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Population density measures the number of persons per square kilometer of land area. The data are gridded at a resolution of 30 arc-seconds.
Street-Scape aims to visualize the density of the people and their movement speed in the urban space.
The walking direction of people in the street is plotted in one direction to make their relative distances between each-other more apparent. All static objects are blurred creating an ambience of the environment while making the moving ones more visible. The people walking 5km/h have original proportions. Everyone moving faster is thinner and everyone slower respectively wider.
Street-Scape renders the people anonymous while revealing their demographic qualities such as their approximate age and gender. Thus, showing the relative amount of children, grown-ups, older people, bikers, etc in a particular place during the visualized time.
Keystone is a town in the Black Hills region of Pennington County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 240 at the 2020 census. It had its origins in 1883 as a mining town, and has since transformed itself into a resort town, serving the needs of the millions of visitors to the Mount Rushmore National Memorial, which is located just beyond the town limits. Keystone was heavily damaged in the 1972 Black Hills flood.
The town took its name from a local mine, which most likely was named after the keystone Masonic symbol.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 2.86 square miles (7.41 km2), all land.
At the 2010 census there were 337 people, 153 households, and 81 families living in the town. The population density was 117.8 inhabitants per square mile (45.5/km2). There were 230 housing units at an average density of 80.4 per square mile (31.0/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 93.8% White, 3.3% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.3% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.3%.
Of the 153 households 23.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.2% were married couples living together, 8.5% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 47.1% were non-families. 34.0% of households were one person and 10.4% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.83.
The median age in the town was 42.8 years. 22.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 3.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 27.5% were from 25 to 44; 33.5% were from 45 to 64; and 12.8% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the town was 50.7% male and 49.3% female.
At the 2000 census there were 311 people, 152 households, and 84 families living in the town. The population density was 108.6 inhabitants per square mile (41.9/km2). There were 209 housing units at an average density of 73.0 per square mile (28.2/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 95.50% White, 1.93% Native American, 0.32% from other races, and 2.25% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.54%.
Of the 152 households 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.5% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.1% were non-families. 35.5% of households were one person and 11.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.60.
The age distribution was 20.9% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 30.9% from 25 to 44, 30.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% 65 or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.2 males.
The median household income was $26,406, and the median family income was $36,250. Males had a median income of $24,219 versus $17,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,828. About 13.9% of families and 16.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.9% of those under age 18 and 23.3% of those age 65 or over.
Among its tourist attractions is the Black Hills Central Railroad, built in 1900 for Black Hills gold. It now operates passenger trains pulled by preserved steam locomotives.
Another prominent local attraction is The National Presidential Wax Museum, which features wax sculptures of every president in U.S. history and several notable Sioux Chiefs, inventors, and international political figures. The wax figures are the work of world-renowned wax sculptor Katherine Stubergh whose notable works include wax figures used in the 1939 film Gone With the Wind and the 1953 film House of Wax.
Carrie Ingalls (sister of Little House on the Prairie author Laura Ingalls Wilder) spent a significant part of her adult life there, living with her husband David N. Swanzey and his children. Her sister Mary Ingalls lived with them as an adult. Both Carrie and Mary died in Keystone, but were buried in the family plot in De Smet.
South Dakota is a landlocked U.S. state in the North Central region of the United States. It is also part of the Great Plains. South Dakota is named after the Dakota Sioux tribe, which comprises a large portion of the population with nine reservations currently in the state and has historically dominated the territory. South Dakota is the 17th largest by area, but the 5th least populous, and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Pierre is the state capital, and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 213,900, is South Dakota's most populous city. The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as "East River" and "West River". South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota (to the north), Minnesota (to the east), Iowa (to the southeast), Nebraska (to the south), Wyoming (to the west), and Montana (to the northwest).
Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European-American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. As the southern part of the former Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. They are the 39th and 40th states admitted to the union; President Benjamin Harrison shuffled the statehood papers before signing them so that no one could tell which became a state first.
Key events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming. Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the state's population, and the area's fertile soil is used to grow a variety of crops. West of the Missouri River, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine-covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, is in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is there. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The state's ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome.
While several Democrats have represented South Dakota for multiple terms in both chambers of Congress, the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have carried South Dakota in each of the last 14 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in other areas to both attract and retain residents. South Dakota's history and rural character still strongly influence the state's culture.
The history of South Dakota describes the history of the U.S. state of South Dakota over the course of several millennia, from its first inhabitants to the recent issues facing the state.
Human beings have lived in what is today South Dakota for at least several thousand years. Early hunters are believed to have first entered North America at least 17,000 years ago via the Bering land bridge, which existed during the last ice age and connected Siberia with Alaska. Early settlers in what would become South Dakota were nomadic hunter-gatherers, using primitive Stone Age technology to hunt large prehistoric mammals in the area such as mammoths, sloths, and camels. The Paleolithic culture of these people disappeared around 5000 BC, after the extinction of most of their prey species.
Between AD 500 and 800, much of eastern South Dakota was inhabited by a people known as the 'Mound Builders'. The Mound Builders were hunters who lived in temporary villages and were named for the low earthen burial mounds they constructed, many of which still exist. Their settlement seems to have been concentrated around the watershed of the Big Sioux River and Big Stone Lake, although other sites have been excavated throughout eastern South Dakota. Either assimilation or warfare led to the demise of the Mound Builders by the year 800. Between 1250 and 1400 an agricultural people, likely the ancestors of the modern Mandan of North Dakota, arrived from the east and settled in the central part of the state. In 1325, what has become known as the Crow Creek Massacre occurred near Chamberlain. An archeological excavation of the site has discovered 486 bodies buried in a mass grave within a type of fortification; many of the skeletal remains show evidence of scalping and decapitation.
The Arikara, also known as the Ree, began arriving from the south in the 16th century. They spoke a Caddoan language similar to that of the Pawnee, and probably originated in what is now Kansas and Nebraska. Although they would at times travel to hunt or trade, the Arikara were far less nomadic than many of their neighbors, and lived for the most part in permanent villages. These villages usually consisted of a stockade enclosing a number of circular earthen lodges built on bluffs looking over the rivers. Each village had a semi-autonomous political structure, with the Arikara's various subtribes being connected in a loose alliance. In addition to hunting and growing crops such as corn, beans, pumpkin and other squash, the Arikara were also skilled traders, and would often serve as intermediaries between tribes to the north and south It was probably through their trading connections that Spanish horses first reached the region around 1760. The Arikara reached the height of their power in the 17th century, and may have included as many as 32 villages. Due both to disease as well as pressure from other tribes, the number of Arikara villages would decline to only two by the late 18th century, and the Arikara eventually merged entirely with the Mandan to the north.
The sister tribe of the Arikaras, the Pawnee, may have also had a small amount of land in the state. Both were Caddoan and were among the only known tribes in the continental U.S. to have committed human sacrifice, via a religious ritual that occurred once a year. It is said that the U.S. government worked hard to halt this practice before their homelands came to be heavily settled, for fear that the general public might react harshly or refuse to move there.
The Lakota Oral histories tell of them driving the Algonquian ancestors of the Cheyenne from the Black Hills regions, south of the Platte River, in the 18th century. Before that, the Cheyenne say that they were, in fact, two tribes, which they call the Tsitsistas & Sutaio After their defeat, much of their territory was contained to southeast Wyoming & western Nebraska. While they had been able to hold off the Sioux for quite some time, they were heavily damaged by a smallpox outbreak. They are also responsible for introducing the horse to the Lakota.
The Ioway, or Iowa people, also inhabited the region where the modern states of South Dakota, Minnesota & Iowa meet, north of the Missouri River. They also had a sister nation, known as the Otoe who lived south of them. They were Chiwere speaking, a very old variation of Siouan language said to have originated amongst the ancestors of the Ho-Chunk of Wisconsin. They also would have had a fairly similar culture to that of the Dhegihan Sioux tribes of Nebraska & Kansas.
By the 17th century, the Sioux, who would later come to dominate much of the state, had settled in what is today central and northern Minnesota. The Sioux spoke a language of the Siouan language family, and were divided into two culture groups – the Dakota & Nakota. By the early 18th century the Sioux would begin to move south and then west into the plains. This migration was due to several factors, including greater food availability to the west, as well as the fact that the rival Ojibwe & other related Algonquians had obtained rifles from the French at a time when the Sioux were still using the bow and arrow. Other tribes were also displaced during some sort of poorly understood conflict that occurred between Siouan & Algonquian peoples in the early 18th century.
In moving west into the prairies, the lifestyle of the Sioux would be greatly altered, coming to resemble that of a nomadic northern plains tribe much more so than a largely settled eastern woodlands one. Characteristics of this transformation include a greater dependence on the bison for food, a heavier reliance on the horse for transportation, and the adoption of the tipi for habitation, a dwelling more suited to the frequent movements of a nomadic people than their earlier semi-permanent lodges.
Once on the plains, a schism caused the two subgroups of the Sioux to divide into three separate nations—the Lakota, who migrated south, the Asiniboine who migrated back east to Minnesota & the remaining Sioux. It appears to be around this time that the Dakota people became more prominent over the Nakota & the entirety of the people came to call themselves as such.
The Lakota, who crossed the Missouri around 1760 and reached the Black Hills by 1776, would come to settle largely in western South Dakota, northwestern Nebraska, and southwestern North Dakota. The Yankton primarily settled in southeastern South Dakota, the Yanktonnais settled in northeastern South Dakota and southeastern North Dakota, and the Santee settled primarily in central and southern Minnesota. Due in large part to the Sioux migrations, a number of tribes would be driven from the area. The tribes in and around the Black Hills, most notably the Cheyenne, would be pushed to the west, the Arikara would move further north along the Missouri, and the Omaha would be driven out of southeastern South Dakota and into northeastern Nebraska.
Later, the Lakota & Assiniboine returned to the fold, forming a single confederacy known as the Oceti Sakowin, or Seven council fire. This was divided into four cultural groups—the Lakota, Dakota, Nakota & Nagoda-- & seven distinct tribes, each with their own chief—the Nakota Mdewakan (Note—Older attempts at Lakota language show a mistake in writing the sound 'bl' as 'md', such as summer, Bloketu, misprinted as mdoketu. Therefore, this word should be Blewakan.) & Wahpeton, the Dakota Santee & Sisseton, the Nagoda Yankton & Yanktonai & the Lakota Teton. In this form, they were able to secure from the U.S. government a homeland, commonly referred to as Mni-Sota Makoce, or the Lakotah Republic. However, conflicts increased between Sioux & American citizens in the decades leading up the Civil War & a poorly funded & organized Bureau of Indian Affairs had difficulty keeping peace between groups. This eventually resulted in the United States blaming the Sioux for the atrocities & rendering the treaty which recognized the nation of Lakotah null and void. The U.S., however, later recognized their fault in a Supreme Court case in the 1980s after several decades of failed lawsuits by the Sioux, yet little has been done to smooth the issue over to the best interests of both sides.
France was the first European nation to hold any real claim over what would become South Dakota. Its claims covered most of the modern state. However, at most a few French scouting parties may have entered eastern South Dakota. In 1679 Daniel G. Duluth sent explorers west from Lake Mille Lacs, and they may have reached Big Stone Lake and the Coteau des Prairies. Pierre Le Sueur's traders entered the Big Sioux River Valley on multiple occasions. Evidence for these journeys is from a 1701 map by William De L'Isle that shows a trail to below the falls of the Big Sioux River from the Mississippi River.
After 1713, France looked west to sustain its fur trade. The first Europeans to enter South Dakota from the north, the Verendrye brothers, began their expedition in 1743. The expedition started at Fort La Reine on Lake Manitoba, and was attempting to locate an all-water route to the Pacific Ocean. They buried a lead plate inscribed near Ft. Pierre; it was rediscovered by schoolchildren in 1913.
In 1762, France granted Spain all French territory west of the Mississippi River in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. The agreement, which was signed in secret, was motivated by a French desire to convince Spain to come to terms with Britain and accept defeat in the Seven Years' War. In an attempt to secure Spanish claims in the region against possible encroachment from other European powers, Spain adopted a policy for the upper Missouri which emphasized the development of closer trade relations with local tribes as well as greater exploration of the region, a primary focus of which would be a search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean. Although traders such as Jacques D'Eglise and Juan Munier had been active in the region for several years, these men had been operating independently, and a determined effort to reach the Pacific and solidify Spanish control of the region had never been undertaken. In 1793, a group commonly known as the Missouri Company was formed in St. Louis, with the twin goals of trading and exploring on the upper Missouri. The company sponsored several attempts to reach the Pacific Ocean, none of which made it further than the mouth of the Yellowstone. In 1794, Jean Truteau (also spelled Trudeau) built a cabin near the present-day location of Fort Randall, and in 1795 the Mackay-Evans Expedition traveled up the Missouri as far as present-day North Dakota, where they expelled several British traders who had been active in the area. In 1801, a post known as Fort aux Cedres was constructed by Registre Loisel of St. Louis, on Cedar Island on the Missouri about 35 miles (56 km) southeast of the present location of Pierre. This trading post was the major regional post until its destruction by fire in 1810.[30] In 1800, Spain gave Louisiana back to France in the Treaty of San Ildefonso.
In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory from Napoleon for $11,000,000. The territory included most of the western half of the Mississippi watershed and covered nearly all of present-day South Dakota, except for a small portion in the northeast corner of the state. The region was still largely unexplored and unsettled, and President Thomas Jefferson organized a group commonly referred to as the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore the newly acquired region over a period of more than two years. The expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery, was tasked with following the route of the Missouri to its source, continuing on to the Pacific Ocean, establishing diplomatic relations with the various tribes in the area, and taking cartographic, geologic, and botanical surveys of the area. The expedition left St. Louis on May 14, 1804, with 45 men and 15 tons of supplies in three boats (one keelboat and two pirogues). The party progressed slowly against the Missouri's current, reaching what is today South Dakota on August 22. Near present-day Vermillion, the party hiked to the Spirit Mound after hearing local legends of the place being inhabited by "little spirits" (or "devils"). Shortly after this, a peaceful meeting took place with the Yankton Sioux, while an encounter with the Lakota Sioux further north was not as uneventful. The Lakota mistook the party as traders, at one point stealing a horse. Weapons were brandished on both sides after it appeared as though the Lakota were going to further delay or even halt the expedition, but they eventually stood down and allowed the party to continue up the river and out of their territory. In north central South Dakota, the expedition acted as mediators between the warring Arikara and Mandan. After leaving the state on October 14, the party wintered with the Mandan in North Dakota before successfully reaching the Pacific Ocean and returning by the same route, safely reaching St. Louis in 1806. On the return trip, the expedition spent only 15 days in South Dakota, traveling more swiftly with the Missouri's current.
Pittsburgh lawyer Henry Marie Brackenridge was South Dakota's first recorded tourist. In 1811 he was hosted by fur trader Manuel Lisa.
In 1817, an American fur trading post was set up at present-day Fort Pierre, beginning continuous American settlement of the area. During the 1830s, fur trading was the dominant economic activity for the few white people who lived in the area. More than one hundred fur-trading posts were in present-day South Dakota in the first half of the 19th century, and Fort Pierre was the center of activity.[citation needed] General William Henry Ashley, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith of the Rocky Mountain Fur Company, and Manuel Lisa and Joshua Pilcher of the St. Louis Fur Company, trapped in that region. Pierre Chouteau Jr. brought the steamship Yellowstone to Fort Tecumseh on the Missouri River in 1831. In 1832 the fort was replaced by Fort Pierre Chouteau Jr.: today's town of Fort Pierre. Pierre bought the Western Department of John Jacob Astor's American Fur Company and renamed it Pratte, Chouteau and Company, and then Pierre Chouteau and Company. It operated in present-day South Dakota from 1834 to 1858. Most trappers and traders left the area after European demand for furs dwindled around 1840.
Main articles: Kansas–Nebraska Act, Nebraska Territory, Organic act § List of organic acts, and Dakota Territory
In 1855, the U.S. Army bought Fort Pierre but abandoned it the following year in favor of Fort Randall to the south. Settlement by Americans and Europeans was by this time increasing rapidly, and in 1858 the Yankton Sioux signed the 1858 "Treaty of Washington", ceding most of present-day eastern South Dakota to the United States.
Land speculators founded two of eastern South Dakota's largest present-day cities: Sioux Falls in 1856 and Yankton in 1859. The Big Sioux River falls was the spot of an 1856 settlement established by a Dubuque, Iowa, company; that town was quickly removed by native residents. But in the following year, May 1857, the town was resettled and named Sioux Falls. That June, St. Paul, Minnesota's Dakota Land Company came to an adjacent 320 acres (130 ha), calling it Sioux Falls City. In June 1857, Flandreau and Medary, South Dakota, were established by the Dakota Land Company. Along with Yankton in 1859, Bon Homme, Elk Point, and Vermillion were among the new communities along the Missouri River or border with Minnesota. Settlers therein numbered about 5,000 in 1860. In 1861, Dakota Territory was established by the United States government (this initially included North Dakota, South Dakota, and parts of Montana and Wyoming). Settlers from Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, Czechoslovakia[citation needed] and Russia,[citation needed] as well as elsewhere in Europe and from the eastern U.S. states increased from a trickle to a flood, especially after the completion of an eastern railway link to the territorial capital of Yankton in 1872, and the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 during a military expedition led by George A. Custer.
The Dakota Territory had significant regional tensions between the northern part and the southern part from the beginning, the southern part always being more populated – in the 1880 United States census, the population of the southern part (98,268) was more than two and a half times of the northern part (36,909), and southern Dakotans saw the northern part as bit of disreputable, "controlled by the wild folks, cattle ranchers, fur traders” and too frequently the site of conflict with the indigenous population. Also, the new railroads built connected the northern and southern parts to different hubs – northern part was closer tied to Minneapolis–Saint Paul area; and southern part to Sioux City and from there to Omaha. The last straw was territorial governor Nehemiah G. Ordway moving the territorial capital from Yankton to Bismarck in modern-day North Dakota. As the Southern part had the necessary population for statehood (60,000), they held a separate convention in September 1883 and drafted a constitution. Various bills to divide the Dakota Territory in half ended up stalling, until in 1887, when the Territorial Legislature submitted the question of division to a popular vote at the November general elections, where it was approved by 37,784 votes over 32,913. A bill for statehood for North Dakota and South Dakota (as well as Montana and Washington) titled the Enabling Act of 1889 was passed on February 22, 1889, during the Administration of Grover Cleveland, dividing Dakota along the seventh standard parallel. It was left to his successor, Benjamin Harrison, to sign proclamations formally admitting North and South Dakota to the Union on November 2, 1889. Harrison directed his Secretary of State James G. Blaine to shuffle the papers and obscure from him which he was signing first and the actual order went unrecorded.
With statehood South Dakota was now in a position to make decisions on the major issues it confronted: prohibition, women's suffrage, the location of the state capital, the opening of the Sioux lands for settlement, and the cyclical issues of drought (severe in 1889) and low wheat prices (1893–1896). In early 1889 a prohibition bill passed the new state legislature, only to be vetoed by Governor Louis Church. Fierce opposition came from the wet German community, with financing from beer and liquor interests. The Yankee women organized to demand suffrage, as well as prohibition. Neither party supported their cause, and the wet element counter-organized to block women's suffrage. Popular interest reached a peak in the debates over locating the state capital. Prestige, real estate values and government jobs were at stake, as well as the question of access in such a large geographical region with limited railroads. Huron was the temporary site, centrally located Pierre was the best organized contender, and three other towns were in the running. Real estate speculators had money to toss around. Pierre, population 3200, made the most generous case to the voters—its promoters truly believed it would be the next Denver and be the railway hub of the Dakotas. The North Western railroad came through but not the others it expected. In 1938 Pierre counted 4000 people and three small hotels.
The national government continued to handle Indian affairs. The Army's 1874 Custer expedition took place despite the fact that the western half of present-day South Dakota had been granted to the Sioux by the Treaty of Fort Laramie as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux declined to grant mining rights or land in the Black Hills, and the Great Sioux War of 1876 broke out after the U.S. failed to stop white miners and settlers from entering the region. The Sioux were eventually defeated and settled on reservations within South Dakota and North Dakota.
In 1889 Harrison sent general George Crook with a commission to persuade the Sioux to sell half their reservation land to the government. It was believed that the state would not be viable unless more land was made available to settlers. Crook used a number of dubious methods to secure agreement and obtain the land.
On December 29, 1890, the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. It was the last major armed conflict between the United States and the Sioux Nation, the massacre resulted in the deaths of 300 Sioux, many of them women and children. In addition 25 U.S. soldiers were also killed in the episode.
Railroads played a central role in South Dakota transportation from the late 19th century until the 1930s, when they were surpassed by highways. The Milwaukee Road and the Chicago & North Western were the state's largest railroads, and the Milwaukee's east–west transcontinental line traversed the northern tier of the state. About 4,420 miles (7,110 km) of railroad track were built in South Dakota during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, though only 1,839 miles (2,960 km) were active in 2007.
The railroads sold land to prospective farmers at very low rates, expecting to make a profit by shipping farm products out and home goods in. They also set up small towns that would serve as shipping points and commercial centers, and attract businessmen and more farmers. The Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway (M&StL) in 1905, under the leadership of vice president and general manager L. F. Day, added lines from Watertown to LeBeau and from Conde through Aberdeen to Leola. It developed town sites along the new lines and by 1910, the new lines served 35 small communities.
Not all of the new towns survived. The M&StL situated LeBeau along the Missouri River on the eastern edge of the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation. The new town was a hub for the cattle and grain industries. Livestock valued at one million dollars were shipped out in 1908, and the rail company planned a bridge across the Missouri River. Allotment of the Cheyenne River Reservation in 1909 promised further growth. By the early 1920s, however, troubles multiplied, with the murder of a local rancher, a fire that destroyed the business district, and drought that ruined ranchers and farmers alike. LeBeau became a ghost town.
Most of the traffic was freight, but the main lines also offered passenger service. After the European immigrants settled, there never were many people moving about inside the state. Profits were slim. Automobiles and busses were much more popular, but there was an increase during World War II when gasoline was scarce. All passenger service was ended in the state by 1969.
In the rural areas farmers and ranchers depended on local general stores that had a limited stock and slow turnover; they made enough profit to stay in operation by selling at high prices. Prices were not marked on each item; instead the customer negotiated a price. Men did most of the shopping, since the main criterion was credit rather than quality of goods. Indeed, most customers shopped on credit, paying off the bill when crops or cattle were later sold; the owner's ability to judge credit worthiness was vital to his success.
In the cities consumers had much more choice, and bought their dry goods and supplies at locally owned department stores. They had a much wider selection of goods than in the country general stores and price tags that gave the actual selling price. The department stores provided a very limited credit, and set up attractive displays and, after 1900, window displays as well. Their clerks—usually men before the 1940s—were experienced salesmen whose knowledge of the products appealed to the better educated middle-class housewives who did most of the shopping. The keys to success were a large variety of high-quality brand-name merchandise, high turnover, reasonable prices, and frequent special sales. The larger stores sent their buyers to Denver, Minneapolis, and Chicago once or twice a year to evaluate the newest trends in merchandising and stock up on the latest fashions. By the 1920s and 1930s, large mail-order houses such as Sears, Roebuck & Co. and Montgomery Ward provided serious competition, making the department stores rely even more on salesmanship and close integration with the community.
Many entrepreneurs built stores, shops, and offices along Main Street. The most handsome ones used pre-formed, sheet iron facades, especially those manufactured by the Mesker Brothers of St. Louis. These neoclassical, stylized facades added sophistication to brick or wood-frame buildings throughout the state.
During the 1930s, several economic and climatic conditions combined with disastrous results for South Dakota. A lack of rainfall, extremely high temperatures and over-cultivation of farmland produced what was known as the Dust Bowl in South Dakota and several other plains states. Fertile topsoil was blown away in massive dust storms, and several harvests were completely ruined. The experiences of the Dust Bowl, coupled with local bank foreclosures and the general economic effects of the Great Depression resulted in many South Dakotans leaving the state. The population of South Dakota declined by more than seven percent between 1930 and 1940.
Prosperity returned with the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, when demand for the state's agricultural and industrial products grew as the nation mobilized for war. Over 68,000 South Dakotans served in the armed forces during the war, of which over 2,200 were killed.
In 1944, the Pick-Sloan Plan was passed as part of the Flood Control Act of 1944 by the U.S. Congress, resulting in the construction of six large dams on the Missouri River, four of which are at least partially located in South Dakota.[83] Flood control, hydroelectricity and recreational opportunities such as boating and fishing are provided by the dams and their reservoirs.
On the night of June 9–10, 1972, heavy rainfall in the eastern Black Hills caused the Canyon Lake Dam on Rapid Creek to fail. The failure of the dam, combined with heavy runoff from the storm, turned the usually small creek into a massive torrent that washed through central Rapid City. The flood resulted in 238 deaths and destroyed 1,335 homes and around 5,000 automobiles.[84] Damage from the flood totaled $160 million (the equivalent of $664 million today).
On April 19, 1993, Governor George S. Mickelson was killed in a plane crash in Iowa while returning from a business meeting in Cincinnati. Several other state officials were also killed in the crash. Mickelson, who was in the middle of his second term as governor, was succeeded by Walter Dale Miller.
In recent decades, South Dakota has transformed from a state dominated by agriculture to one with a more diversified economy. The tourism industry has grown considerably since the completion of the interstate system in the 1960s, with the Black Hills being especially impacted. The financial service industry began to grow in the state as well, with Citibank moving its credit card operations from New York to Sioux Falls in 1981, a move that has since been followed by several other financial companies. In 2007, the site of the recently closed Homestake gold mine near Lead was chosen as the location of a new underground research facility. Despite a growing state population and recent economic development, many rural areas have been struggling over the past 50 years with locally declining populations and the emigration of educated young adults to larger South Dakota cities, such as Rapid City or Sioux Falls, or to other states. The Cattleman's Blizzard of October 2013 killed tens of thousands of livestock in western South Dakota, and was one of the worst blizzards in the state's history.
One of 12 ink drawings that are part of my show Sketchbook: Chapter Two at Blue Gallery in Kansas City.
acrylic ink on paper
8x10 inches, 2011
*SOLD*
Or should I title this "Not so Neutral Density Filters" as both these have quite a colour cast
I'm sure I am not alone in being disappointed to find when using Cokin filters or the rip off versions from ebay and other sources, have quite a magenta colour cast, under some lighting conditions. They are even worse if you stack several together in the filter holder, making it almost impossible to get a natural look without spending a lot of time editing.
So the first lesson I learnt was to only use one at a time and I have to say they are serving me well, giving some very nice results.
I couldnt help but wonder though if there was something better out there for the budget restricted (must remember that term) photographer, as the likes of Lee Filters are far beyond my means at present.
After a bit of research, I was seeing quite a bit of positive info on Kood filters, which instead of erring toward magenta, had more of a cyan tint to them. If nothing else it would enable me to put a bit of blue into the grey skies which seem to have become a fixed feature around here :~)
I found a supplier from Wales via ebay which seemed to be the cheapest and included postage too. To my complete surprise it arrived the following day, a little under 24 hours from making the purchase. Seemed like the gods were on my side for a change, just a shame it didnt come with some decent weather in the package. Seriously though, excellent service and if anybody wants their details, just message me.
So it was up before dawn the following morning for a walk along the canal at my faourite time of day, to try a few test shots. No wonderful light or mist to play with though, just uniform grey skies again. Not that it was going to stop me having a play and trying some comparisons between the filters.
Now you will have to excuse the shots here, I never intended to post them side by side like this, so they dont line up correctly. It was only yesterday having a bit of a discussion on colour casts and white balance that triggered the idea to show both like this.
The shots have not had any processing, just a straight convertion from RAW to JPG, sort of lined up and then resized to a more manageable size for posting here.
Camera settings were the same for both shots
White Balance - Cloudy ~6000k
30 sec exposure with the aid of a variable neutral density filter at approx 6 stops
f16 @ 100 ISO
18mm focal length on a 18-55 kit lens to check for vignetting (very slight in top corners)
Well I hope you were not expecting any conclussions, it is far too early to tell which are better under what conditions. I'm sure I will use both and over time may develop a preference for one over the other, but I'm afraid you will have to keep checking back for that :~)
Landsat-5 scene covering an area immediately north of Lake Corangamite, and southwest of Ballarat, in Victoria.
This is a Normalised Difference Water Index image (NDWI);
(NIR - SWIR) / (NIR + SWIR)
(in Landsat terms: (band 4 - band 5 ) / (band 4 + band 5))
NIR = near infra-red, SWIR = shortwave infra-red. The range of values of this index have been grouped into a few discrete categories, the dark blue representing the wettest fields, and brick-orange representing the driest fields, yellow and green being intermediate.
Annual rainfall increases from the low lying basin containing the lakes, to the south, across the plain within this view, towards forest-covered hills to the north.
A portion of the Toronto skyline shot from a rooftop very far away (cropped from original). The advantage of a 420mm (equiv) lens!
collapsed generative structures blooming into sparkling flowers.
experiments on density, aggregation of forms and rotational symmetry.
The area is marked by a high population density and limited areas for production, a landscape with steep slopes, various water sources and native forest fragments. There are also a variety of land uses, inlcuding: intensive smallholder vegetable production; smallholder maize, beans and cassava production. As a consequence of increased population pressure on land, extensive farming through clearance of bushes and forests has been common. However, farmers and partners in the site indicated that the government has put up legislative measures to curb deforestation. An important finding of the workshop was that men are mostly associated with cash crops while women are associated with crops for home consumption. The research team also found that cassava is an important crop for food security but poor in technical development (it takes up to 3 years). Photo: A.Eitzinger (CIAT). Learn more about CCAFS East Africa activities.
waterfall and stream in the El Yunque rainforest, Puerto Rico
Leica M with 21mm + B+W neutral density filter
Place: Lido di Volano (FE) - Italy
Date: April 11, 2015
Camera: Olympus Evolt E-420
Lens: Zuiko Digital ED 14-42 mm 1:3.5-5.6
Filter: dHd ND8 + Home made (Diy) neutral density ND-400
God is an Astronaut - Tempus Horizon
www.youtube.com/watch?v=8NMyZPYuWp0
All images are exclusive property of Fogli Luca and are protected under International Copyright laws. The images may not be reproduced, copied, transmitted or manipulated without the written permission. If you wish to use or buy any of the images, please contact me by e-mail address lux76[at]libero.it or by flickr mail
See also: Lux @ Blogspot
Population density measures the number of persons per square kilometer of land area. The data are gridded at a resolution of 30 arc-seconds.
Population density measures the number of persons per square kilometer of land area. The data are gridded at a resolution of 30 arc-seconds.
Population density measures the number of persons per square kilometer of land area. The data are gridded at a resolution of 30 arc-seconds.
Canon 40D
Canon EF-S 17-55mm f2.8 IS USM at 17 mm
ISO 100, 13 sec., f/16
0 EV
Manual exposure
Lee neutral density hard grad 0,6 ND + Lee pro glass neutral density 0,6 ND
Edited European Space Agency image of the density of stars from data from the Gaia Mission.
Image source: www.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2018/08/Star_density_map
Original caption: The second data release of ESA’s Gaia mission, made in April, has marked a turning point in the study of our Galactic home, the Milky Way. With an unprecedented catalogue of 3D positions and 2D motions of more than a billion stars, plus additional information on smaller subsets of stars and other celestial sources, Gaia has provided astronomers with an astonishing resource to explore the distribution and composition of the Galaxy and to investigate its past and future evolution.
The majority of stars in the Milky Way are located in the Galactic disc, which has a flattened shape characterised by a pattern of spiral arms similar to that observed in spiral galaxies beyond our own. However, it is particularly challenging to reconstruct the distribution of stars in the disc, and especially the design of the Milky Way’s arms, because of our position within the disc itself.
This is where Gaia’s measurements can make the difference.
This image shows a 3D map obtained by focusing on one particular type of object: OB stars, the hottest, brightest and most massive stars in our Galaxy. Because these stars have relatively short lives – up to a few tens of million years – they are mostly found close to their formation sites in the Galactic disc. As such, they can be used to trace the overall distribution of young stars, star formation sites, and the Galaxy’s spiral arms.
The map, based on 400 000 of this type of star within less than 10 000 light-years from the Sun, was created by Kevin Jardine, a software developer and amateur astronomer with an interest in mapping the Milky Way using a variety of astronomical data.
It is centred on the Sun and shows the Galactic disc as if we were looking at it face-on from a vantage point outside the Galaxy.
To deal with the massive number of stars in the Gaia catalogue, Kevin made use of so-called density isosurfaces, a technique that is routinely used in many practical applications, for example to visualise the tissue of organs of bones in CT scans of the human body. In this technique, the 3D distribution of individual points is represented in terms of one or more smooth surfaces that delimit regions with a different density of points.
Here, regions of the Galactic disc are shown with different colours depending on the density of ionising stars recorded by Gaia; these are the hottest among OB stars, shining with ultraviolet radiation that knocks electrons off hydrogen atoms to give them their ionized state.
The regions with the highest density of these stars are displayed in pink/purple shades, regions with intermediate density in violet/light blue, and low-density regions in dark blue. Additional information from other astronomical surveys was also used to map concentrations of interstellar dust, shown in green, while known clouds of ionised gas are depicted as red spheres.
The appearance of ‘spokes’ is a combination of dust clouds blocking the view to stars behind them and a stretching effect of the distribution of stars along the line of sight.
An interactive version of this map is also available as part of Gaia Sky, a real-time, 3D astronomy visualisation software that was developed in the framework of the Gaia mission at the Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, University of Heidelberg, Germany.
Further details including annotated version of the map: Mapping and visualising Gaia DR2
Id 397431
A collection of businesses and condos in the Beltline area.
Seen at 29mm and f/14 with a 7.8 second exposure.
Flying Tux Eggs are very peculiar not only for the semitransparent wings (the color continuously shifting according to the emotion or message that the Flying Tux want to communicate) but because they produce the most surprising Eggs and build the most surprising Nest ( to maintain the Eggs erected with the right alignment with each of the 2 sun , this in each phase of the grow as required by the Embryo for a optimal prenatal phase )
Of a stunning size from the very first moment the Eggs ,if maintained in the correct angle convert the energy from the 2 Suns in nutrients used go on growing more and more.
Obviously the Nest is designed to grow too in accordance with the Eggs size, and is the Flying Tux Mother to take care to monitor and Fine Tune the Egg and Nest setting and chant lullaby till the Official Opening of the Nativity Party
Embryo of Flying Tux are microscopic, even if confronted with their janitors but to grow healthy need a very large and comfortable Egg around, with growing number of playing and relaxing spaces filled with warm liquid of always changing taste and density to guarantee best floating experience
Obviously all spaces inside are interconnected by educative multidimensional Labyrinths
So the Egg must not only be very large but even to able to grow as quickly as required by Embryo needs and wishes
Flying Tux are very well integrated in the Environment, even if their peculiar Eggs and the Nest need so much space around:
When finished to grow the Embryo celebrate His Own Nativity opening a door and some windows in his Egg , and start to clean and dry the inside (but often is the Mother to do most of this)
When the place is ready the Embrio will made his first walk in the Outside World to invite all the Neighbors to his Nativity Party
His previous Egg will become officially "His Silver Palace" during the Nativity party ,
The Nativity Party is the most important ritual, sign his passage from Embryo to rich snobbish teenager and the transformation of his old Egg in a sufficiently large and comfortable Silver Palace
Also during the Nativity Party he will receive from the City Major his official "Life Long Bill Exemption Certificate" (a exemption from any sort of payment or tax) ,next would be His turn, the top of the Ceremony
He will offer to all presents the "Free Connections to Free Gift of The Free Electricity".
Done that for the rest of his life he will receive all what needed by very friendly neighbors in exchange of the energetic leftover of his Dome.
So even if sometimes a bit perplex the Flying Tux are usually quite satisfied and relaxed
This also because the Eggs capture and convert so well solar energy that there is always a enormous surplus
surplus freely offered to all the the neighbors , so anybody like would like to have at least one Flying Tux Egg as neighbor
Even if they do such big Eggs
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A Easter Egg dedicated to Erisian the Egg is derived also from his "Monument" a tweak of [www.fractalforums.com/index.php?action=gallery;sa=view;id...] posted on Fractalforums
Also the Flying Tux was created by Erisian www.gimpchat.com/viewtopic.php?f=11&t=4013
tool used M3D, Gimp, Gmic
10 hours of manipulating statistics and it's a wonder I'm still sane...couldn't think of anything else to take a pic of today. It was one of those days where I had so many thoughts of how to compile, manipulate, and display information yet not enough time to accomplish it. I still had a good Monday, hope you did too.
Technical Details
5 Seconds, Aperture: ~f/9.0, Focal Length: 500 mm, ISO: 200
Olympus E-PL1 with Fotodiox Nikon G-lens to MFT Camera Adapter, Sigma 50-500mm f/4-6.3 EX DG HSM with Formatt ND 2.4 and graduated ND 0.6 filters.
© Camilo Bonilla. All Rights Reserved. No usage allowed including copying or sharing without written permission.