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Maulbronn Monastery (German: Kloster Maulbronn) is a former Roman Catholic Cistercian Abbey and Protestant seminary located at Maulbronn in the German state of Baden-Württemberg.[3] The 850 year old, mostly Romanesque monastery complex, one of the best preserved examples of its kind in Europe,[4] is one of the very first buildings in Germany to use the Gothic style.[5] In 1993, the abbey was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[6]
The complex, surrounded by turreted walls and a tower gate, today houses the Maulbronn town hall and other administrative offices, a police station, and several restaurants. The monastery itself contains an Evangelical seminary in the Württemberger tradition.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Founding
2 Notes
2.1 Footnotes
2.2 Citations
3 References
4 External links
History
Founding
Under the auspices of the Saint Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, the Cistercians began major expansion into southern Germany. A knight named Walter von Lomersheim became interested in this, and donated some of his land to the Cistercian order. In 1147, the monastery was founded by 12 monks who traveled from Alsace.[3] The main church, built in a style transitional from Romanesque to Gothic, was consecrated in 1178 by Arnold, Bishop of Speyer. A number of other buildings — infirmary, refectory, cellar, auditorium, porch, south cloister, hall, another refectory, forge, inn, cooperage, mill, and chapel — followed in the course of the 13th century. The west, east and north cloisters date back to the 14th century, as do most fortifications and the fountain house or lavatorium.
After the Reformation began in the year 1517, Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg, seized the monastery in 1504,[dubious – discuss] later building his hunting lodge and stables there. The monastery was pillaged repeatedly: first by the knights under Franz von Sickingen in 1519, then again during the German Peasants' War six years later. In 1534, Duke Ulrich secularised the monastery, but the Cistercians regained control — and Imperial recognition — under Charles V's Augsburg Interim. In 1556, Christoph, Duke of Württemberg, built a Protestant seminary, with Valentin Vannius becoming the first abbot two years later, odd, because the Reformation banned religious orders and abbots; Johannes Kepler studied there 1586–89.
In 1630, the abbey was returned to the Cistercians by force of arms, with Christoph Schaller von Sennheim becoming abbot. This restoration was short-lived, however, as Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden forced the monks to leave again two years later, with a Protestant abbot returning in 1633; the seminary reopened the following year, however the Cistercians under Schaller also returned in 1634. Under the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, the confession of the monastery was settled in favour of Protestantism; with abbot Buchinger withdrawing in process. A Protestant abbacy was re-established in 1651, with the seminary reopening five years later. In 1692, the seminarians were removed to safety when Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac, torched the school, which remained closed for a decade.
The monastery was secularised by Frederick I, King of Württemberg, in the course of the German Mediatisation in 1807, forever removing its political quasi-independence; the seminary merged with that of Bebenhausen the following year, now known as the Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren.
The monastery, which features prominently in Hermann Hesse's novel Beneath the Wheel, was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993. The justification for the inscription was as follows: "The Maulbronn complex is the most complete survival of a Cistercian monastic establishment in Europe, in particular because of the survival of its extensive water-management system of reservoirs and channels". Hesse himself attended the seminary before fleeing in 1891 after a suicide attempt, and a failed attempt to save Hesse from his personal religious crisis by a well-known theologian and faith healer.[7]
To represent Baden-Württemberg, an image of the Abbey appears on the obverse of the German 2013 €2 commemorative coin.[8]
Das Kloster Maulbronn ist eine ehemalige Zisterzienserabtei in der Ortsmitte von Maulbronn. Kleinstadt und Kloster liegen am Südwestrand des Strombergs, der sich im südlich des Odenwalds und nördlich des Schwarzwalds gelegenen Kraichgau erhebt. Die nächste Großstadt ist das baden-württem-bergische Pforzheim. Maulbronn gilt als die am besten erhaltene mittelalterliche Klosteranlage nördlich der Alpen. Hier sind alle Stilrichtungen und Entwicklungsstufen von der Romanik bis zur Spätgotik vertreten.
Die Anlage, die von einer Mauer umschlossen ist, beherbergt heute unter anderem mehrere Restaurants, die Polizei, das Rathaus von Maulbronn und andere Verwaltungsämter. In den Klostergebäuden befindet sich auch ein evangelisches Gymnasium mit Internat (Evangelische Seminare Maulbronn und Blaubeuren).
Das Kloster Maulbronn ist seit Dezember 1993 Weltkulturerbe der UNESCO.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Geschichte
1.1 Gründung
1.2 Weitere Entwicklung
2 Vertreibung des Konvents im Zuge der Reformation
3 Wirtschafts- und Besitzgeschichte
4 Klosterterritorium und Klosteramt Maulbronn
5 Klosterschule
6 Filialklöster
7 Chronologische Eckdaten
8 Heutige Bedeutung des Klosters
9 Architektur
9.1 Klostertor
9.2 Klosterhof
9.3 Paradies
9.4 Der Meister des Maulbronner Paradieses
9.5 Klosterkirche
9.6 Weitere Räume im inneren Bereich
9.7 Orgeln
10 Sondermarken und Sondermünzen
11 Legenden
12 Einzelnachweise
13 Literatur
14 Weblinks
Geschichte
Gründung
Unter der Ägide des Abtes Bernhard von Clairvaux erhielt der Zisterzienserorden auch im heutigen Deutschland großen Zulauf. In Südwest-deutsch-land ließ sich der Edelfreie Walter von Lomersheim von der Begeisterung anstecken. Er stiftete sein Erbgut Eckenweiher zwischen Mühlacker und Lienzingen zur Gründung eines Zisterzienserklosters, in das er selbst als Laienbruder einzutreten gedachte. Zu diesem Zweck entsandte das Kloster Neuburg im Elsass einen Abt und zwölf Mönche – wie es heißt nach der Zahl der Apostel.
Mit der Neugründung dieses Klosters betraute man Abt Dieter von der Primarabtei Morimond, der am 24. März 1138 eintraf. Die Lage der gestifteten Ländereien scheint jedoch der Klostergründung wenig förderlich gewesen zu sein. Unter anderem scheint es an Wasser gefehlt zu haben.
Um 1146 nahm sich der zuständige Bischof von Speyer Günther von Henneberg persönlich der Sache an. Er erklärte den Ort für untauglich und schenkte dem Kloster das Bischofslehen zu Mulenbrunnen in einem abgeschiedenen Waldtal. Vermutlich im Sommer des Jahres 1147 wurde es dorthin verlegt.
Weitere Entwicklung
Die Anlage entwickelte sich schnell zu einem wirtschaftlichen, gesellschaftlichen und politischen Zentrum der Region.
Das Kloster stand ab 1156 unter kaiserlicher Schirmvogtei. Im Jahr 1232 wurde die kaiserliche Vogtei bestätigt. Der Konvent wählte dann jedoch den Bischof von Speyer zum Beschützer der Abtei. Dieser scheint die Vogtei als Untervogtei seinem Ministerialen Heinrich von Enzberg verliehen zu haben, der ab 1236 als Schirmer der Abtei urkundlich fassbar wird. Über die folgenden Jahrzehnte kam es dann immer wieder zu teilweise gewaltsamen Streitigkeiten mit den Herren von Enzberg, die versuchten, ihre Vogtei über das Kloster zum Ausbau der eigenen Position zu nutzen. Ab 1325 wurden die Pfalzgrafen bei Rhein mit der Schirmvogtei betraut.
Während des bayerisch-pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges belagerte im Jahr 1504 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg das Kloster, das nach siebentägiger Belagerung fiel.
Im Deutschen Bauernkrieg 1525 wurde das Kloster von aufständischen Bauern geplündert. Der Böckinger Bauernführer Jäcklein Rohrbach hielt sich damals in Maulbronn auf und beklagte sich bei Hans Wunderer über die Unordnung unter den Aufständischen, die sich nicht darauf einigen konnten, ob das Kloster verbrannt, abgerissen oder verkauft werden solle. Der Einmischung Rohrbachs ist es zu verdanken, dass die Gebäude letztlich erhalten blieben.
Innenhof der Klosteranlage
Plan der Klausur
Ansicht von Osten (Rekonstruktionszeichnung von 1891)
Marstall (heute Rathaus der Stadt Maulbronn), links die Klosterschmiede
Pfisterei
Briefmarke von 1998
Klosterkirche (Innenansicht)
Herrenrefektorium, Speisesaal der Mönche
Laienrefektorium, Speisesaal der Laienbrüder, Konzertstätte
Vertreibung des Konvents im Zuge der Reformation
Da das Herzogtum Württemberg protestantisch wurde, wurden die Mönche des Klosters von der politischen Autorität im Lande nicht geduldet. Das Kloster war zunächst als Sammelkloster für renitente Mönche aus allen Männerklöstern Württembergs vorgesehen. Abt und Konvent übersiedelten 1537 in ihr Priorat Pairis ins Elsass, der Abt starb 1547 in Einsiedeln. Nach der Niederlage im Schmalkaldischen Krieg musste der Herzog das Kloster im Jahr 1546/47 dem Konvent zurückgeben.
Der 1555 beschlossene Augsburger Religionsfrieden gab dem Herzog das Recht, das Bekenntnis seiner Untertanen zu bestimmen. Im Jahr 1556 erließ er die Klosterordnung, die den Grundstein für ein geregeltes Schulwesen in allen verbliebenen Männerklöstern Württembergs legen sollte. Die Umwandlung des Klosters in eine Schule blieb vom juristischen Standpunkt noch lange umstritten. Es gab zwei Versuche des Kaisers, die Entwicklung in Maulbronn rückgängig zu machen. Während des Interims in den Jahren 1548 bis 1555 und von 1630 bis 1649 aufgrund des kaiserlichen Restitutionsedikts konnten Mönche aufgrund der zeitweilig gegebenen Machtverhältnisse wieder in das Kloster einziehen.
Wirtschafts- und Besitzgeschichte
Der Besitz des Klosters wuchs anfangs insbesondere durch fromme Schenkungen und Stiftungen des edelfreien Adels und der Ministerialität. Im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert erfolgte eine planmäßige Arrondierung und Verdichtung des Besitzes durch Güterkäufe. Am Ende der Entwicklung stand ein geschlossenes Klosterterritorium mit über zwanzig Dörfern, den sogenannten „Klosterflecken“ (siehe nächstes Kapitel).
Neben der Eigenbewirtschaftung der unmittelbar um das Kloster gelegenen Güter mit dem Elfinger Hof gab es Eigenbetriebe auch in Illingen, Knittlingen und Unteröwisheim. Außerdem wurden insgesamt etwa 2500 Hektar klösterlichen Waldes, verteilt auf etwa 25 Ortschaften, bewirtschaftet.
Im Übrigen wurden Güter und Privilegien verpachtet, was dem Kloster gemeinsam mit den Zehnteinnahmen erhebliche Einkünfte brachte. Darüber gibt die Größe des erhaltenen klösterlichen Fruchtkastens ein beredtes Zeugnis. Zur Verwaltung der Einkünfte aus den Klostergütern richtete der Konvent mehrere sogenannte Klosterpflegen ein. Insgesamt besaß das Kloster sieben Pfleghöfe, und zwar in Illingen, Kirchheim am Neckar, Knittlingen, Ötisheim, Speyer, Unteröwisheim und Wiernsheim.
Klosterterritorium und Klosteramt Maulbronn
Das zwischen dem 12. und 15. Jahrhundert entstehende Herrschaftsgebiet des Klosters Maulbronn kam im 14. Jahrhundert unter pfälzische Schutzherrschaft und 1504 unter württembergische Hoheit. Dies und das Folgende gilt für das geschlossene maulbronnische Kernterritorium, nicht für die eine Sonderrolle spielende, etwa 15 km nordwestlich des Kernterritoriums liegende Exklave Unteröwisheim (siehe unten). Im Gefolge der Säkularisation des Klosters 1535 wurde sein Gebiet 1557 in das württembergische Klosteramt Maulbronn umgewandelt. Es hatte eine maximale Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung von etwa 25 km (Knittlingen im Norden und Flacht im Süden) und eine maximale West-Ost-Ausdehnung von etwa 15 km (Ötisheim im Westen und Gündelbach im Osten).
Die Enz teilte das Territorium in eine Nord- und eine Südhälfte. Maulbronn lag im Zentrum der Nordhälfte, die geographische Mitte der Südhälfte wird in etwa von Wiernsheim eingenommen. Einzige Enklave war Mühlhausen an der Enz, welches ein eigenständiges württembergisches Kammerschreibereiamt bildete. Beinahe-Enklaven bildeten die Gemarkungen von Mönsheim (württembergisches Oberamt Leonberg) und Obermönsheim (baden-durlachischer landsässiger Adel). Über die Gemarkungen Freudenstein und Diefenbach hatte Maulbronn nicht die volle Ortsherrschaft erworben – das ebenfalls württembergische Klosteramt Herrenalb besaß jeweils 3/8 dieser beiden Orte.
Nachbarterritorien waren insbesondere: im Osten und Süden die württembergischen Ämter Güglingen, Vaihingen, Leonberg, Heimsheim und Hirsau, im Westen das badische Amt Pforzheim und das pfälzische Amt Bretten sowie im Norden das Stabsamt Derdingen des württembergischen Klosteramts Herrenalb.
Aufgrund seiner Größe sowie seiner besonderen geopolitischen und geographischen Lage am Übergang vom Neckarbecken zum Kraichgau und an der wichtigen Reichsstraße von Ulm nach Speyer stellte das Klosteramt Maulbronn eine strategisch äußerst bedeutende Bastion Württembergs nach Westen und in Richtung der dort liegenden oberrheinischen Staaten (Pfalz, Baden, Fürstbistum Speyer) dar. Bereits zu pfälzischer Zeit, als das Klosterterritorium Maulbronn die südöstliche Speerspitze der Pfalz bildete, wurden Maulbronn und viele Klosterorte befestigt, wovon dann später auch Württemberg profitierte.
Im Folgenden eine Liste der 25 Altgemarkungen des Klosteramts Maulbronn. Davon bilden 24 Gemarkungen das geschlossene Kernterritorium. Viele der in Klammern genannten Teilorte sind Waldenserorte, die erst 1699 hinzukamen, und deren Neugemarkungen – sofern welche gebildet wurden – oft aus mehreren Altgemarkungen zusammengesetzt wurden – zugeordnet sind sie im Folgenden derjenigen Gemeinde, auf deren Gemarkung sie hauptsächlich zu liegen kamen.
Knittlingen (mit dem Südteil von Großvillars), maulbronnisch seit dem 12./13. Jh.
Freudenstein (mit Hohenklingen), seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch (5/8) und herrenalbisch (3/8)
Diefenbach (mit Füllmenbacher Hof und Burrainhof), seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch (5/8) und herrenalbisch (3/8)
Ruit, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, 1810 badisch
Ölbronn (mit Kleinvillars), seit 1270/85 maulbronnisch
Maulbronn (1147 war das 1138 gegründete Kloster von Eckenweiher – heute Teil von Mühlacker – nach Maulbronn verlegt worden)
Zaisersweiher, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Schützingen, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, nach dem 30-jährigen Krieg von österreichischen Protestanten neubesiedelt
Gündelbach (mit Steinbachhof), seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Schmie, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Lienzingen, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Illingen, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Roßwag, seit 1394 maulbronnisch
Lomersheim, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Dürrmenz (mit Eckenweiher, heute Mühlacker), seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Ötisheim (mit Corres, Erlenbach und Schönenberg), seit 12. Jh. maulbronnisch
Großglattbach, wohl seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Öschelbronn, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch, 1810 badisch
Wiernsheim (mit Pinache und Serres), seit 12./13. Jh. maulbronnisch
Iptingen, seit 1194 maulbronnisch
Wurmberg (mit Neubärental), seit 12./13. Jh. maulbronnisch
Wimsheim, seit 1232 maulbronnisch
Weissach, seit 12. Jh. maulbronnisch
Flacht, seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Unteröwisheim, seit 13./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, seit 16. Jh. württembergische Ortsherrschaft, seit 1747 württembergische Landeshoheit
Naturräumlich können vier landschaftliche Schwerpunkte ausgemacht werden:
Die Nordhälfte wird vom relativ stark bewaldeten, durch den Keuper gezeichneten Hügelland zwischen Stromberg und Enz dominiert, wobei westliche und nordwestliche Randbereiche bereits leicht in den fruchtbaren Kraichgau hineinreichen.
Die Südhälfte hingegen wird dominiert von den offenen Landschaften des hochgelegenen Heckengäus.
Dazwischen bildet das hier oft tief eingeschnittene Enztal eine eigenständige, vom Weinbau geprägte Landschaft.
Die Exklave Unteröwisheim liegt am Westrand des Kraichgaus, nur etwa vier Kilometer vom Beginn der Oberrheinebene entfernt.
1806 wurde das württembergische Klosteramt Maulbronn in das württembergische Oberamt Maulbronn umgewandelt. Öschelbronn und Ruit wurden 1810 von Württemberg an Baden abgetreten. Das Oberamt Maulbronn wurde 1936 Teil des Landkreises Vaihingen, und 1972 kamen die meisten Gemeinden zum Enzkreis.
Klosterschule
Im Januar 1556 nahm Abt Heinrich wie die anderen Prälaten des Landes die neue Klosterordnung an. Außer Maulbronn wurden gemäß dieser Regelungen noch zwölf weitere Männerkloster im württembergischen Herrschaftsbereich in evangelische Klosterschulen umgewandelt, um dort den Nachwuchs an evangelischen Pfarrern heranzubilden.[1] In Maulbronn existiert die Schule bis heute; mehrere bekannte Absolventen sind aus ihr hervorgegangen, unter ihnen Johannes Kepler, Friedrich Hölderlin und Hermann Hesse. Maulbronn ist eines der wenigen Seminare, das bis heute erhalten blieb. 1807 wurde die Schule in ein evangelisch-theologisches Seminar umgewandelt. Das Seminar ist heute ein staatliches Gymnasium mit Internat ab der 9. Klasse bis zum Abitur in Klasse 12. Circa 100 Schülerinnen und Schüler sind dort.
Filialklöster
Kloster Bronnbach, um 1150
Kloster Schöntal, 1157
Chronologische Eckdaten
Panorama Innenhof
1138 Klosterbau zu Eckenweiher durch Abt Dieter und 12 Mönche aus dem Zisterzienserkloster Neuburg im Elsass
1146 Hl. Bernhard von Clairvaux in Speyer
1147 Bischof Günther von Speyer übergibt sein Lehen „Mulenbrunnen“ dem Abt Dieter, der das Kloster nach Maulbronn verlegt
1148 Papst Eugen III. verleiht dem neuen Kloster einen Schutzbrief
1153 Graf Ludwig von Württemberg schenkt dem Kloster das Dorf Elfingen
1156 Kaiser Barbarossa nimmt das Kloster in den Schutz des Reichs
1178 Erzbischof Arnold von Trier weiht die Klosterkirche
1201 Bau der Klosterfront (Keller und Laienrefektorium)
Um 1210 Bau der Vorhalle (Paradies)
Um 1215 Bau der Südhalle des Kreuzgangs
Um 1225 Bau des Herrenrefektoriums und des Kapitelsaals
Um 1300 Bau der Westhalle des Kreuzgangs
Um 1350 Bau der Nordhalle des Kreuzgangs mit Brunnenkapelle, der Osthalle mit Kapitelsaal und Johanneskapelle
1361 Johann I. von Rottweil wird Abt und ummauert das Kloster
1424 gotischer Umbau der Kirche
1430 Bau des Pfrundhauses
1441 Pfalzgraf als Schirmvogt befestigt das Kloster mit Mauern, Türmen und Zinnen
1479 Bau der Vorhalle des Klosters
1493 Bau des Parlatoriums
1495 Vollendung des Oratoriums
1501 Errichtung des Steinbaldachins im Mittelschiff der Laienkirche
1504 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg besetzt das Kloster
1512 Johannes VIII. Entenfuß von Unteröwisheim wird Abt und entwickelt rege Bautätigkeit
1516 Johann Georg Faust soll vom Abt Entenfuß zum Goldmachen berufen worden sein
1517 Umbau des Herrenhauses mit der Wendeltreppe beendet
1518 Abt Entenfuß abgesetzt
1519 Ritter Franz von Sickingen brandschatzt das Kloster
1521 Pfisterei erbaut
1525 aufständische Bauern plündern das Kloster
1534 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg säkularisiert das Kloster
1537 Abt Johann IX. verlegt nach seiner Flucht nach Speyer die Abtei nach Kloster Pairis im Elsass
1547 Durch das Augsburger Interim Kaiser Karls V. kommt das Kloster vorübergehend wieder in den Besitz der Zisterzienser. Abt Heinrich III. führt die katholische Religion und Ordensregel wieder ein und erlangt erneut die Anerkennung der Reichsunmittelbarkeit.
1550 Bau des Gesindehauses
1556 Herzog Christoph von Württemberg errichtet eine evangelische Klosterschule
1558 Valentin Vannius wird erster evangelischer Abt
1580 Erweiterung des Fruchtkastens
1586–1589 Johannes Kepler von Weil der Stadt wird Schüler im Kloster
1588 Bau des Herzoglichen Jagdschlosses
Um 1600 Bau des Hörsaals über der Brunnenkapelle
1630 Rückgabe des Klosters mit Waffengewalt an die Zisterzienser – Christoph Schaller von Sennheim wird Abt
1632 Infolge der Siege des Schwedenkönigs Gustav Adolf verlassen die Mönche das Kloster wieder
1633 Neueinsetzung eines evangelischen Abts
1634 Wiederherstellung der evangelischen Klosterschule – Rückkehr von Abt Schaller mit den Zisterziensern
1648 Im Westfälischen Frieden wird Maulbronn dem Protestantismus zugesprochen
1649 Abt Buchinger zieht unter Protest ab
1651 Wiedereinsetzung eines evangelischen Abts
1656 Wiederherstellung der evangelischen Klosterschule
1692 Klosterschüler werden vor dem Mordbrenner Ezéchiel de Mélac in Sicherheit gebracht
1702 Wiedereröffnung der Klosterschule
1751 Abbruch des Abtshauses
1786–1788 Friedrich Hölderlin Schüler in der Maulbronn Klosterschule
1806 König Friedrich I. von Württemberg säkularisiert das Kloster
1807 Zusammenlegung der Klosterschule Maulbronn mit Bebenhausen
1818 Maulbronn wird „Evangelisch-theologisches Seminar“
1823 Verlegung der Generalsuperintendenz von Maulbronn nach Ludwigsburg
1892 Brand des Pfrundhauses
1893–1899 Abbruch des Professorhauses vor der Klosterfront und des so genannten Schlösschens (Famulus-Wohnung)
1928 Evangelisch-theologisches Seminar Maulbronn geht in den Besitz der Evangelischen Seminarstiftung über
1941 Beschlagnahme des Klosters und Schließung der Seminarschule durch nationalsozialistische Regierung
1945 Wiedereröffnung des Evangelisch-theologischen Seminars
Heutige Bedeutung des Klosters
Die Klosteranlage ist heute fast ausschließlich im Besitz des Landes Baden-Württemberg und wird von der Einrichtung Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg betreut. Die Stadt Maulbronn nutzt den ehemaligen Marstall als Rathaus. Durch die Aufnahme in die UNESCO-Liste Weltkulturerbe zieht die Bauanlage Besucher aus aller Welt an.
Regelmäßig werden Klosterkonzerte veranstaltet, die die Akustik der Klosterbauten zur Geltung bringen.[2]
Architektur
Klostertor
Vor dem Haupteingang befand sich früher der Klostergraben, über den an Stelle der festen Steinbrücke ursprünglich eine hölzerne Zugbrücke führte. An der Westfront des Torturms sind noch die Öffnungen zu sehen, durch welche die Ketten zum Aufziehen der Brücke liefen.
In einer Zelle neben dem Klostereingang lebte der Pförtner, der Fremde in seiner Zelle Platz nehmen ließ und sie dann dem Abt meldete. Ordensbrüder durfte er sofort einlassen, Frauen überhaupt nicht. Gegen Männer war Gastfreundschaft heilige Pflicht: Arme und Kranke sollten empfangen werden, als ob Christus selbst käme.
Frühmesserhaus (heute Klostermuseum)
Klosterhof
Der Klosterhof zeichnet sich durch sein geschlossenes Bild aus. Gleich hinter dem Tor, an der Stelle der Apotheke, befand sich die Klosterherberge. An die Apotheke schließt sich das Frühmesserhaus an, die Wohnung der Ordensgeistlichen, die in der gegenüber liegenden Kapelle die Messe zu lesen hatten. Diese Torkapelle hatte den Zweck, Frauen, die keinen Zutritt zum Kloster hatten, die Beteiligung am Gottesdienst zu ermöglichen.
Vor dem Renaissance-Rathaus steht eine alte Linde. Hinter der Klosterküferei ragt der Klosterspeicher, der so genannte Fruchtkasten, auf, der auf alten Fundamenten im Jahr 1580 in seiner jetzigen Größe errichtet wurde. Das Fachwerkhaus in der Mitte des Platzes ist die alte Klosterverwaltung. Ursprünglich war der Klosterhof entweder kleiner oder durch eine Mauer in einen äußeren und inneren Teil geschieden. Er wird heute im Osten von der Front des Klosters begrenzt.
Paradies
Vorhalle von Dijon (Notre-Dame) und Maulbronn im Vergleich
Die Vorhalle der Klosterkirche hat ihren Namen „Paradies“ von der Sitte, den Vorraum der Kirche mit der Geschichte des Sündenfalls auszumalen. Die letzte Bemalung stammt aus dem Jahr 1522, ist aber bis auf geringe Reste abgefallen.
Das Paradies des Klosters Maulbronn markiert – wie viele Teile der dortigen Architektur – die Übergangszeit von der Romanik zur Gotik und zeigt burgundische Einflüsse. In der Kombination sind hohe, lichte Fenster und weite Gewölbe bereits deutlich gotisch, wohingegen noch keine Spitzbögen, sondern romanische Rundbögen die Fenster zieren. Teilweise werden auch Spitz- und Rundbögen miteinander arrangiert. Diese Form der Kombination ist in Deutschland einzigartig. Der Baumeister ist nicht namentlich bekannt, er wird daher nach dem Maulbronner Paradies Paradies-Baumeister genannt.
Der Meister des Maulbronner Paradieses
Ein in der Frühgotik Nordfrankreichs, z. B. in der Bauhütte von Laon, 1160/70 geschulter Meister erhielt den Auftrag, die Vorkirche, den neuen Kreuzgang und den Speisesaal der Herrenmönche zu bauen. Dieser Baumeister kam über Burgund, das Ursprungsland der Zisterzienserbewegung, nach Maulbronn. Zunächst versah er den Speisesaal der Konversen mit Doppelstützen, um den Raum, wie nach Ausweis der Wandspuren schon von seinem Vorgänger vorgesehen, mit Kreuzrippen zu wölben. Dann errichtete er vor der Westseite der Kirche das sogenannte „Paradies“ (daher sein Name) und den Kreuzgang-Südflügel sowie das Herrenrefektorium mit dem für den spätromanisch-frühgotischen Übergangsstil bezeichnenden sechsteiligen Kreuzrippengewölbe. Er begann auch den West- und den Ostflügel des Kreuzgangs mit jeweils dem ersten Joch von Süden und legte damit die Breiten- und Höhenmaße des im übrigen hochgotischen Kreuzgangs fest. Er zerlegte statische Funktionen in Einzelglieder. Typisch für seine Arbeit sind die Summierung der röhrenförmigen, verschieden hohen Dienste und die „Lochform“ der Fenster (Vorformen des Maßwerkes der Hochgotik). Alle Rippen des Gewölbes folgen dem Halbkreis.
Der „Maulbronner Paradiesmeister“ hat später in Magdeburg am Bischofsgang des Domchores und in Halberstadt gewirkt.
Bemerkenswert sind auch die Portale, die das Paradies mit dem Kirchenschiff verbinden. Die Türblätter stammen aus dem 12. Jahrhundert und sind original erhalten. Selbst der ehemalige Lederbezug (siehe Detail-Bild) ist noch gut sichtbar.
Portal der Klosterkirche vom Paradies aus gesehen.
Detail: Lederbezug des Kirchenportals. (12. Jahrhundert)
Blick vom Paradies nach draußen
Paradies, Innenansicht
Klosterfront
Klosterkirche (Innenansicht)
Klosterkirche
Am Deckengewölbe konnte Joseph Victor von Scheffel noch die Buchstaben „A. v. k. l. W. h.“ (= All voll, keiner leer (oder – wahrscheinlicher – Kanne leer), Wein her!) lesen. Dies inspirierte ihn zu seiner Maulbronner Fuge[3]:
Im Winterrefektorium zu Maulbronn in dem Kloster,
Da geht was um den Tisch herum, klingt nicht wie Paternoster.
Die Martinsgans hat wohlgethan, Eilfinger blinkt im Kruge,
Nun hebt die nasse Andacht an, und alles singt die Fuge:
All Voll, Keiner Leer, Wein Her! Complete pocula!
…
Die Kirche ist eine dreischiffige Basilika, die in den Jahren 1147 bis 1178 zunächst in romanischem Stil erbaut wurde. Sie ist ungewöhnlich lang, da das Langschiff zwei Kirchen, die Laien- und die Mönchskirche, vereinigt. Ein romanischer Lettner trennt die Laienkirche, den so genannten Bruderchor, von der Mönchskirche, dem so genannten Herrenchor. Eine Besonderheit ist dabei das Kruzifix: Das Kruzifix und der Körper des Heilands sind aus einem einzigen Steinblock herausgemeißelt. Es ist dabei exakt so ausgerichtet, dass an den längsten Tagen im Jahr nach zehn Uhr die Sonnenstrahlen die Dornenkrone Christi aufleuchten lassen.
Weitere Räume im inneren Bereich
Ab etwa 1200 wurde, beginnend mit dem Westtrakt, innerhalb von 10 bis 20 Jahren die Klausur um den Kreuzgang nördlich der Kirche errichtet.
Das Laienrefektorium (erb. um 1201) ist nach der Kirche der umfangreichste überwölbte Raum im Kloster.
Die Tür gegenüber der Brunnenkapelle führt ins Herrenrefektorium (erb. um 1220–1225), dem Speiseraum für die Mönche.
Im Kapitelsaal (13. Jh.) wurden in täglicher Versammlung allen Mönchen Kapitel aus der Ordensregel vorgelesen und eingeschärft. Diesem Zweck dienend war der Saal an allen vier Seiten mit Steinbänken versehen.
Die Brunnenkapelle aus dem 14. Jahrhundert springt südwärts ins Kreuzgärtchen vor. Der Waschraum im Kreuzgang ist von der Ordensregel vorgeschrieben. Die unterste Brunnenschale ist so alt wie die gotische Kapelle. Die beiden oberen Schalen wurden erst in neuerer Zeit hierher gesetzt.
Das Calefactorium ist ein backofenartiges Gewölbe, dessen Steine noch Spuren von Feuer tragen. Es ist der Raum, von dem aus die darüber liegende Wärmestube der Mönche geheizt wurde, der, abgesehen von der Klosterküche, einzige heizbare Raum im ganzen Kloster.
Das Parlatorium (um 1493), der Sprechsaal des Klosters, war der Ort, wo die Mönche untereinander und mit den Oberen des Ordens die nötigsten Worte wechseln durften.
Erwähnenswert ist die Einzeigeruhr.
In der Parkanlage südöstlich außerhalb der Klostermauern wurde 2012 eine Stauferstele eingeweiht, die u.a. daran erinnert, dass Friedrich I. Barbarossa das Kloster ab 1156 als kaiserliche Schirmvogtei unter seinen Schutz gestellt hat.[4]
Blick vom Kreuzgang auf das Brunnenhaus mit Fachwerkaufsatz
Pfisterei (Klosterbäckerei), links
Klostermühle (heute Internatsgebäude des Evang. Seminars), rechts
Wachhaus
Stauferstele (2012 eingeweiht) mit Faustturm im Hintergrund
Faustturm
Orgeln
Grenzing-Orgel in der Klosterkirche
Im Kloster Maulbronn befinden sich zwei Orgeln. Bis zum Jahre 1972 befand sich in der Klosterkirche eine Orgel des Orgelbauers Eberhard Friedrich Walcker aus dem Jahre 1849. Das Kegelladen-Instrument hatte 21 Register auf zwei Manualen und Pedal. Die Trakturen waren mechanisch. Im Jahre 1972 wurde diese Orgel durch ein neues Instrument der Fa. Walcker (Ludwigsburg) ersetzt, welches 38 Register auf drei Manualen und Pedal hatte. Das Instrument erwies sich bald als derart anfällig, dass bereits im Jahre 2002 mit den Vorüberlegungen für einen Neubau begonnen wurde. Im Jahre 2010 wurde die Walcker-Orgel abgebaut.[5]
Die heutige Hauptorgel der Klosterkirche wurde 2013 von dem Orgelbauer Gerhard Grenzing (Barcelona) erbaut. Das Schleifladen-Instrument hat 35 Register auf drei Manualen und Pedal.[6]
I Hauptwerk C–a3
1. Principal 16′
2. Viola di Gamba 8′
3. Principal 8′
4. Rohrflöte 8′
5. Octave 4′
6. Spitzflöte 4′
7. Superoctave 2′
8. Cornett III 2 2⁄3′
9. Mixtur maior IV-V 2′
10. Trompete 8′
II Positiv C–a3
11. Lieblich Gedackt 8′
12. Salicional 8′
13. Rohrflöte 4′
14. Principal 4′
15. Quinte 2 2⁄3′
16. Doublette 2′
17. Terz 1 3⁄5′
18. Mixtur minor III 1 1⁄3′
19. Klarinette 8′
Tremulant
III Schwellwerk C–a3
20. Lieblich Gedackt 16′
21. Flöte 8′
22. Viola 8′
23. Schwebung 8′
24. Fugara 4′
25. Traversflöte 4′
26. Flageolet 2′
27. Oboe 8′
28. Trompette harmonique 8′
Tremulant
Pedal C–f1
29. Principalbass 16′
30. Subbass 16′
31. Octavbass 8′
32. Violoncello 8′
33. Choralbass 4′
34. Posaune 16′
35. Trompete 8′
Koppeln: II/I, III/I, III/II, III/III (Suboktavkoppel); I/P, II/P, III/P (Normal- und Superoktavkoppel)
Im heizbaren Winterspeisesaal, der auch als „Winterkirche“ bezeichnet wird, befindet sich eine Orgel der Orgelbaufirma Claudius Winterhalter (Oberharmersbach) aus dem Jahr 2000. Das Instrument hat 20 Register auf zwei Manualen und Pedal.[7]
I Hauptwerk C–a3
1. Principal 8′
2. Holzflöte 8′
3. Oktave 4′
4. Spitzflöte 4′
5. Doublette 2′
6. Quinte 1 1⁄3′
7. Mixtur III-V 1 1⁄3′
II Nebenwerk C–a3
8. Salicional 8′
9. Gedeckt 8′
10. Fugara 4′
11. Rohrflöte 4′
12. Quinte 2 2⁄3′
13. Terz 1 3⁄5′
14. Principal 2′
15. Quinte 1 1⁄3′
16. Oboe 8′
Tremulant
Pedalwerk C–f1
17. Subbass 16′
18. Octavbass 8′
19. Bassoctave 4′
20. Fagott 16′
Koppeln: II/I (auch als Suboktavkoppel); I/P, II/P (auch als Superoktavkoppel)
Sondermarken und Sondermünzen
Deutschland 2013
Zur Erhebung des Klosters Maulbronn zum UNESCO-Kultur- und -Naturerbe der Menschheit erschien am 22. Januar 1998 eine Sondermarke der Deutschen Bundespost, auf dem die Klosterkirche und der Grundriss des Klosters gezeigt werden.
Ab 2013 ist das Kloster auf der Rückseite einer 2-Euro-Gedenkmünze zu sehen (Bundesländer-Serie) [8]. Das Motiv wurde vom Pforzheimer Flachgraveur Eugen Ruhl (Kürzel er) entworfen und zeigt die Vorhalle der Klosterkirche Maulbronn (Paradies) von 1220 und den dreischaligen Waschbrunnen.[9]
Legenden
Darstellung der Gründungslegende im Gewölbe des Brunnenhauses
Ein Maultier findet den Ort für die Klostergründung
Ein Wappen an der Quellennische zeigt die Gründungslegende, in der es heißt, dass die Mönche unentschlossen waren, wo sie das Kloster bauen sollten. Sie beluden deshalb ein Maultier mit den Klosterschätzen und ließen es laufen. Das Maultier blieb an der Stelle des heutigen Brunnens (= Bronn) stehen, warf den Klosterschatz ab und scharrte mit dem Huf. Dort schoss sogleich eine Wasserfontäne empor, die die Mönche im Brunnen und später im Brunnenhaus fassten. So habe das Kloster Standort und den Namen Maulbronn erhalten.
Erfindung der Maultasche durch die Maulbronner Mönche
Eine von mehreren Theorien, wie die schwäbische Maultasche erfunden wurde, verweist auf das Kloster Maulbronn. Eine Legende erzählt, dass gewitzte Ordensbrüder des Klosters Maulbronn – als diese in der Fastenzeit Fleisch geschenkt bekommen hatten – dieses als gute Schwaben nicht verkommen lassen wollten. Um das Verbot zu umgehen, freitags und in der Fastenzeit Fleisch zu essen, hackten sie das Fleisch ganz klein und vermengten es mit Kräutern. So sah es nach Gemüsebrei aus. Zudem wurde es noch in Taschen aus Nudelteig versteckt, damit es der Herrgott vom Himmel nicht sehen könnte. Der „liebe Gott“ soll dabei augenzwinkernd zugesehen haben. Im Volksmund wurde dieses Gericht nach dem Klosternamen als "Maul"tasche bezeichnet und wird auch scherzhaft „Herrgottsbscheißerle“ genannt.
Einzelnachweise
Martin Ehlers: Ortsgeschichte im Überblick, in: Maulbronn Heimatbuch. Maulbronn 2012, ISBN 978-3-933486-75-2, S. 77
Internetseite der „Klosterkonzerte Maulbronn“, abgerufen am 20. Dezember 2015
de.wikisource.org/wiki/Allgemeines_Deutsches_Kommersbuch:318
Stauferstele Kloster Maulbronn auf stauferstelen.net. Abgerufen am 22. März 2014.
Umfassende Informationen zu den Orgeln der Klosterkirche
Informationen zur Grenzing-Orgel
Nähere Informationen zur Orgel der Winterkirche
Bundesbank Übersicht 2-Euro-Gedenkmünzen
Susanne Roth: Maulbronn-Motiv mit Auflage von 30 Millionen. Zeitungsartikel von ca. 2013
Literatur
Marga Anstett-Janßen: Kloster Maulbronn, Deutscher Kunstverlag München/Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-422-03084-0
Friedl Brunckhorst: Maulbronn: Zisterzienserabtei – Klosterschule – Kulturdenkmal, Schimper-Verlag Schwetzingen 2002, ISBN 3-87742-171-7
Karl Klunzinger: Urkundliche Geschichte der vormaligen Cisterzienser-Abtei Maulbronn. Stuttgart 1854.
Ulrich Knapp: Das Kloster Maulbronn. Geschichte und Baugeschichte. Stuttgart 1997.
Katinka Krug, Peter Knoch, Matthias Untermann: Giebelarchitekturen: Neue Beobachtungen zur frühen Baugeschichte der Zisterzienserkirchen in Maulbronn und Bronnbach. In: INSITU. Zeitschrift für Architekturgeschichte 3 (2/2011), S. 161–172.
Peter Rückert / Dieter Planck (Hrsg.): Anfänge der Zisterzienser in Südwestdeutschland. Politik, Kunst und Liturgie im Umfeld des Klosters Maulbronn. Oberrheinische Studien 16, Stuttgart 1999.
Maulbronn: Zur 850jährigen Geschichte des Zisterzienserklosters. Herausgegeben vom Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Württemberg. Stuttgart 1997. ISBN 3-8062-1283-X
Kloster Maulbronn 1178–1978. Ausstellungskatalog. Maulbronn 1978.
Carla Mueller / Karin Stober: Kloster Maulbronn., Hrsg.: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Staatsanzeiger-Verlag, Stuttgart, Schriftenreihe: Führer Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg, Deutscher Kunstverlag München/Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-422-02053-5
Eduard Paulus: Die Cisterzienser-Abtei Maulbronn. Herausgegeben vom Württembergischen Alterthums-Verein, 2. Auflage, Bonz, Stuttgart 1882 (Digitalisat HAAB Weimar); 3., erweiterte Auflage 1889
Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Baden-Württemberg (Hrsg.): UNESCO-Welterbe. Kloster Maulbronn in Baden-Württemberg. Esslingen am Neckar, 2013.
Pavia, Autunno sul Ticino
Produzione: 1985-1989
Nome: „Смена-19“ (Smena-19 *) sn/86274176 (1986)
Produttore: ЛОМО (LOMO)
Lente: Triplet-43-1 - 4/40 trattamento antiriflessi ai Lapislazzuli
Quantità: 10.033 pezzi.
Prezzo in origine ( 1986) 20 roubli.
Kodak ColorPlus 200 expired
1/125 - F16
Sverdlovsk-6 soviet lightmeter
Blik soviet external rangefinder by Lomo
Tetenal Colortec C41 homemade development, tank AP Compact, 30 °C
Epson V600
#AbFav_MINIMALSISM✅
#AbFav_PHOTOSTORY
The world can be so full of wonder and surprises, it often happens by creative man.
To use your eyes and see, then, the discovery!
Feverishly grabbing your camera, just like it is will go away... LOL
Have a sunny day, thank you, M, (*_*)
For more here: www.indigo2photography.com
IT IS STRICTLY FORBIDDEN (BY LAW!!!) TO USE ANY OF MY image or TEXT on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved
Facade, wall, window, iron, trompe l'oeil, blue, painted, Spain, Benalmadena, white, brick, Stupa, Fort, Sardinia, Belgium, colour, minimalist, horizontal, vertical, NikonD7000, Magda Indigo"
exhibition centre, darling harbour live, sydney. architects: hassell + populous. builder: lend lease.
Barred windows looking out towards the cell blocks, at Mansfield Reformatory.
The StaceShank Redemption Series - Part III
---- procession of Holy Agate, Catania (Sicily), 4 February: the procession makes the so-called "external tour" which touches some places of martyrdom of the young Saint Agate in the Catania city. ----
---- processione di Sant'Agata, Catania (Sicilia), 4 febbraio: il corteo compie il cosiddetto "giro esterno" che tocca alcuni luoghi del martirio della giovane "Santuzza Agata" nella città catanese. -----
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click to activate the icon of slideshow: the small triangle inscribed in the small rectangle, at the top right, in the photostream;
clicca sulla piccola icona per attivare lo slideshow: sulla facciata principale del photostream, in alto a destra c'è un piccolo rettangolo (rappresenta il monitor) con dentro un piccolo triangolo nero;
Qi Bo's photos on Flickr Hive Mind
www.fotografidigitali.it/gallery/2726/opere-italiane-segn...
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In the city of Catania (Sicily) in occasion of the feast of her patron saint Agatha, which took place on the 3, 4 and 5 February (this dates commemorates the martyrdom of the young Saint), and on 17 August too (this date celebrates the return to Catania of her remains, after these had been transferred to Constantinople by the Byzantine general Maniaces as war booty, and there remained for 86 years), when the Sicilian city is dressed up to feast, with a scent of orange blossom and mandarins, and its citizens show that they possess an extraordinary love and bond with the young martyr saint Agatha.
The religious sicilian feast of Saint Agatha is the most important feast of Catania, its inhabitants from five centuries, during the three days of the feast in honor of her "Santuzza" (young Saint), create a unique setting, with celebrations and rituals impressive, which means that this event is regarded as the third religious festival in the world (some say the second ...) after the "Semana Santa" in Seville and the "Corpus Christi" in Cuzco, Peru. Unlike other religious holidays, more sober, to Sant'Agata highlights a vocation exuberant typical of the south Italy, who loves to combine the sacred with the profane.
The cult of the young Santa dates back to the third century, when the teenager Agatha was martyred for refusing the roman proconsul Quintiziano. One year after the death of the young Agatha, on 5 February of the year 252, his virginal veil was carried in procession, and it is said it was able to save Catania from destruction due to a devastating eruption of Mount Etna.
The festivities begin with the procession of the "Candlemas", that are giant Baroque wooden "candlesticks" paintings in gold, each representing an ancient guild (butchers, fishmongers, grocers, greengrocers, etc.), which are brought by eight devotees; the candlemas anticipate the arrival of the "float" of Saint Agatha during the procession. Devotees, men and women, wearing a traditional garment similar to a white bag, cinched at the waist by a black rope, gloves and a white handkerchief, and a black velvet cap, and it seems that such clothing evoke nightgown with the qule the Catanese, awakened with a start by the touch of the bells of the Cathedral, welcomed the naval port, in 1126, the relics of the Holy which fell from Constantinople. On float, consisting of a silver chariot sixteenth of thirty tons, which is driven by a double and long line of devotees with the robust and long ropes, takes place the bust of Saint Agatha, completely covered with precious stones and jewels. On February 4, the parade celebrates the so-called "external path" that touches some places of martyrdom in the city of Catania; the next day, the 5 instead the procession along the "aristocrat path", which runs along the main street, Via Etnea, the parlor of Catania. On this day the devotees carry on their shoulders the long candles of varying thickness, there are some not very big, others are fairly heavy, but some skim exceptional weights.
This year 2020, I was only able to take photos of the procession which takes place on February 4th.
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Nella città di Catania (Sicilia) in occasione della festa della sua giovane santa patrona Agata, che ha avuto luogo come ogni anno il 3, il 4 ed il 5 di febbraio (questa data commemora il martirio della Santa giovinetta), festa che viene ripetuta anche il 17 agosto (questa data rievoca il ritorno a Catania delle sue spoglie, dopo che queste erano state trasferite a Costantinopoli da parte del generale bizantino Maniace come bottino di guerra, spoglie che ivi rimasero per 86 anni); per questa occasione la città siciliana è vestita a festa con profumi di fiori d'arancio e mandarini, coi suoi cittadini che mostrano di possedere uno straordinario amore e legame con la giovane martire Agata.
Gli abitanti di Catania, oramai da cinque secoli, nei tre giorni della festa in onore della "Santuzza", danno vita ad una scenografia unica, con celebrazioni e riti imponenti, che fanno si che questo evento sia considerato come la terza festa religiosa al mondo (qualcuno dice la seconda ...) dopo la "Semana Santa" di Siviglia ed il "Corpus Domini" a Cuzco, in Perù. A differenza di altre feste religiose, più sobrie, quella di Sant'Agata mette in luce una vocazione esuberante tipica del meridione, che ama unire il sacro col profano.
Il culto della giovane Santa risale al terzo secolo, quando l'adolescente Agata fu martirizzata per aver rifiutato il proconsole romano Quintiziano. Un anno dopo la morte della giovane Agata, avvenuta il 5 febbraio dell'anno 252, il suo velo virginale venne portato in processione, e si narra esso riuscì a salvare Catania dalla sua distruzione a causa di una devastante eruzione del vulcano Etna.
I festeggiamenti iniziano con il corteo delle "candelore", le quali sono dei giganteschi e pesanti "candelabri" in legno, in stile barocco, dipinti in oro, ognuna rappresentante una antica corporazione (macellai, pescivendoli, pizzicagnoli, fruttivendoli, ecc.), che vengono portati da otto devoti: esse anticipano l'arrivo della "vara" di Sant'Agata durante la processione. I devoti, sia donne che uomini, indossano un tipico indumento simile ad un sacco bianco, stretto in vita da una cordicella nera, guanti ed un fazzoletto bianchi, ed infine una papalina di velluto nero, sembra che tale abbigliamento rievochi la camicia da notte con la quale i Catanesi, svegliatisi di soprassalto dal tocco improvviso delle campane del Duomo, accolsero al porto navale, nel 1126, le reliquie della Santa che rientravano da Costantinopoli. Sulla vara, costituita da un carro argentato cinquecentesco di trenta quintali, trainata da una doppia e lunghissima fila di devoti tramite delle robuste e lunghe funi, prende posto il busto di Sant'Agata, completamente ricoperto di pietre preziose e gioielli. Il 4 febbraio, il corteo compie il cosiddetto "giro esterno" che tocca alcuni luoghi del martirio nella città catanese; il giorno dopo, il 5, il corteo percorre il "giro aristocratico", che percorre la strada principale, la via Etnea, salotto buono di Catania. In questo giorno i devoti portano in spalla dei lunghi ceri di vario spessore, ce ne sono alcuni non molto grossi, altri sono discretamente pesanti, ma alcuni sfiorano pesi eccezionali.
Quest'anno 2020, ho potuto realizzare solo le foto della processione che si svolge il 4 febbraio.
Metal structure outside my office window that does nothing to stop the sun's glare, which I think was the original purpose. But hey it looks interesting when photographed from the side from the adjacent carpark.
This external source of agony is made tragically concrete in D Doraiswamy's (1923-2003) harrowing painting. "The Aftermath of War". The work established the scene with decimated bodies. children with their throats slit. and a kneeling mother crying out in mute agony. Amidst this tragedy, Arup Das introduces a unique tension. The artist states " My works are about human beings, but I like to put them in their historical and social context.
The Sony ILCE7R A7r rocks! New Sony A7R Test Photos (with Sony HVL-F60M External Flash) of Tall, Thin, Fit Bikini Swimsuit Model Goddess! Long legs and then some! Shot with the Carl Zeiss Sony Sonnar T* FE 35mm f/2.8 ZA Lens finished in Lightroom 5.3 ! Was using the B+W 49mm Kaesemann Circular Polarizer MRC Filter on partly cloudy day with some intermittent sun, but mostly cloudy. Check out the low glare off the rocks and water and dramatic, polarizwer-enhanced sky! Super sharp images and crystal-clear pictures!
Was testing the Sony HVL-F60M External Flash on the Sony A7r. You can see it going off in some of the photos (check the exif if in doubt)--worked great, but it overheated a bit sooner than my Nikon flash on the D800E. But it's all good!
Here's some epic goddess video shot at the same time as stills using my 45surfer method/philosophy:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUbE0ay7UeI
www.youtube.com/watch?v=eC-M9fVwk9k
Join Johnny Ranger McCoy's youtube channel for goddess video shot @ the same time as the stills with the Sony A7 !
www.youtube.com/user/bikiniswimsuitmodels
Beautiful swimsuit bikini model goddess on a beautiful December Malibu afternoon! Shot it yesterday. :) Love, love, love the new Sony A7 R!
Was a fun test shoot. Many, many more to come!
All the best on your Epic Hero's Journey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
Join my facebook!
www.facebook.com/45surfHerosJourneyMythology
Follow me on facebook www.facebook.com/elliot.mcgucken !
Modeling the black & gold "Gold 45 Revolver" Gold'N'Virtue swimsuits with the main equation to Moving Dimensions Theory on the swimsuits: dx4/dt=ic. Yes I have a Ph.D. in physics! :) You can read more about my research and Hero's Journey Physics here:
herosjourneyphysics.wordpress.com/ MDT PROOF#2: Einstein (1912 Man. on Rel.) and Minkowski wrote x4=ict. Ergo dx4/dt=ic--the foundational equation of all time and motion which is on all the shirts and swimsuits. Every photon that hits my Nikon D800e's sensor does it by surfing the fourth expanding dimension, which is moving at c relative to the three spatial dimensions, or dx4/dt=ic!
May the Hero's Journey Mythology Goddess inspire you (as they have inspired me!) along your own artistic journey! Love, love, love the 35mm Carl Zeiss Lens on the new Sony A7R! :)
All the Best on Your Epic Hero's Journey from Johnny Ranger McCoy!
External staircase on the rear elevation of a block of residential flats above a parade of shops in Belsize Park, London, taken for the October '12 challenge.
(*) Смена-8M (Smena 8M) by Lomo, soviet camera,
T-43 4/40 - Triplet by Lomo, soviet lens
Blik - external rangefinder
☁ - F11 read with Rapri E203, soviet spotmeter, 0,8° @ extintion
Adox Adonal
Epson V600
The forward drydock only has enough space for shuttle craft, I felt it was time to add some space for larger vessels to berth. It is only when this beast gets turned around that I see how much more there is to do...
Statue on an external wall at Kelaniya Temple near Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Kelaniya Great High Temple is one of Sri Lanka's most revered sacred Buddhist sites as it is believed to mark the location of a sermon given by the Buddha during what is believed to be his third visit to the island of Lanka. Kelaniya is one of 16 Solosmasthana sites on the island that Sri Lankan Buddhists believed were visited by the Buddha during his 3 visits to the island.
Self portrait in the reflection of the eyes of my daughter in the hands of my son with the three graces in Washington DC.
1957 Dodge D500, on a cold, wet, muddy night at the Big M. Visit the set page for more information about this location.
Night, stacked 2 and 8 minute exposures. Full moon, red, purple and green-gelled flashlight.
Reprocessed and replaced, June 2025.
On the train on the way to Dublin going through the Curragh, Co. Kildare.
This is 4 photos stitched with Autostitch. The stitch didn't work out great, so there's a bit of photoshoppery here too. See Large
Inspired by this (I got to get me one of those fancy Russians thingys...)
Part of the Ireland set.
See the Slideshow
The plastic conduit to the left is my E-Field antenna with a pre-amp.
If you look just to the right of my gutter, there is a small platform with an external GPS antenna. GPS signals are used for extremely accurate time keeping of detected pulses.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the model, the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
After the Falklands War, Argentina was not only left with a much reduced aerial strike force – budget restraints, inner and external political pressure as well as delivery boycotts plagued the country for years in its efforts to rejuvenate the air force. Recent years were troublesome, too. In early 2005 the top seventeen brigadiers of the Air Force, including the Chief of Staff, Brigadier General Carlos Rohde, were sacked by President Néstor Kirchner following a scandal involving drug trafficking through Ezeiza International Airport. The primary concerns of the Air Force as of 2010 were the establishment of a radar network for control of the country's airspace, the replacement of its older combat aircraft (Mirage III, Mirage V) and the incorporation of new technologies. The possibility of purchasing surplus French Air Force Mirage 2000C fighters, like the option chosen by the Brazilian Air Force, had been considered.
As of 2010, budgetary constraints continued, leading to the disbanding of the Boeing 707 transport squadron and maintenance problems for half of the C-130 Hercules fleet. In August 2010 a contract was signed for two Mi-17E helicopters, plus an option on a further three, to support Antarctic bases. All the time, though, the FAA had been seeking to replace its ageing force with a more capable and more serviceable modern aircraft. Argentina’s Super Étendard fighters, which had been used to launch Exocet missiles in the 1980s and still served, come from France. Its Mirage III/ V/ “Nesher” fighters were originally bought second-hand from Israel and Peru, but they had deteriorated badly. Its A-4P Skyhawk models were originally sold to Argentina by the USA but phased out in 1999, the more modern A-4AR “Fightinghawks” were rebuilt and modernized ex USMC A-4Ms. What was left of those deliveries made up the bulk of the Argentinian jet fleet.
The acquisition of Spanish Mirage F1Ms, IAI Kfir Block 60s from Israel and Saab Gripen E/Fs from Sweden was considered, but all of those deals stalled, for various reasons. The Mirage F1 deal was scrapped by the Spanish government after pressure of the UK to not assist in FAA modernization over tensions between the countries over the Falkland Islands. The UK also managed to successfully veto the sale of Gripen E/Fs, as 30% of the Gripen's parts were manufactured there. British diplomacy furthermore worked to delay Argentina’s proposed Super Étendard modernization. To make matters worse, despite steadily worsening relations with Britain under the Obama administration, the USA would neither sell Argentina any jet fighters, nor supply spare parts or engines.
This only left Argentina with the original source for its Nesher/Dagger/Finger fighters as a reliable and (moreover) affordable option: Israel. The (realistic) object of desire was the successor of the Nesher, the Kfir, which entered service with the IAF in 1975. The Kfir was, like the Nesher, a Mirage III/V derivative, but a major improvement. Substantial structural changes had been made and IAI replaced the original Atar 9C of French origin with a more powerful J79 turbojet, which had been used at the time by IDF F-4 Phantom IIs of American origin, too. The Kfir received during its career progressive modifications to its airframe (in the form of canards which improved the fighter’s handling considerably), radar, electronics, and weapons, and these upgrades continued even after the Kfirs were retired from Israeli service in the late 1990s, on behalf of export customers like Colombia, Ecuador, and Sri Lanka.
The Kfir’s retirement in Israeli service led to a great number of surplus airframes with considerable flying hours left, so that the Kfir C.10/Block 60, a dedicated export variant with many updates, was developed on their basis and offered to foreign customers. These machines carried modern multi-mode radars and electronics on par with contemporary F-16 Block 40/50s, giving them the ability to use beyond visual range aerial weapons, advanced short range AAMs, and a variety of precision strike weapons. However, it would take a brave Kfir pilot to face a Eurofighter Typhoon in single combat… even so, the late an updated Kfirs were capable and redoubtable fighters.
Their combat radius was a bit short, though, due to the thirsty and somewhat outdated J79 engine, but their aerial refueling capability compensated for this flaw and made them well-suited to intimidation and presence patrols. The Kfir’s relatively small price tag made it, despite the airframe’s overall age, very attractive for small nations with limited defense budgets – and consequently it attained Argentinian interest.
Argentinian negotiations went so far that Israel not only agreed to sell 18 revamped Kfir fighters from ex-IDF overstock, IAI also offered to adapt the airframes to a different engine, the French Atar 9K-50 afterburning turbojet, which were not part of the deal, though. This appeared like a backward roll, since the Kfir was originally constructed to replace the French Atar 9C with the American J79 in Israel’s Mirage III/V copy – but this move was the only way to provide Argentina with a suitable engine that was freely available on the Western world market without British or American bans and interventions.
The result of this deal became the so-called Kfir C.9, even though this was just an internal designation at IAI and never officially adopted in order to avoid political problems. In the course of 2013 and 2014, the engine-less Kfir airframes were delivered as knocked-down kits via ship to Argentina. At Argentina’s nationalized aircraft manufacturer Fábrica Argentina de Aviones SA (FAdeA) in Córdoba they were mated with the new engines, imported separately from France, and equipped with imported and domestic avionics. In Argentinian service and to the public, the aircraft became known as FAdeA “IA-96A” and was, keeping up the FAA’s tradition to christen its fleet of various Mirage III derivatives after domestic animals, called “Quique” (lesser grison).
The IA-96A/Kfir C.9 was specifically tailored to the Argentinian needs and restrictions. Despite wishes to buy Kfirs according to the more versatile and capable C.10 export standard with a modern Elta EL/M-2032 multi-mode radar, Argentina’s highly limited defense budget and other equipment constraints imposed by foreign suppliers and governments only allowed the procurement of what basically was a re-engined Kfir C.7 with some minor updates.
In contrast to the Kfir C.10, the older C.7 was only outfitted with the Elta EL/M-2021B radar. This was a multi-mode radar, too, which still offered air-to-air and air-to-surface capability, but it was less powerful than the C.10 standard and offered only a relatively short range of max. 46 mi/74 km.
Like the Israeli C.7, the C.9 had inflight refueling capability through a fixed but removable probe, and it featured a HOTAS-configured cockpit. Individual updates were a new, frameless wrap-around windshield for a better field of view, two 127×177mm MFDs in the cockpit, full HMD capability, a simple TAV38 laser rangefinder in a small fairing under nose, and improved avionics to deploy state-of-the-art guided weapons of Israeli and French origin (see below).
Outwardly, the C.9’s biggest difference to the original C.7 configuration – even though it was not very obvious – was the modified rear fuselage, which had to be changed in order to cover the longer and more slender Atar 9K-50 engine and its afterburner. In fact, the original IAI Nesher blueprints and toolings had been dusted off and used to produce these new parts.
Since the lighter Atar 9K-50 would not need the J79’s extra cooling and had a lower air mass flow, the Kfir’s characteristic auxiliary air intake at the fin’s root as well as several prominent air scoops along the fuselage disappeared, giving the aircraft a more streamlined look. As a positive side effect, this measure, together with the slimmer fuselage, improved aerodynamics, compensating for the slight reduction of overall thrust through the engine swap, and the longer fuselage made the aircraft directionally more stable, so that no fin fillet was necessary anymore. With the resulting short fin, the IA-96’s profile resembled that of the South African Atlas Cheetah E a lot, even though the latter were modernized Mirage IIIs and not converted IAI Kfirs. Compared with the Kfir C.7, top speed and service ceiling were slightly reduced, but the Atar 9K-50 consumed considerably less fuel, so that the unrefueled range of the short-legged Kfir with its thirsty J79 was markedly improved. The new engine was furthermore more responsive, so that overall performance and agility of the IA-96A remained on par with the Kfir or became even slightly better.
Beyond the aircraft order, Argentina also procured a modernized weapon arsenal from Israel for its new multi-role fighter generation. This included an undisclosed number of Derby medium range air-to-air missiles with an active-radar seeker, BVR capability and a range of 28 mi (45 km), Gabriel III anti-ship missiles with fire-and-forget capabilities and a range of more than 40 mi (60 km), as well as Griffin LGB guidance sets that could be added to various standard iron and cluster bombs. Furthermore, ten second-hand Thomson-CSF ATLIS II laser/electro-optical targeting pods were procured from France. Even though these pods lacked FLIR capabilities and were limited to being primarily a daylight/clear-weather system, they gave the Quique, in combination with the Griffin LGBs, full precision strike capability, esp. against ship targets – a clear political statement into the British direction.
The Quique fleet was supposed to replace all the older FAA types. With the roll-out of the first IA-96A in early 2015, all vintage FAA Mirages were officially decommissioned in November of the same year. Furthermore, all FAA’s A-4 Skyhawks were grounded as of January 2016, too (also for the lack of spares), even though a handful A-4ARs remained airworthy as a reserve and the rest in storage. Quique deliveries ended in September 2017 with the eighteenth machine, and all of them were allocated to FAA’s Grupo 5 de Caza at Villa Reynolds, 200 km (125 ml) in the South of Córdoba, where they had been assembled. However, since becoming operational, the aircraft were frequently deployed to other Argentinian air bases, including El Plumerillo Military Air Base in the Mendoza Province at the Chilean border and Rio Gallegos in Patagonia, in reach of the Malvinas/Falklands Islands.
If future budgets allow it, ten more IA-96A/Kfir C.9 might be ordered soon in order to replace the Argentinian Navy’s vintage Super Étendard fleet (which has been, since the decommissioning of ARA Veinticinco de Mayo in the late Eighties, land-based, anyway). The acquisition of four to six two-seaters, also modernized ex-IDF aircraft following the IA-96A pattern, with full attack capability and tentatively designated IA-96B, has been under consideration, too.
General characteristics:
Crew: 1
Length: 15.65 m (51 ft 4 in)
Wingspan: 8.22 m (27 ft 0 in)
Height: 4.55 m (14 ft 11 in)
Wing area: 34.8 m² (375 ft²)
Empty weight: 7,285 kg (16,061 lb)
Gross weight: 11,603 kg (25,580 lb)
Max takeoff weight: 16,200 kg (35,715 lb)
Powerplant:
1× SNECMA Atar 9K50C-11 afterburning turbojet engine,
49.2 kN (11,100 lbf) dry thrust and 70.6 kN (15,900 lbf) with afterburner
Performance:
Maximum speed: 2,350 km/h (1,460 mph, 1,270 kn) / Mach 2.2 at high altitude
1,390 km/h (860 mph; 750 kn) at sea level
Combat range: 1,300 km (810 mi, 700 nmi), clean, with internal fuel only
Ferry range: 2,600 km (1,600 mi, 1,400 nmi) w. three 1,300 l (340 US gal; 290 imp gal) drop tanks
Service ceiling: 17,000 m (56,000 ft)
Rate of climb: 233 m/s (45,900 ft/min)
Armament:
2× Rafael-built 30 mm (1.18 in) DEFA 553 cannon with 140 RPG
Nine external hardpoints for a maximum payload of 5,775 kg (12,732 lb) and a wide range of ordnance, including bombs such as the Mark 80 series, unguided air-to-ground rocket pods, Paveway and Griffin series of LGBs, guided air-to-ground missiles like the AGM-65 Maverick, and AIM-9 Sidewinders, Shafrir/Python/Derby-series AAMs
The kit and its assembly:
This what-if model was inspired by a short entry about the IAI Kfir I had found at Wikipedia: a proposed C.9 variant for Argentina, as a revamped and re-engined C.7, even though the entry lacked any further details and I was not able to dig anything about the C.9 up in the WWW. However, I tried to interpret this scarce basis and deduct a model from it, because the story was/is so good. Having recently read a lot about the Argentinian Mirage III/Nesher fleet and the Malvinas/Falklands conflict helped a lot, too. With many import limitations imposed by Great Britain and the USA as well as Argentina’s highly restricted budget, I eventually settled upon the idea of a rather simple, re-engined Kfir of C.7 standard, so that outwardly not much had to be changed – a better radar would have been desirable (Block 60 standard), but I’d assume that this would not have been possible with Argentina’s highly limited funds that already prevented updates to the existing and rather vintage (if not outdated) aircraft fleet.
The basis for the model is a Hasegawa Kfir, which I bought without box (and it turned it to lack the dashboard). The Hasegawa Kfir is a C.2 and the model is very similar to the Italeri kit (a C.7, but it is virtually identical), but it has a much better fit, goes together more easily and calls for considerably less PSR. As another bonus, the Hasegawa kit comes with a wider range of ordnance and also has the construction benefit of a connecting ventral “floor”, which makes the fuselage more stable and therefor suitable for my modification (see below).
The different engine for the C.9 variant was the biggest challenge – the Kfir’s rear fuselage is wider and shorter than the Mirage III’s with the Atar engine. These are just subtle differences at 1:72 scale, but not easy to realize: I needed a completely new rear fuselage! As a convenient solution, I dug out a PM Model Nesher (which is no Nesher at all, just a poor Mirage III at best) from the donor bank and let the saw sing. This kit is horrible in many ways (really, stay away!), but it’s tail section and the jet nozzle, pimped with an afterburner interior, were acceptable as conversion fodder.
Blending the (crappy!) Mirage III parts into the crisp Hasegawa Kfir took some serious PSR, though, including the need to fill 3mm wide gaps along the delta wing roots and bridging disparate fuselage shapes and diameters at the implant’s intersections. The Kfir’s fin was re-transplanted and lost its characteristic auxiliary air intake for the J79 engine, so that the profile became more Mirage III/V-esque. Due to the longer afterburner section, the brake parachute fairing had to be extended, too. The longer (just 3-4mm), more slender tail section and the cleaner fin change the Kfir’s look markedly – for the better, IMHO, and the model could also depict an Atlas Cheetah E!
Further minor mods include an in-flight refueling receptacle, scratched from wire and white glue for the tip, the modified windshield (the OOB part was simply sanded smooth and polished back again to transparency) and the ordnance; the Gabriel ASMs were created on the basis of a photograph, and they once were AIM-54 Phoenix AAMs from a Matchbox F-14, modified with new wings, a blunted tip and a pitot made from thin wire. Their pylons were once parts of F-14 wing root pylons from an Italeri F-14, with launch rails made from styrene profiles. The Derby AAMs are heavily modified Matchbox Sidewinders with an extended, pointed tip, mounted onto the OOB pylons. The ventral drop tank comes from the Hasegawa kit.
Painting and markings:
This was quite a challenge, because I wanted to apply something modern and plausible, yet avoid standard paint schemes. In fact, a realistic Argentinian Kfir C.9 from the late 2010s would probably have been painted in an overall pale grey or in two pale shades of grey with little contrast (as applied to the very late Mirage IIIs and the A-4ARs), with subdued low-viz markings and no roundels at all. I found this boring, but I also did not want to apply a retro SEA scheme, as used on the Nesher/Dagger/Finger during the Falklands War.
After turning over many options in my mind, I settled upon a two-tone grey livery, somewhat of a compromise between air superiority and attack operations, esp. over open water. The pattern was inspired by the livery of late Turkish RF-4Es, which were supposed to be painted in FS 36118 over an FS 36270 (or 36375, sources are contradictive and pictures inconclusive) overall base with a rising waterline towards the rear and the light undersides color spilling over to the wings’ upper surfaces. This scheme is simple, but looks pretty interesting, breaks up the aircraft’s outlines effectively, and it could be easily adapted to the delta-wing Kfir.
However, I changed two details in favor of an IMHO better camouflage effect at height. Firstly, the fin’s upper section was painted in the light grey (it’s all dark grey on the Turkish Phantoms), what IMHO reduces the strong contrast against the sky and the horizon. For a similar reason I secondly raised the underside’s light grey waterline towards the nose, so that the upper dark grey area became an integral anti-glare panel in front of the windscreen and the aircraft show less contrast from a frontal point of view. On the Turkish F-4s, the dark grey slopes downwards for a wrap-around area directly behind the radome.
I used Humbrol 125 (FS 36118, a pretty bluish interpretation of “Gunship Gray”) and 126 (FS 36270, US Medium Grey) as basic colors. The Gunship Gray was, after a light washing with black ink, post-shaded with FS 35164 (Humbrol 144), giving the dark grey an even more bluish hue, while the Medium Grey was treated with FS 36320.
The cockpit was painted in Camouflage Grey (Humbrol 156), the landing gear with the wells as well as the air intake ducts in standard gloss white (Humbrol 22). The Derby AAMs became light grey (Humbrol 127) with a beige radome tip, while the Gabriel ASM received a multi-color livery in black, white and light grey.
Decals and markings are purely fictional - as mentioned above, I’d assume that a real-world FAA Kfir would these days only carry minimal national markings in the form of a simple fin flash, no roundels at all and just a tiny tactical code (if at all), and everything toned-down or black. However, I wanted the model to be identified more easily, so I added some more markings, including small but full-color FAA roundels on fuselage and wings as well as full-color fin flashes, all procured from an Airfix Pucará sheet. The “Fuerza Aérea Argentina” inscription on the nose came from a Colorado Decals Mirage III/V sheet. The tactical code was taken from an Airfix sheet for an Argentinian Mirage III – it’s actually “I-016”, just turned upside down for a (much) higher/later number. 😉
After shading effects, the model only received little weathering in the form of graphite around the jet nozzle and the guns under the air intakes. Then it was sealed with matt acrylic varnish.
In the end a rather subtle conversion – even though the different rear fuselage was a major PSR stunt! The most obvious modification is probably the intake-less fin? The transplanted, different rear fuselage is hard to recognize and only true Mirage/Kfir experts might tell the changes – or the model is directly mistaken for a Mirage V fighter bomber? And even though the model carries a grey-in-grey scheme which I originally wanted to avoid, I think that the bluish touch and the integral, wavy pattern still look interesting?
However, I also like the story behind this whif that has real life roots – the real Kfir C.9 just failed to materialize because of lack of funding, and its introduction would certainly have had severe consequences for the unstable Argentinian-British relationships, since this capable aircraft would certainly pose a serious threat to the shaky peace in the Southern Atlantic and have stirred up the more or less dormant Falklands/Malvinas conflict again.
Photography & External Artistic Management by Luis Campillo.
Tassis Project by Ars Divina.
Artistic director :
- Jose Ignacio Delgado.
Actress:
- Angy Ducci.
- Laura González.
- Mariela Rodriguez.
Hairdresser Artist Olga García.
Make Up Artist Rosa Castelló.
Loft 44 Staff:
- Artistic Management Pilar Curiel.
- Lighting Assistant Jose Antonio Vicario.
- General Assistant Begoña Jimenez.
- Making of video Javier Vicario.
Thank's to Justino Díez & Monasterio de Santa María de Palazuelo, Cabezón de Pisuerga, Valladolid.
© Luís Campillo 2014
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
++++++++ from wikipedia.org ++++++++
The Alishan National Scenic Area is a mountain resort and natural preserve located in the mountains of Chiayi County in Taiwan.[citation needed]
Contents
1 Geography
2 Climate
3 Topography
4 Vegetation and wildlife
5 History
6 Attractions and landmarks
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Geography
Alishan Forest Park.
Dawn view from Alishan.
Alishan is 415 square kilometres (41,500 ha) in area. Notable characteristics include mountain wilderness, four villages, waterfalls, high altitude tea plantations, the Alishan Forest Railway, and a number of hiking trails. The area is popular with tourists and mountain climbers. Alishan, or Mount Ali, itself has become one of the major landmarks associated with Taiwan. The area is famous for its production of high mountain tea and wasabi.[citation needed]
Alishan is well known for its sunrises, and on a suitable morning one can observe the sun come up on a sea of clouds in the area between Alishan and Yüshan. Alishan and Sun Moon Lake are two of the best known scenic spots in Asia. The indigenous people of the area, the Thao people, have only recently been recognized as a discrete ethnic group. They have long been confused with the Tsou people.
Climate
Alishan National Scenic Area spans a broad range in altitude. Lower elevations, such as in Leye Township, share the same subtropical and tropical climate as the rest of southern Taiwan, while the climate changes to temperate and alpine as the elevation increases. Snow sometimes falls at higher elevations in the winter.[citation needed]
Alishan National Scenic Area covers most, but not all, of Alishan Rural Township in Chiayi County, as well as parts of neighboring townships in Taiwan.[citation needed]
Average temperatures are moderate:[citation needed]
Low elevations: 24 °C in the summer, 16 °C in the winter.
Medium elevations: 19 °C in the summer, 12 °C in the winter.
High elevations: 14 °C in the summer, 5 °C in the winter.
Topography
Alishan is mountainous:[citation needed]
Number of peaks above 2000 meters: 25
Highest point: Da Ta Shan (大塔山), 2,663 meters.
Average height of Alishan Mountain Range: 2,500 meters.
Vegetation and wildlife
Important trees in the area include:[citation needed]
Taiwania cryptomerioides, a large coniferous tree in the cypress family Cupressaceae (the same family as the next three species)
Chamaecyparis formosensis, or Formosan Cypress
Chamaecyparis taiwanensis
Cunninghamia konishii
Pinus taiwanensis, or Taiwan Red Pine
Picea morrisonicola, or Yüshan Spruce
Pseudotsuga sinensis var. wilsoniana, or Taiwan Douglas-fir
Abies kawakamii, a species of conifer in the Pinaceae family, only found in Taiwan
Tsuga chinensis var. formosana, Taiwan or Chinese Hemlock
Ulmus uyematsui, a species of elm only found in the Alishan region
History
Longyin Temple of Chukou Village in Alishan National Scenic Area.
Boardwalk at Alishan National Scenic Area.
The Alishan area was originally settled by the Tsou tribe of the Taiwanese aborigines; the name derives from the aboriginal word Jarissang. Ethnic Han Chinese settlers first settled on the plains near modern-day Chiayi as early as the late Ming Dynasty (around the mid-17th century), but did not move into the mountains until the late 18th century, establishing the towns of Ruili (瑞里), Ruifeng (瑞峰), Xiding (隙頂), and Fenqihu (奮起湖). The resulting armed clashes between the settlers and the aborigines pushed the aborigines even further into the mountains.[citation needed]
Following the cession of Taiwan to Japan at the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, Japanese expeditions to the area found large quantities of cypress (檜木, or hinoki in Japanese). This led to the development of the logging industry in the area and the export of local cypress and Taiwania wood. A series of narrow-gauge railways were built in the area during this time to facilitate the transportation of lumber from the mountains to the plains below, part of which continues to operate as the Alishan Forest Railway. Several new villages also began to sprout up along the railway lines. It was also during this time that the first tourists began to visit the area. Plans were even drawn up to incorporate the area into the new Niitaka (New Highest) Arisan National Park (新高阿里山国立公園).[citation needed]
With the exhaustion of forest resources by the 1970s, domestic and international tourism overtook logging to become the primary economic activity in the area. The tourism industry continued to expand with the completion of the Alisan highway in the 1980s, displacing the railroad as the primary mode of transportation up the mountain. To combat the problems associated with the growing crowds of tourists and the expanding tea and wasabi plantations, the area was declared a national scenic area in 2001.[citation needed]
On 1 December 2014, fire broke out at Alishan spreading over more than 5 hectares of land. The area affected was located near Tapang No. 3 Bridge. The fire was believed to happen due to dry ground which was vulnerable to fire because of the absence of rain in the area for months.[1]
Attractions and landmarks
A Japanese-built train on the Alishan Forest Railway.
Fenqihu (奮起湖) is a small town of low wooden buildings built into the mountainside at 1,400 meters, midpoint of the Alishan Forest Railway. It is famous for natural rock formations, mountain streams, forests, and the ruins of a Shinto temple in the vicinity, as well as for its production of high altitude food products such as bamboo shoots and aiyu jelly (愛玉). The local box lunches (奮起湖便當, Fenqihu bento), which were once sold to passengers on the rail line, are also well known.[citation needed]
Taiwan (/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ (About this sound listen)), officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a state in East Asia. Its neighbors include China (officially the People's Republic of China, PRC) to the west, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taiwan is the most populous state that is not a member of the United Nations and the largest economy outside the UN.
The island of Taiwan, formerly known as Formosa, was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before the 17th century, when Dutch and Spanish colonies opened the island to mass Han immigration. After a brief rule by the Kingdom of Tungning, the island was annexed by the Qing dynasty, the last dynasty of China. The Qing ceded Taiwan to Japan in 1895 after the Sino-Japanese War. While Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the Republic of China (ROC) was established on the mainland in 1912 after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Following the Japanese surrender to the Allies in 1945, the ROC took control of Taiwan. However, the resumption of the Chinese Civil War led to the ROC's loss of the mainland to the Communists, and the flight of the ROC government to Taiwan in 1949. Although the ROC continued to claim to be the legitimate government of China, its effective jurisdiction has since the loss of Hainan in 1950 been limited to Taiwan and its surrounding islands, with the main island making up 99% of its de facto territory. As a founding member of the United Nations, the ROC continued to represent China at the United Nations until 1971, when the PRC assumed China's seat, causing the ROC to lose its UN membership.
In the early 1960s, Taiwan entered a period of rapid economic growth and industrialization, creating a stable industrial economy. In the 1980s and early 1990s, it changed from a one-party military dictatorship dominated by the Kuomintang to a multi-party democracy with a semi-presidential system. Taiwan is the 22nd-largest economy in the world, and its high-tech industry plays a key role in the global economy. It is ranked highly in terms of freedom of the press, healthcare,[15] public education, economic freedom, and human development.[d][13][16] The country benefits from a highly skilled workforce and is among the most highly educated countries in the world with one of the highest percentages of its citizens holding a tertiary education degree.[17][18]
The PRC has consistently claimed sovereignty over Taiwan and asserted the ROC is no longer in legitimate existence. Under its One-China Policy the PRC refused diplomatic relations with any country that recognizes the ROC. Today 20 countries recognize the ROC as the sole legal representative of China,[19] but many other states maintain unofficial ties through representative offices and institutions that function as de facto embassies and consulates. Although Taiwan is fully self-governing, most international organizations in which the PRC participates either refuse to grant membership to Taiwan or allow it to participate only as a non-state actor. Internally, the major division in politics is between the aspirations of eventual Chinese unification or Taiwanese independence, though both sides have moderated their positions to broaden their appeal. The PRC has threatened the use of military force in response to any formal declaration of independence by Taiwan or if PRC leaders decide that peaceful unification is no longer possible.[20]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistoric Taiwan
2.2 Opening in the 17th century
2.3 Qing rule
2.4 Japanese rule
2.5 After World War II
2.6 Chinese Nationalist one-party rule
2.7 Democratization
3 Geography
3.1 Climate
3.2 Geology
4 Political and legal status
4.1 Relations with the PRC
4.2 Foreign relations
4.3 Participation in international events and organizations
4.4 Opinions within Taiwan
5 Government and politics
5.1 Major camps
5.2 Current political issues
5.3 National identity
6 Military
7 Administrative divisions
8 Economy and industry
9 Transportation
10 Education, research, and academia
11 Demographics
11.1 Ethnic groups
11.2 Languages
11.3 Religion
11.4 Largest cities
12 Public health
13 Culture
13.1 Sports
13.2 Calendar
14 See also
15 Notes
16 References
16.1 Citations
16.2 Works cited
17 Further reading
18 External links
18.1 Overviews and data
18.2 Government agencies
Etymology
See also: Chinese Taipei, Formosa, and Names of China
Taiwan
Taiwan (Chinese characters).svg
"Taiwan" in Traditional (top) and Simplified (bottom) Chinese characters
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 臺灣 or 台灣
Simplified Chinese 台湾
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Táiwān
Bopomofo ㄊㄞˊ ㄨㄢ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Tair'uan
Wade–Giles T'ai²-wan¹
Tongyong Pinyin Táiwan
IPA [tʰǎi.wán]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing تَاَىْوًا
Wu
Romanization The平-uae平
Xiang
IPA dwɛ13 ua44
Hakka
Romanization Thòi-vàn
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Tòiwāan
Jyutping Toi4waan1
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tâi-oân
Tâi-lô Tâi-uân
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dài-uăng
China
Traditional Chinese 中國
Simplified Chinese 中国
Literal meaning Middle or Central State[21]
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Zhōngguó
Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jong'gwo
Wade–Giles Chung1-kuo2
Tongyong Pinyin Jhongguó
MPS2 Jūng-guó
IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋ.kwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع
Sichuanese Pinyin Zong1 gwe2
Wu
Romanization Tson平-koh入
Gan
Romanization Tung-koe̍t
Xiang
IPA Tan33-kwɛ24/
Hakka
Romanization Dung24-gued2
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Jūnggwok
Jyutping Zung1gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tiong-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dṳ̆ng-guók
Pu-Xian Min
Hinghwa BUC De̤ng-go̤h
Northern Min
Jian'ou Romanized Dô̤ng-gŏ
Republic of China
Traditional Chinese 中華民國
Simplified Chinese 中华民国
Postal Chunghwa Minkuo
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Zhōnghuá Mínguó
Bopomofo ㄓㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄇㄧㄣˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jonghwa Min'gwo
Wade–Giles Chung¹-hua² Min²-kuo²
Tongyong Pinyin Jhonghuá Mínguó
MPS2 Jūng-huá Mín-guó
IPA [ʈʂʊ́ŋxwǎ mǐnkwǒ]
other Mandarin
Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ مٍ ﻗُﻮَع
Wu
Romanization tson平 gho平 min平 koh入
Gan
Romanization tung1 fa4 min4 koet7
Hakka
Romanization Chûng-fà Mìn-koet
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Jūngwà màn'gwok
Jyutping Zung1waa4 man4gwok3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJ Tiong-hôa Bîn-kok
Tâi-lô Tiong-hûa Bîn-kok
Eastern Min
Fuzhou BUC Dṳ̆ng-huà Mìng-guók
Japanese name
Kanji 台湾
Kana たいわん
Kyūjitai 臺灣
Transcriptions
Romanization Taiwan
There are various names for the island of Taiwan in use today, derived from explorers or rulers by each particular period. The former name Formosa (福爾摩沙) dates from 1542,[verification needed] when Portuguese sailors sighted the main island of Taiwan and named it Ilha Formosa, which means "beautiful island".[22] The name "Formosa" eventually "replaced all others in European literature"[23] and was in common use in English in the early 20th century.[24]
In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established a commercial post at Fort Zeelandia (modern-day Anping, Tainan) on a coastal sandbar called "Tayouan",[25] after their ethnonym for a nearby Taiwanese aboriginal tribe, written by the Dutch and Portuguese variously as Taiouwang, Tayowan, Teijoan, etc.[26] This name was also adopted into the Chinese vernacular (in particular, Hokkien, as Pe̍h-ōe-jī: Tāi-oân/Tâi-oân) as the name of the sandbar and nearby area (Tainan). The modern word "Taiwan" is derived from this usage, which is seen in various forms (大員, 大圓, 大灣, 臺員, 臺圓 and 臺窩灣) in Chinese historical records. The area of modern-day Tainan was the first permanent settlement by Western colonists and Chinese immigrants, grew to be the most important trading centre, and served as the capital of the island until 1887. Use of the current Chinese name (臺灣) was formalized as early as 1684 with the establishment of Taiwan Prefecture. Through its rapid development, the entire Formosan mainland eventually became known as "Taiwan".[27][28][29][30]
In his Daoyi Zhilüe (1349), Wang Dayuan used "Liuqiu" as a name for the island of Taiwan, or the part of it near to Penghu.[31] Elsewhere, the name was used for the Ryukyu Islands in general or Okinawa, the largest of them; indeed the name Ryūkyū is the Japanese form of Liúqiú. The name also appears in the Book of Sui (636) and other early works, but scholars cannot agree on whether these references are to the Ryukyus, Taiwan or even Luzon.[32]
The official name of the state is the "Republic of China"; it has also been known under various names throughout its existence. Shortly after the ROC's establishment in 1912, while it was still located on the Chinese mainland, the government used the short form "China" Zhōngguó (中國), to refer to itself, which derives from zhōng ("central" or "middle") and guó ("state, nation-state"), [e] A term which also developed under the Zhou Dynasty in reference to its royal demesne[f] and the name was then applied to the area around Luoyi (present-day Luoyang) during the Eastern Zhou and then to China's Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qingera .[34] During the 1950s and 1960s, after the government had fled to Taiwan due to losing the Chinese Civil War, it was commonly referred to as "Nationalist China" (or "Free China") to differentiate it from "Communist China" (or "Red China").[36] It was a member of the United Nations representing "China" until 1971, when it lost its seat to the People's Republic of China. Over subsequent decades, the Republic of China has become commonly known as "Taiwan", after the island that comprises 99% of the territory under its control. In some contexts, especially official ones from the ROC government, the name is written as "Republic of China (Taiwan)", "Republic of China/Taiwan", or sometimes "Taiwan (ROC)."[37] The Republic of China participates in most international forums and organizations under the name "Chinese Taipei" due to diplomatic pressure from the People's Republic of China. For instance, it is the name under which it has competed at the Olympic Games since 1984, and its name as an observer at the World Health Organization.[38]
History
Main articles: History of Taiwan and History of the Republic of China
See the History of China article for historical information in the Chinese Mainland before 1949.
Prehistoric Taiwan
Main article: Prehistory of Taiwan
A young Tsou man
Taiwan was joined to the mainland in the Late Pleistocene, until sea levels rose about 10,000 years ago. Fragmentary human remains dated 20,000 to 30,000 years ago have been found on the island, as well as later artefacts of a Paleolithic culture.[39][40][41]
Around 6,000 years ago, Taiwan was settled by farmers, most likely from mainland China.[42] They are believed to be the ancestors of today's Taiwanese aborigines, whose languages belong to the Austronesian language family, but show much greater diversity than the rest of the family, which spans a huge area from Maritime Southeast Asia west to Madagascar and east as far as New Zealand, Hawaii and Easter Island. This has led linguists to propose Taiwan as the urheimat of the family, from which seafaring peoples dispersed across Southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans.[43][44]
Han Chinese fishermen began settling in the Penghu islands in the 13th century, but Taiwan's hostile tribes and its lack of valuable trade products meant that few outsiders visited the island until the 16th century, when visits to the coast by fishermen from Fujian and Chinese and Japanese pirates became more frequent.[45]
Opening in the 17th century
Main articles: Dutch Formosa, Spanish Formosa, and Kingdom of Tungning
Fort Zeelandia, the Governor's residence in Dutch Formosa
The Dutch East India Company attempted to establish a trading outpost on the Penghu Islands (Pescadores) in 1622, but were militarily defeated and driven off by the Ming authorities.[46]
In 1624, the company established a stronghold called Fort Zeelandia on the coastal islet of Tayouan, which is now part of the main island at Anping, Tainan.[30] David Wright, a Scottish agent of the company who lived on the island in the 1650s, described the lowland areas of the island as being divided among 11 chiefdoms ranging in size from two settlements to 72. Some of these fell under Dutch control, while others remained independent.[30][47] The Company began to import labourers from Fujian and Penghu (Pescadores), many of whom settled.[46]
In 1626, the Spanish Empire landed on and occupied northern Taiwan, at the ports of Keelung and Tamsui, as a base to extend their trading. This colonial period lasted 16 years until 1642, when the last Spanish fortress fell to Dutch forces.
Following the fall of the Ming dynasty, Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong), a self-styled Ming loyalist, arrived on the island and captured Fort Zeelandia in 1662, expelling the Dutch Empire and military from the island. Koxinga established the Kingdom of Tungning (1662–1683), with his capital at Tainan. He and his heirs, Zheng Jing, who ruled from 1662 to 1682, and Zheng Keshuang, who ruled less than a year, continued to launch raids on the southeast coast of mainland China well into the Qing dynasty era.[46]
Qing rule
Main article: Taiwan under Qing Dynasty rule
Hunting deer, painted in 1746
In 1683, following the defeat of Koxinga's grandson by an armada led by Admiral Shi Lang of southern Fujian, the Qing dynasty formally annexed Taiwan, placing it under the jurisdiction of Fujian province. The Qing imperial government tried to reduce piracy and vagrancy in the area, issuing a series of edicts to manage immigration and respect aboriginal land rights. Immigrants mostly from southern Fujian continued to enter Taiwan. The border between taxpaying lands and "savage" lands shifted eastward, with some aborigines becoming sinicized while others retreated into the mountains. During this time, there were a number of conflicts between groups of Han Chinese from different regions of southern Fujian, particularly between those from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, and between southern Fujian Chinese and aborigines.
Northern Taiwan and the Penghu Islands were the scene of subsidiary campaigns in the Sino-French War (August 1884 to April 1885). The French occupied Keelung on 1 October 1884, but were repulsed from Tamsui a few days later. The French won some tactical victories but were unable to exploit them, and the Keelung Campaign ended in stalemate. The Pescadores Campaign, beginning on 31 March 1885, was a French victory, but had no long-term consequences. The French evacuated both Keelung and the Penghu archipelago after the end of the war.
In 1887, the Qing upgraded the island's administration from Taiwan Prefecture of Fujian to Fujian-Taiwan-Province (福建臺灣省), the twentieth in the empire, with its capital at Taipei. This was accompanied by a modernization drive that included building China's first railroad.[48]
Japanese rule
Main articles: Taiwan under Japanese rule and Republic of Formosa
Japanese colonial soldiers march Taiwanese captured after the Tapani Incident from the Tainan jail to court, 1915.
As the Qing dynasty was defeated in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), Taiwan, along with Penghu and Liaodong Peninsula, were ceded in full sovereignty to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Inhabitants on Taiwan and Penghu wishing to remain Qing subjects were given a two-year grace period to sell their property and move to mainland China. Very few Taiwanese saw this as feasible.[49] On 25 May 1895, a group of pro-Qing high officials proclaimed the Republic of Formosa to resist impending Japanese rule. Japanese forces entered the capital at Tainan and quelled this resistance on 21 October 1895.[50] Guerrilla fighting continued periodically until about 1902 and ultimately took the lives of 14,000 Taiwanese, or 0.5% of the population.[51] Several subsequent rebellions against the Japanese (the Beipu uprising of 1907, the Tapani incident of 1915, and the Musha incident of 1930) were all unsuccessful but demonstrated opposition to Japanese colonial rule.
Japanese colonial rule was instrumental in the industrialization of the island, extending the railroads and other transportation networks, building an extensive sanitation system, and establishing a formal education system.[52] Japanese rule ended the practice of headhunting.[53] During this period the human and natural resources of Taiwan were used to aid the development of Japan and the production of cash crops such as rice and sugar greatly increased. By 1939, Taiwan was the seventh greatest sugar producer in the world.[54] Still, the Taiwanese and aborigines were classified as second- and third-class citizens. After suppressing Chinese guerrillas in the first decade of their rule, Japanese authorities engaged in a series of bloody campaigns against the mountain aboriginals, culminating in the Musha Incident of 1930.[55] Also, those intellectual and labours who participated in left-wing movement of Taiwan were arrested and massacred (e.g. Tsiúnn Uī-Suí(蔣渭水), masanosuke watanabe(渡辺政之辅)).[56]
Around 1935, the Japanese began an island-wide assimilation project to bind the island more firmly to the Japanese Empire and people were taught to see themselves as Japanese under the Kominka Movement, during which time Taiwanese culture and religion were outlawed and the citizens were encouraged to adopt Japanese surnames.[57] The "South Strike Group" was based at the Taihoku Imperial University in Taipei. During World War II, tens of thousands of Taiwanese served in the Japanese military.[58] For example, former ROC President Lee Teng-hui's elder brother served in the Japanese navy and was killed in action in the Philippines in February 1945. The Imperial Japanese Navy operated heavily out of Taiwanese ports. In October 1944, the Formosa Air Battle was fought between American carriers and Japanese forces based in Taiwan. Important Japanese military bases and industrial centres throughout Taiwan, like Kaohsiung, were targets of heavy American bombings.[59] Also during this time, over 2,000 women were forced into sexual slavery for Imperial Japanese troops, now euphemistically called "comfort women."[60]
In 1938, there were 309,000 Japanese settlers in Taiwan.[61] After World War II, most of the Japanese were expelled and sent to Japan.[62]
After World War II
Main article: Taiwan after World War II
General Chen Yi (right) accepting the receipt of General Order No. 1 from Rikichi Andō (left), the last Japanese Governor-General of Taiwan, in Taipei City Hall
On 25 October 1945, the US Navy ferried ROC troops to Taiwan in order to accept the formal surrender of Japanese military forces in Taipei on behalf of the Allied Powers, as part of General Order No. 1 for temporary military occupation. General Rikichi Andō, governor-general of Taiwan and commander-in-chief of all Japanese forces on the island, signed the receipt and handed it over to General Chen Yi of the ROC military to complete the official turnover. Chen Yi proclaimed that day to be "Taiwan Retrocession Day", but the Allies considered Taiwan and the Penghu Islands to be under military occupation and still under Japanese sovereignty until 1952, when the Treaty of San Francisco took effect.[63][64] Although the 1943 Cairo Declaration had envisaged returning these territories to China, in the Treaty of San Francisco and Treaty of Taipei Japan has renounced all claim to them without specifying to what country they were to be surrendered. This introduced the problem of the legal status of Taiwan.
The ROC administration of Taiwan under Chen Yi was strained by increasing tensions between Taiwanese-born people and newly arrived mainlanders, which were compounded by economic woes, such as hyperinflation. Furthermore, cultural and linguistic conflicts between the two groups quickly led to the loss of popular support for the new government, while the mass movement led by the working committee of the communist also aimed to bring down the Kuomintang government.[65][66] The shooting of a civilian on 28 February 1947 triggered island-wide unrest, which was suppressed with military force in what is now called the February 28 Incident. Mainstream estimates of the number killed range from 18,000 to 30,000. Those killed were mainly members of the Taiwanese elite.[67][68]
Chinese Nationalist one-party rule
Main articles: Chinese Civil War, Chinese Communist Revolution, and History of the Republic of China § Republic of China on Taiwan (1949–present)
For the history of Republic of China before 1949, see Republic of China (1912–49).
The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing (Nanking) they next moved to Guangzhou (Canton), then to Chongqing (Chungking), Chengdu (Chengtu) and Xichang (Sichang) before arriving in Taipei.
After the end of World War II, the Chinese Civil War resumed between the Chinese Nationalists (Kuomintang), led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong. Throughout the months of 1949, a series of Chinese Communist offensives led to the capture of its capital Nanjing on 23 April and the subsequent defeat of the Nationalist army on the mainland, and the Communists founded the People's Republic of China on 1 October.[69]
On 7 December 1949, after the loss of four capitals, Chiang evacuated his Nationalist government to Taiwan and made Taipei the temporary capital of the ROC (also called the "wartime capital" by Chiang Kai-shek).[70] Some 2 million people, consisting mainly of soldiers, members of the ruling Kuomintang and intellectual and business elites, were evacuated from mainland China to Taiwan at that time, adding to the earlier population of approximately six million. In addition, the ROC government took to Taipei many national treasures and much of China's gold reserves and foreign currency reserves.[71][72][73]
After losing most of the mainland, the Kuomintang held remaining control of Tibet, the portions of Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Yunnan provinces along with the Hainan Island until 1951 before the Communists subsequently captured both territories. From this point onwards, the Kuomintang's territory was reduced to Taiwan, Penghu, the portions of the Fujian province (Kinmen and Matsu Islands), and two major islands of Dongsha Islands and Nansha Islands. The Kuomintang continued to claim sovereignty over all "China", which it defined to include mainland China, Taiwan, Outer Mongolia and other areas. On mainland China, the victorious Communists claimed they ruled the sole and only China (which they claimed included Taiwan) and that the Republic of China no longer existed.[74]
A Chinese man in military uniform, smiling and looking towards the left. He holds a sword in his left hand and has a medal in shape of a sun on his chest.
Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Kuomintang from 1925 until his death in 1975
Martial law, declared on Taiwan in May 1949,[75] continued to be in effect after the central government relocated to Taiwan. It was not repealed until 1987,[75] and was used as a way to suppress the political opposition in the intervening years.[76] During the White Terror, as the period is known, 140,000 people were imprisoned or executed for being perceived as anti-KMT or pro-Communist.[77] Many citizens were arrested, tortured, imprisoned and executed for their real or perceived link to the Communists. Since these people were mainly from the intellectual and social elite, an entire generation of political and social leaders was decimated. In 1998 law was passed to create the "Compensation Foundation for Improper Verdicts" which oversaw compensation to White Terror victims and families. President Ma Ying-jeou made an official apology in 2008, expressing hope that there will never be a tragedy similar to White Terror.[78]
Initially, the United States abandoned the KMT and expected that Taiwan would fall to the Communists. However, in 1950 the conflict between North Korea and South Korea, which had been ongoing since the Japanese withdrawal in 1945, escalated into full-blown war, and in the context of the Cold War, US President Harry S. Truman intervened again and dispatched the US Navy's 7th Fleet into the Taiwan Strait to prevent hostilities between Taiwan and mainland China.[79] In the Treaty of San Francisco and the Treaty of Taipei, which came into force respectively on 28 April 1952 and 5 August 1952, Japan formally renounced all right, claim and title to Taiwan and Penghu, and renounced all treaties signed with China before 1942. Neither treaty specified to whom sovereignty over the islands should be transferred, because the United States and the United Kingdom disagreed on whether the ROC or the PRC was the legitimate government of China.[80] Continuing conflict of the Chinese Civil War through the 1950s, and intervention by the United States notably resulted in legislation such as the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty and the Formosa Resolution of 1955.
With President Chiang Kai-shek, the US President Dwight D. Eisenhower waved to crowds during his visit to Taipei in June 1960.
As the Chinese Civil War continued without truce, the government built up military fortifications throughout Taiwan. Within this effort, KMT veterans built the now famous Central Cross-Island Highway through the Taroko Gorge in the 1950s. The two sides would continue to engage in sporadic military clashes with seldom publicized details well into the 1960s on the China coastal islands with an unknown number of night raids. During the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis in September 1958, Taiwan's landscape saw Nike-Hercules missile batteries added, with the formation of the 1st Missile Battalion Chinese Army that would not be deactivated until 1997. Newer generations of missile batteries have since replaced the Nike Hercules systems throughout the island.
During the 1960s and 1970s, the ROC maintained an authoritarian, single-party government while its economy became industrialized and technology oriented. This rapid economic growth, known as the Taiwan Miracle, was the result of a fiscal regime independent from mainland China and backed up, among others, by the support of US funds and demand for Taiwanese products.[81][82] In the 1970s, Taiwan was economically the second fastest growing state in Asia after Japan.[83] Taiwan, along with Hong Kong, South Korea and Singapore, became known as one of the Four Asian Tigers. Because of the Cold War, most Western nations and the United Nations regarded the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China until the 1970s. Later, especially after the termination of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty, most nations switched diplomatic recognition to the PRC (see United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758).
Up until the 1970s, the government was regarded by Western critics as undemocratic for upholding martial law, for severely repressing any political opposition and for controlling media. The KMT did not allow the creation of new parties and those that existed did not seriously compete with the KMT. Thus, competitive democratic elections did not exist.[84][85][86][87][88] From the late 1970s to the 1990s, however, Taiwan went through reforms and social changes that transformed it from an authoritarian state to a democracy. In 1979, a pro-democracy protest known as the Kaohsiung Incident took place in Kaohsiung to celebrate Human Rights Day. Although the protest was rapidly crushed by the authorities, it is today considered as the main event that united Taiwan's opposition.[89]
Democratization
Main articles: Democratic reforms of Taiwan and Elections in Taiwan
Chiang Ching-kuo, Chiang Kai-shek's son and successor as the president, began to liberalize the political system in the mid-1980s. In 1984, the younger Chiang selected Lee Teng-hui, a Taiwanese-born, US-educated technocrat, to be his vice-president. In 1986, the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) was formed and inaugurated as the first opposition party in the ROC to counter the KMT. A year later, Chiang Ching-kuo lifted martial law on the main island of Taiwan (martial law was lifted on Penghu in 1979, Matsu island in 1992 and Kinmen island in 1993). With the advent of democratization, the issue of the political status of Taiwan gradually resurfaced as a controversial issue where, previously, the discussion of anything other than unification under the ROC was taboo.
After the death of Chiang Ching-kuo in January 1988, Lee Teng-hui succeeded him as president. Lee continued to democratize the government and decrease the concentration of government authority in the hands of mainland Chinese. Under Lee, Taiwan underwent a process of localization in which Taiwanese culture and history were promoted over a pan-China viewpoint in contrast to earlier KMT policies which had promoted a Chinese identity. Lee's reforms included printing banknotes from the Central Bank rather than the Provincial Bank of Taiwan, and streamlining the Taiwan Provincial Government with most of its functions transferred to the Executive Yuan. Under Lee, the original members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly(a former supreme legislative body defunct in 2005）,[90] elected in 1947 to represent mainland Chinese constituencies and having held the seats without re-election for more than four decades, were forced to resign in 1991. The previously nominal representation in the Legislative Yuan was brought to an end, reflecting the reality that the ROC had no jurisdiction over mainland China, and vice versa. Restrictions on the use of Taiwanese Hokkien in the broadcast media and in schools were also lifted.[citation needed]
US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and Taiwan's special envoy to the APEC summit, Lien Chan, November 2011
Democratic reforms continued in the 1990s, with Lee Teng-hui re-elected in 1996, in the first direct presidential election in the history of the ROC.[91] During the later years of Lee's administration, he was involved in corruption controversies relating to government release of land and weapons purchase, although no legal proceedings commenced. In 1997,"To meet the requisites of the nation prior to national unification",[92] the Additional Articles of the Constitution of the Republic of China was passed and then the former "constitution of five powers" turns to be more tripartite. In 2000, Chen Shui-bian of the Democratic Progressive Party was elected as the first non-Kuomintang (KMT) President and was re-elected to serve his second and last term since 2004. Polarized politics has emerged in Taiwan with the formation of the Pan-Blue Coalition of parties led by the KMT, favouring eventual Chinese reunification, and the Pan-Green Coalition of parties led by the DPP, favouring an eventual and official declaration of Taiwanese independence.[93][clarification needed] In early 2006, President Chen Shui-bian remarked: “The National Unification Council will cease to function. No budget will be ear-marked for it and its personnel must return to their original posts...The National Unification Guidelines will cease to apply."[94]
The ruling DPP has traditionally leaned in favour of Taiwan independence and rejects the so-called "One-China policy".
On 30 September 2007, the ruling DPP approved a resolution asserting a separate identity from China and called for the enactment of a new constitution for a "normal country". It also called for general use of "Taiwan" as the country's name, without abolishing its formal name, the Republic of China.[95] The Chen administration also pushed for referendums on national defence and UN entry in the 2004 and 2008 elections, which failed due to voter turnout below the required legal threshold of 50% of all registered voters.[96] The Chen administration was dogged by public concerns over reduced economic growth, legislative gridlock due to a pan-blue, opposition-controlled Legislative Yuan and corruption involving the First Family as well as government officials.[97][98]
The KMT increased its majority in the Legislative Yuan in the January 2008 legislative elections, while its nominee Ma Ying-jeou went on to win the presidency in March of the same year, campaigning on a platform of increased economic growth and better ties with the PRC under a policy of "mutual nondenial".[96] Ma took office on 20 May 2008, the same day that President Chen Shui-bian stepped down and was notified by prosecutors of possible corruption charges. Part of the rationale for campaigning for closer economic ties with the PRC stems from the strong economic growth China attained since joining the World Trade Organization. However, some analysts say that despite the election of Ma Ying-jeou, the diplomatic and military tensions with the PRC have not been reduced.[99]
Bought another External Hard Drive last week. I find I need lots of room for my photos. With these two large External Hard Drives I have lots of TB's of space. I also have two internal hard drives in my computer. It's good to have photos of your equipment to keep a record of them.
Not sure what this structure is that it needs so much external bracing. It's part of the old industrial area in Mile End, which is good hunting grounds for me.