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Snowdonia, or Eryri is a mountainous region and national park in North Wales. It contains all 15 mountains in Wales over 3000 feet high, including the country's highest, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), which is 1,085 metres (3,560 ft) tall. These peaks are all part of the Snowdon, Glyderau, and Carneddau ranges in the north of the region. The shorter Moelwynion and Moel Hebog ranges lie immediately to the south.

 

The national park has an area of 823 square miles (2,130 km2) (the fourth-largest in the UK), and covers most of central and southern Gwynedd and the western part of Conwy County Borough. This is much larger than the area traditionally considered Snowdonia, and in addition to the five ranges above includes the Rhinogydd, Cadair Idris, and Aran ranges and the Dyfi Hills. It also includes most of the coast between Porthmadog and Aberdyfi. The park was the first of the three national parks of Wales to be designated, in October 1951, and the third in the UK after the Peak District and Lake District, which were established in April and May 1951 respectively. The park received 3.89 million visitors in 2015.

 

The name Snowdon means 'snow hill' and is derived from the Old English elements snāw and dūn, the latter meaning 'hill'. Snowdonia is simply taken from the name of the mountain.

 

The origins of Eryri are less clear. Two popular interpretations are that the name is related to eryr, 'eagle', and that it means 'highlands' and is related to the Latin oriri ('to rise'). Although eryri is not any direct form of the word eryr in the meaning 'eagle', it is a plural form of eryr in the meaning 'upland'.

 

Before the boundaries of the national park were designated, "Snowdonia" was generally used to refer to a smaller upland area of northern Gwynedd centred on the Snowdon massif. The national park covers an area more than twice that size, extending south into the Meirionnydd area.

 

This difference is apparent in books published before 1951. In George Borrow's 1907 Wild Wales he states that "Snowdon or Eryri is no single hill, but a mountainous region, the loftiest part of which is called Y Wyddfa", making a distinction between the summit of the mountain and the surrounding massif. The Mountains of Snowdonia by H. Carr & G. Lister (1925) defines "Eryri" as "composed of the two cantrefs of Arfon and Arllechwedd, and the two commotes of Nant Conwy and Eifionydd", which corresponds to Caernarfonshire with the exception of southwest Llŷn and the Creuddyn Peninsula. In Snowdonia: The National Park of North Wales (1949), F. J. North states that "When the Committee delineated provisional boundaries, they included areas some distance beyond Snowdonia proper".

 

Snowdonia National Park, also known as Eryri National Park in English and Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri in Welsh, was established in October 1951. It was the third national park in the United Kingdom, following the Peak District and Lake District in April and May of the same year. It covers 827 square miles (2,140 km2) in the counties of Gwynedd and Conwy, and has 37 miles (60 km) of coastline.

 

The park is governed by the Snowdonia National Park Authority, which has 18 members: 9 appointed by Gwynedd, 3 by Conwy, and 6 by the Welsh Government to represent the national interest. The authority's main offices are at Penrhyndeudraeth.

 

The park authority used Snowdonia and Snowdon when referring to the national park and mountain in English until February 2023, when it resolved to primarily use the Welsh names, Eryri and Yr Wyddfa. There will be a transitional period of approximately two years in which the authority will continue to use the English names in parentheses — for example "Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon)" — where the context requires.

 

Unlike national parks in other countries, national parks in the UK are made up of both public and private lands under a central planning authority. The makeup of land ownership in the national park is as follows:

 

More than 26,000 people live within the park, of whom 58.6% could speak Welsh in 2011. While most of the land is either open or mountainous land, there is a significant amount of agricultural activity within the park.

 

The national park does not include the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which forms a unique non-designated enclave within the park boundaries. The town was deliberately excluded from the park when it was established because of its slate quarrying industry. The boundaries of the Peak District National Park exclude the town of Buxton and its adjacent limestone quarries for a similar reason.

 

The geology of Snowdonia is key to the area's character. Glaciation during a succession of ice ages, has carved from a heavily faulted and folded succession of sedimentary and igneous rocks, a distinctive rocky landscape. The last ice age ended only just over 11,500 years ago, leaving a legacy of features attractive to visitors but which have also played a part in the development of geological science and continue to provide a focus for educational visits. Visiting Cwm Idwal in 1841 Charles Darwin realised that the landscape was the product of glaciation. The bedrock dates largely from the Cambrian and Ordovician periods with intrusions of Ordovician and Silurian age associated with the Caledonian Orogeny. There are smaller areas of Silurian age sedimentary rocks in the south and northeast and of Cenozoic era strata on the Cardigan Bay coast though the latter are concealed by more recent deposits. Low grade metamorphism of Cambrian and Ordovician mudstones has resulted in the slates, the extraction of which once formed the mainstay of the area's economy.

 

The principal ranges of the traditional Snowdonia are the Snowdon massif itself, the Glyderau, the Carneddau, the Moelwynion and the Moel Hebog range. All of Wales' 3000ft mountains are to be found within the first three of these massifs and are most popular with visitors. To their south within the wider national park are the Rhinogydd and the Cadair Idris and Aran Fawddwy ranges. Besides these well-defined areas are a host of mountains which are less readily grouped though various guidebook writers have assigned them into groups such as the 'Arenigs', the 'Tarrens' and the 'Dyfi hills'.

 

Snowdon's summit at 1085 metres (3560 feet) is the highest in Wales and the highest in Britain south of the Scottish Highlands. At 905 metres (2970 feet) Aran Fawddwy is the highest in Wales outside of northern Snowdonia; Cadair Idris, at 893 metres (2930 feet), is next in line.

 

Rivers draining the area empty directly into Cardigan Bay are typically short and steep. From north to south they include the Glaslyn and Dwyryd which share a common estuary, the Mawddach and its tributaries the Wnion and the Eden, the smaller Dysynni and on the park's southern margin the Dyfi. A series of rivers drain to the north coast. Largest of these is the Conwy on the park's eastern margin which along with the Ogwen drains into Conwy Bay. Further west the Seiont and Gwyrfai empty into the western end of the Menai Strait. A part of the east of the national park is within the upper Dee (Dyfrydwy) catchment and includes Bala Lake, the largest natural waterbody in Wales. A fuller list of the rivers and tributaries within the area is found at List of rivers of Wales.

 

There are few natural waterbodies of any size in Wales; Snowdonia is home to most. Besides Bala Lake, a few lakes occupy glacial troughs including Llyn Padarn and Llyn Peris at Llanberis and Tal-y-llyn Lake south of Cadair Idris. Llyn Dinas, Llyn Gwynant, and Llyn Cwellyn to the south and west of Snowdon feature in this category as do Llyn Cowlyd and Llyn Ogwen on the margins of the Carneddau. There are numerous small lakes occupying glacial cirques owing to the former intensity of glacial action in Snowdonia. Known generically as tarns, examples include Llyn Llydaw, Glaslyn and Llyn Du'r Arddu on Snowdon, Llyn Idwal within the Glyderau and Llyn Cau on Cadair Idris.

 

There are two large wholly man-made bodies of water in the area, Llyn Celyn and Llyn Trawsfynydd whilst numerous of the natural lakes have had their levels artificially raised to different degrees. Marchlyn Mawr reservoir and Ffestiniog Power Station's Llyn Stwlan are two cases where natural tarns have been dammed as part of pumped storage hydro-electric schemes. A fuller list of the lakes within the area is found at List of lakes of Wales. In 2023, the park standardised its Welsh language lake names, to be also used in English.

 

The national park meets the Irish Sea coast within Cardigan Bay between the Dovey estuary in the south and the Dwyryd estuary. The larger part of that frontage is characterised by dune systems, the largest of which are Morfa Dyffryn and Morfa Harlech. These two locations have two of the largest sand/shingle spits in Wales. The major indentations of the Dovey, the Mawddach and Dwyryd estuaries, have large expanses of intertidal sands and coastal marsh which are especially important for wildlife: see #Natural history. The northern tip of the national park extends to the north coast of Wales at Penmaen-bach Point, west of Conwy, where precipitous cliffs have led to the road and railway negotiating the spot in tunnels.

 

There are only three towns within the park boundary, though there are several more immediately beyond it. Dolgellau is the most populous followed by Bala on the eastern boundary and then Harlech overlooking Tremadog Bay. More populous than these is the town of Blaenau Ffestiniog, which is within an exclave, that is to say it is surrounded by the national park but excluded from it, whilst the towns of Tywyn and Barmouth on the Cardigan Bay coast are within coastal exclaves. Llanrwst in the east, Machynlleth in the south and Porthmadog and Penrhyndeudraeth in the west are immediately beyond the boundary but still identified with the park; indeed the last of these hosts the headquarters of the Snowdonia National Park Authority. Similarly the local economies of the towns of Conwy, Bethesda, and Llanberis in the north are inseparably linked to the national park as they provide multiple visitor services. The lower terminus of the Snowdon Mountain Railway is at Llanberis. Though adjacent to it, Llanfairfechan and Penmaenmawr are less obviously linked to the park.

 

There are numerous smaller settlements within the national park: prominent amongst these are the eastern 'gateway' village of Betws-y-Coed, Aberdyfi on the Dovey (Dyfi) estuary and the small village of Beddgelert each of which attract large numbers of visitors. Other sizeable villages are Llanuwchllyn at the southwest end of Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid), Dyffryn Ardudwy, Corris, Trawsfynydd, Llanbedr, Trefriw and Dolwyddelan.

 

Six primary routes serve Snowdonia, the busiest of which is the A55, a dual carriageway which runs along the north coast and provides strategic road access to the northern part of the national park. The most important north–south route within the park is the A470 running from the A55 south past Betws-y-Coed to Blaenau Ffestiniog to Dolgellau. It exits the park a few miles to the southeast near Mallwyd. From Dolgellau, the A494 runs to Bala whilst the A487 connects with Machynlleth. The A487 loops around the northwest of the park from Bangor via Caernarfon to Porthmadog before turning in land to meet the A470 east of Maentwrog. The A5 was built as a mail coach road by Thomas Telford between London and Holyhead; it enters the park near Pentrefoelas and leaves it near Bethesda. Other A class roads provide more local links; the A493 down the Dovey valley from Machynlleth and up the coast to Tywyn then back up the Mawddach valley to Dolgellau, the A496 from Dolgellau down the north side of the Mawddach to Barmouth then north up the coast via Harlech to Maentwrog. The A4212 connecting Bala with Trawsfynydd is relatively modern having been laid out in the 1960s in connection with the construction of Llyn Celyn. Three further roads thread their often twisting and narrow way through the northern mountains; A4085 links Penrhyndeudraeth with Caernarfon, the A4086 links Capel Curig with Caernarfon via Llanberis and the A498 links Tremadog with the A4086 at Pen-y-Gwryd. Other roads of note include that from Llanuwchllyn up Cwm Cynllwyd to Dinas Mawddwy via the 545 metre (1788') high pass of Bwlch y Groes, the second highest tarmacked public road in Wales and the minor road running northwest and west from Llanuwchllyn towards Bronaber via the 531 metre (1742') high pass of Bwlch Pen-feidiog.

 

The double track North Wales Coast Line passes along the northern boundary of the park between Conwy and Bangor briefly entering it at Penmaen-bach Point where it is in tunnel. Stations serve the communities of Conwy, Penmaenmawr, Llanfairfechan and Bangor. The single-track Conwy Valley Line runs south from Llandudno Junction, entering the park north of Betws-y-coed which is served by a station then west up the Lledr valley by way of further stations at Pont-y-pant, Dolwyddelan and Roman Bridge. After passing through a tunnel the passenger line now terminates at Blaenau Ffestiniog railway station. Prior to 1961 the route continued as the Bala and Ffestiniog Railway via Trawsfynydd to Bala joining another former route along the Dee valley which ran southwest via Dolgellau to join the still extant coastal Cambrian Line south of Barmouth. The Pwllheli branch of the Cambrian Line splits from the Aberystwyth branch at Dovey Junction and continues via stations at Aberdovey, Tywyn, Tonfanau, Llwyngwril, Fairbourne and Morfa Mawddach to Barmouth where it crosses the Mawddach estuary by the Grade II* listed wooden Barmouth Bridge, a structure which also provides for walkers and cyclists. Further stations serve Llanaber, Tal-y-bont, Dyffryn Ardudwy, Llanbedr, Pensarn and Llandanwg before reaching Harlech. Tygwyn, Talsarnau and Llandecwyn stations are the last before the line exits the park as it crosses the Dwyryd estuary via Pont Briwet and turns westwards bound for Pwllheli via Penrhyndeudraeth, Porthmadog and Criccieth.

 

Many sections of dismantled railway are now used by walking and cycling routes and are described elsewhere. The Bala Lake Railway is a heritage railway which has been established along a section of the former mainline route between Bala and Llanuwchllyn. Other heritage railways occupy sections of former mineral lines, often narrow gauge and are described in a separate section.

 

The national park is served by a growing bus network, branded Sherpa'r Wyddfa (formerly Snowdon Sherpa). Together with the TrawsCymru network of buses this provides a car-free option to tourists and locals wishing to travel across the National Park.

 

The network was relaunched in July 2022 with a new brand, Sherpa'r Wyddfa, to reflect the National Park's new push for the promotion of Welsh place names. As such the publicity and websites for the newly branded service only use these Welsh names, even for English language users.

 

Snowdonia is one of the wettest parts of the United Kingdom; Crib Goch in Snowdonia is the wettest spot in the United Kingdom, with an average rainfall of 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) a year over the 30-year period prior to the mid-2000s. (There is a rainfall gauge at 713 metres, 2340' on the slopes below Crib Goch.)

 

The earliest evidence for human occupation of the area dates from around 4000–3000 BCE with extensive traces of prehistoric field systems evident in the landscape. Within these are traces of irregular enclosures and hut circles. There are burial chambers of Neolithic and Bronze Age such as Bryn Cader Faner and Iron Age hillforts such as Bryn y Castell near Ffestiniog.

 

The region was finally conquered by the Romans by AD 77–78. Remains of Roman marching camps and practice camps are evident. There was a Roman fort and amphitheatre at Tomen y Mur. Roads are known to have connected with Segontium (Caernarfon) and Deva Victrix (Chester) and include the northern reaches of Sarn Helen.

 

There are numerous memorial stones of Early Christian affinity dating from the post-Roman period. The post-Roman hillfort of Dinas Emrys also dates to this time. Churches were introduced to the region in the 5th and 6th centuries. Llywelyn the Great and Llywelyn ap Gruffudd had various stone castles constructed to protect their borders and trade routes. Edward I built several castles around the margins including those at Harlech and Conwy for military and administrative reasons. Most are now protected within a World Heritage Site. Some of Snowdonia's many stone walls date back to this period too. In the Middle Ages, the title Prince of Wales and Lord of Snowdonia (Tywysog Cymru ac Arglwydd Eryri) was used by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd; his grandfather Llywelyn Fawr used the title Prince of north Wales and Lord of Snowdonia.

 

The 18th century saw the start of industrial exploitation of the area's resources, assisted by the appearance in the late part of the century of turnpike trusts making it more accessible. The engineer Thomas Telford left a legacy of road and railway construction in and around Snowdonia. A new harbour at Porthmadog linked to slate quarries at Ffestiniog via a narrow gauge railway. At its peak in the 19th century the slate industry employed around 12,000 men. A further 1000 were employed in stone quarrying at Graiglwyd and Penmaenmawr. Mining for copper, iron and gold was undertaken during the 18th and 19th centuries, leaving a legacy of mine and mill ruins today. Ruins of the gold industry are found at Cefn Coch on the Dolmelynllyn estate.

 

The Snowdonia Society is a registered charity formed in 1967; it is a voluntary group of people with an interest in the area and its protection.

 

Amory Lovins led the successful 1970s opposition to stop Rio Tinto digging up the area for a massive mine.

 

The park's entire coastline is a Special Area of Conservation, which runs from the Llŷn Peninsula down the mid-Wales coast, the latter containing valuable sand dune systems.

 

The park's natural forests are of the mixed deciduous type, the commonest tree being the Welsh oak. Birch, ash, mountain-ash and hazel are also common. The park also contains some large (planted) coniferous forested areas such as Gwydir Forest near Betws-y-Coed, although some areas, once harvested, are now increasingly being allowed to regrow naturally.

 

Northern Snowdonia is the only place in Britain where the Snowdon lily (Gagea serotina), an arctic–alpine plant, is found and the only place in the world where the Snowdonia hawkweed Hieracium snowdoniense grows.

 

One of the major problems facing the park in recent years has been the growth of Rhododendron ponticum. This fast-growing invasive species has a tendency to take over and stifle native species. It can form massive towering growths and has a companion fungus that grows on its roots producing toxins that are poisonous to any local flora and fauna for a seven-year period after the Rhododendron infestations have been eradicated. As a result, there are a number of desolate landscapes.

 

Mammals in the park include otters, polecats, feral goats, and pine martens. Birds include raven, red-billed chough, peregrine, osprey, merlin and the red kite. The rainbow-coloured Snowdon beetle (Chrysolina cerealis) is only found in northern Snowdonia.

 

Snowdonia has a particularly high number of protected sites in respect of its diverse ecology; nearly 20% of its total area is protected by UK and European law. Half of that area was set aside by the government under the European Habitats Directive as a Special Area of Conservation. There are a large number of Sites of special scientific interest (or 'SSSIs'), designated both for fauna and flora but also in some cases for geology. Nineteen of these sites are managed as national nature reserves by Natural Resources Wales. The park also contains twelve Special Areas of Conservation (or 'SACs'), three Special Protection Areas (or 'SPAs') and three Ramsar sites. Some are wholly within the park boundaries, others straddle it to various degrees.

 

There are numerous SSSIs within the park, the most extensive of which are Snowdonia, Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog, Berwyn, Cadair Idris, Llyn Tegid, Aber Mawddach / Mawddach Estuary, Dyfi, Morfa Dyffryn, Moel Hebog, Coedydd Dyffryn Ffestiniog and Coedydd Nanmor.

 

The following NNRs are either wholly or partly within the park: Allt y Benglog, Y Berwyn (in multiple parts), Cader Idris, Ceunant Llennyrch, Coed Camlyn, Coed Cymerau, Coed Dolgarrog, Coed Ganllwyd, Coed Gorswen, Coed Tremadog, Coedydd Aber, Coedydd Maentwrog (in 2 parts), Coed y Rhygen, Cwm Glas Crafnant, Cwm Idwal, Hafod Garregog, Morfa Harlech, Rhinog and Snowdon.

 

The twelve SACs are as follows: Snowdonia SAC which covers much of the Carneddau, Glyderau, and the Snowdon massif, Afon Gwyrfai a Llyn Cwellyn, Corsydd Eifionydd / Eifionydd Fens (north of Garndolbenmaen), the Coedydd Derw a Safleoedd Ystlumod Meirion / Meirionydd Oakwoods and Bat Sites - a series of sites between Tremadog, Trawsfynydd, and Ffestiniog and Beddgelert and extending up the Gwynant. It also includes many of the oakwoods of the Mawddach and its tributaries. Afon Eden – Cors Goch Trawsfynydd, Rhinog, Cadair Idris (in 2 parts), Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt, River Dee and Afon Dyfrdwy a Llyn Tegid (Wales), Mwyngloddiau Fforest Gwydir / Gwydyr Forest Mines (north of Betws-y-Coed) and a part of the Berwyn a Mynyddoedd De Clwyd / Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains SAC. The Pen Llyn a'r Sarnau / Lleyn Peninsula and the Sarnau SAC covers the entire Cardigan Bay coastline of the park and the sea area and extends above the high water mark at Morfa Harlech, Mochras and around the Dovey and Mawddach estuaries.

 

The three SPAs are Dovey Estuary / Aber Dyfi (of which a part is within the park), Berwyn (of which a part is within the park) and Migneint-Arenig-Dduallt.

 

The three designated Ramsar sites are the Dyfi Biosphere (Cors Fochno and Dyfi), Cwm Idwal and Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake).

 

The area's economy was traditionally centred upon farming and from the early 19th century increasingly on mining and quarrying. Tourism has become an increasingly significant part of Snowdonia's economy during the 20th and 21st centuries.

 

The extensive farming of sheep remains central to Snowdonia's farming economy.

 

Significant sections of the park were afforested during the 20th century for timber production. Major conifer plantations include Dyfi Forest, Coed y Brenin Forest between Dolgellau and Trawsfynydd, Penllyn Forest south of Bala, Beddgelert Forest and Gwydyr (or Gwydir) Forest near Betws-y-Coed which is managed as a forest park by Natural Resources Wales.

 

The region was once the most important producer of slate in the world. Some production continues but at a much reduced level from its peak. The park boundaries are drawn such that much of the landscape affected by slate quarrying and mining lies immediately outside of the designated area.

 

Construction of a nuclear power station beside Llyn Trawsfynydd began in 1959 with the first power produced in 1965. The site was operational until 1991 though it continues as an employer during its decommissioning phase. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are in operation at Llanberis and Ffestiniog.

 

Research indicates that there were 3.67 million visitors to Snowdonia National Park in 2013, with approximately 9.74 million tourist days spent in the park during that year. Total tourist expenditure was £433.6 million in 2013.

 

Many of the hikers in the area concentrate on Snowdon itself. It is regarded as a fine mountain, but at times gets very crowded; in addition the Snowdon Mountain Railway runs to the summit.

 

The other high mountains with their boulder-strewn summits as well as Tryfan, one of the few mountains in the UK south of Scotland whose ascent needs hands as well as feet are also very popular. However, there are also some spectacular walks in Snowdonia on the lower mountains, and they tend to be relatively unfrequented. Among hikers' favourites are Y Garn (east of Llanberis) along the ridge to Elidir Fawr; Mynydd Tal-y-Mignedd (west of Snowdon) along the Nantlle Ridge to Mynydd Drws-y-Coed; Moelwyn Mawr (west of Blaenau Ffestiniog); and Pen Llithrig y Wrach north of Capel Curig. Further south are Y Llethr in the Rhinogydd, and Cadair Idris near Dolgellau.

 

The park has 1,479 miles (2,380 km) of public footpaths, 164 miles (264 km) of public bridleways, and 46 miles (74 km) of other public rights of way. A large part of the park is also covered by right to roam laws.

 

The Wales Coast Path runs within the park between Machynlleth and Penrhyndeudraeth, save for short sections of coast in the vicinity of Tywyn and Barmouth which are excluded from the park. It touches the park boundary again at Penmaen-bach Point on the north coast. An inland alternative exists between Llanfairfechan and Conwy, wholly within the park. The North Wales Path, which predates the WCP, enters the park north of Bethesda and follows a route broadly parallel to the north coast visiting Aber Falls and the Sychnant Pass before exiting the park on the descent from Conwy Mountain. The Cambrian Way is a long-distance trail between Cardiff and Conwy that stays almost entirely within the national park from Mallwyd northwards. It was officially recognised in 2019, and is now depicted on Ordnance Survey maps.

 

The use of the English names for the area has been divisive, with an increase in protests against their use since 2020; these led to the national park authority deciding to use Welsh names as far as legally possible in November 2022. An early example of pressure to deprecate Snowdon and Snowdonia was a 2003 campaign by Cymuned, inspired by campaigns to refer to Ayers Rock as Uluru and Mount Everest as Qomolangma.

 

In 2020 an e-petition calling for the removal of the English names was put forward to the Senedd, but rejected as responsibility lies with the national park authority. In 2021 an e-petition on the same topic attracted more than 5,300 signatures and was presented to the national park authority.

 

On 28 April 2021 Gwynedd councillor John Pughe Roberts put forward a motion to use the Welsh names exclusively, calling this a "question of respect for the Welsh language". The motion was not considered and delayed, as the national park authority already appointed a "Welsh Place Names Task and Finish Group" to investigate the issue. The park authority however cannot compel other bodies and/or individuals to stop using the English names, with the proposals facing some criticism.

 

In May 2021, following the dismissal of the motion, YouGov conducted a poll on Snowdon's name. 60% of Welsh adults supported the English name Snowdon, compared to 30% wanting the Welsh name Yr Wyddfa. Separating by language, 59% of Welsh speakers preferred the Welsh name, but 37% of these still wanted Snowdon to be used as well. 69% of non-Welsh speakers firmly supported Snowdon as the Mountain's name. The proposals to rename Snowdon are usually accompanied with proposals to rename Snowdonia.

 

On 16 November 2022, Members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority committee voted to use the Welsh names Yr Wyddfa and Eryri to refer to the mountain and the national park, rather than the English names, in materials produced by the authority. The national park authority described the decision as "decisive action" and the authority's head of culture heritage stated that Welsh place names were part of the area's "special qualities" and that other public bodies, English-language press and filming companies have used the Welsh-language names. Before the decision the park had already prioritised the Welsh names by using them first and giving the English names in parentheses. The name "Snowdonia" cannot be abandoned entirely, as it is set in law and so must be used in statutory documents. The authority announced a review of the authority's branding in 2023 to adapt to the new approach to Welsh place names.

 

Gwynedd is a county in the north-west of Wales. It borders Anglesey across the Menai Strait to the north, Conwy, Denbighshire, and Powys to the east, Ceredigion over the Dyfi estuary to the south, and the Irish Sea to the west. The city of Bangor is the largest settlement, and the administrative centre is Caernarfon. The preserved county of Gwynedd, which is used for ceremonial purposes, includes the Isle of Anglesey.

 

Gwynedd is the second largest county in Wales but sparsely populated, with an area of 979 square miles (2,540 km2) and a population of 117,400. After Bangor (18,322), the largest settlements are Caernarfon (9,852), Bethesda (4,735), and Pwllheli (4,076). The county has the highest percentage of Welsh speakers in Wales, at 64.4%, and is considered a heartland of the language.

 

The geography of Gwynedd is mountainous, with a long coastline to the west. Much of the county is covered by Snowdonia National Park (Eryri), which contains Wales's highest mountain, Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa; 3,560 feet, 1,090 m). To the west, the Llŷn Peninsula is flatter and renowned for its scenic coastline, part of which is protected by the Llŷn AONB. Gwynedd also contains several of Wales's largest lakes and reservoirs, including the largest, Bala Lake (Llyn Tegid).

 

The area which is now the county has played a prominent part in the history of Wales. It formed part of the core of the Kingdom of Gwynedd and the native Principality of Wales, which under the House of Aberffraw remained independent from the Kingdom of England until Edward I's conquest between 1277 and 1283. Edward built the castles at Caernarfon and Harlech, which form part of the Castles and Town Walls of King Edward in Gwynedd World Heritage Site. During the Industrial Revolution the slate industry rapidly developed; in the late nineteenth century the neighbouring Penrhyn and Dinorwic quarries were the largest in the world, and the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales is now a World Heritage Site. Gwynedd covers the majority of the historic counties of Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire.

 

In the past, historians such as J. E. Lloyd assumed that the Celtic source of the word Gwynedd meant 'collection of tribes' – the same root as the Irish fine, meaning 'tribe'. Further, a connection is recognised between the name and the Irish Féni, an early ethnonym for the Irish themselves, related to fían, 'company of hunting and fighting men, company of warriors under a leader'. Perhaps *u̯en-, u̯enə ('strive, hope, wish') is the Indo-European stem. The Irish settled in NW Wales, and in Dyfed, at the end of the Roman era. Venedotia was the Latin form, and in Penmachno there is a memorial stone from c. AD 500 which reads: Cantiori Hic Iacit Venedotis ('Here lies Cantiorix, citizen of Gwynedd'). The name was retained by the Brythons when the kingdom of Gwynedd was formed in the 5th century, and it remained until the invasion of Edward I. This historical name was revived when the new county was formed in 1974.

 

Gwynedd was an independent kingdom from the end of the Roman period until the 13th century, when it was conquered by England. The modern Gwynedd was one of eight Welsh counties created on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972. It covered the entirety of the historic counties of Anglesey and Caernarfonshire, and all of Merionethshire apart from Edeirnion Rural District (which went to Clwyd); and also a few parishes of Denbighshire: Llanrwst, Llansanffraid Glan Conwy, Eglwysbach, Llanddoged, Llanrwst and Tir Ifan.

 

The county was divided into five districts: Aberconwy, Arfon, Dwyfor, Meirionnydd and Anglesey.

 

The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county (and the five districts) on 1 April 1996, and its area was divided: the Isle of Anglesey became an independent unitary authority, and Aberconwy (which included the former Denbighshire parishes) passed to the new Conwy County Borough. The remainder of the county was constituted as a principal area, with the name Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire, as it covers most of the areas of those two historic counties. As one of its first actions, the Council renamed itself Gwynedd on 2 April 1996. The present Gwynedd local government area is governed by Gwynedd Council. As a unitary authority, the modern entity no longer has any districts, but Arfon, Dwyfor and Meirionnydd remain as area committees.

 

The pre-1996 boundaries were retained as a preserved county for a few purposes such as the Lieutenancy. In 2003, the boundary with Clwyd was adjusted to match the modern local government boundary, so that the preserved county now covers the two local government areas of Gwynedd and Anglesey. Conwy county borough is now entirely within Clwyd.

 

A Gwynedd Constabulary was formed in 1950 by the merger of the Anglesey, Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire forces. A further amalgamation took place in the 1960s when Gwynedd Constabulary was merged with the Flintshire and Denbighshire county forces, retaining the name Gwynedd. In one proposal for local government reform in Wales, Gwynedd had been proposed as a name for a local authority covering all of north Wales, but the scheme as enacted divided this area between Gwynedd and Clwyd. To prevent confusion, the Gwynedd Constabulary was therefore renamed the North Wales Police.

 

The Snowdonia National Park was formed in 1951. After the 1974 local authority reorganisation, the park fell entirely within the boundaries of Gwynedd, and was run as a department of Gwynedd County Council. After the 1996 local government reorganisation, part of the park fell under Conwy County Borough, and the park's administration separated from the Gwynedd council. Gwynedd Council still appoints nine of the eighteen members of the Snowdonia National Park Authority; Conwy County Borough Council appoints three; and the Welsh Government appoints the remaining six.

 

There has been considerable inwards migration to Gwynedd, particularly from England. According to the 2021 census, 66.6% of residents had been born in Wales whilst 27.1% were born in England.

 

The county has a mixed economy. An important part of the economy is based on tourism: many visitors are attracted by the many beaches and the mountains. A significant part of the county lies within the Snowdonia National Park, which extends from the north coast down to the district of Meirionnydd in the south. But tourism provides seasonal employment and thus there is a shortage of jobs in the winter.

 

Agriculture is less important than in the past, especially in terms of the number of people who earn their living on the land, but it remains an important element of the economy.

 

The most important of the traditional industries is the slate industry, but these days only a small percentage of workers earn their living in the slate quarries.

 

Industries which have developed more recently include TV and sound studios: the record company Sain has its HQ in the county.

 

The education sector is also very important for the local economy, including Bangor University and Further Education colleges, Coleg Meirion-Dwyfor and Coleg Menai, both now part of Grŵp Llandrillo Menai.

 

The proportion of respondents in the 2011 census who said they could speak Welsh.

Gwynedd has the highest proportion of people in Wales who can speak Welsh. According to the 2021 census, 64.4% of the population aged three and over stated that they could speak Welsh,[7] while 64.4% noted that they could speak Welsh in the 2011 census.

 

It is estimated that 83% of the county's Welsh-speakers are fluent, the highest percentage of all counties in Wales.[9] The age group with the highest proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd were those between ages 5–15, of whom 92.3% stated that they could speak Welsh in 2011.

 

The proportion of Welsh speakers in Gwynedd declined between 1991 and 2001,[10] from 72.1% to 68.7%, even though the proportion of Welsh speakers in Wales as a whole increased during that decade to 20.5%.

 

The Annual Population Survey estimated that as of March 2023, 77.0% of those in Gwynedd aged three years and above could speak Welsh.

 

Notable people

Leslie Bonnet (1902–1985), RAF officer, writer; originated the Welsh Harlequin duck in Criccieth

Sir Dave Brailsford (born 1964), cycling coach; grew up in Deiniolen, near Caernarfon

Duffy (born 1984), singer, songwriter and actress; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Edward II of England (1284–1327), born in Caernarfon Castle

Elin Fflur (born 1984), singer-songwriter, TV and radio presenter; went to Bangor University

Bryn Fôn (born 1954), actor and singer-songwriter; born in Llanllyfni, Caernarfonshire.

Wayne Hennessey (born 1987), football goalkeeper with 108 caps for Wales; born in Bangor, Gwynedd

John Jones (c. 1530 – 1598), a Franciscan friar, Roman Catholic priest and martyr; born at Clynnog

Sir Love Jones-Parry, 1st Baronet (1832–1891), landowner and politician, co-founder of the Y Wladfa settlement in Patagonia

T. E. Lawrence (1888–1935), archaeologist, army officer and inspiration for Lawrence of Arabia, born in Tremadog

David Lloyd George (1863–1945), statesman and Prime Minister; lived in Llanystumdwy from infancy

Sasha (born 1969), disc jockey, born in Bangor, Gwynedd

Sir Bryn Terfel (born 1965), bass-baritone opera and concert singer from Pant Glas

Sir Clough Williams-Ellis (1883–1978), architect of Portmeirion

Owain Fôn Williams, (born 1987), footballer with 443 club caps; born and raised in Penygroes, Gwynedd.

Hedd Wyn (1887–1917), poet from the village of Trawsfynydd; killed in WWI

Details

This modified Harris Shutter Effect image of Karate practice emphasizes things that move and other differences between three sequential photos while turning the background black.

 

I managed to get a very low shutter speed from this camera with ISO100 and high zoom. I collected a series of images, hoping to find interesting blurring.

 

Quick links to related images

View the traditional Harris shutter effect version.

Read how to construct this type of image from three sequential photos.

Other subtractive filter Harris shutter effect images

View all subtractive filter images.

   

A chence meeting with a warden deep in an ancient beech wood revealed how to access the church, she even showed me which way out of the wood to emerge nearest the church.

 

Quits some difference to my last visit, on a cold a dreary February day last year. This time sprng had fully sprung, the churchyard fill of new growth and the air full of bird song.

 

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Hidden down narrow lanes this surprising church offers much to the churchcrawler. Norman in origin but thirteenth century in form, the piers of both arcades have surprisingly detailed capitals. The rood screen still divides nave and chancel, though the coving and much of the rest is replacement. Its upper and lower doorways survive, the lower one having its original medieval hinges. The font is thirteenth century but at some time has had new piers – old photos show it with a solid base. The north tower dates from the 20th century and was designed by Bensted of Maidstone – a gothic fantasy if ever there was one compared to the plain structure it enhanced. A ledger slab in the chancel commemorates a senior lawyer at the New Inns of Court and describes him as ` ancient ` - not in age but in seniority!

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Stalisfield

 

-----------------------------------------------

 

TQ 95 SE STALISFIELD CHURCH ROAD

(east side)

 

6/121 Church of

St. Mary

 

24.1.67 II*

 

Parish church. C13 and restored 1904. Flint and sandstone with

plain tiled roof. Chancel with south chapel, nave with aisles,

north tower. Exterior heavily restored, tower topped by weather

vane dated 1904, over a wooden belfry with tiled roof.- Three

light C15 east window, otherwise C19 fenestration. Double

chamfered west doorway. Interior: nave arcades of 2 bays, on

square piers with chamfered corners and trefoiled archlet to

heavy moulded abaci, Roof of 3 tall crown posts. Single

chamfered arch on imposts from chancel to chapel and blocked

arch to demolished north chapel. Double chamfered chancel arch.

Fittings: trefoil headed piscina in chancel. Rood screen:C15

perpendicular. Five bays, each with four-light traceried openings-

with crenellated oblique transoms. Vine motif frieze above blank

tracery on lower panels, with angels, eagles and roses in

spandrels. Attached shafts support frieze of Tudor flowers with

renewed cove. C13 font on 5 shafts with 4 blank arches on each

side of bowl. Royal coat of arms (obscured at time of survey)

carved in high relief on nave south wall. (See B.O.E. Kent II,

1983, 465 and illus. 65.)

  

Listing NGR: TQ9673852434

 

www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-176527-church-of-st-m...

 

---------------------------------------------

 

COMMONLY called Starchfield, adjoins to the parish of Easling south-eastward. It is called in Domesday, Stanefelle, which is the same as Stonefield, a name well adapted to the flinty soil of it.

 

THE PARISH is an unfrequented and obscure place, situated in a wild and dreary country, near the summit of the chalk hills, just above Charing, its southern boundary. It lies on high ground, exceedingly bleak, and exposed to north and north-east winds. The land in it is in general a red cludgy earth, of very stiff tillage, very barren, wet and flinty, and the inhabitants, as well as the country, are equally poor. It has continued hill and dale in it, the greater part of it is coppice wood, which is mostly beech and oak, usually felled at sixteen and eighteen years growth, and even then from its sort, and its out of the way distance from markets, is not of any great worth; what village there is stands round Starchfield-green, lying near the summit of the hill, on the road to Charing, at the south-west part of the parish, the church in the opposite part of it, and the parsonage midway between them. Near the north-east boundary of the parish, next to Throwley, is an estate called Holborne, but its proper name is Holbean, belonging to St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London; it is said formerly to have belonged to the north chantry of this church of Starchfield.

 

THIS PLACE, at the time of the taking of the general survey of Domesday, in 1080, was part of the possessions of Odo, bishop of Baieux, under the general title of whose lands it is thus described in it:

 

The same Adam (de Port) holds of the bishop Stanefelle. It was taxed at two sulings. The arable land is four carucates. In demesne there is one carucate, and ten villeins, having two carucates.There is a church,and six servants,and two acres of meadow.Wood for the pannage of sixty hogs.In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth sixty shillings, and afterwards forty shillings,now one hundred shillings,Turgis held it of earl Godwin.

 

On the bishop of Baieux's disgrace, about four years afterwards, this, among the rest of his possessions, came into the hands of the crown, so that Adam de Port before-mentioned, became the king's immediate tenant of it, of whose heirs it was again held afterwards by Arnulf Kade, who gave this manor, with that of Ore and its appurtenances, to the knights hospitallers, and it was assigned by them to the jurisdiction of their preceptory at Swingfield.

 

This manor continued part of their possessions till the general dissolution of their hospital, in the 32d year of Henry VIII. After which this manor did not remain long in the hands of the crown, for the king, in his 36th year, granted it to Sir Anthony St. Leger and his heirs male, to hold in capite by knight's service, who by the act of the 2d and 3d of Edward VI. procured his lands in this county to be disgavelled. After which, Edward VI. in his 4th year, made a grant of this manor to him and his heirs, to hold by the like service. (fn. 1) He immediately afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Anthony Aucher, of Bishopsborne, whose son Sir Anthony Aucher, about the beginning of king James I.'s reign, sold it to Salter, whose descendant Sir Nicholas Salter, possessed it at the restoration of Charles II. They bore for their arms, Gules, ten billets, four, three, two, and one, a bordure engrailed, argent, charged with sixteen burts and torteauxes, alternately. His son Nicholas Salter, esq. of Stoke Poges, in Buckinghamshire, died in the reign of king William and queen Mary, leaving one son John, who was of London, surgeon, and three daughters, towards the raising of whose portions, he by his will ordered this manor to be sold, which it accordingly was, in 1699, to Mr. Richard Webbe, of Eleham; he, in 1711, after some controversies at law for the possession of it, alienated all his right and title to it to the trustees, for the periormance of the will of dame Sarah Barrett, widow of Sir Paul Barrett, serjeant-at-law, who had died in the beginning of that year.

 

She was the only daughter and heir of Sir George Ent, M. D. of London, and president of the college of physicians, and widow of Francis Head, esq. eldest son of Sir Richard Head, bart. who died in his father's life-time. She had by her first husband one son, Sir Francis Head, bart. of and a daughter Sarah, married to John Lynch, esq. of Groves, father of John Lynch, D D. dean of Canterbury, who left issue Sir William Lynch, K. B. and John Lynch, LL. D. archdeacon and prebendary of Canterbury.

 

Lady Barrett, by the trusts of her will, devised this manor to her male issue by her first husband in tail male, remainder to the issue of Sarah her daughter by the same husband in like tail, remainder to her several daughters and their heirs in fee; by virtue of which limitation, her grandson Sir Francis Head, bart. at length succeeded to it, and son his death in 1768, without male issue, his next brother Sir John Head, bart. and archdeacon of Canterbury, became possessed of it, and died s. p. in 1769, leaving his widow lady Jane Head, sister of Dr. William Geekie, prebendary of Canterbury, surviving, on whom he had settled this manor in jointure; she died in 1780, on which the property of it, under the above will, became vested in lady Barrett's next heir male Sir William Lynch, K.B. of Grove, who was her great-grandson, being the eldest son of John Lynch, D. D. dean of Canterbury, the son of John Lynch, esq. by Sarah his wife, her daughter by Francis Head, esq. who, to bar all further remainders, with his brother Dr. John Lynch, suffered a recovery of this manor, and died in 1785, s. p. After which it was alienated to the Rev. Wanley Sawbridge, who dying unmarried and interstate in 1796, it came to his two nephews and heirs-at-law, Samuel-Elias and Wanley Sawbridge, esqrs. who are the present possessors of it. A court baron is held for this manor.

 

DARBIES-COURT, is a manor situated in the northwest part of this parish, which took its name from a family who resided at it, and were of the rank of gentlemen in very early times, for in the antient registers and rolls of Kentish gentry, their coat armour is thus described, Party, per chevron embattled, or, and azure, three eagles counterchanged. In the 20th year of king Edward III. Sara de Darbye paid aid for lands here, which William de Darbie and the heirs of Thomas Franklyn held before in Winsfield, of Reginald de Cornhill, by knight's service; and there is a hamlet and valley adjoining to Darbies-court, once part of it, called at this time Wingfield, and Wingfield valley. Of this family was John Darbie, who was alderman of London, and sheriff in 1445, anno 24 Henry VI. who built the south isle of St. Dionis Backchurch, in that city, and was otherwise a good benefactor to it; in memory of which, the above-mentioned coat of arms was put up in the windows of it. (fn. 2)

 

But the manor of Darbies court was alienated by one of that family, in the beginning of the reign of Henry IV. to Sir Ralph St. Leger, of Otterden, who died in the 10th year of that reign, leaving a daughter Joane, then the wife of Henry Aucher, esq. of Newenden, who entitled her husband to the possession of it. In whose descendants this manor continued till the reign of queen Elizabeth, when it was alienated to Sir Michael Sondes, then of Eastry, who was the second son of Sir Anthony Sondes, of Throwley, and on his elder brother Sir Thomas Sondes's death, in 1592, without male issue, succeeded him in his seat at Throwley, as well as the rest of his intailed estates in this county. He afterwards resided at Throwley, where he died in 1617, anno 16 James I. Since which this manor has descended, in like manner as Throwley and Lees-court, in Sheldwich, both which the reader will find described in the future part of this volume down to the right hon. Lewis-Thomas, lord Sondes, the present possessor of it. A court baron is held for this manor.

 

Charities.

 

ROGER PAYNE, ESQ. late of Otterden, by his will in 1706, gave 20l. chargeable on his estate at Otterden, to poor housekeepers of this parish; which is placed out at interest at 4l. per cent. the yearly distribution of it being vested in the minister, churchwardens, and overseers.

 

The poor constantly relieved are about thirty; casually thirty-five.

 

This PARISH is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Ospringe.

 

The church, which stands near the centre of the parish, is dedicated to St. Mary. It is built in the form of a cross; the steeple stands in the middle of the south side. In the north wall of the north chancel is an antient tomb, with the effigies of a man in armour lying at length on it. In the east window are these coats of arms, Sable, a chevron gules, between three clothworkers handles, or; another, the coat broke, impaling, Quarterly, azure and argent, per fess indented, surmounted by a battune, or, and azure.

 

The church of Ore was antiently accounted as a chapel to this of Stalisfield, but it has been long since separated, and become a distinct church independent of it.

 

The church of Stalisfield belonged to the priory of St. Gregory, in Canterbury, perhaps part of its original endowment by archbishop Lansranc, in the reign of the Conqueror, and it was confirmed to it, among the rest of its possessions, by archbishop Hubert, about the reign of Richard I. (fn. 3)

 

In the 8th year of Richard II. it was become appropriated to the above-mentioned priory, and a vicarage endowed in it, the former being then valued at twelve pounds, and the latter at four pounds, on the taxation of them.

 

The church, with the advowson of the vicarage, remained part of the possessions of the priory till the dissolution of it in the reign of Henry VIII. when they came into the hands of the crown, where they remained but a small time, for an act passed that year to enable the king and the archbishop of Canterbury to exchange the scite of the late dissolved priory of St. Radigund, near Dover, with all its possessions, lately given by the king to the archbishop for the scite of the late dissolved priory of St. Gregory, and all its possessions, excepting the manor of Howfield, in Chartham.

 

This church becoming thus part of the revenues of the see of Canterbury, was demised by the archbishop, among the rest of the revenues of the priory, in one grands beneficial lease, in which, all advowsons and nominations of churches and chapels were excepted, and it has been continued under the same kind of demise from time to time ever since, renewable in like manner as such leases usually are.

 

¶Philip, earl of Chesterfield, was lessee of this parsonage as part of the above premises, as heir to the Wottons, after whose death in 1773, the lease was sold by his executors to George Gipps, esq. of Canterbury, who is the present lessee under the archbishop for the parsonage of Stalisfield, among the rest of the possessions of the priory of St. Gregory, but SamuelElias and Wanley Sawbridge, esqrs. as heirs of their uncle the Rev. Wanley Sawbridge, late vicar of this parish, are the occupiers of it, at a yearly reserved rent under him. The parsonage consists of a house, buildings, yard, and small orchard, ninety-four acres of land, and nine acres of wood, let together with the tithes of corn, at 75l. per annum; besides which, there are sixteen acres of woodland more in the hands of the lessee of the parsonage, worth 3l. 10s. per annum. It pays 7s. 6d. procurations to the archdeacon, and 6s. 4d. to the archbishop at his visitations.

 

The vicarage of this church appears to have been endowed before the 8th of Richard II. by the taxation then made of it. It is valued in the king's books at 5l. 6s. 8d. and the yearly tenths at 10s. 8d. and is now of the yearly certified value of 33l. 18s. 3d. In 1587 there were sixty-one communicants here. In 1640 it was valued at only 35l. and the communicants were the like number.

 

Archbishop Juxon, by indenture anno 13 king Charles II. and by another anno 28 of that reign, augmented it with 25l. per annum, to be paid by the lessee of the great tithes. The archbishop continues patron of this vicarage.

 

THERE WAS a portion of tithes in this parish, of the value of ten shillings, which was given soon after the conquest to the priory of St. Andrew, in Rochester, by Humphry Canute; and this gift was afterwards confirmed by D. de Monci, his descendant, to be holden in like manner as the same was held of his ancestors; and it was likewise confirmed to it by the archbishops Richard, Baldwin, and Hubert. (fn. 4)

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol6/pp438-445

Yes...I'm reposting this. The cause is worthwhile.

 

Also, a wise man suggested that I set up a PayPal account to accept monetary donations for this. He thinks a lot more people would pitch in.

 

Let me know if that's the case...and I will.

 

Thanks.

 

I collect new socks for the homeless.

 

Here's why.

 

One pair of clean socks can make a huge difference for a homeless person.

 

Just imagine being without socks during this time of year. With temperatures here in Pittsburgh hovering around zero, the cold is bitter even when we're bundled up.

 

Now think about walking around without socks.

 

But during any season, socks can mean so much.

 

In the summer, a pair of dirty socks starts to stink after a few days. As bacteria grows from constant sweating, so does harmful bacteria.

 

A clean pair of socks can stop all that.

 

Even more important, a clean pair of socks can prevent a variety of foot diseases that

can lead to costly emergency room visits that could end in the amputation of toes and even a foot.

 

Those ER treatments and any care afterwards can cost hundreds and thousands of dollars — money that will be tacked on to health care insurance premiums.

 

In the past, local Flickr people have been so generous. In fact, they've donated more than 1,000 pairs of new, clean socks for area homeless people.

 

That's why I'm hoping you can help again. Because with more than 2,000 homeless people in and around the city, the need for clean socks never goes away.

 

As usual, the clean socks will be turned over to Operation Safety Net and distributed by my longtime friend Mike Sallows.

 

Mike was homeless himself for more than a decade. And these days, he's on the streets every night tending to "his guys." Every Thursday night, whatever the weather, he makes his rounds with a couple Pitt med students who check on the health of the people they meet.

 

So, if you can pitch in with a bag of new, clean athletic socks, I'll pick them up and deliver them to Mike.

 

In the past, people have bought bags of "irregular" socks at places like TJ Maxx, Marshall's and Gabriels to buy them for about $3-$4 a bag. And those socks are perfectly fine.

 

If you're interested in helping, send me a Flickr e-mail.

 

Thanks.

 

PS: A writer from the Post -Gazette, a Pittsburgh newspaper, is working on a story about this. She was especially intrigued by the photography/Flickr aspect...even more so when I told her about how many people here donated socks. She is also going to works with a local Pittsburgh charity she's involved with to gather socks. It could be a really great turn out.

a game.

find 5 differences

in my countryside

  

-two buildings standing one next to each other.

what a view.

i regret i couldn't stand higher to have them more on the photo, ah.

>Gdańsk,Poland; 2006.

#canon eos 3000N + fujifilm superia 200

 

Concurring with Obama's request for new methods of interrogation of suspects complying with those outlined in the official U.S. Army Field Manual future

interrogations will be conducted using "best practices" of the latest scientific research. They will provide "full transparency" and also be done in FBI secret locations.

  

This decision placing the FBI in charge of the interrogations of terrorist suspects is a major reform in U.S. national security policy because previously everything was

handled by the CIA.

 

The terrorists of course won't see any real difference between the CIA and FBI interrogation methods when they are on the "hot seat".

“There is no difference between a man and woman doing my job”.

 

Proud and courageous, Angie is the first female promoted to Section Commander. She works on clearing landmines in Zimbabwe, through the UK aid supported charity, The HALO Trust. Every three weeks she takes the bus to go home and see her four children, who are looked after by her grandmother whilst she is working. Although it takes her three hours, it makes her happy to see them.

 

Although it receives little publicity, Zimbabwe is one of the most highly mine-impacted countries in the world. There are very dense, unfenced minefields close to houses, schools and clinics and access to agricultural land is denied to small scale farmers.

 

UK aid is supporting The HALO Trust, a British charity, to carry out demining work in the the country.

 

Picture: Rakesh Shah/DFID

China Arts Population, VivoCity, Singapore, Nikon 18-135mm

This is a shot of both an Aphrodite Fritillary and a Great Spangled fritillary. On the left the aphrodite- speyeria aphrodite and on the right the great spangled-speyeria cybele.

(confirmed by bugguide.net)

This is what makes butterfly watching just as much fun as bird watching.

The main differences that you can see on this shot are on the undersides of the forewings.

The reindeer or caribou (Rangifer tarandus) is a species of deer with circumpolar distribution, native to Arctic, subarctic, tundra, boreal, and mountainous regions of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. It is the only representative of the genus Rangifer. More recent studies suggest the splitting of reindeer and caribou into six distinct species over their range.

 

Reindeer occur in both migratory and sedentary populations, and their herd sizes vary greatly in different regions. The tundra subspecies are adapted for extreme cold, and some are adapted for long-distance migration.

 

Reindeer vary greatly in size and color from the smallest, the Svalbard reindeer (R. (t.) platyrhynchus), to the largest, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni). Although reindeer are quite numerous, some species and subspecies are in decline and considered vulnerable. They are unique among deer (Cervidae) in that females may have antlers, although the prevalence of antlered females varies by species and subspecies.

 

Reindeer are the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on a large scale in the world. Both wild and domestic reindeer have been an important source of food, clothing, and shelter for Arctic people from prehistorical times. They are still herded and hunted today. In some traditional Christmas legends, Santa Claus's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to good children on Christmas Eve.

 

Description

Names follow international convention before the recent revision[9] (see Taxonomy below). Reindeer/caribou (Rangifer) vary in size from the smallest, the Svalbard reindeer (R. (t.) platyrhynchus), to the largest, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni). They also vary in coat color and antler architecture.

 

The North American range of caribou extends from Alaska through the Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut throughout the tundra, taiga and boreal forest and south through the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Of the eight subspecies classified by Harding (2022) into the Arctic caribou (R. arcticus), the migratory mainland barren-ground caribou of Arctic Alaska and Canada (R. t. arcticus), summer in tundra and winter in taiga, a transitional forest zone between boreal forest and tundra; the nomadic Peary caribou (R. t. pearyi) lives in the polar desert of the High Arctic Archipelago and Grant's caribou (R. t. granti) lives in the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands; the other four subspecies, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni), Stone's caribou (R. t. stonei), the Rocky Mountain caribou (R. t. fortidens) and the Selkirk Mountains caribou (R. t. montanus) are all montane. The extinct insular Queen Charlotte Islands caribou (R. t. dawsoni), lived on Graham Island in Haida Gwaii (formerly known as the Queen Charlotte Islands).

 

The boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou), lives in the boreal forest of northeastern Canada: the Labrador or Ungava caribou of northern Quebec and northern Labrador (R. t. caboti), and the Newfoundland caribou of Newfoundland (R. t. terranovae) have been found to be genetically in the woodland caribou lineage.

 

In Eurasia, both wild and domestic reindeer are distributed across the tundra and into the taiga. Eurasian mountain reindeer (R. t. tarandus) are close to North American caribou genetically and visually, but with sufficient differences to warrant division into two species. The unique, insular Svalbard reindeer inhabits the Svalbard Archipelago. The Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) is spottily distributed in the coniferous forest zones from Finland to east of Lake Baikal: the Siberian forest reindeer (R. t. valentinae, formerly called the Busk Mountains reindeer (R. t. buskensis) by American taxonomists) occupies the Altai and Ural Mountains.

 

Male ("bull") and female ("cow") reindeer can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between populations. Antlers are typically larger on males. Antler architecture varies by species and subspecies and, together with pelage differences, can often be used to distinguish between species and subspecies (see illustrations in Geist, 1991 and Geist, 1998).

 

Status

About 25,000 mountain reindeer (R. t. tarandus) still live in the mountains of Norway, notably in Hardangervidda. In Sweden there are approximately 250,000 reindeer in herds managed by Sami villages. Russia manages 19 herds of Siberian tundra reindeer (R. t. sibiricus) that total about 940,000. The Taimyr herd of Siberian tundra reindeer is the largest wild reindeer herd in the world, varying between 400,000 and 1,000,000; it is a metapopulation consisting of several subpopulations — some of which are phenotypically different — with different migration routes and calving areas. The Kamchatkan reindeer (R. t. phylarchus), a forest subspecies, formerly included reindeer west of the Sea of Okhotsk which, however, are indistinguishable genetically from the Jano-Indigirka, East Siberian taiga and Chukotka populations of R. t. sibiricus. Siberian tundra reindeer herds have been in decline but are stable or increasing since 2000.

 

Insular (island) reindeer, classified as the Novaya Zemlya reindeer (R. t. pearsoni) occupy several island groups: the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago (about 5,000 animals at last count, but most of these are either domestic reindeer or domestic-wild hybrids), the New Siberia Archipelago (about 10,000 to 15,000), and Wrangel Island (200 to 300 feral domestic reindeer).

 

What was once the second largest herd is the migratory Labrador caribou (R. t. caboti)[9] George River herd in Canada, with former variations between 28,000 and 385,000. As of January 2018, there are fewer than 9,000 animals estimated to be left in the George River herd, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The New York Times reported in April 2018 of the disappearance of the only herd of southern mountain woodland caribou in the contiguous United States, with an expert calling it "functionally extinct" after the herd's size dwindled to a mere three animals. After the last individual, a female, was translocated to a wildlife rehabilitation center in Canada, caribou were considered extirpated from the contiguous United States. The Committee on Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) classified both the Southern Mountain population DU9 (R. t. montanus) and the Central Mountain population DU8 (R. t. fortidens) as Endangered and the Northern Mountain population DU7 (R. t. osborni) as Threatened.

 

Some species and subspecies are rare and three subspecies have already become extinct: the Queen Charlotte Islands caribou (R. t. dawsoni) from western Canada, the Sakhalin reindeer (R. t. setoni) from Sakhalin and the East Greenland caribou from eastern Greenland, although some authorities believe that the latter, R. t. eogroenlandicus Degerbøl, 1957, is a junior synonym of the Peary caribou Historically, the range of the sedentary boreal woodland caribou covered more than half of Canada and into the northern states of the contiguous United States from Maine to Washington. Boreal woodland caribou have disappeared from most of their original southern range and were designated as Threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Environment Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34,000 boreal woodland caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada (Environment Canada, 2011b), although those numbers included montane populations classified by Harding (2022) into subspecies of the Arctic caribou. Siberian tundra reindeer herds are also in decline, and Rangifer as a whole is considered to be Vulnerable by the IUCN.

 

Naming

Charles Hamilton Smith is credited with the name Rangifer for the reindeer genus, which Albertus Magnus used in his De animalibus, fol. Liber 22, Cap. 268: "Dicitur Rangyfer quasi ramifer". This word may go back to the Sámi word raingo. Carl Linnaeus chose the word tarandus as the specific epithet, making reference to Ulisse Aldrovandi's Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. 859–863, Cap. 30: De Tarando (1621). However, Aldrovandi and Conrad Gessner thought that rangifer and tarandus were two separate animals, In any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus.

 

The use of the terms reindeer and caribou for essentially the same animal can cause confusion, but the International Union for Conservation of Nature clearly delineates the issue: "Reindeer is the European name for the species of Rangifer, while in North America, Rangifer species are known as Caribou." The word reindeer is an anglicized version of the Old Norse words hreinn (“reindeer”) and dýr (“animal”) and has nothing to do with reins. The word caribou comes through French, from the Mi'kmaq qalipu, meaning "snow shoveler", and refers to its habit of pawing through the snow for food.

 

Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer and some of its species and subspecies have names in many languages. Inuvaluit of the western Canadian Arctic and Inuit of the eastern Canadian Arctic, who speak different dialects of Inuktitut, both call the barren-ground caribou tuktu. The Wekʼèezhìi people, a Dene (Athapascan) group, call the Arctic caribou ekwǫ̀ and the boreal woodland caribou tǫdzı. The Gwichʼin (also a Dene group) have over 24 distinct caribou-related words.

 

Reindeer are also called tuttu by the Greenlandic Inuit and hreindýr, sometimes rein, by the Icelanders.

 

Evolution

The "glacial-interglacial cycles of the upper Pleistocene had a major influence on the evolution" of Rangifer species and other Arctic and sub-Arctic species. Isolation of tundra-adapted species Rangifer in Last Glacial Maximum refugia during the last glacial – the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and the Weichselian glaciation in Eurasia – shaped "intraspecific genetic variability" particularly between the North American and Eurasian parts of the Arctic.

 

Reindeer/caribou (Rangifer) are in the subfamily Odocoileinae, along with roe deer (Capreolus), Eurasian elk/moose (Alces), and water deer (Hydropotes). These antlered cervids split from the horned ruminants Bos (cattle and yaks), Ovis (sheep) and Capra (goats) about 36 million years ago. The Eurasian clade of Odocoileinae (Capreolini, Hydropotini and Alcini) split from the New World tribes of Capreolinae (Odocoileini and Rangiferini) in the Late Miocene, 8.7–9.6 million years ago. Rangifer “evolved as a mountain deer, ...exploiting the subalpine and alpine meadows...”. Rangifer originated in the Late Pliocene and diversified in the Early Pleistocene, a 2+ million-year period of multiple glacier advances and retreats. Several named Rangifer fossils in Eurasia and North America predate the evolution of modern tundra reindeer.

 

Archaeologists distinguish “modern” tundra reindeer and barren-ground caribou from primitive forms — living and extinct — that did not have adaptations to extreme cold and to long distance migration. They include a broad, high muzzle to increase the volume of the nasal cavity to warm and moisten the air before it enters the throat and lungs, bez tines set close to the brow tines, distinctive coat patterns, short legs and other adaptations for running long distances, and multiple behaviors suited to tundra, but not to forest (such as synchronized calving and aggregation during rutting and post-calving). As well, many genes, including those for vitamin D metabolism, fat metabolism, retinal development, circadian rhythm, and tolerance to cold temperatures, are found in tundra caribou that are lacking or rudimentary in forest types. For this reason, forest-adapted reindeer and caribou could not survive in tundra or polar deserts. The oldest undoubted Rangifer fossil is from Omsk, Russia, dated to 2.1-1.8 Ma. The oldest North American Rangifer fossil is from the Yukon, 1.6 million years before present (BP). A fossil skull fragment from Süßenborn, Germany, R. arcticus stadelmanni, (which is probably misnamed) with “rather thin and cylinder-shaped” antlers, dates to the Middle Pleistocene (Günz) Period, 680,000-620,000 BP. Rangifer fossils become increasingly frequent in circumpolar deposits beginning with the Riss glaciations, the second youngest of the Pleistocene Epoch, roughly 300,000–130,000 BP. By the 4-Würm period (110,000–70,000 to 12,000–10,000 BP), its European range was extensive, supplying a major food source for prehistoric Europeans. North American fossils outside of Beringia that predate the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) are of Rancholabrean age (240,000–11,000 years BP) and occur along the fringes of the Rocky Mountain and Laurentide ice sheets as far south as northern Alabama; and in Sangamonian deposits (~100,000 years BP) from western Canada.

 

A R. t. pearyi-sized caribou occupied Greenland before and after the LGM and persisted in a relict enclave in northeastern Greenland until it went extinct about 1900 (see discussion of R. t. eogroenlandicus below). Archaeological excavations showed that larger barren-ground-sized caribou appeared in western Greenland about 4,000 years ago.

 

The late Valerius Geist (1998) dates the Eurasian reindeer radiation dates to the large Riss glaciation (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), based on the Norwegian-Svalbard split 225,000 years ago. Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) likely evolved from Cervus [Rangifer] geuttardi Desmarest, 1822, a reindeer that adapted to forest habitats in Eastern Europe as forests expanded during an interglacial period before the LGM (the Würmian or Weichsel glaciation);. The fossil species geuttardi was later replaced by R. constantini, which was adapted for grasslands, in a second immigration 19,000–20,000 years ago when the LGM turned its forest habitats into tundra, while fennicus survived in isolation in southwestern Europe. R. constantini was then replaced by modern tundra/barren-ground caribou adapted to extreme cold, probably in Beringia, before dispersing west (R. t. tarandus in the Scandinavian mountains and R. t. sibiricus across Siberia) and east (R. t. arcticus in the North American Barrenlands) when rising seas isolated them. Likewise in North America, DNA analysis shows that woodland caribou (R. caribou) diverged from primitive ancestors of tundra/barren-ground caribou not during the LGM, 26,000–19,000 years ago, as previously assumed, but in the Middle Pleistocene around 357,000 years ago. At that time, modern tundra caribou had not even evolved. Woodland caribou are likely more related to extinct North American forest caribou than to barren-ground caribou. For example, the extinct caribou Torontoceros [Rangifer] hypogaeus, had features (robust and short pedicles, smooth antler surface, and high position of second tine) that relate it to forest caribou.

 

Humans started hunting reindeer in both the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods, and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from the Last Glacial Period until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as Jotunheimen, it is still possible to find remains of stone-built trapping pits, guiding fences and bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the Migration Period, although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the Stone Age.

 

Cave paintings by ancient Europeans include both tundra and forest types of reindeer.

 

A 2022 study of ancient environmental DNA from the Early Pleistocene (2 million years ago) Kap Kobenhavn Formation of northern Greenland identified preserved DNA fragments of Rangifer, identified as basal but potentially ancestral to modern reindeer. This suggests that reindeer have inhabited Greenland since at least the Early Pleistocene. Around this time, northern Greenland was 11–19 °C warmer than the Holocene, with a boreal forest hosting a species assemblage with no modern analogue. These are among the oldest DNA fragments ever sequenced.

 

Taxonomy

Carl Linnaeus in 1758 named the Eurasian tundra species Cervus tarandus, the genus Rangifer being credited to Smith, 1827.

 

Rangifer has had a convoluted history because of the similarity in antler architecture (brow tines asymmetrical and often palmate, bez tines, a back tine sometimes branched, and branched at the distal end, often palmate). Because of individual variability, early taxonomists were unable to discern consistent patterns among populations, nor could they, examining collections in Europe, appreciate the difference in habitats and the differing function they imposed on antler architecture. For example, woodland caribou males, rutting in boreal forest where only a few females can be found, collect harems and defend them against other males, for which they have short, straight, strong, much-branched antlers, beams flattened in cross-section, designed for combat — and not too large, so as not to impede them in forested winter ranges. By contrast, modern tundra caribou (see Evolution above) have synchronized calving as a predator-avoidance strategy, which requires large rutting aggregations. Males cannot defend a harem because, while he was busy fighting, they would disappear into the mass of the herd. Males therefore tend individual females; their fights are infrequent and brief. Their antlers are thin, beams round in cross-section, sweep back and then forward with a cluster of branches at the top; these are designed more for visual stimulation of the females. Their bez tines are set low, just above the brow tine, which is vertically flattened to protect the eyes while the buck "threshes" low brush, a courtship display. The low bez tines help the wide flat brow tines dig craters in the hard-packed tundra snow for forage, for which reason brow tines are often called "shovels" in North America and "ice tines" in Europe. The differences in antler architecture reflect fundamental differences in ecology and behavior, and in turn deep divisions in ancestry that were not apparent to the early taxonomists.

 

Similarly, working on museum collections where skins were often faded and in poor states of preservation, early taxonomists could not readily perceive differences in coat patterns that are consistent within a subspecies, but variable among them. Geist calls these "nuptial" characteristics: sexually selected characters that are highly conserved and diagnostic among subspecies.

 

Towards the end of the 19th century, national museums began sending out biological exploration expeditions and collections accumulated. Taxonomists, usually working for the museums began naming subspecies more rigorously, based on statistical differences in detailed cranial, dental and skeletal measurements than antlers and pelage, supplemented by better knowledge of differences in ecology and behavior. From 1898 to 1937, mammalogists named 12 new species (other than barren-ground and woodland, which had been named earlier) of caribou in Canada and Alaska, and three new species and nine new subspecies in Eurasia, each properly described according to the evolving rules of zoological nomenclature, with type localities designated and type specimens deposited in museums.

 

In the mid-20th century, as definitions of "species" evolved, mammalogists in Europe and North America made all Rangifer species conspecific with R. tarandus, and synonymized most of the subspecies. Banfield's often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer (1961), eliminated R. t. caboti (the Labrador caribou), R. t. osborni (Osborn's caribou — from British Columbia) and R. t. terranovae (the Newfoundland caribou) as invalid and included only barren-ground caribou, renamed as R. t. groenlandicus (formerly R. arcticus) and woodland caribou as R. t. caribou. However, Banfield made multiple errors, eliciting a scathing review by Ian McTaggart-Cowan in 1962 Most authorities continued to consider all or most subspecies valid; some were quite distinct. In his chapter in the authoritative 2005 reference work Mammal Species of the World, referenced by the American Society of Mammalogists, English zoologist Peter Grubb agreed with Valerius Geist, a specialist on large mammals, that these subspecies were valid (i.e., before the recent revision): In North America, R. t. caboti, R. t. caribou, R. t. dawsoni, R. t. groenlandicus, R. t. osborni, R. t. pearyi, and R. t. terranovae; and in Eurasia, R. t. tarandus, R. t. buskensis (called R. t. valentinae in Europe; see below), R. t. phylarchus, R. t. pearsoni, R. t. sibiricus and R. t. platyrhynchus. These subspecies were retained in the 2011 replacement work Handbook of Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals.[8] Most Russian authors also recognized R. t. angustirostris, a forest reindeer from east of Lake Baikal.

 

However, since 1991, many genetic studies have revealed deep divergence between modern tundra reindeer and woodland caribou. Geist (2007) and others continued arguing that the woodland caribou was incorrectly classified, noting that "true woodland caribou, the uniformly dark, small-maned type with the frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers", is "scattered thinly along the southern rim of North American caribou distribution". He affirms that the "true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention."

 

In 2011, noting that the former classifications of Rangifer tarandus, either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes, or natural population groupings, failed to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective subspecies conservation and management, COSEWIC developed Designatable Unit (DU) attribution, an adaptation of "evolutionary significant units". The 12 designatable units for caribou in Canada (that is, excluding Alaska and Greenland) based on ecology, behavior and, importantly, genetics (but excluding morphology and archaeology) essentially followed the previously-named subspecies distributions, without naming them as such, plus some ecotypes. Ecotypes are not phylogenetically based and cannot substitute for taxonomy.

 

Meanwhile, genetic data continued to accumulate, revealing sufficiently deep divisions to easily separate Rangifer back into six previously named species and to resurrect several previously named subspecies. Molecular data showed that the Greenland caribou (R. t. groenlandicus) and the Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus), although not closely related to each other, were the most genetically divergent among Rangifer clades; that modern (see Evolution above) Eurasian tundra reindeer (R. t. tarandus and R. t. sibiricus) and North American barren-ground caribou (R. t. arcticus), although sharing ancestry, were separable at the subspecies level; that Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) clustered well apart from both wild and domestic tundra reindeer and that boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou) were separable from all others. Meanwhile, archaeological evidence was accumulating that Eurasian forest reindeer descended from an extinct forest-adapted reindeer and not from tundra reindeer; since they do not share a direct common ancestor, they cannot be conspecific. Similarly, woodland caribou diverged from the ancestors of Arctic caribou before modern barren-ground caribou had evolved, and were more likely related to extinct North American forest reindeer. Lacking a direct shared ancestor, barren-ground and woodland caribou cannot be conspecific.

 

Molecular data also revealed that the four western Canadian montane ecotypes are not woodland caribou: they share a common ancestor with modern barren-ground caribou/tundra reindeer, but distantly, having diverged > 60,000 years ago — before the modern ecotypes had evolved their cold- and darkness-adapted physiologies and mass-migration and aggregation behaviors (see Evolution above). Before Banfield (1961), taxonomists using cranial, dental and skeletal measurements had unequivocally allied these western montane ecotypes with barren-ground caribou, naming them (as in Osgood 1909[85] Murie, 1935 and Anderson 1946, among others) R. t. stonei, R. t. montanus, R. t. fortidens and R. t. osborni, respectively, and this phylogeny was confirmed by genetic analysis.

 

DNA also revealed three unnamed clades that, based on genetic distance, genetic divergence and shared vs. private haplotypes and alleles, together with ecological and behavioral differences, may justify separation at the subspecies level: the Atlantic-Gaspésie caribou (COSEWIC DU11), an eastern montane ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou, and the Baffin Island caribou. Neither one of these clades has yet been formally described or named.

 

Jenkins et al. (2012) said that "[Baffin Island] caribou are unique compared to other Barrenground herds, as they do not overwinter in forested habitat, nor do all caribou undertake long seasonal migrations to calving areas." It also shares a mtDNA haplotype with Labrador caribou, in the North American lineage (i.e., woodland caribou). Røed et al. (1991) had noted:

 

Among Baffin Island caribou the TFL2 allele was the most common allele (p=0.521), while this allele was absent, or present in very low frequencies, in other caribou populations , including the Canadian barren-ground caribou from the Beverly herd. A large genetic difference between Baffin Island caribou and the Beverly herd was also indicated by eight alleles found in the Beverly herd which were absent from the Baffin Island samples.

 

Jenkins et al. (2018) also reported genetic distinctiveness of Baffin Island caribou from all other barren-ground caribou; its genetic signature was not found on the mainland or on other islands; nor were Beverly herd (the nearest mainly barren-ground caribou) alleles present in Baffin Island caribou, evidence of reproductive isolation.

 

These advances in Rangifer genetics were brought together with previous morphological-based descriptions, ecology, behavior and archaeology to propose a new revision of the genus.

 

The scientific name Tarandus rangifer buskensis Millais, 1915 (the Busk Mountains reindeer) was selected as the senior synonym to R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933, in Mammal Species of the World but Russian authors do not recognize Millais and Millais' articles in a hunting travelogue, The Gun at Home and Abroad, seem short of a taxonomic authority.

 

The scientific name groenlandicus is fraught with problems. Edwards (1743) illustrated and claimed to have seen a male specimen (“head of perfect horns...”) from Greenland and said that a Captain Craycott had brought a live pair from Greenland to England in 1738. He named it Capra groenlandicus, Greenland reindeer. Linnaeus, in the 12th edition of Systema naturae, gave grœnlandicus as a synonym for Cervus tarandus. Borowski disagreed (and again changed the spelling), saying Cervus grönlandicus was morphologically distinct from Eurasian tundra reindeer. Baird placed it under the genus Rangifer as R. grœnlandicus. It went back and forth as a full species or subspecies of the barren-ground caribou (R. arcticus) or a subspecies of the tundra reindeer (R. tarandus), but always as the Greenland reindeer/caribou. Taxonomists consistently documented morphological differences between Greenland and other caribou/reindeer in cranial measurements, dentition, antler architecture, etc. Then Banfield (1961) in his famously flawed revision, gave the name groenlandicus to all the barren-ground caribou in North America, Greenland included, because groenlandicus pre-dates Richardson’s R. arctus,. However, because genetic data shows the Greenland caribou to be the most distantly related of any caribou to all the others (genetic distance, FST = 44%, whereas most cervid (deer family) species have a genetic distance of 2% to 5%)--as well as behavioral and morphological differences—a recent revision returned it to species status as R. groenlandicus. Although it has been assumed that the larger caribou that appeared in Greenland 4,000 years ago originated from Baffin Island (itself unique; see Taxonomy above), a reconstruction of LGM glacial retreat and caribou advance (Yannic et al. 2013) shows colonization by NAL lineage caribou more likely. Their PCA and tree diagrams show Greenland caribou clustering outside of the Beringian-Eurasian lineage.

 

The scientific name R. t. granti has a very interesting history. Allen (1902) named it as a distinct species, R. granti, from the "western end of Alaska Peninsula, opposite Popoff Island" and noting that:

 

Rangifer granti is a representative of the Barren Ground group of Caribou, which includes R. arcticus of the Arctic Coast and R. granlandicus of Greenland. It is not closely related to R. stonei of the Kenai Peninsula, from which it differs not only in its very much smaller size, but in important cranial characters and in coloration. ...The external and cranial differences between R. granti and the various forms of the Woodland Caribou are so great in almost every respect that no detailed comparison is necessary. ...According to Mr. Stone, Rangifer granti inhabits the " barren land of Alaska Peninsula, ranging well up into the mountains in summer, but descending to the lower levels in winter, generally feeding on the low flat lands near the coast and in the foothills...As regards cranial characters no comparison is necessary with R. montanus or with any of the woodland forms."

 

Osgood and Murie (1935), agreeing with granti's close relationship with the barren-ground caribou, brought it under R. arcticus as a subspecies, R. t. granti. Anderson (1946) and Banfield (1961), based on statistical analysis of cranial, dental and other characters, agreed. But Banfield (1961) also synonymized Alaska's large R. stonei with other mountain caribou of British Columbia and the Yukon as invalid subspecies of woodland caribou, then R. t. caribou. This left the small, migratory barren-ground caribou of Alaska and the Yukon, including the Porcupine caribou herd, without a name, which Banfield rectified in his 1974 Mammals of Canada by extending to them the name "granti". The late Valerius Geist (1998), in the only error in his whole illustrious career, re-analyzed Banfield's data with additional specimens found in an unpublished report he cites as "Skal, 1982", but was "not able to find diagnostic features that could segregate this form from the western barren ground type." But Skal 1982 had included specimens from the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula and the Kenai Peninsula, the range of the larger Stone's caribou. Later, geneticists comparing barren-ground caribou of Alaska with those of mainland Canada found little difference and they all became the former R. t. groenlandicus (now R. t. arcticus). R. t. granti was lost in the oblivion of invalid taxonomy until Alaskan researchers sampled some small, pale caribou from the western end of the Alaska Peninsula, their range enclosing the type locality designated by Allen (1902) and found them to be genetically distinct from all other caribou in Alaska. Thus, granti was rediscovered, its range restricted to that originally described.

 

Stone's caribou (R. t. stonei), a large montane type, was described from the Kenai Peninsula (where, apparently, it was never common except in years of great abundance), the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula, and mountains throughout southern and eastern Alaska. It was placed under R. arcticus as a subspecies, R. t. stonei, and later synonymised as noted above. The same genetic analyses mentioned above for R. t. granti resulted in resurrecting R. t. stonei as well.

 

The Sakhalin reindeer (R. t. setoni), endemic to Sakhalin, was described as Rangifer tarandus setoni Flerov, 1933, but Banfield (1961) brought it under R. t. fennicus as a junior synonym. The wild reindeer on the island are apparently extinct, having been replaced by domestic reindeer.

 

Some of the Rangifer species and subspecies may be further divided by ecotype depending on several behavioral factors – predominant habitat use (northern, tundra, mountain, forest, boreal forest, forest-dwelling, woodland, woodland (boreal), woodland (migratory) or woodland (mountain), spacing (dispersed or aggregated) and migration patterns (sedentary or migratory). North American examples of this are the Torngat Mountain population DU10, an ecotype of R. t. caboti; a recently discovered and unnamed clade between the Mackenzie River and Great Bear Lake of Beringian-Eurasian lineage, an ecotype of R. t. osborni; the Atlantic-Gaspésie population DU11, an eastern montane ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou); the Baffin Island caribou, an ecotype of the barren-ground caribou (R. t. arcticus); and the Dolphin-Union “herd”, another ecotype of R. t. arcticus. The last three of these likely qualify as subspecies, but they have not yet been formally described or named.

 

Physical characteristics

Naming in this and following sections follows the taxonomy in the authoritative 2011 reference work Handbook of Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals.

 

Antlers

In most cervid species, only males grow antlers; the reindeer is the only cervid species in which females also grow them normally. Androgens play an essential role in the antler formation of cervids. The antlerogenic genes in reindeer have more sensitivity to androgens in comparison with other cervids.

 

There is considerable variation among species and subspecies in the size of the antlers (e.g., they are rather small and spindly in the northernmost species and subspecies), but on average the bull's antlers are the second largest of any extant deer, after those of the male moose. In the largest subspecies, the antlers of large bulls can range up to 100 cm (39 in) in width and 135 cm (53 in) in beam length. They have the largest antlers relative to body size among living deer species.[116] Antler size measured in number of points reflects the nutritional status of the reindeer and climate variation of its environment. The number of points on male reindeer increases from birth to 5 years of age and remains relatively constant from then on.  "In male caribou, antler mass (but not the number of tines) varies in concert with body mass." While antlers of male woodland caribou are typically smaller than those of male barren-ground caribou, they can be over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) across. They are flattened in cross-section, compact and relatively dense.[36] Geist describes them as frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers. Woodland caribou antlers are thicker and broader than those of the barren-ground caribou and their legs and heads are longer. Quebec-Labrador male caribou antlers can be significantly larger and wider than other woodland caribou. Central barren-ground male caribou antlers are perhaps the most diverse in configuration and can grow to be very high and wide. Osborn's caribou antlers are typically the most massive, with the largest circumference measurements.

 

The antlers' main beams begin at the brow "extending posterior over the shoulders and bowing so that the tips point forward. The prominent, palmate brow tines extend forward, over the face." The antlers typically have two separate groups of points, lower and upper.

 

Antlers begin to grow on male reindeer in March or April and on female reindeer in May or June. This process is called antlerogenesis. Antlers grow very quickly every year on the bulls. As the antlers grow, they are covered in thick velvet, filled with blood vessels and spongy in texture. The antler velvet of the barren-ground caribou and the boreal woodland caribou is dark chocolate brown. The velvet that covers growing antlers is a highly vascularised skin. This velvet is dark brown on woodland or barren-ground caribou and slate-grey on Peary caribou and the Dolphin-Union caribou herd. Velvet lumps in March can develop into a rack measuring more than a meter in length (3 ft) by August.

  

A R. tarandus skull

When the antler growth is fully grown and hardened, the velvet is shed or rubbed off. To the Inuit, for whom the caribou is a "culturally important keystone species", the months are named after landmarks in the caribou life cycle. For example, amiraijaut in the Igloolik region is "when velvet falls off caribou antlers."

 

Male reindeer use their antlers to compete with other males during the mating season. Butler (1986) showed that the social requirements of caribou females during the rut determines the mating strategies of males and, consequently, the form of male antlers. In describing woodland caribou, which have a harem-defense mating system, SARA wrote, "During the rut, males engage in frequent and furious sparring battles with their antlers. Large males with large antlers do most of the mating." Reindeer continue to migrate until the bulls have spent their back fat. By contrast, barren-ground caribou males tend individual females and their fights are brief and much less intense; consequently, their antlers are long, and thin, round in cross-section and less branched and are designed more for show (or sexual attraction) than fighting.

 

In late autumn or early winter after the rut, male reindeer lose their antlers, growing a new pair the next summer with a larger rack than the previous year. Female reindeer keep their antlers until they calve. In the Scandinavian and Arctic Circle populations, old bulls' antlers fall off in late December, young bulls' antlers fall off in the early spring, and cows' antlers fall off in the summer.

 

When male reindeer shed their antlers in early to mid-winter, the antlered cows acquire the highest ranks in the feeding hierarchy, gaining access to the best forage areas. These cows are healthier than those without antlers. Calves whose mothers do not have antlers are more prone to disease and have a significantly higher mortality. Cows in good nutritional condition, for example, during a mild winter with good winter range quality, may grow new antlers earlier as antler growth requires high intake.

  

A R. t. platyrhynchus skull

According to a respected Igloolik elder, Noah Piugaattuk, who was one of the last outpost camp leaders, caribou (tuktu) antlers

 

...get detached every year...Young males lose the velvet from the antlers much more quickly than female caribou even though they are not fully mature. They start to work with their antlers just as soon as the velvet starts to fall off. The young males engage in fights with their antlers towards autumn...soon after the velvet had fallen off they will be red, as they start to get bleached their colour changes...When the velvet starts to fall off the antler is red because the antler is made from blood. The antler is the blood that has hardened; in fact, the core of the antler is still bloody when the velvet starts to fall off, at least close to the base.

 

— Elder Noah Piugaattuk of Igloolik cited in "Tuktu — Caribou" (2002) "Canada's Polar Life"

According to the Igloolik Oral History Project (IOHP), "Caribou antlers provided the Inuit with a myriad of implements, from snow knives and shovels to drying racks and seal-hunting tools. A complex set of terms describes each part of the antler and relates it to its various uses". Currently, the larger racks of antlers are used by Inuit as materials for carving. Iqaluit-based Jackoposie Oopakak's 1989 carving, entitled Nunali, which means "place where people live", and which is part of the permanent collection of the National Gallery of Canada, includes a massive set of caribou antlers on which he has intricately carved the miniaturized world of the Inuit where "Arctic birds, caribou, polar bears, seals, and whales are interspersed with human activities of fishing, hunting, cleaning skins, stretching boots, and travelling by dog sled and kayak...from the base of the antlers to the tip of each branch".

 

Pelt

The color of the fur varies considerably, both between individuals and depending on season and species. Northern populations, which usually are relatively small, are whiter, while southern populations, which typically are relatively large, are darker. This can be seen well in North America, where the northernmost subspecies, the Peary caribou, is the whitest and smallest subspecies of the continent, while the Selkirk Mountains caribou (Southern Mountain population DU9) is the darkest and nearly the largest, only exceeded in size by Osborn's caribou (Northern Mountain population DU7).

 

The coat has two layers of fur: a dense woolly undercoat and a longer-haired overcoat consisting of hollow, air-filled hairs. Fur is the primary insulation factor that allows reindeer to regulate their core body temperature in relation to their environment, the thermogradient, even if the temperature rises to 38 °C (100 °F). In 1913, Dugmore noted how the woodland caribou swim so high out of the water, unlike any other mammal, because their hollow, "air-filled, quill-like hair" acts as a supporting "life jacket".

 

A darker belly color may be caused by two mutations of MC1R. They appear to be more common in domestic reindeer herds.

 

Heat exchange

Blood moving into the legs is cooled by blood returning to the body in a countercurrent heat exchange (CCHE), a highly efficient means of minimizing heat loss through the skin's surface. In the CCHE mechanism, in cold weather, blood vessels are closely knotted and intertwined with arteries to the skin and appendages that carry warm blood with veins returning to the body that carry cold blood causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with the cold venous blood. In this way, their legs for example are kept cool, maintaining the core body temperature nearly 30 °C (54 °F) higher with less heat lost to the environment. Heat is thus recycled instead of being dissipated. The "heart does not have to pump blood as rapidly in order to maintain a constant body core temperature and thus, metabolic rate." CCHE is present in animals like reindeer, fox and moose living in extreme conditions of cold or hot weather as a mechanism for retaining the heat in (or out of) the body. These are countercurrent exchange systems with the same fluid, usually blood, in a circuit, used for both directions of flow.

 

Reindeer have specialized counter-current vascular heat exchange in their nasal passages. Temperature gradient along the nasal mucosa is under physiological control. Incoming cold air is warmed by body heat before entering the lungs and water is condensed from the expired air and captured before the reindeer's breath is exhaled, then used to moisten dry incoming air and possibly be absorbed into the blood through the mucous membranes. Like moose, caribou have specialized noses featuring nasal turbinate bones that dramatically increase the surface area within the nostrils.

 

Hooves

The reindeer has large feet with crescent-shaped cloven hooves for walking in snow or swamps. According to the Species at Risk Public Registry (SARA), woodland

 

"Caribou have large feet with four toes. In addition to two small ones, called "dew claws," they have two large, crescent-shaped toes that support most of their weight and serve as shovels when digging for food under snow. These large concave hooves offer stable support on wet, soggy ground and on crusty snow. The pads of the hoof change from a thick, fleshy shape in the summer to become hard and thin in the winter months, reducing the animal's exposure to the cold ground. Additional winter protection comes from the long hair between the "toes"; it covers the pads so the caribou walks only on the horny rim of the hooves."

 

— SARA 2014

Reindeer hooves adapt to the season: in the summer, when the tundra is soft and wet, the footpads become sponge-like and provide extra traction. In the winter, the pads shrink and tighten, exposing the rim of the hoof, which cuts into the ice and crusted snow to keep it from slipping. This also enables them to dig down (an activity known as "cratering") through the snow to their favourite food, a lichen known as reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina).

 

Size

The females (or "cows" as they are often called) usually measure 162–205 cm (64–81 in) in length and weigh 80–120 kg (180–260 lb). The males (or "bulls" as they are often called) are typically larger (to an extent which varies between the different species and subspecies), measuring 180–214 cm (71–84 in) in length and usually weighing 159–182 kg (351–401 lb). Exceptionally large bulls have weighed as much as 318 kg (701 lb). Weight varies drastically between the seasons, with bulls losing as much as 40% of their pre-rut weight.

 

The shoulder height is usually 85 to 150 cm (33 to 59 in), and the tail is 14 to 20 cm (5.5 to 7.9 in) long.

 

The reindeer from Svalbard are the smallest of all. They are also relatively short-legged and may have a shoulder height of as little as 80 cm (31 in), thereby following Allen's rule.

 

Clicking sound

The knees of many species and subspecies of reindeer are adapted to produce a clicking sound as they walk. The sounds originate in the tendons of the knees and may be audible from several hundred meters away. The frequency of the knee-clicks is one of a range of signals that establish relative positions on a dominance scale among reindeer. "Specifically, loud knee-clicking is discovered to be an honest signal of body size, providing an exceptional example of the potential for non-vocal acoustic communication in mammals." The clicking sound made by reindeer as they walk is caused by small tendons slipping over bone protuberances (sesamoid bones) in their feet. The sound is made when a reindeer is walking or running, occurring when the full weight of the foot is on the ground or just after it is relieved of the weight.

 

Eyes

A study by researchers from University College London in 2011 revealed that reindeer can see light with wavelengths as short as 320 nm (i.e. in the ultraviolet range), considerably below the human threshold of 400 nm. It is thought that this ability helps them to survive in the Arctic, because many objects that blend into the landscape in light visible to humans, such as urine and fur, produce sharp contrasts in ultraviolet. It has been proposed that UV flashes on power lines are responsible for reindeer avoiding power lines because "...in darkness these animals see power lines not as dim, passive structures but, rather, as lines of flickering light stretching across the terrain."

 

In 2023, researchers studying reindeer living in Cairngorms National Park, Scotland, suggested that UV visual sensitivity in reindeer helps them detect UV-absorbing lichens against a background of UV-reflecting snows.

 

The tapetum lucidum of Arctic reindeer eyes changes in color from gold in summer to blue in winter to improve their vision during times of continuous darkness, and perhaps enable them to better spot predators.

 

Biology and behaviors

Reindeer have developed adaptations for optimal metabolic efficiency during warm months as well as for during cold months. The body composition of reindeer varies highly with the seasons. Of particular interest is the body composition and diet of breeding and non-breeding females between the seasons. Breeding females have more body mass than non-breeding females between the months of March and September with a difference of around 10 kg (22 lb) more than non-breeding females. From November to December, non-breeding females have more body mass than breeding females, as non-breeding females are able to focus their energies towards storage during colder months rather than lactation and reproduction. Body masses of both breeding and non-breeding females peaks in September. During the months of March through April, breeding females have more fat mass than the non-breeding females with a difference of almost 3 kg (6.6 lb). After this, however, non-breeding females on average have a higher body fat mass than do breeding females.

 

The environmental variations play a large part in reindeer nutrition, as winter nutrition is crucial to adult and neonatal survival rates. Lichens are a staple during the winter months as they are a readily available food source, which reduces the reliance on stored body reserves. Lichens are a crucial part of the reindeer diet; however, they are less prevalent in the diet of pregnant reindeer compared to non-pregnant individuals. The amount of lichen in a diet is found more in non-pregnant adult diets than pregnant individuals due to the lack of nutritional value. Although lichens are high in carbohydrates, they are lacking in essential proteins that vascular plants provide. The amount of lichen in a diet decreases in latitude, which results in nutritional stress being higher in areas with low lichen abundance. 

 

In a study of seasonal light-dark cycles on sleep patterns of female reindeer, researchers performed non-invasive electroencephalography (EEG) on reindeer kept in a stable at the UiT The Arctic University of Norway. The EEG recordings showed that: the more time reindeer spend ruminating, the less time they spend in non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM sleep); and reindeer's brainwaves during rumination resemble the brainwaves present during NREM sleep. These results suggest that, by reducing the time requirement for NREM sleep, reindeer are able to spend more time feeding during the summer months, when food is abundant.

 

Reproduction and life cycle

Reindeer mate in late September to early November, and the gestation period is about 228–234 days. During the mating season, bulls battle for access to cows. Two bulls will lock each other's antlers together and try to push each other away. The most dominant bulls can collect as many as 15–20 cows to mate with. A bull will stop eating during this time and lose much of his body fat reserves.

 

To calve, "females travel to isolated, relatively predator-free areas such as islands in lakes, peatlands, lake-shores, or tundra." As females select the habitat for the birth of their calves, they are warier than males. Dugmore noted that, in their seasonal migrations, the herd follows a female for that reason. Newborns weigh on average 6 kg (13 lb).[148] In May or June, the calves are born. After 45 days, the calves are able to graze and forage, but continue suckling until the following autumn when they become independent from their mothers.

 

Bulls live four years less than the cows, whose maximum longevity is about 17 years. Cows with a normal body size and who have had sufficient summer nutrition can begin breeding anytime between the ages of 1 and 3 years. When a cow has undergone nutritional stress, it is possible for her to not reproduce for the year. Dominant bulls, those with larger body size and antler racks, inseminate more than one cow a season.

 

Social structure, migration and range

Some populations of North American caribou; for example, many herds in the barren-ground caribou subspecies and some woodland caribou in Ungava and northern Labrador, migrate the farthest of any terrestrial mammal, traveling up to 5,000 km (3,000 mi) a year, and covering 1,000,000 km2 (400,000 sq mi). Other North American populations, the boreal woodland caribou for example, are largely sedentary. The European populations are known to have shorter migrations. Island populations, such as the Novaya Zemlya and Svalbard reindeer and the Peary caribou, make local movements both within and among islands. Migrating reindeer can be negatively affected by parasite loads. Severely infected individuals are weak and probably have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary between populations. Infections create an effect known as culling: infected migrating animals are less likely to complete the migration.

 

Normally travelling about 19–55 km (12–34 mi) a day while migrating, the caribou can run at speeds of 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph).[2] Young calves can already outrun an Olympic sprinter when only 1 day old. During the spring migration, smaller herds will group together to form larger herds of 50,000 to 500,000 animals, but during autumn migrations, the groups become smaller and the reindeer begin to mate. During winter, reindeer travel to forested areas to forage under the snow. By spring, groups leave their winter grounds to go to the calving grounds. A reindeer can swim easily and quickly, normally at about 6.5 km/h (4.0 mph) but, if necessary, at 10 km/h (6.2 mph) and migrating herds will not hesitate to swim across a large lake or broad river.

 

The barren-ground caribou form large herds and undertake lengthy seasonal migrations from winter feeding grounds in taiga to spring calving grounds and summer range in the tundra. The migrations of the Porcupine herd of barren-ground caribou are among the longest of any mammal. Greenland caribou, found in southwestern Greenland, are "mixed migrators" and many individuals do not migrate; those that do migrate less than 60 km. Unlike the individual-tending mating system, aggregated rutting, synchronized calving and aggregated post-calving of barren-ground caribou, Greenland caribou have a harem-defense mating system and dispersed calving and they do not aggregate.

 

Although most wild tundra reindeer migrate between their winter range in taiga and summer range in tundra, some ecotypes or herds are more or less sedentary. Novaya Zemlya reindeer (R. t. pearsoni) formerly wintered on the mainland and migrated across the ice to the islands for summer, but only a few now migrate. Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) were formerly distributed in most of the coniferous forest zones south of the tree line, including some mountains, but are now spottily distributed within this zone.

 

As an adaptation to their Arctic environment, they have lost their circadian rhythm.

 

Distribution and habitat

Originally, the reindeer was found in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, Greenland, Russia, Mongolia and northern China north of the 50th latitude. In North America, it was found in Canada, Alaska, and the northern contiguous United States from Maine to Washington. In the 19th century, it was still present in southern Idaho. Even in historical times, it probably occurred naturally in Ireland, and it is believed to have lived in Scotland until the 12th century, when the last reindeer were hunted in Orkney. During the Late Pleistocene Epoch, reindeer occurred further south in North America, such as in Nevada, Tennessee, and Alabama, and as far south as Spain in Europe Today, wild reindeer have disappeared from these areas, especially from the southern parts, where it vanished almost everywhere. Large populations of wild reindeer are still found in Norway, Finland, Siberia, Greenland, Alaska and Canada.

 

According to Grubb (2005), Rangifer is "circumboreal in the tundra and taiga" from "Svalbard, Norway, Finland, Russia, Alaska (USA) and Canada including most Arctic islands, and Greenland, south to northern Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia), Sakhalin Island, and USA (northern Idaho and Great Lakes region)." Reindeer were introduced to, and are feral in, "Iceland, Kerguelen Islands, South Georgia Island, Pribilof Islands, St. Matthew Island": a free-ranging semi-domesticated herd is also present in Scotland.

 

There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size. There are large population differences among individual herds and the size of individual herds has varied greatly since 1970. The largest of all herds (in Taimyr, Russia) has varied between 400,000 and 1,000,000; the second largest herd (at the George River in Canada) has varied between 28,000 and 385,000.

 

While Rangifer is a widespread and numerous genus in the northern Holarctic, being present in both tundra and taiga (boreal forest), by 2013, many herds had "unusually low numbers" and their winter ranges in particular were smaller than they used to be. Caribou and reindeer numbers have fluctuated historically, but many herds are in decline across their range. This global decline is linked to climate change for northern migratory herds and industrial disturbance of habitat for non-migratory herds. Barren-ground caribou are susceptible to the effects of climate change due to a mismatch in the phenological process between the availability of food during the calving period.

 

In November 2016, it was reported that more than 81,000 reindeer in Russia had died as a result of climate change. Longer autumns, leading to increased amounts of freezing rain, created a few inches of ice over lichen, causing many reindeer to starve to death.

 

Diet.

Reindeer are ruminants, having a four-chambered stomach. They mainly eat lichens in winter, especially reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina); they are the only large mammal able to metabolize lichen owing to specialised bacteria and protozoa in their gut. They are also the only animals (except for some gastropods) in which the enzyme lichenase, which breaks down lichenin to glucose, has been found. However, they also eat the leaves of willows and birches, as well as sedges and grasses.

 

Reindeer are osteophagous; they are known to gnaw and partly consume shed antlers as a dietary supplement and in some extreme cases will cannibalise each other's antlers before shedding. There is also some evidence to suggest that on occasion, especially in the spring when they are nutritionally stressed, they will feed on small rodents (such as lemmings), fish (such as the Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)), and bird eggs. Reindeer herded by the Chukchis have been known to devour mushrooms enthusiastically in late summer.

 

During the Arctic summer, when there is continuous daylight, reindeer change their sleeping pattern from one synchronised with the sun to an ultradian pattern, in which they sleep when they need to digest food.

 

Predators.

A variety of predators prey heavily on reindeer, including overhunting by people in some areas, which contributes to the decline of populations.

 

Golden eagles prey on calves and are the most prolific hunter on the calving grounds. Wolverines will take newborn calves or birthing cows, as well as (less commonly) infirm adults.

 

Brown bears and polar bears prey on reindeer of all ages but, like wolverines, are most likely to attack weaker animals, such as calves and sick reindeer, since healthy adult reindeer can usually outpace a bear. The gray wolf is the most effective natural predator of adult reindeer and sometimes takes large numbers, especially during the winter. Some gray wolf packs, as well as individual grizzly bears in Canada, may follow and live off of a particular reindeer herd year-round.

 

In 2020, scientists on Svalbard witnessed, and were able to film for the first time, a polar bear attack reindeer, driving one into the ocean, where the polar bear caught up with and killed it. The same bear successfully repeated this hunting technique the next day. On Svalbard, reindeer remains account for 27.3% in polar bear scats, suggesting that they "may be a significant part of the polar bear's diet in that area".

 

Additionally, as carrion, reindeer may be scavenged opportunistically by red and Arctic foxes, various species of eagles, hawks and falcons, and common ravens.

 

Bloodsucking insects, such as mosquitoes, black flies, and especially the reindeer warble fly or reindeer botfly (Hypoderma tarandi) and the reindeer nose botfly (Cephenemyia trompe), are a plague to reindeer during the summer and can cause enough stress to inhibit feeding and calving behaviors. An adult reindeer will lose perhaps about 1 L (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal) of blood to biting insects for every week it spends in the tundra. The population numbers of some of these predators is influenced by the migration of reindeer. Tormenting insects keep caribou on the move, searching for windy areas like hilltops and mountain ridges, rock reefs, lakeshore and forest openings, or snow patches that offer respite from the buzzing horde. Gathering in large herds is another strategy that caribou use to block insects.

 

Reindeer are good swimmers and, in one case, the entire body of a reindeer was found in the stomach of a Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), a species found in the far North Atlantic.

 

Other threats

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) commonly carry meningeal worm or brainworm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), a nematode parasite that causes reindeer, moose (Alces alces), elk (Cervus canadensis), and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to develop fatal neurological symptoms which include a loss of fear of humans. White-tailed deer that carry this worm are partially immune to it.

 

Changes in climate and habitat beginning in the 20th century have expanded range overlap between white-tailed deer and caribou, increasing the frequency of infection within the reindeer population. This increase in infection is a concern for wildlife managers. Human activities, such as "clear-cutting forestry practices, forest fires, and the clearing for agriculture, roadways, railways, and power lines," favor the conversion of habitats into the preferred habitat of the white-tailed deer – "open forest interspersed with meadows, clearings, grasslands, and riparian flatlands." Towards the end of the Soviet Union, there was increasingly open admission from the Soviet government that reindeer numbers were being negatively affected by human activity, and that this must be remediated especially by supporting reindeer breeding by native herders.

 

Conservation

Current status

While overall widespread and numerous, some reindeer species and subspecies are rare and three subspecies have already become extinct. As of 2015, the IUCN has classified the reindeer as Vulnerable due to an observed population decline of 40% over the last +25 years. According to IUCN, Rangifer tarandus as a species is not endangered because of its overall large population and its widespread range.

 

In North America, the Queen Charlotte Islands caribou and the East Greenland caribou both became extinct in the early 20th century, the Peary caribou is designated as Endangered, the boreal woodland caribou is designated as Threatened and some individual populations are endangered as well. While the barren-ground caribou is not designated as Threatened, many individual herds — including some of the largest — are declining and there is much concern at the local level. Grant's caribou, a small, pale subspecies endemic to the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands, has not been assessed as to its conservation status.

 

The status of the Dolphin-Union "herd" was upgraded to Endangered in 2017. In NWT, Dolphin-Union caribou were listed as Special Concern under the NWT Species at Risk (NWT) Act (2013).

 

Both the Selkirk Mountains caribou (Southern Mountain population DU9) and the Rocky Mountain caribou (Central Mountain population DU8) are classified as Endangered in Canada in regions such as southeastern British Columbia at the Canada–United States border, along the Columbia and Kootenay Rivers and around Kootenay Lake. Rocky Mountain caribou are extirpated from Banff National Park, but a small population remains in Jasper National Park and in mountain ranges to the northwest into British Columbia. Montane caribou are now considered extirpated in the contiguous United States, including Washington and Idaho. Osborn's caribou (Northern Mountain population DU7) is classified as Threatened in Canada.

 

In Eurasia, the Sakhalin reindeer is extinct (and has been replaced by domestic reindeer) and reindeer on most of the Novaya Zemlya islands have also been replaced by domestic reindeer, although some wild reindeer still persist on the northern islands. Many Siberian tundra reindeer herds have declined, some dangerously, but the Taymir herd remains strong and in total about 940,000 wild Siberian tundra reindeer were estimated in 2010.

 

There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size. By 2013, many caribou herds in North America had "unusually low numbers" and their winter ranges in particular were smaller than they used to be. Caribou numbers have fluctuated historically, but many herds are in decline across their range. There are many factors contributing to the decline in numbers.

 

Boreal woodland caribou

Ongoing human development of their habitat has caused populations of boreal woodland caribou to disappear from their original southern range. In particular, boreal woodland caribou were extirpated in many areas of eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century.

Yeah I have heard this phrase too. If only people thought about what they say, or write it out perhaps. That might bring them to the realization that ENGLISH SUCKS.

 

This isn't the point of my picture though. The boy on the right in my brother. The "boy" on the left is the brother of a very good friend of mine. As you might have noticed, they have quite different views of the world. I tried once to bend down and walk through a crowd... being short would suck. I am 6'2''. I don't understand what it's like to have to jump up or use a stool to reach the top of my cupboards, or have to walk around a wire fence rather than over. I do know how hard it is fit into a smart car, and try to sew your torn shoe together with fingers as big as a brat...

 

Everyone is different. What if we were the same? Would there be anger? Would there be awkward moments.....amazement, rich/poor.....or love?

 

I have been in a philosophical mood lately...most of that due to the new Blue October CD that was released. Music can make me feel any emotion, even the ones I try to forget.

 

Don't let the differences between people be the reason you hate or bully. Make it be the reason you love and learn. That just sounds like a better use of time doesn't it?

A chence meeting with a warden deep in an ancient beech wood revealed how to access the church, she even showed me which way out of the wood to emerge nearest the church.

 

Quits some difference to my last visit, on a cold a dreary February day last year. This time sprng had fully sprung, the churchyard fill of new growth and the air full of bird song.

 

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Hidden down narrow lanes this surprising church offers much to the churchcrawler. Norman in origin but thirteenth century in form, the piers of both arcades have surprisingly detailed capitals. The rood screen still divides nave and chancel, though the coving and much of the rest is replacement. Its upper and lower doorways survive, the lower one having its original medieval hinges. The font is thirteenth century but at some time has had new piers – old photos show it with a solid base. The north tower dates from the 20th century and was designed by Bensted of Maidstone – a gothic fantasy if ever there was one compared to the plain structure it enhanced. A ledger slab in the chancel commemorates a senior lawyer at the New Inns of Court and describes him as ` ancient ` - not in age but in seniority!

 

www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Stalisfield

 

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TQ 95 SE STALISFIELD CHURCH ROAD

(east side)

 

6/121 Church of

St. Mary

 

24.1.67 II*

 

Parish church. C13 and restored 1904. Flint and sandstone with

plain tiled roof. Chancel with south chapel, nave with aisles,

north tower. Exterior heavily restored, tower topped by weather

vane dated 1904, over a wooden belfry with tiled roof.- Three

light C15 east window, otherwise C19 fenestration. Double

chamfered west doorway. Interior: nave arcades of 2 bays, on

square piers with chamfered corners and trefoiled archlet to

heavy moulded abaci, Roof of 3 tall crown posts. Single

chamfered arch on imposts from chancel to chapel and blocked

arch to demolished north chapel. Double chamfered chancel arch.

Fittings: trefoil headed piscina in chancel. Rood screen:C15

perpendicular. Five bays, each with four-light traceried openings-

with crenellated oblique transoms. Vine motif frieze above blank

tracery on lower panels, with angels, eagles and roses in

spandrels. Attached shafts support frieze of Tudor flowers with

renewed cove. C13 font on 5 shafts with 4 blank arches on each

side of bowl. Royal coat of arms (obscured at time of survey)

carved in high relief on nave south wall. (See B.O.E. Kent II,

1983, 465 and illus. 65.)

  

Listing NGR: TQ9673852434

 

www.britishlistedbuildings.co.uk/en-176527-church-of-st-m...

 

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COMMONLY called Starchfield, adjoins to the parish of Easling south-eastward. It is called in Domesday, Stanefelle, which is the same as Stonefield, a name well adapted to the flinty soil of it.

 

THE PARISH is an unfrequented and obscure place, situated in a wild and dreary country, near the summit of the chalk hills, just above Charing, its southern boundary. It lies on high ground, exceedingly bleak, and exposed to north and north-east winds. The land in it is in general a red cludgy earth, of very stiff tillage, very barren, wet and flinty, and the inhabitants, as well as the country, are equally poor. It has continued hill and dale in it, the greater part of it is coppice wood, which is mostly beech and oak, usually felled at sixteen and eighteen years growth, and even then from its sort, and its out of the way distance from markets, is not of any great worth; what village there is stands round Starchfield-green, lying near the summit of the hill, on the road to Charing, at the south-west part of the parish, the church in the opposite part of it, and the parsonage midway between them. Near the north-east boundary of the parish, next to Throwley, is an estate called Holborne, but its proper name is Holbean, belonging to St. Bartholomew's hospital, in London; it is said formerly to have belonged to the north chantry of this church of Starchfield.

 

THIS PLACE, at the time of the taking of the general survey of Domesday, in 1080, was part of the possessions of Odo, bishop of Baieux, under the general title of whose lands it is thus described in it:

 

The same Adam (de Port) holds of the bishop Stanefelle. It was taxed at two sulings. The arable land is four carucates. In demesne there is one carucate, and ten villeins, having two carucates.There is a church,and six servants,and two acres of meadow.Wood for the pannage of sixty hogs.In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was worth sixty shillings, and afterwards forty shillings,now one hundred shillings,Turgis held it of earl Godwin.

 

On the bishop of Baieux's disgrace, about four years afterwards, this, among the rest of his possessions, came into the hands of the crown, so that Adam de Port before-mentioned, became the king's immediate tenant of it, of whose heirs it was again held afterwards by Arnulf Kade, who gave this manor, with that of Ore and its appurtenances, to the knights hospitallers, and it was assigned by them to the jurisdiction of their preceptory at Swingfield.

 

This manor continued part of their possessions till the general dissolution of their hospital, in the 32d year of Henry VIII. After which this manor did not remain long in the hands of the crown, for the king, in his 36th year, granted it to Sir Anthony St. Leger and his heirs male, to hold in capite by knight's service, who by the act of the 2d and 3d of Edward VI. procured his lands in this county to be disgavelled. After which, Edward VI. in his 4th year, made a grant of this manor to him and his heirs, to hold by the like service. (fn. 1) He immediately afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Anthony Aucher, of Bishopsborne, whose son Sir Anthony Aucher, about the beginning of king James I.'s reign, sold it to Salter, whose descendant Sir Nicholas Salter, possessed it at the restoration of Charles II. They bore for their arms, Gules, ten billets, four, three, two, and one, a bordure engrailed, argent, charged with sixteen burts and torteauxes, alternately. His son Nicholas Salter, esq. of Stoke Poges, in Buckinghamshire, died in the reign of king William and queen Mary, leaving one son John, who was of London, surgeon, and three daughters, towards the raising of whose portions, he by his will ordered this manor to be sold, which it accordingly was, in 1699, to Mr. Richard Webbe, of Eleham; he, in 1711, after some controversies at law for the possession of it, alienated all his right and title to it to the trustees, for the periormance of the will of dame Sarah Barrett, widow of Sir Paul Barrett, serjeant-at-law, who had died in the beginning of that year.

 

She was the only daughter and heir of Sir George Ent, M. D. of London, and president of the college of physicians, and widow of Francis Head, esq. eldest son of Sir Richard Head, bart. who died in his father's life-time. She had by her first husband one son, Sir Francis Head, bart. of and a daughter Sarah, married to John Lynch, esq. of Groves, father of John Lynch, D D. dean of Canterbury, who left issue Sir William Lynch, K. B. and John Lynch, LL. D. archdeacon and prebendary of Canterbury.

 

Lady Barrett, by the trusts of her will, devised this manor to her male issue by her first husband in tail male, remainder to the issue of Sarah her daughter by the same husband in like tail, remainder to her several daughters and their heirs in fee; by virtue of which limitation, her grandson Sir Francis Head, bart. at length succeeded to it, and son his death in 1768, without male issue, his next brother Sir John Head, bart. and archdeacon of Canterbury, became possessed of it, and died s. p. in 1769, leaving his widow lady Jane Head, sister of Dr. William Geekie, prebendary of Canterbury, surviving, on whom he had settled this manor in jointure; she died in 1780, on which the property of it, under the above will, became vested in lady Barrett's next heir male Sir William Lynch, K.B. of Grove, who was her great-grandson, being the eldest son of John Lynch, D. D. dean of Canterbury, the son of John Lynch, esq. by Sarah his wife, her daughter by Francis Head, esq. who, to bar all further remainders, with his brother Dr. John Lynch, suffered a recovery of this manor, and died in 1785, s. p. After which it was alienated to the Rev. Wanley Sawbridge, who dying unmarried and interstate in 1796, it came to his two nephews and heirs-at-law, Samuel-Elias and Wanley Sawbridge, esqrs. who are the present possessors of it. A court baron is held for this manor.

 

DARBIES-COURT, is a manor situated in the northwest part of this parish, which took its name from a family who resided at it, and were of the rank of gentlemen in very early times, for in the antient registers and rolls of Kentish gentry, their coat armour is thus described, Party, per chevron embattled, or, and azure, three eagles counterchanged. In the 20th year of king Edward III. Sara de Darbye paid aid for lands here, which William de Darbie and the heirs of Thomas Franklyn held before in Winsfield, of Reginald de Cornhill, by knight's service; and there is a hamlet and valley adjoining to Darbies-court, once part of it, called at this time Wingfield, and Wingfield valley. Of this family was John Darbie, who was alderman of London, and sheriff in 1445, anno 24 Henry VI. who built the south isle of St. Dionis Backchurch, in that city, and was otherwise a good benefactor to it; in memory of which, the above-mentioned coat of arms was put up in the windows of it. (fn. 2)

 

But the manor of Darbies court was alienated by one of that family, in the beginning of the reign of Henry IV. to Sir Ralph St. Leger, of Otterden, who died in the 10th year of that reign, leaving a daughter Joane, then the wife of Henry Aucher, esq. of Newenden, who entitled her husband to the possession of it. In whose descendants this manor continued till the reign of queen Elizabeth, when it was alienated to Sir Michael Sondes, then of Eastry, who was the second son of Sir Anthony Sondes, of Throwley, and on his elder brother Sir Thomas Sondes's death, in 1592, without male issue, succeeded him in his seat at Throwley, as well as the rest of his intailed estates in this county. He afterwards resided at Throwley, where he died in 1617, anno 16 James I. Since which this manor has descended, in like manner as Throwley and Lees-court, in Sheldwich, both which the reader will find described in the future part of this volume down to the right hon. Lewis-Thomas, lord Sondes, the present possessor of it. A court baron is held for this manor.

 

Charities.

 

ROGER PAYNE, ESQ. late of Otterden, by his will in 1706, gave 20l. chargeable on his estate at Otterden, to poor housekeepers of this parish; which is placed out at interest at 4l. per cent. the yearly distribution of it being vested in the minister, churchwardens, and overseers.

 

The poor constantly relieved are about thirty; casually thirty-five.

 

This PARISH is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Ospringe.

 

The church, which stands near the centre of the parish, is dedicated to St. Mary. It is built in the form of a cross; the steeple stands in the middle of the south side. In the north wall of the north chancel is an antient tomb, with the effigies of a man in armour lying at length on it. In the east window are these coats of arms, Sable, a chevron gules, between three clothworkers handles, or; another, the coat broke, impaling, Quarterly, azure and argent, per fess indented, surmounted by a battune, or, and azure.

 

The church of Ore was antiently accounted as a chapel to this of Stalisfield, but it has been long since separated, and become a distinct church independent of it.

 

The church of Stalisfield belonged to the priory of St. Gregory, in Canterbury, perhaps part of its original endowment by archbishop Lansranc, in the reign of the Conqueror, and it was confirmed to it, among the rest of its possessions, by archbishop Hubert, about the reign of Richard I. (fn. 3)

 

In the 8th year of Richard II. it was become appropriated to the above-mentioned priory, and a vicarage endowed in it, the former being then valued at twelve pounds, and the latter at four pounds, on the taxation of them.

 

The church, with the advowson of the vicarage, remained part of the possessions of the priory till the dissolution of it in the reign of Henry VIII. when they came into the hands of the crown, where they remained but a small time, for an act passed that year to enable the king and the archbishop of Canterbury to exchange the scite of the late dissolved priory of St. Radigund, near Dover, with all its possessions, lately given by the king to the archbishop for the scite of the late dissolved priory of St. Gregory, and all its possessions, excepting the manor of Howfield, in Chartham.

 

This church becoming thus part of the revenues of the see of Canterbury, was demised by the archbishop, among the rest of the revenues of the priory, in one grands beneficial lease, in which, all advowsons and nominations of churches and chapels were excepted, and it has been continued under the same kind of demise from time to time ever since, renewable in like manner as such leases usually are.

 

¶Philip, earl of Chesterfield, was lessee of this parsonage as part of the above premises, as heir to the Wottons, after whose death in 1773, the lease was sold by his executors to George Gipps, esq. of Canterbury, who is the present lessee under the archbishop for the parsonage of Stalisfield, among the rest of the possessions of the priory of St. Gregory, but SamuelElias and Wanley Sawbridge, esqrs. as heirs of their uncle the Rev. Wanley Sawbridge, late vicar of this parish, are the occupiers of it, at a yearly reserved rent under him. The parsonage consists of a house, buildings, yard, and small orchard, ninety-four acres of land, and nine acres of wood, let together with the tithes of corn, at 75l. per annum; besides which, there are sixteen acres of woodland more in the hands of the lessee of the parsonage, worth 3l. 10s. per annum. It pays 7s. 6d. procurations to the archdeacon, and 6s. 4d. to the archbishop at his visitations.

 

The vicarage of this church appears to have been endowed before the 8th of Richard II. by the taxation then made of it. It is valued in the king's books at 5l. 6s. 8d. and the yearly tenths at 10s. 8d. and is now of the yearly certified value of 33l. 18s. 3d. In 1587 there were sixty-one communicants here. In 1640 it was valued at only 35l. and the communicants were the like number.

 

Archbishop Juxon, by indenture anno 13 king Charles II. and by another anno 28 of that reign, augmented it with 25l. per annum, to be paid by the lessee of the great tithes. The archbishop continues patron of this vicarage.

 

THERE WAS a portion of tithes in this parish, of the value of ten shillings, which was given soon after the conquest to the priory of St. Andrew, in Rochester, by Humphry Canute; and this gift was afterwards confirmed by D. de Monci, his descendant, to be holden in like manner as the same was held of his ancestors; and it was likewise confirmed to it by the archbishops Richard, Baldwin, and Hubert. (fn. 4)

 

www.british-history.ac.uk/survey-kent/vol6/pp438-445

The little arms sticking out are the mechanism with transmits a "carry" from one counter to the next whenever any counter position "goes over 9"

I was getting ready to test my Butterball Indoor Turkey Fryer, I am testing it with a five pound chicken and I am using Canola Oil. Jimmy Dean was not to excited about the prep work. But Link and Frank camped out in the kitchen for the entire time.

The poor girl, seen wearing colourful embroidered lehenga-choli, is balancing her pot to bring water, while the well-off girl in salwar-kameez is with a hand bag

Well, I split the difference today. My size Y11 small child's slippers. Fun to wear like this.

 

I used to see a guy with much larger feet than mine wearing equally small or smaller slippers from time to time. So I decided to emulate him.

 

It is common to see people with large feet wearing slippers that are several sizes "too small", but I wanted to push the limit.

 

Worn with the difference split is fine as shown here. Worn with the strap tight so the toes are on the sole and the heel is on the ground works also, kind of an interesting sensation. Loosening the strap so the heel is completely on the sole and the forefoot hangs over the front is problematical. Unless one keeps his/her toes bent to the ground, the slipper will slide right off as one walks.

Taiwan fork crown

The sky changed so fast!

 

What's the differences to these 2 creatures? HAHA

 

Pictures with HD Macro Lens and iPhone 13 Pro Max

www.dckina.com/product-page/iPhone-HD-Macro-Lens

 

I haven't been writing as much here in this little description area, I know. I've been trying to blog more. I hope you have been joining me there. But I'd like to give you a few words with this photo.

 

A few months ago, I took a picture in the same spot as the photo above. I mean, I've taken a lot of photos in this same spot, but there's one in particular. If you look in my self-portrait set, you'll find it. It's one of the most honest and raw photos i've ever taken. Not just of myself, but of anyone. I'm proud of it but it's hard for me to look at, because I can see exactly what I wanted to capture: the way I felt. It was, as I later wrote, pouring out my eyes.

 

You may notice a different look in the shot here. You may know what it is. You may guess. You may not care. Any of those are fine with me.

 

I will just say this: Life brings a lot of bad sometimes. Not because we deserve it. We can hope for good all we want, for the bad to be gone. That won't change things. All we can do is work through the bad, wait it out, do the best we can.

 

And sometimes life brings good. Not because we deserve it. We can wish for more of it, but why? Instead, we should grab a hold of what we get and celebrate the hell out of it.

 

These days, I'm celebrating. What a difference a few months can make. You have no idea.

Working model of Charles Babbage's Difference Engine

AVENUE MIX + MESH FAIR

 

Mix&Mesh Fair exclusive

 

: TORN : BY Torn Difference

 

{TD} Marie Berry

 

ananyamai.wordpress.com/2012/06/11/torn-mesh-for-the-win-3/

Scratches (calico) is 6.5 cm tall from the toes, to the ears. Boo is 4.5 cm tall. So tiny!

Based on the wonderful design made by Ixpia for Akamai, In created my own take on the legendary master of wisdom. The body-frame was based off, but not taken directly from the original. Enjoy.

 

Tutorial for the original can be found here:

 

imgur.com/a/Bk8Z8#6P2MKG3

Location: Tsim Sha Tsui MTR Station, Hong Kong

 

Leica IIIg

Cosina Voigtländer Super wide-Heliar 15mm f/4.5 Aspherical LTM

Arista Premium 400

Late '50's GMC and it's previous Generation counterpart in the background.

"‘Sweet Temptation’ was hand formed by my three young children who already display individual differences in the ability to resist temptation (demonstrated by the varying number of sweets consumed during the making of this image!).

 

The ability to exhibit self-control in an environment abundant with temptation may be a key factor in preventing over eating and obesity, with tendencies toward impulsivity and immediacy making this very difficult for some people.

 

Discovering how to measure the exact form of impulsivity that underlies over eating can inform us of the best strategies to help currently over-weight people enhance self-control, and focus preventative measures so that they can target vulnerable individuals at a young age.

 

My research not only excites me intellectually but is vital to me as a parent responsible for the long term health of my children."

Size difference !

the printer section at the right - like a predecessor of the typewriter. the rods at high level transmit the numerical values to the typing mechanism.

I am getting quite tired of seeing people texture their weapons with external programs such as Photoshop and Gimp, and just overlaying a simple texture over their weapon.

There's so many things that are wrong with that, and it's just sad.

I've textured over my weapon with a simple wood texture, and on the left, I put about 30 minutes into just erasing things, and that's it. On the right, I put about 30 seconds into it just by repeating the texture across my weapon. People, if you are going to texture your weapon, borrow someone else's texture or put some time into it.

tl;dr: Bolts should't have textures.

Edited in Photoshop for the shitty texturing.

So, for those of you making Nappy clothing, one thing I noticed, is that Dalangs ears stick out and are HUGE compared to the classic choo. A bonnet on Dalang that covers the ears will have bumps on the side, while on a classic choo, covering the ears is a non-issue. Another thing-Classic Choo has a longer face than Dalang-meaning my bonnet wraps under Dalangs chin nicely, while it appears slightly shorter on Classic.

Taken by Sal

World famous tenor Russell Watson dropped in to meet a group of young people at Swinton Police Station back in 2002.

 

He gave up his time to meet one of the groups taking part in Greater Manchester Police's "Make A Difference" challenge.

 

As part of the scheme the group would undertake a project to improve community life in their area.

 

The scheme was also designed to develop life skills and help build self confidence.

 

Russell was raised in nearby Irlam and was only to happy to lend his support.

 

Russell rose to fame a few years earlier - after several years singing in clubs - when he was asked to sing the National Anthem at the Rugby League Challenge Cup Final at Wembley Stadium and to sing a number of songs at the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final in Manchester United's treble winning season.

 

He continues - despite two major health scares in the recent years - to be a hugely popular singer on the wold stage to this day.

 

From the collection of the Greater Manchester Police Museum.

 

To find out more about Greater Manchester Police please visit our website www.gmp.police.uk

 

You should call 101, the new national non-emergency number, to report crime and other concerns that do not require an emergency response.

 

Always call 999 in an emergency, such as when a crime is in progress, violence is being used or threatened or where there is danger to life.

 

You can also call anonymously with information about crime to Crimestoppers on 0800 555 111. Crimestoppers is an independent charity who will not want your name, just your information. Your call will not be traced or recorded and you do not have to go to court or give a statement.

 

Facevinyl Theatre