining room tables are arrayed around the picture windows overlooking the city. Rare tapestries, paintings, sculptures, and blown glass give the restaurant an atmosphere of excellence. Rated 3 stars in the Michelin guide, La Pergola is routinely voted the best in Rome. The wine cellar is vast: an array of rooms containing 65,000 bottles of wine, with 3,500 different labels offered on the list. The 7 course tasting menu here was €210, with a full a la carte choice as an alternative. Heinz Beck now has restaurants in Portugal, Dubai, London (Apsleys) and Tokyo.

Compiled by Dick Johnson, May 2017

Functional Zone by Pavigym

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Functional Zone 3D Simulation

Fully functional by John Holderried

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See, I told you he'd get his robot costume working...

Multi-functional workspace by iBSSR who loves comments on his images

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Sliding doors or moveable walls could close off the open workspace when needed. The open concept: Promotes interaction between family members when time is at a premium; Invites more light into space and air; Removes "dead" spaces from interiors.

Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst, Università per Musica e Arte Scenica, Universidad para Música y las Artes escénicas, Université pour la Musique et le Spectacle vivant, University of Music and Performing arts (Rennweg) by alfred lex

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(for further information please go to the end of page and by clicking on the link you will get them!)

University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna

Motto tradition and innovation

Founded in 1817

State sponsorship

Location Vienna, Austria

Rector Werner Hasitschka

About 3,000 students

Employees about 850 of which about 140 professors

www.mdw.ac.at site

The University of Music and Performing Arts 2007

Columned hall to staircase, Kaiserstein

Pillar staircase around open shaft, Kaiserstein

Institute building and former main building, including the Academy Theater, Lothringerstraße 18

The University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna (mdw) is an Austrian university located in third District of Vienna highway (Landstraße), Anton-von-Webern-Platz 1. It claims to be the greatest art university in Austria and greatest university of music worldwide. Approximately 3,000 students are supported by more than 850 teachers. It is since 2002 structured into 24 institutions offering the artistic, artistic-scientific and purely scientific doctrine. Since 2002 Werner Hasitschka is rector.

History

Already 1808 was discussed on the establishment of a conservatory of Music according to Parisian model (Conservatoire de Paris). The 1812 founded Society of Friends of Music in Vienna this venture had set as it main task, so that already in 1817 a singing school could be launched, which laid the headstone for such an institution. Thus the year 1817 is considered the official founding year of the mdw. In 1819 with the Engagierung (engagement) of violin professor Joseph Böhm instrumental lessons have been started.

With short interruptions during the 19th Century the curriculum was expanded massively, so that in the 1890s more than 1,000 students could be counted. In 1909, this private institution was nationalized on resolution of the emperor and was now kk Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.

With the nationalization it also received an own house: in collaboration with the Vienna Konzerthaus Society from 1912 in Liszstraße a building together with a sample stage (today Academy Theater) was built, into which already in January 1914 could be moved. After World War I, the institution was called State Academy (1919). In 1928, the Academy has been extended to a drama seminar (Reinhardt-Seminar) and a music educational seminar. Between 1938 and 1945 it was continued as a Reichshochschule (Academy of the German Reich) by exclusion of Jewish teachers and students.

After the war, in 1946 the institution again became an art school, from 1970 to 1998 it was called University of Music and Performing Arts, since 1998 it is a university.

In 1952 Walter Kolm-Veltée established special training for film design. In 1960, a film class, led by Hans Winge, was added. In 1963, the two courses were combined into the newly founded "Film and Television Department". There were other additional courses, and since 1998, the department is also known as the Vienna Film Academy.

Building

In addition to its headquarters, the mdw-campus at Anton-von-Webern-Platz in the third district, are other branches in 3rd District in Ungargasse 14, am Rennweg 8, in the Metternichgasse 8 and 12 as well as in the Lothringerstraße 18. In the first district of Vienna teaching locations are situated at Karlsplatz 1 and 2, at the Schubertring 14, at the corner of John Street/Seilerstätte and in the Singerstraße 26. Furthermore, in the 4th District in Rienößlgasse 12, in 13th district in the Schoenbrunn Palace Theater as well as at the Palais Cumberland in the Penzingerstrasse.

Campus

The monumental functional purpose building in the sober, classicist forms of Hofbauamtes located at the former Wiener Neustadt channel (rapid rail line), is located at the Anton-von-Webern-Platz 1. 1776 there on the suggestion of Emperor Joseph II. an animal hospital was built in the former Jesuit dairy farm. 1821-1823 followed a new building by Johann Nepomuk Amann, being planned a sprawling complex. The main building with a long façade extends to the left Bahngasse, there are numerous additions. A major contract received the Kaisersteinbrucher master stonemasons, the spacious entrance hall with Tuscan columns, pilasters and mullioned pillars, the spacios pillar staircase around open shaft, all made of light Kaiserstein with typical blue translucent embeddings - a special room for friends of the emperor stone (Kaiserstein). By 1996, the building was the seat of the University of Veterinary Medicine and its predecessor institutions.

In 1996 the building was chosen as the new seat of the University, and completely renovated by architect Reinhardt Gallister. The historic structure was preserved, elements such as glass, wood and stone are the defining stylistic devices and modern technology and equipment was connected with good room acoustics. Studios, classrooms and halls can be rented externally, too.

Disciplines of study

Composition and Music Theory

Conducting

Sound engineer

Instrumental study

Church Music

Educational Studies

Singing and opera directing

Performing Arts

Film and Television

Doctoral Studies

Summer Campus

The isa - International Summer Academy is the musical summer campus of the University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna. More than 200 students from over 40 nations are taking part in two weeks of master classes of the highest calibre in the Semmering region and in Vienna. The summer campus was founded in 1991 as an initiative of Michael Frischenschlager. The isa arose from the euphoria over the fall of the Iron Curtain with the aim, exceptionally talented young students, mainly from the Central and Eastern European countries (CEE countries), allow musical encounters and build international relationships. Since 2005 Johannes Meissl is artistic director of the isa.

Institutions

Institute for Composition and Electro-Acoustics

Institute for Music Conducting

Institute for Analysis, Theory and History of Music

Institute for Keyboard Instruments (podium/concert)

Institute for Bowed and other String Instruments (podium/concert)

Leonard Bernstein Institute for Wind and Percussion instruments

Joseph Haydn Institute for Chamber Music and Special Ensembles

Institute for Organ, Organ Research and Church Music

Institute for Singing and Music Theater

Institute for Drama and Acting Direction (Max Reinhardt Seminar)

Institute for Film and Television (Film Academy Vienna)

Institute for Music Education

Institute for Music and Movement Education and Music Therapy

Institute of Musical Style Research

Institute of Popular Music

Institute Ludwig van Beethoven (keyboard instruments in music pedagogy)

Hellmesberger - Institute (string & other bowed instruments in Music Education)

Institute Franz Schubert (wind and percussion instruments in Music Pedagogy)

Institute Antonio Salieri (singing in Music Pedagogy)

Institute Anton Bruckner (music theory, ear training, ensemble direction)

Institute for Folk Music Research and Ethnomusicology

Institute for Viennese Sound Style (Musical Acoustics)

Institute for Music Sociology

Institute of Culture Management and Cultural Studies (IKM)

Science

Apart from artistic training form the scientific institutions (or full professors and university lecturers with great teaching qualification - venia docendi) a significant part of the university's work. A special feature of the MDW is the high interconnectedness of science and art. The right to award doctorates is the foundation of a university, and is realized at the MDW in the PhD graduate program. Departments of scientific work in this connection are:

Dramaturgy

Film Studies

Gender Studies

History and Theory of Popular Music

Gregorian chant and liturgy

Historical Musicology (including analysis, music theory and harmonic research)

Stylistics and performance practice

Cultural Business Operations

Musical Acoustics

Music Education

Sociology of Music

Music Theory

Music Therapy

Systematic musicology within interdisciplinary approaches

Folk Music Research, Ethnomusicology

Known graduates

Claudio Abbado

Barbara Albert

Peter Alexander

Christian Altenburger

Maria Andergast

Walter Samuel Bartussek

Johanna Beisteiner

Erwin Belakowitsch

Achim Benning

Zsófia Boros

Thomas Brezinka

Florian Brüning

Rudolf Buchbinder

Friedrich Cerha

Gabriel Chmura

Mimi Coertse

Luke David

Yoram David

Jacques Delacôte, French conductor

Jörg Demus

Helmut German

Johanna Doderer

Iván Eröd

Karlheinz Essl

Matthias Fletzberger

Sabrina Frey

Beat Furrer

Rudolf Gamsjäger

Raoul Gehringer

Nicolas Geremus

Wolfgang Glück

Wolfgang Glüxam

Eugen Gmeiner

Walter Goldschmidt

Stefan Gottfried

Friedrich Gulda

Robert Gulya

Ingomar Auer

Christoph Haas (born 1949), Swiss conductor

Georg Friedrich Haas

Hans Hammerschmid

Gottfried Hemetsberger

John Hiemetsberger

Robert Holl

Mariss Jansons

Leo Jaritz

Mariama Djiwa Jenie, concert pianist and dancer

Thomas Jöbstl

Thomas Kakuska

Bijan Khadem-Missagh, violin

Angelika Kirschschlager

Hermann Killmeyer

Patricia Kopatchinskaya

Leon Koudelak

Bojidara Kouzmanova

Tina Kordić

Klaus Kuchling

Rainer Küchl

Gabriele Lechner

Wolf Lotter

Gustav Mahler

Edith Mathis

Zubin Mehta

Tobias Moretti

Tomislav Mužek

Helmut Neumann

Josef Niederhammer

Ernst Ottensamer

Erwin Ortner

Rudolf Pacik

Harry Pepl

Günter Pichler

Josephine Pilars de Pilar

Peter Planyavsky

Stefanie Alexandra Prenn

Armando Puklavec

Carole Dawn Reinhart

Gerald Reischl

Wolfgang Reisinger

Erhard Riedlsperger

Jhibaro Rodriguez

Hilde Rössel-Maidan

Michael Radanovics

Sophie Rois

Gerhard Ruhm

Kurt Rydl

Clemens Salesny

Heinz Sandauer

Klaus-Peter Sattler

Wolfgang Sauseng

Nicholas Schapfl

Agnes Scheibelreiter

Heinrich Schiff

Michael Schnitzler

Peter Schuhmayer

Christian W. Schulz

Wolfgang Schulz

Ulrich Seidl

Fritz Schreiber

Kurt Schwertsik

Ulf-Diether Soyka

Christian Spatzek

Arben Spahiu

Götz Spielmann

Othmar Steinbauer

Hermann Sulzberger (b. 1957), Austrian composer

Roman Summereder

Hans Swarovsky

Jenő Takács

Wolfgang Tomböck

Karolos Trikolidis, Greek-Austrian conductor

Mitsuko Uchida

Timothy Vernon (b. 1948), Canadian conductor

Eva Vicens harpsichordist from Uruguay, lives in Spain

Annette Volkamer

Johanna Wokalek

Adolf Wallnöfer

Gregor Widholm

Bruno Weil

Hermann Wlach

Paul Zauner

Herbert Zipper

de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A4t_f%C3%BCr_Musik_und...

ramen bowl by PatchworkPottery

5 1

Death Toll Rises to Five, Two Injured in Westlake Conflagration by Los Angeles Fire Department

3

‎WESTLAKE - It took nearly 150 ‪Los Angeles‬ ‪Firefighters‬ nearly two and a half hours to extinguish a major emergency fire in a vacant 2 story office building west of downtown Los Angeles Monday evening.

The Los Angeles Fire Department was summoned at 7:01 PM on June 13, 2016 to a structure fire at 2411 West 8th Street in the Westlake neighborhood not far from MacArthur Park. LAFD responders arrived quickly to find intense fire on the upper floor of a long vacant 14,351 square-foot two story office building, the site of previous blazes.

Firefighters used ground ladders to assist several imperiled persons at windows of the burning structure, with LAFD responders entering the building to performing the rescue of three others.

While extending hoselines to aggressively battle the flames within, LAFD crews sadly discovered and retrieved a dead man from the inferno, before the failing structure forced then to switch to defensive exterior operations twenty minutes into the firefight.

A total of 147 LAFD personnel under the command of Battalion Chief Jaime Moore, confined the blaze to the heavily damaged building of fire origin - which had no functional fire sprinklers, extinguishing the bulk of flame in just 2 hours and 22 minutes.

As a result of witnesses statements, Los Angeles Police Department Officers later detained and arrested an adult male suspected of starting the fire. He and one of the persons earlier rescued by firefighters, were taken to an area hospital by ambulance for evaluation of non-life threatening injuries.

With the flames extinguished well past darkness, firefighters remained at the structurally unsound premises to douse hotspots, prevent public harm and prepare for a further search at daybreak.

Early Tuesday, investigation teams from the LAFD Arson/Counter-Terrorism Section methodically processed the large and still-smoldering site to determine the fire's cause and origin, as highly-trained Human Remains Detection Dog and Handler teams performed a relentless search of the collapsed structure for deceased victims.

With the canines' help, firefighters discovered the remains of four adult victims, two men and two women, amid the rubble on the second floor of the building. Their discovery, combined with the male victim found deceased by firefighters battling the blaze, brought the death tally to five, all of whom appeared to be transients.

No firefighters sustained injury in the firefight, investigation or recovery operations.

A positive identification of the dead persons, to include the cause, time and manner of their death will be determined by the Los Angeles County Department of Medical Examiner-Coroner.

LAFD Incident: 061316-1267

7th Global Meeting on Law and Society_188 by Iscte - Instituto Universitário de Lisboa

The 7th Global Meeting on Law and Society took place at Iscte from the 13th - 16th of July 2022.

LSA Awards Ceremony

Friday, July 15th at 10:15am – 12:00pm

Law and Society Association Prizes

Congratulations to this year’s prize winners, and a special thanks to all of our hardworking Prize

Committees!

Ronald Pipkin Service Award

For sustained and extraordinary service to the Association.

Annie Bunting

York University

Javier A. Couso

Universidad Diego Portales/Utrecht University

Committee: LSA Executive Committee

Harry J. Kalven, Jr. Prize

For empirical scholarship that has contributed to the advancement of research in law and society.

Herbert M Kritzer

University of Minnesota

Elizabeth Mertz

American Bar Foundation/U. of Wisconsin

Committee: Valerie Hans (Chair), Laurie Edelman, Bryant Garth, Anna Offit, Gregory Parks, Mari Hirayama

Stanton Wheeler Mentorship Award

As an outstanding mentor for graduate, professional or undergraduate students who are working on issues of law and

society.

Calvin Morrill

University of California, Berkeley / Jurisprudence and Social Policy Program

Elizabeth Mertz

American Bar Foundation/U. of Wisconsin

Committee: Michael McCann (Chair), Austin Sarat, Jamie Longazel

Law and Society Association International Prize

For significant contributions to the advancement of knowledge in the field of law and society.

Nicola Lacey

London School of Economics

Committee: Naomi Creutzfeldt (Chair), Daanika Gordon, Kyoko Ishida, Justin Richland

Herbert Jacob Book Prize

For the best book in law and society scholarship published in 2021.

Reuben Jonathan Miller

F Halfway Home: Race, Punishment, and the Afterlife of Mass Incarceration

Little, Brown and Company (Hatchet)

University of Chicago Crown Family School of Social Work, Policy and Practice/American Bar Foundation

Honorable Mention - Poulami Roychowdhury

Capable Women, Incapable States: Negotiating Violence and Rights in India

Oxford University Press

McGill University

Honorable Mention - Spencer Headworth

Policing Welfare: Punitive Adversarialism in Public Assistance

University of Chicago Press

Purdue University

Honorable Mention - Swethaa S Ballakrishnen

Accidental Feminism: Gender Parity and Selective Mobility

Princeton University Press

University of California Irvine School of Law

Committee: Bernadette Atuahene (Chair), Sarah Brayne, Brandon Alston, Kathryn Harvey, Tanya Hernandez , ZoZo

Syani-Mhango

J. Willard Hurst Prize

For the best book in socio-legal history published in 2021.

Gregory Ablavsky

Federal Ground: Governing Property and Violence in the First U.S. Territories

Oxford University Press

Stanford Law School Honorable Mention – Nada Moumtaz

God’s Property: Islam, Charity and the Modern State

University of California Press

University of Toronto

Committee: Kimberly Welch (Co-Chair), Rohit De (Co-Chair), Tera Agyepon, Lucien Ferguson, Joanna Grisinger

Law and Society Association Article Prize

For exceptional scholarship in socio-legal studies published as an article.

Rachel E. López, Kempis “Ghani” Songster, Terrell Carter

Redeeming Justice

Drexel University Thomas R. Kline School of Law, Healing Futures, Temple University's Inside/Out

Think Tank

Honorable Mention – Ya-Wen Lei

Delivering Solidarity: Platform Architecture and Collective Contention in China’s Platform Economy

Harvard University

Committee: Esther Sullivan (Chair), Hardeep Dillon, Spencer Headworth, Riaz Tejani

John Hope Franklin Prize

For the best article on race, racism and the law, published within last two years.

Frank Edwards, Theresa Rocha Beardall

Abolition, Settler Colonialism, and the Persistent Threat of Indian Child Welfare

Columbia Journal of Race and Law 11(3): 533-574

Rutgers University – Newark, University of Washington

Honorable Mention – Robin Walker Sterling

Through a Glass, Darkly: Systemic Racism, Affirmative Action, and Disproportionate

Minority Contact

Michigan Law Review 120(3): 450-504

Northwestern Pritzker School of Law

Committee: Mario Barnes (Chair), Ben Fleury-Steiner, Brandon Davis, Laura Gomez

Dissertation Prize

For the dissertation that best represents outstanding work in law and society research in 2020.

Steven Schaaf

Litigating the Authoritarian State: Legal Mobilization and Judicial Politics in the Middle East

University of Mississippi

Committee: Josh Kaiser (Chair), Emily Ryo, Ayo Laniyonu

Undergraduate Student Paper Prize

For the undergraduate paper that best represents outstanding work in law and society research.

Abbey Hackleman (they/them)

Functional Confinement

Perdue University

Committee: Laura Beth Nielsen, Steven Boutcher, Eve Darian-Smith

Fotorgafia de Hugo Alexandre Cruz

Functional. by FreezerOfPhotons

11 2

From the first rolls testing out an Olympus SPn with some dust in the lens.

Camera: Olympus 35 SPn

Lens: Fixed 42mm f1.7 G.Zukio

Film: Delta 100

Developer: Xtol

Scanner: Epson V600

Functional by U-ichiro

2

India - Uttar Pradesh - Varanasi - Riverside - 528 by Manfred Sommer

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Varanasi, also known as Benares, or Kashi is an Indian city on the banks of the Ganga in Uttar Pradesh, 320 kilometres south-east of the state capital, Lucknow. It is the holiest of the seven sacred cities (Sapta Puri) in Hinduism, and Jainism, and played an important role in the development of Buddhism. Some Hindus believe that death at Varanasi brings salvation. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Varanasi is also known as the favourite city of the Hindu deity Lord Shiva as it has been mentioned in the Rigveda that this city in older times was known as Kashi or "Shiv ki Nagri".

The Kashi Naresh (Maharaja of Kashi) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi, and an essential part of all religious celebrations. The culture of Varanasi is closely associated with the Ganges. The city has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years, and has a history that is older than most of the major world religions. The Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed in Varanasi, and many prominent Indian philosophers, poets, writers, and musicians live or have lived in Varanasi. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath, located near Varanasi.

Varanasi is the spiritual capital of India. It is often referred to as "the holy city of India", "the religious capital of India", "the city of Shiva", and "the city of learning". Scholarly books have been written in the city, including the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas. Today, there is a temple of his namesake in the city, the Tulsi Manas Mandir. The current temples and religious institutions in the city are dated to the 18th century. One of the largest residential universities of Asia, the Banaras Hindu University (BHU), is located here.

ETYMOLOGY

The name Varanasi possibly originates from the names of the two rivers: Varuna, still flowing in Varanasi, and Asi, a small stream near Assi Ghat. The old city does lie on the north shores of Ganges River bounded by its two tributaries Varuna and Asi. Another speculation is that the city derives its name from the river Varuna, which was called Varanasi in olden times.[11] This is generally disregarded by historians. Through the ages, Varanasi has been known by many names including Kāśī or Kashi (used by pilgrims dating from Buddha's days), Kāśikā (the shining one), Avimukta ("never forsaken" by Shiva), Ānandavana (the forest of bliss), and Rudravāsa (the place where Rudra/Śiva resides).

In the Rigveda, the city is referred to as Kāśī or Kashi, the luminous city as an eminent seat of learning. The name Kāśī is also mentioned in the Skanda Purana. In one verse, Shiva says, "The three worlds form one city of mine, and Kāśī is my royal palace therein." The name Kashi may be translated as "City of Light".

HISTORY

According to legend, Varanasi was founded by the God Shiva. The Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata are also stated to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sins of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they had committed during the climactic Kurukshetra war. It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha:

The earliest known archaeological evidence suggests that settlement around Varanasi in the Ganga valley (the seat of Vedic religion and philosophy) began in the 11th or 12th century BC, placing it among the world's oldest continually inhabited cities. These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people. However, the Atharvaveda (the oldest known text referencing the city), which dates to approximately the same period, suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes. It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered. Recent excavations at Aktha and Ramnagar, two sites very near to Varanasi, show them to be from 1800 BC, suggesting Varanasi started to be inhabited by that time too. Varanasi was also home to Parshva, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara and the earliest Tirthankara accepted as a historical figure in the 8th century BC.

Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre, famous for its muslin and silk fabrics, perfumes, ivory works, and sculpture. During the time of Gautama Buddha (born circa 567 BC), Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi. Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon, "Turning the Wheel of Law", at nearby Sarnath. The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang, who visited the city around 635 AD, attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities, and that it extended for about 5 kilometres along the western bank of the Ganges. When Xuanzang, also known as Hiuen Tsiang, visited Varanasi in the 7th century, he named it "Polonisse" and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks. The city's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century, when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi.

In ancient times, Varanasi was connected by a road starting from Taxila and ending at Pataliputra during the Mauryan Empire. In 1194, the city succumbed to Turkish Muslim rule under Qutb-ud-din Aibak, who ordered the destruction of some one thousand temples in the city. The city went into decline over some three centuries of Muslim occupation, although new temples were erected in the 13th century after the Afghan invasion. Feroz Shah ordered further destruction of Hindu temples in the Varanasi area in 1376. The Afghan ruler Sikander Lodi continued the suppression of Hinduism in the city and destroyed most of the remaining older temples in 1496. Despite the Muslim rule, Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages, which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education. Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi, including Kabir who was born here in 1389 and hailed as "the most outstanding of the saint-poets of Bhakti cult (devotion) and mysticism of 15th-Century India"; and Ravidas, a 15th-century socio-religious reformer, mystic, poet, traveller, and spiritual figure, who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry. Similarly, numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia. Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507, a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism.

In the 16th century, Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city, and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu. The Raja of Poona established the Annapurnamandir and the 200 metres Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period. The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century. In 1665, the French traveller Jean Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the side of the Ganges. The road infrastructure was also improved during this period and extended from Kolkata to Peshawar by Emperor Sher Shah Suri; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road. In 1656, emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques, causing the city to experience a temporary setback. However, after Aurangazeb's death, most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro-Hindu kings. Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time by the Rajput and Maratha kings, especially during the 18th century, and most of the important buildings in the city today date to this period. The kings continued to be important through much of the British rule (1775–1947 AD), including the Maharaja of Benares, or Kashi Naresh. The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737, and continued as a dynasty-governed area until Indian independence in 1947, during the reign of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh. In the 18th century, Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges, attached to Man Mandir Ghat, designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables. Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century. In 1791, under the rule of the British Governor-General Warren Hastings, Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi. In 1867, the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city.

In 1897, Mark Twain, the renowned Indophile, said of Varanasi, "Benares is older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together." In 1910, the British made Varanasi a new Indian state, with Ramanagar as its headquarters but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself. Kashi Naresh still resides in the Ramnagar Fort which is situated to the east of Varanasi, across the Ganges. Ramnagar Fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi. Since the 18th century, the fort has been the home of Kashi Naresh, deeply revered by the local people. He is the religious head and some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva. He is also the chief cultural patron and an essential part of all religious celebrations.

A massacre by British troops, of the Indian troops stationed here and of the population of the city, took place during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Annie Besant worked in Varanasi to promote theosophy and founded the Central Hindu College which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University as a secular university in 1916. Her purpose in founding the Central Hindu College in Varanasi was that she "wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill-will among different sections of the Indian population."

Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India on 15 October 1948. After the death of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh in 2000, his son Anant Narayan Singh became the figurehead king, responsible for upholding the traditional duties of a Kashi Naresh.

MAIN SIGHTS

Varanasi's "Old City", the quarter near the banks of the Ganga river, has crowded narrow winding lanes flanked by road-side shops and scores of Hindu temples. As atmospheric as it is confusing, Varanasi's labyrinthine Old City has a rich culture, attracting many travellers and tourists. The main residential areas of Varanasi (especially for the middle and upper classes) are situated in regions far from the ghats; they are more spacious and less polluted.

Museums in and around Varanasi include Jantar Mantar, Sarnath Museum, Bharat Kala Bhawan and Ramnagar Fort.

JANTAR MANTAR

The Jantar Mantar observatory (1737) is located above the ghats on the Ganges, much above the high water level in the Ganges next to the Manmandir Ghat, near to Dasaswamedh Ghat and adjoining the palace of Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur. Compared to the observatories at Jaipur and Delhi, it is less well equipped but has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person.

RAMNAGAR FORT

The Ramnagar Fort located near the Ganges River on its eastern bank, opposite to the Tulsi Ghat, was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja Balwant Singh with creamy chunar sandstone. It is in a typically Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies, open courtyards, and scenic pavilions. At present the fort is not in good repair. The fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Benares. It has been the home of the Kashi Naresh since the 18th century. The current king and the resident of the fort is Anant Narayan Singh who is also known as the Maharaja of Varanasi even though this royal title has been abolished since 1971. Labeled "an eccentric museum", it has a rare collection of American vintage cars, sedan chairs (bejeweled), an impressive weaponry hall and a rare astrological clock. In addition, manuscripts, especially religious writings, are housed in the Saraswati Bhawan. Also included is a precious handwritten manuscript by Goswami Tulsidas. Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style, with beautifully designed covers are also part of the collections. Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges, it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films. The film titled Banaras is one of the popular movies shot here. However, only a part of the fort is open for public viewing as the rest of the area is the residence of the Kashi Naresh and his family. It is 14 kilometres from Varanasi.

GHATS

Ghats are embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions. Ghats in Varanasi are an integral complement to the concept of divinity represented in physical, metaphysical and supernatural elements. All the ghats are locations on "the divine cosmic road", indicative of "its manifest transcendental dimension" Varanasi has at least 84 ghats. Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of River Ganges, including the Dashashwamedh Ghat, the Manikarnika Ghat, the Panchganga Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat (where Hindus cremate their dead). Many ghats are associated with legends and several are now privately owned.

Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control. Marathas, Shindes (Scindias), Holkars, Bhonsles, and Peshwas stand out as patrons of present-day Varanasi. Most of the ghats are bathing ghats, while others are used as cremation sites. A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular visitor attraction. The extensive stretches of ghats enhance the river front with a multitude of shrines, temples and palaces built "tier on tier above the water’s edge".

The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varansi located on the Ganges, close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple. It is believed that Brahma created it to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa -Ashwamedha yajna performed here. Above the ghat and close to it, there are also temples dedicated to Sulatankesvara, Brahmesvara, Varahesvara, Abhaya Vinayaka, Ganga (the Ganges), and Bandi Devi which are part of important pilgrimage journeys. A group of priests perform "Agni Pooja" (Worship to Fire) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva, Ganga, Surya (Sun), Agni (Fire), and the whole universe. Special aartis are held on Tuesdays and on religious festivals.

The Manikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana (meaning: "great cremation ground") and is the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city. Adjoining the ghat, there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals. It is said that an ear-ring (Manikarnika) of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here. According to a myth related to the Tarakesvara Temple, a Shiva temple at the ghat, Shiva whispers the Taraka mantra ("Prayer of the crossing") in the ear of the dead. Fourth-century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat. However, the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and has been renovated at least three times.

TEMPLES

Among the estimated 23000 temples in Varanasi, the most worshiped are: the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple; and the Durga Temple known for the band of monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby.

Located on the outskirts of the Ganges, the Kashi Vishwanath Temple – dedicated to Varanasi's presiding deity Shiva (Vishwanath – "Lord of the world") – is an important Hindu temple and one of the 12 Jyotirlinga Shiva temples. It is believed that a single view of Vishwanath Jyotirlinga is worth more than that of other jyotirlingas. The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt a number of times. The Gyanvapi Mosque, which is adjacent to the temple, is the original site of the temple. The temple, as it exists now, also called Golden Temple, was built in 1780 by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore. The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold, donated in 1839 by Ranjit Singh, the ruler of the Punjab and the remaining dome is also planned to be gold plated by the Ministry of Culture & Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh. On 28 January 1983, the temple was taken over by the government of Uttar Pradesh and its management was transferred to a trust with then Kashi Naresh, Vibhuti Narayan Singh, as president and an executive committee with a Divisional Commissioner as chairman. Numerous rituals, prayers and aratis are held daily, starting from 2:30 am till 11:00 pm.

The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman situated by the Assi River, on the way to the Durga and New Vishwanath temples within the Banaras Hindu University campus. The present temple structure was built in early 1900s by the educationist and freedom fighter, Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya, the founder of Banaras Hindu University. It is believed the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman. Thousands flock to the temple on Tuesdays and Saturdays, weekdays associated with Hanuman. On 7 March 2006, in a terrorist attack one of the three explosions hit the temple while the Aarti was in progress when numerous devotees and people attending a wedding were present and many were injured. However, normal worship was resumed the next day with devotees visiting the temple and reciting hymns of Hanuman Chalisa (authored by Tulidas) and Sundarkand (a booklet of these hymns is provided free of charge in the temple). After the terrorist incident, a permanent police post was set up inside the temple.

There are two temples named "Durga" in Varanasi, Durga Mandir (built about 500 years ago), and Durga Kund (built in the 18th century). Thousands of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during Navratri to worship the goddess Durga. The temple, built in Nagara architectural style, has multi-tiered spires[96] and is stained red with ochre, representing the red colour of Durga. The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ("Kund" meaning a pond or pool). Every year on the occasion of Nag Panchami, the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha is recreated in the Kund.

While the Annapurna Temple, located close to the Kashi Vishwanath temple, is dedicated to Annapurna, the goddess of food, the Sankatha Temple close to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha, the goddess of remedy. The Sankatha temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a nine temple cluster dedicated to the nine planets.

Kalabhairav Temple, an ancient temple located near the Head Post Office at Visheshar Ganj, is dedicated to Kala-Bhairava, the guardian (Kotwal) of Varanasi. The Mrithyunjay Mahadev Temple, dedicated to Shiva, is situated on the way to Daranagar to Kalbhairav temple. A well near the temple has some religious significance as its water source is believed to be fed from several underground streams, having curative powers.

The New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of Banaras Hindu University is a modern temple which was planned by Pandit Malviya and built by the Birlas. The Tulsi Manas Temple, nearby the Durga Temple, is a modern temple dedicated to the god Rama. It is built at the place where Tulsidas authored the Ramcharitmanas, which narrates the life of Rama. Many verses from this epic are inscribed on the temple walls.

The Bharat Mata Temple, dedicated to the national personification of India, was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936. It has relief maps of India carved in marble. Babu Shiv Prasad Gupta and Durga Prasad Khatri, leading numismatists, antiquarians and nationalist leaders, donated funds for its construction.

RELIGION

HINDUISM

Varanasi is one of the holiest cities and centres of pilgrimage for Hindus of all denominations. It is one of the seven Hindu holiest cities (Sapta Puri), considered the giver of salvation (moksha). Over 50,000 Brahmins live in Varanasi, providing religious services to the masses. Hindus believe that bathing in the Ganges remits sins and that dying in Kashi ensures release of a person's soul from the cycle of its transmigrations. Thus, many Hindus arrive here for dying.

As the home to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple Jyotirlinga, it is very sacred for Shaivism. Varanasi is also a Shakti Peetha, where the temple to goddess Vishalakshi stands, believed to be the spot where the goddess Sati's earrings fell. Hindus of the Shakti sect make a pilgrimage to the city because they regard the River Ganges itself to be the Goddess Shakti. Adi Shankara wrote his commentaries on Hinduism here, leading to the great Hindu revival.

In 2001, Hindus made up approximately 84% of the population of Varanasi District.

ISLAM

Varanasi is one of the holiest cities and centres of pilgrimage for Hindus of all denominations. It is one of the seven Hindu holiest cities (Sapta Puri), considered the giver of salvation (moksha). Over 50,000 Brahmins live in Varanasi, providing religious services to the masses. Hindus believe that bathing in the Ganges remits sins and that dying in Kashi ensures release of a person's soul from the cycle of its transmigrations. Thus, many Hindus arrive here for dying.

As the home to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple Jyotirlinga, it is very sacred for Shaivism. Varanasi is also a Shakti Peetha, where the temple to goddess Vishalakshi stands, believed to be the spot where the goddess Sati's earrings fell. Hindus of the Shakti sect make a pilgrimage to the city because they regard the River Ganges itself to be the Goddess Shakti. Adi Shankara wrote his commentaries on Hinduism here, leading to the great Hindu revival.

In 2001, Hindus made up approximately 84% of the population of Varanasi District.

OTHERS

At the 2001 census, persons of other religions or no religion made up 0.4% of the population of Varanasi District.

Varanasi is a pilgrimage site for Jains along with Hindus and Buddhists. It is believed to be the birthplace of Suparshvanath, Shreyansanath, and Parshva, who are respectively the seventh, eleventh, and twenty-third Jain Tirthankars and as such Varanasi is a holy city for Jains. Shree Parshvanath Digambar Jain Tirth Kshetra (Digambar Jain Temple) is situated in Bhelupur, Varanasi. This temple is of great religious importance to the Jain Religion.

Sarnath, a suburb of Varanasi, is a place of Buddhist pilgrimage. It is the site of the deer park where Siddhartha Gautama of Nepal is said to have given his first sermon about the basic principles of Buddhism. The Dhamek Stupa is one of the few pre-Ashokan stupas still in existence, though only its foundation remains. Also remaining is the Chaukhandi Stupa commemorating the spot where Buddha met his first disciples in the 5th century. An octagonal tower was built later there.

Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 and had an encounter which with other events forms the basis for the story of the founding of Sikhism. Varanasi also hosts the Roman Catholic Diocese of Varanasi, and has an insignificant Jewish expatriate community. Varanasi is home to numerous tribal faiths which are not easily classified.

Dalits are 13% of population Of Varanasi city. Most dalits are followers of Guru Ravidass. So Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan is important place of pilgrimage for Ravidasis from all around India.

RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

On Mahashivaratri (February) – which is dedicated to Shiva – a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple.

Dhrupad Mela is a five-day musical festival devoted to dhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February–March.

The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman Jayanti (March–April), the birthday of Hanuman with great fervour. A special puja, aarti, and a public procession is organized. Starting in 1923, the temple organizes a five-day classical music and dance concert festival titled Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh in this period, when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform.

The Ramlila of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama's legend, as told in Ramacharitamanasa. The plays, sponsored by Kashi Naresh, are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days. On the last day, the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana. Kashi Naresh Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830.

Bharat Milap celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile. It is celebrated during October–November, a day after the festival of Vijayadashami. Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire resplendent in regal finery. The festival attracts a large number of devotees.

Nag Nathaiya, celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik (October–November), that commemorates the victory of the god Krishna over the serpent Kaliya. On this occasion, a large Kadamba tree (Neolamarckia cadamba) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy acting the role of Krishna can jump into the river on to the effigy representing Kaliya. He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute; the effigy and the boy standing on it is given a swirl in front of the audience. People watch the display standing on the banks of the river or from boats.

Ganga Mahotsav is a five-day music festival organized by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department, held in November–December culminating a day before Kartik Poornima (Dev Deepawali). On Kartik Poornima also called the Ganges festival, the Ganges is venerated by arti offered by thousands of pilgrims who release lighted lamps to float in the river from the ghats.

Annually Jashne-Eid Miladunnabi is celebrated on the day of Barawafat in huge numbers by Muslims in a huge rally coming from all the parts of the city and meeting up at Beniya Bagh.

South Korea - Seoul - Calligraphy - 2 by Manfred Sommer

1

Calligraphy is a visual art related to writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a broad tip instrument, brush, among other writing instruments. A contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as, "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious, and skillful manner".

Modern calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the letters may or may not be readable.[1][page needed] Classical calligraphy differs from typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both.

Calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding and event invitations, font design and typography, original hand-lettered logo design, religious art, announcements, graphic design and commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and memorial documents. It is also used for props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, and other written works.

TOOLS

The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen and the brush. Calligraphy pens write with nibs that may be flat, round, or pointed. For some decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens - steel brushes - can be used. However, works have also been created with felt-tip and ballpoint pens, although these works do not employ angled lines. There are some styles of calligraphy, like Gothic script, which require a stub nib pen.

Writing ink is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based inks used in printing. High quality paper, which has good consistency of absorption, enables cleaner lines, although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and a light-box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used. This is the case with litterea unciales (hence the name), and college-ruled paper often acts as a guideline well.

Common calligraphy pens and brushes are:

Quill

Dip pen

Ink brush

Qalam

Fountain pen

WORLD TRADITIONS

EUROPE

HISTORY

Western calligraphy is recognizable by the use of the Latin script. The Latin alphabet appeared about 600 BC, in Rome, and by the first century[clarification needed] developed into Roman imperial capitals carved on stones, Rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman cursive for daily use. In the second and third centuries the uncial lettering style developed. As writing withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying the Bible and other religious texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries, when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the Dark Ages.

At the height of the Empire, its power reached as far as Great Britain; when the empire fell, its literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon. Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e. Merovingian script, Laon script, Luxeuil script, Visigothic script, Beneventan script), which are mostly cursive and hardly readable.

Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, particularly the New Testament and other sacred texts. Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from the Latin "uncia," or "inch") developed from a variety of Roman bookhands. The 7th-9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York. Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc. Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends.

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into the Gothic script, which was more compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page. The Gothic calligraphy styles became dominant throughout Europe; and in 1454, when Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in Mainz, Germany, he adopted the Gothic style, making it the first typeface.

In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the humanist minuscule or littera antiqua. The 17th century saw the Batarde script from France, and the 18th century saw the English script spread across Europe and world through their books.

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde, (known as Round hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes simply called the Bastarda.

While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands was Louis Barbedor, who published Les Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturel circa 1650.

With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome (1527), the capitol for writing masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English Roundhand.

In England, Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them, and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40 years before the aforementioned.

STYLE

Sacred Western calligraphy has some special features, such as the illumination of the first letter of each book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. The Lindisfarne Gospels (715–720 AD) are an early example.

As with Chinese or Islamic calligraphy, Western calligraphic script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a precise stroke order.

Unlike a typeface, irregularity in the characters' size, style, and colors increases aesthetic value, though the content may be illegible. Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in the pages of The Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example is Timothy Botts' illustrated edition of the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphy typeface.

INFLUENCES

Several other Western styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic preferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of the Slavonic and consequently Russian writing systems differs fundamentally from the one of the Latin language. It evolved from the 10th century to today.

EAST ASIA

The Chinese name for calligraphy is shūfǎ (書法 in Traditional Chinese, literally "the method or law of writing"); the Japanese name shodō (書道, literally "the way or principle of writing"); the Korean is seoye (Korean: 서예/書藝, literally "the art of writing"); and the Vietnamese is Thư pháp (書法, literally "the way of letters or words"). The calligraphy of East Asian characters is an important and appreciated aspect of East Asian culture.

HISTORY

In ancient China, the oldest Chinese characters existing are Jiǎgǔwén(甲骨文) characters carved on ox scapulae and tortoise plastrons, because the dominators in Shang Dynasty carved pits on such animals' bones and then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreating and weather. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be later carved.(Keightley, 1978). With the development of Jīnwén (Bronzeware script) and Dàzhuàn (Large Seal Script) "cursive" signs continued. Moreover, each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles - some dating from 200 BC, and in Xiaozhuan style - are still accessible.

About 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized Xiǎozhuàn（小篆） characters. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

The Lìshū（隶书） style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text, have been also authorised under Qin Shi Huangdi.

Kǎishū style (traditional regular script)—still in use today—and attributed to Wang Xizhi (王羲之, 303–361) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang (926–933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in Kaishu. Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China. But small changes have been made, for example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716 as in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke order is still the same, according to old style.

Styles which did not survive include Bāfēnshū, a mix made of Xiaozhuan style at 80%, and Lishu at 20%. Some variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some newly created characters, compose the Simplified Chinese character set.

TECHNIQUE

Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study (文房四寶/文房四宝): the ink brushes known as máobǐ (毛笔) to write Chinese characters, Chinese ink, paper, and inkstone, known as the Four Friends of the Study (Korean: 문방사우) in Korea. In addition to these four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also used.

The shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush, the color, color density and water density of the ink, as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture are the main physical parameters influencing the final result. The calligrapher's technique also influences the result. The calligrapher's work is influenced by the quantity of ink and water he lets the brush take, then by the pressure, inclination, and direction he gives to the brush, producing thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed, accelerations, decelerations of the writer's moves, turns, and crochets, and the stroke order give the "spirit" to the characters, by greatly influencing their final shapes.

STYLES

Cursive styles such as xíngshū (semi-cursive or running script) and cǎoshū (cursive or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where more movements made by the writing implement are visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically different forms. They are descended from Clerical script, in the same time as Regular script (Han Dynasty), but xíngshū and cǎoshū were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. The cǎoshū style was highly appreciated in Emperor Wu of Han reign (140–187 AD).

Examples of modern printed styles are Song from the Song Dynasty's printing press, and sans-serif. These are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.

INFLUENCES

Japanese and Korean calligraphies were greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. The Japanese and Korean people have also developed specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy. For example, Japanese calligraphy go out of the set of CJK strokes to also include local alphabets such as hiragana and katakana, with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese paper, washi 和紙, and Japanese ink). In the case of Korean calligraphy, the Hangeul and the existence of the circle required the creation of a new technique which usually confuses Chinese calligraphers.

Temporary calligraphy is a practice of water-only calligraphy on the floor, which dries out within minutes. This practice is especially appreciated by the new generation of retired Chinese in public parks of China. These will often open studio-shops in tourist towns offering traditional Chinese calligraphy to tourists. Other than writing the clients name, they also sell fine brushes as souvenirs and lime stone carved stamps.

Since late 1980s, a few Chinese artists have branched out traditional Chinese calligraphy to a new territory by mingling Chinese characters with English letters; notable new forms of calligraphy are Xu Bing's square calligraphy and DanNie's coolligraphy or cooligraphy.

Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.

Calligraphy has influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including ink and wash painting, a style of Chinese, Korean, Japanese painting, and Vietnamese painting based entirely on calligraphy.

SOUTH ASIA

INDIA

On the subject of Indian calligraphy, writes:

Aśoka's edicts (c. 265–238 BC) were committed to stone. These inscriptions are stiff and angular in form. Following the Aśoka style of Indic writing, two new calligraphic types appear: Kharoṣṭī and Brāhmī. Kharoṣṭī was used in the northwestern regions of India from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century of the Christian Era, and it was used in Central Asia until the 8th century.

In many parts of ancient India, the inscriptions were carried out in smoke-treated palm leaves. This tradition dates back to over two thousand years. Even after the Indian languages were put on paper in the 13th century, palm leaves where considered a preferred medium of writing owing to its longevity (nearly 400 years) compared to paper. Both sides of the leaves were used for writing. Long rectangular strips were gathered on top of one another, holes were drilled through all the leaves, and the book was held together by string. Books of this manufacture were common to Southeast Asia. The palm leaf was an excellent surface for penwriting, making possible the delicate lettering used in many of the scripts of southern Asia.

Burnt clay and copper were a favoured material for Indic inscriptions. In the north of India, birch bark was used as a writing surface as early as the 2nd century AD.

NEPAL

Ranjana script is the primary form of Nepalese calligraphy. The script itself, along with its derivatives (like Lantsa, Phagpa, Kutila) are used in Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Leh, Mongolia, coastal Japan, and Korea to write "Om mani padme hum" and other sacred Buddhist texts, mainly those derived from Sanskrit and Pali.

THAILAND

Sanskrit is the primary form of Thai calligraphy. Historically Thai calligraphy has been limited to sacred texts of the Pali Canon with few wider artistic applications where graphic calligraphy representing figures and objects is produced. Calligraphy appears on the personal flag of each member of the Thai royal family bearing its owner's initials in calligraphy. The most obvious place in the country where calligraphy is present is in graffiti. A few books have been published with calligraphic compositions.

TIBET

Calligraphy is central in Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts. The nobles of Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace, were usually capable calligraphers. Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, and that religion places a great deal of significance on written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and other religious and secular authority. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

ISLAMIC WORLD

Islamic calligraphy (calligraphy in Arabic is khatt ul-yad خط اليد‎) has evolved alongside Islam and the Arabic language. As it is based on Arabic letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by the Muslim calligraphers from Andalusia in modern Spain to China.

Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The Qur'an has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an are still sources for Islamic calligraphy.

It is generally accepted that Islamic calligraphy excelled during the Ottoman era. Istanbul is an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to fountains, schools, houses, etc.

PERSIA

The history of calligraphy in Persia dates back to the pre-Islam era. In Zoroastrianism beautiful and clear writings were always praised.

It is believed that ancient Persian script was invented by about 600–500 BC to provide monument inscriptions for the Achaemenid kings. These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-shape letters, which is why it is called "script of nails/cuneiform script" (khat-e-mikhi) in Persian. Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were used in ancient Persia.

CONTEMPORARY SRIPTS

The Nasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts; Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts". This calligraphy style has been based on such a strong structure that it has changed very little since. Mir Ali Tabrizi had found the optimum composition of the letters and graphical rules so it has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries. It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and composition of the whole calligraphy piece.

MAYAN CIVILIZATION

Mayan calligraphy was expressed via Mayan hieroglyphs; modern Mayan calligraphy is mainly used on seals and monuments in the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. Mayan hieroglyphs are rarely used in government offices; however in Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo, Mayan calligraphy is written in Latin letters. Some commercial companies in southern Mexico use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their business. Some community associations and modern Mayan brotherhoods use Mayan hieroglyphs as symbols of their groups.

Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as Chichen Itza, Labna, Uxmal, Edzna, Calakmul, etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved stone monuments known as stele are common sources of ancient Mayan calligraphy.

MODERN CALLIGRAPHY

REVIVAL

After printing became ubiquitous from the 15th century, the production of illuminated manuscripts began to decline. However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of calligraphy.

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century, influenced by the aesthetics and philosophy of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement. Edward Johnston is regarded as being the father of modern calligraphy. After studying published copies of manuscripts by architect William Harrison Cowlishaw, he was introduced to William Lethaby in 1898, principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts,who advised him to study manuscripts at the British Museum.

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad edged pen. He began a teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School in Southampton Row, London from September 1899, where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptor Eric Gill. He was commissioned by Frank Pick to design a new typeface for London Underground, still used today (with minor modifications).

He has been credited for reviving the art of modern penmanship and lettering single-handedly through his books and teachings - his handbook on the subject, Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering (1906) was particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, including Graily Hewitt, Stanley Morison, Eric Gill and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the simply crafted round calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as the Foundational hand. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using a slanted pen angle. He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication, Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.

SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENTS

Graily Hewitt taught at the Central School of Arts and Crafts and published together with Johnston throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central to the revival of gilding in calligraphy, and his prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival of gilding with gesso and gold leaf on vellum. Hewitt helped to found the Society of Scribes & Illuminators (SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.

Hewitt is not without both critics and supporters in his rendering of Cennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes. Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries a number of which are not presently in English translation. Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.

Johnston’s pupil, Anna Simons, was instrumental in sparking off interest in calligraphy in Germany with her German translation of Writing and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910. Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles.

Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notably Karlgeorg Hoefer, and Hermann Zapf.

Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors like Microsoft Word or Apple Pages to professional designers' software like Adobe InDesign, owe a considerable debt to the past and to a small number of professional typeface designers today.

Unicode provides "Script" and "Fraktur" Latin alphabets that can be used for calligraphy. See Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols.

WIKIPEDIA

India - Uttar Pradesh - Varanasi - 29bb by Manfred Sommer