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from wkyc.com/article/news/local/akron/akrons-biggest-mystery-the-signal-tree/460185393
It stands alone, its branches like arms outstretched, near the Cuyahoga River on Akron's north side.
Its massive trunk, its age-stained bark. Its scars of the past. The Signal Tree is a spectacular sight, but it swirls in mystery.
Who was it that "forced" its growth pattern? If age estimates of 350-560 years are to be believed, it may have been Native Americans that traveled through the area in that time frame, well before settlers came to the Western Reserve.
The famous "Portage Path" is in the area, a few miles away, where American Indians portaged their canoes between the north-flowing Cuyahoga River to the south-flowing Tuscarawas River. Indigenous peoples are known to use strangely shaped trees as boundary markers or directional landmarks, and as gathering places for ceremonies.
Seeing the tree today does invite the imagination to wander. According to Mike Greene of Summit Metroparks, there really is no way to confirm any of the legends.
"The key is determining its age," he said. "The tree may be ancient, or it may younger. No one knows because there are very few mentions of the oddly shaped tree in historic records."
For about a hundred years before the Summit Metroparks established the park on land owned by the city of Akron, the tree was located in an area that was dotted with residences. There were farms, and even a junkyard that was active into the 1960s. There are some early photos of the tree, but none have surfaced before the first half on the 20th century.
It's a calming place, and begs the mind to wander. Did Native Americans meet here or hold ceremonies around the tree? Did Civil War soldiers march by it? Did the workers and people who traveled along the Ohio and Erie Canal, which runs right through Akron, stop here?
The tree has seen Akron change from agricultural center to canal town to a manufacturing mecca during the Industrial Revolution. It's seen Akron grow to be the Rubber Capitol of the world, as well as its demise, and the rubber shops and surrounding manufacturing closed. Still, the whole while, standing in the Cuyahoga Valley with arms outstretched.
Article complet à lire sur militaryphotoreport.blogspot.fr/2016/04/3eme-rhc-regiment...
Complete article on : militaryphotoreport.blogspot.fr/2016/04/3eme-rhc-regiment...
Article in our blog in Greek: HINTERLAND
Google map in English: HINTERLAND
More Google maps and a few words in English about our Hiking group in Nana to agrimi's blog
All photos taken by Xenia
© Ορειβατικός Πεζοπορικός Σύλλογος Ικαρίας
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For anybody interested, a great blog article about Ikaria's old ways, artifacts, constructions and in general, the culture of the island before the 1970s is: «SLOW ASTERN»
For more info on this car, check out the following link:
www.automobile-catalog.com/make/gatso/gatso_4000/gatso_40...
This B737-800 was used for a local festivital** and not many 737-800 are known to have ended up at SBD, however right now still looking for confirmation of ID for this aircraft.
**see www.highlandnews.net/entertainment/sbd-fest-ready-for-the...
Update: actually this aircraft still wears GOL colors on the other side - with "IV" in the tail which we also noted down in our Log on another page (seen from different side of airport)
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This article is about the capital of the Czech Republic. For other uses, see Prague (disambiguation).
"Praha" redirects here. For other uses, see Praha (disambiguation).
Prague
Praha
Capital city
Hlavní město Praha
Prague (/prɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha [ˈpraɦa] ( listen), German: Prag) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, the 14th largest city in the European Union[7] and also the historical capital of Bohemia. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its larger urban zone is estimated to have a population of 2.2 million.[8] The city has a temperate climate, with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural and economic centre of central Europe complete with a rich history. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque eras, Prague was the capital of the kingdom of Bohemia and the main residence of several Holy Roman Emperors, most notably of Charles IV (r. 1346–1378).[9] It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city played major roles in the Bohemian and Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War and in 20th-century history as the capital of Czechoslovakia, during both World Wars and the post-war Communist era.[10]
Prague is home to a number of famous cultural attractions, many of which survived the violence and destruction of 20th-century Europe. Main attractions include the Prague Castle, the Charles Bridge, Old Town Square with the Prague astronomical clock, the Jewish Quarter, Petřín hill and Vyšehrad. Since 1992, the extensive historic centre of Prague has been included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
The city has more than ten major museums, along with numerous theatres, galleries, cinemas and other historical exhibits. An extensive modern public transportation system connects the city. Also, it is home to a wide range of public and private schools, including Charles University in Prague, the oldest university in Central Europe.[11]
Prague is classified as a "Beta+" global city according to GaWC studies[12] and ranked sixth in the Tripadvisor world list of best destinations in 2016.[13] Its rich history makes it a popular tourist destination and as of 2014, the city receives more than 6.4 million international visitors annually. Prague is the fifth most visited European city after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome.[14]
History[edit]
Main articles: History of Prague and Timeline of Prague
During the thousand years of its existence, the city grew from a settlement stretching from Prague Castle in the north to the fort of Vyšehrad in the south, becoming the capital of a modern European country, the Czech Republic, a member state of the European Union.
Early history[edit]
The Prague astronomical clock was first installed in 1410, making it the third-oldest astronomical clock in the world and the oldest one still working.
The region was settled as early as the Paleolithic age.[15] Around the fifth and fourth century BC, the Celts appeared in the area, later establishing settlements including an oppidum in Závist, a present-day suburb of Prague, and giving name to the region of Bohemia, "home of the Boii".[15][16] In the last century BC, the Celts were slowly driven away by Germanic tribes (Marcomanni, Quadi, Lombards and possibly the Suebi), leading some to place the seat of the Marcomanni king Maroboduus on the southern Prague's site Závist.[17][18] Around the area where present-day Prague stands, the 2nd century map of Ptolemaios mentioned a Germanic city called Casurgis.[19]
In the late 5th century AD, during the great Migration Period following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes living in Bohemia moved westwards and, probably in the 6th century, the Slavic tribes (Venedi) settled Central Bohemian Region. In the following two centuries, the Czech tribes built several fortified settlements in the area, most notably in the Šárka valley, Butovice and later in Levý Hradec.[15]
The construction of what came to be known as the Prague Castle began near the end of the 9th century, with a fortified settlement already existing on the site in the year 800.[20] The first masonry under Prague Castle dates from the year 885 at the latest.[21] The other prominent Prague fort, the Přemyslid fort Vyšehrad, was founded in the 10th century, some 70 years later than Prague Castle.[22] Prague Castle is dominated by the cathedral, which was founded in 1344, but completed in the 20th century.
The legendary origins of Prague attribute its foundation to the 8th century Czech duchess and prophetess Libuše and her husband, Přemysl, founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. Legend says that Libuše came out on a rocky cliff high above the Vltava and prophesied: "I see a great city whose glory will touch the stars." She ordered a castle and a town called Praha to be built on the site.[15]
A 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the city was founded as Boihaem in c. 1306 BC by an ancient king, Boyya.[18]
The region became the seat of the dukes, and later kings of Bohemia. Under Roman Emperor Otto II the area became a bishopric in 973. Until Prague was elevated to archbishopric in 1344, it was under the jurisdiction of the Archbishopric of Mainz.
Prague was an important seat for trading where merchants from all of Europe settled, including many Jews, as recalled in 965 by the Hispano-Jewish merchant and traveller Ibrahim ibn Ya'qub. The Old New Synagogue of 1270 still stands. Prague contained an important slave market.[23]
At the site of the ford in the Vltava river, King Vladislaus I had the first bridge built in 1170, the Judith Bridge (Juditin most), named in honour of his wife Judith of Thuringia. This bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1342. Some of the original foundation stones of that bridge remain.
In 1257, under King Ottokar II, Malá Strana ("Lesser Quarter") was founded in Prague on the site of an older village in what would become the Hradčany (Prague Castle) area. This was the district of the German people, who had the right to administer the law autonomously, pursuant to Magdeburg rights. The new district was on the bank opposite of the Staré Město ("Old Town"), which had borough status and was bordered by a line of walls and fortifications.
The era of Charles IV[edit]
Prague flourished during the 14th-century reign (1346–1378) of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor and the king of Bohemia of the new Luxembourg dynasty. As King of Bohemia and Holy Roman Emperor, he transformed Prague into an imperial capital and it was at that time the third-largest city in Europe (after Rome and Constantinople).
He ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) adjacent to the Old Town and laid out the design himself. The Charles Bridge, replacing the Judith Bridge destroyed in the flood just prior to his reign, was erected to connect the east bank districts to the Malá Strana and castle area. On 9 July 1357 at 5:31 am, Charles IV personally laid the first foundation stone for the Charles Bridge. The exact time of laying the first foundation stone is known because the palindromic number 135797531 was carved into the Old Town bridge tower having been chosen by the royal astrologists and numerologists as the best time for starting the bridge construction.[24] In 1347, he founded Charles University, which remains the oldest university in Central Europe.
He began construction of the Gothic Saint Vitus Cathedral, within the largest of the Prague Castle courtyards, on the site of the Romanesque rotunda there. Prague was elevated to an archbishopric in 1344, the year the cathedral was begun.
The city had a mint and was a centre of trade for German and Italian bankers and merchants. The social order, however, became more turbulent due to the rising power of the craftsmen's guilds (themselves often torn by internal fights), and the increasing number of poor people.
The Hunger Wall, a substantial fortification wall south of Malá Strana and the Castle area, was built during a famine in the 1360s. The work is reputed to have been ordered by Charles IV as a means of providing employment and food to the workers and their families.
Charles IV died in 1378. During the reign of his son, King Wenceslaus IV (1378–1419), a period of intense turmoil ensued. During Easter 1389, members of the Prague clergy announced that Jews had desecrated the host (Eucharistic wafer) and the clergy encouraged mobs to pillage, ransack and burn the Jewish quarter. Nearly the entire Jewish population of Prague (3,000 people) perished.[25][26]
Jan Hus, a theologian and rector at the Charles University, preached in Prague. In 1402, he began giving sermons in the Bethlehem Chapel. Inspired by John Wycliffe, these sermons focused on what were seen as radical reforms of a corrupt Church. Having become too dangerous for the political and religious establishment, Hus was summoned to the Council of Constance, put on trial for heresy, and burned at the stake in Constanz in 1415.
Four years later Prague experienced its first defenestration, when the people rebelled under the command of the Prague priest Jan Želivský. Hus' death, coupled with Czech proto-nationalism and proto-Protestantism, had spurred the Hussite Wars. Peasant rebels, led by the general Jan Žižka, along with Hussite troops from Prague, defeated Emperor Sigismund, in the Battle of Vítkov Hill in 1420.
During the Hussite Wars when the City of Prague was attacked by "Crusader" and mercenary forces, the city militia fought bravely under the Prague Banner. This swallow-tailed banner is approximately 4 by 6 feet (1.2 by 1.8 metres), with a red field sprinkled with small white fleurs-de-lis, and a silver old Town Coat-of-Arms in the centre. The words "PÁN BŮH POMOC NAŠE" (The Lord is our Relief) appeared above the coat-of-arms, with a Hussite chalice centred on the top. Near the swallow-tails is a crescent shaped golden sun with rays protruding.
One of these banners was captured by Swedish troops in Battle of Prague (1648), when they captured the western bank of the Vltava river and were repulsed from the eastern bank, they placed it in the Royal Military Museum in Stockholm; although this flag still exists, it is in very poor condition. They also took the Codex Gigas and the Codex Argenteus. The earliest evidence indicates that a gonfalon with a municipal charge painted on it was used for Old Town as early as 1419. Since this city militia flag was in use before 1477 and during the Hussite Wars, it is the oldest still preserved municipal flag of Bohemia.
In the following two centuries, Prague strengthened its role as a merchant city. Many noteworthy Gothic buildings[28][29] were erected and Vladislav Hall of the Prague Castle was added.
Habsburg era[edit]
In 1526, the Bohemian estates elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg. The fervent Catholicism of its members was to bring them into conflict in Bohemia, and then in Prague, where Protestant ideas were gaining popularity.[30] These problems were not pre-eminent under Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, elected King of Bohemia in 1576, who chose Prague as his home. He lived in the Prague Castle, where his court welcomed not only astrologers and magicians but also scientists, musicians, and artists. Rudolf was an art lover too, and Prague became the capital of European culture. This was a prosperous period for the city: famous people living there in that age include the astronomers Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, the painter Arcimboldo, the alchemists Edward Kelley and John Dee, the poet Elizabeth Jane Weston, and others.
In 1618, the famous second defenestration of Prague provoked the Thirty Years' War, a particularly harsh period for Prague and Bohemia. Ferdinand II of Habsburg was deposed, and his place as King of Bohemia taken by Frederick V, Elector Palatine; however his army was crushed in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) not far from the city. Following this in 1621 was an execution of 27 Czech leaders (involved in the uprising) in Old Town Square and the exiling of many others. The city suffered subsequently during the war under Saxon (1631) and Battle of Prague (1648).[31] Prague began a steady decline which reduced the population from the 60,000 it had had in the years before the war to 20,000. In the second half of the 17th century Prague's population began to grow again. Jews had been in Prague since the end of the 10th century and, by 1708, they accounted for about a quarter of Prague's population.[32]
In 1689, a great fire devastated Prague, but this spurred a renovation and a rebuilding of the city. In 1713–14, a major outbreak of plague hit Prague one last time, killing 12,000 to 13,000 people.[33]
In 1744 Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Bohemia. He took Prague after a severe and prolonged siege in the course of which a large part of the town was destroyed.[34] In 1757 the Prussian Prussian bombardment[34] destroyed more than one quarter of the city and heavily damaged St. Vitus Cathedral. However a month later Frederick the Great was defeated and to retreat from Bohemia.
The economy of the city continued to improve during the 18th century. The population increased to 80,000 inhabitants by 1771. Many rich merchants and nobles enhanced the city with a host of palaces, churches and gardens full of art and music, creating a Baroque city renowned throughout the world to this day.
In 1784, under Joseph II, the four municipalities of Malá Strana, Nové Město, Staré Město, and Hradčany were merged into a single entity. The Jewish district, called Josefov, was included only in 1850. The Industrial Revolution had a strong effect in Prague, as factories could take advantage of the coal mines and ironworks of the nearby region. A first suburb, Karlín, was created in 1817, and twenty years later the population exceeded 100,000.
The revolutions in Europe in 1848 also touched Prague, but they were fiercely suppressed. In the following years the Czech National Revival began its rise, until it gained the majority in the town council in 1861. Prague had a German-speaking majority in 1848, but by 1880 the number of German speakers had decreased to 14% (42,000), and by 1910 to 6.7% (37,000), due to a massive increase of the city's overall population caused by the influx of Czechs from the rest of Bohemia and Moravia and also due to return of social status importance of the Czech language.
20th century[edit]
First Czechoslovak Republic[edit]
Main article: First Czechoslovak Republic
World War I ended with the defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia. Prague was chosen as its capital and Prague Castle as the seat of president Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. At this time Prague was a true European capital with highly developed industry. By 1930, the population had risen to 850,000.
Second World War[edit]
Further information: German occupation of Czechoslovakia
Hitler ordered the German Army to enter Prague on 15 March 1939, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate. For most of its history, Prague had been a multi-ethnic city with important Czech, German and (mostly native German-speaking) Jewish populations.[citation needed] From 1939, when the country was occupied by Nazi Germany, and during the Second World War, most Jews were deported and killed by the Germans. In 1942, Prague was witness to the assassination of one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany – Reinhard Heydrich – during Operation Anthropoid, accomplished by Czechoslovak national heroes Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš. Hitler ordered bloody reprisals.
At the end of the war, Prague suffered several bombing raids by the US Army Air Forces. 701 people were killed, more than 1,000 people were injured and some of buildings, factories and historical landmarks (Emmaus Monastery, Faust House, Vinohrady Synagogue) were destroyed.[35] Many historic structures in Prague, however, escaped the destruction of the war and the damage was small compared to the total destruction of many other cities in that time. According to American pilots, it was the result of a navigational mistake.
On 5 May 1945, two days before Germany capitulated, an uprising against Germany occurred. Four days later, the 3rd Shock Army of the Red Army took the city, with fierce fighting until 11th May 1945. The majority (about 50,000 people) of the German population of Prague either fled or were expelled by the Beneš decrees in the aftermath of the war.
Cold War[edit]
Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (1948–89)
Prague was a city in the territory of military and political control of the Soviet Union (see Iron Curtain). The biggest Stalin Monument was unveiled on Letná hill in 1955 and destroyed in 1962. The 4th Czechoslovakian Writers' Congress held in the city in June 1967 took a strong position against the regime.[36] On 31 October 1967 students demonstrated at Strahov. This spurred the new secretary of the Communist Party, Alexander Dubček, to proclaim a new deal in his city's and country's life, starting the short-lived season of the "socialism with a human face". It was the Prague Spring, which aimed at the renovation of institutions in a democratic way. The other Warsaw Pact member countries, except Romania and Albania, reacted with the invasion of Czechoslovakia and the capital on 21 August 1968 by tanks, suppressing any attempt at reform. Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc committed suicide by self-immolation in January and February 1969 to protest against the "normalization" of the country.
After Velvet Revolution[edit]
In 1989, after the riot police beat back a peaceful student demonstration, the Velvet Revolution crowded the streets of Prague, and the Czechoslovak capital benefited greatly from the new mood. In 1993, after the split of Czechoslovakia, Prague became the capital city of the new Czech Republic. From 1995 high-rise buildings began to be built in Prague in large quantities. In the late 1990s, Prague again became an important cultural centre of Europe and was notably influenced by globalisation[clarification needed]. In 2000, IMF and World Bank summits took place in Prague. In 2002, Prague suffered from widespread floods that damaged buildings and its underground transport system.
Prague launched a bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics,[37] but failed to make the candidate city shortlist. In June 2009, as the result of financial pressures from the global recession, Prague's officials also chose to cancel the city's planned bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.[38]
Name[edit]
See also: Names in different languages
The Czech name Praha is derived from an old Slavic word, práh, which means "ford" or "rapid", referring to the city's origin at a crossing point of the Vltava river.[39] The same etymology is associated with the Praga district of Warsaw.[40]
Another view to the origin of name is also related to the Czech word práh (in the mean of a threshold) and a legendary etymology connects the name of the city with princess Libuše, prophetess and a wife of mythical founder of the Přemyslid dynasty. She is said to have ordered the city "to be built where a man hews a threshold of his house". The Czech práh might thus be understood to refer to rapids or fords in the river, the edge of which could have acted as a means of fording the river – thus providing a "threshold" to the castle.
Another derivation of the name Praha is suggested from na prazě, the original term for the shale hillside rock upon which the original castle was built. At that time, the castle was surrounded by forests, covering the nine hills of the future city – the Old Town on the opposite side of the river, as well as the Lesser Town beneath the existing castle, appeared only later.[41]
The English spelling of the city's name is borrowed from French. Prague is also called the "City of a Hundred Spires", based on a count by 19th century mathematician Bernard Bolzano, today's count is estimated by Prague Information Service at 500.[42] Nicknames for Prague have also included: the Golden City, the Mother of Cities and the Heart of Europe.[43]
Geography[edit]
Prague is situated on the Vltava river, at 50°05"N and 14°27"E.[44] in the centre of the Bohemian Basin. Prague is approximately at the same latitude as Frankfurt, Germany;[45] Paris, France;[46] and Vancouver, Canada.[47]
Climate[edit]
Prague has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). The winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and with very little sunshine. Snow cover can be common between mid-November and late March although snow accumulations of more than 20 cm (8 in) are infrequent. There are also a few periods of mild temperatures in winter. Summers usually bring plenty of sunshine and the average high temperature of 24 °C (75 °F). Nights can be quite cool even in summer, though. Precipitation in Prague (and most of the Bohemian lowland) is rather low (just over 500 mm [20 in] per year) since it is located in the rain shadow of the Sudetes and other mountain ranges. The driest season is usually winter while late spring and summer can bring quite heavy rain, especially in form of thundershowers. Temperature inversions are relatively common between mid-October and mid-March bringing foggy, cold days and sometimes moderate air pollution. Prague is also a windy city with common sustained western winds and an average wind speed of 16 km/h (9.9 mph) that often help break temperature inversions and clear the air in cold months.
Culture[edit]
Historic Centre of Prague
Includes
Historic Centre of Prague and Průhonice Park
Criteria
Cultural: ii, iv, vi
Reference
616
Inscription
1992 (16th Session)
Area
1,106.36 ha
Buffer zone
9,887.09 ha
Prague Congress Centre has hosted the IMF-WBG meeting and NATO summit
The city is traditionally one of the cultural centres of Europe, hosting many cultural events. Some of the significant cultural institutions include the National Theatre (Národní Divadlo) and the Estates Theatre (Stavovské or Tylovo or Nosticovo divadlo), where the premières of Mozart's Don Giovanni and La clemenza di Tito were held. Other major cultural institutions are the Rudolfinum which is home to the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra and the Municipal House which is home to the Prague Symphony Orchestra. The Prague State Opera (Státní opera) performs at the Smetana Theatre.
The city has many world-class museums, including the National Museum (Národní muzeum), the Museum of the Capital City of Prague, the Jewish Museum in Prague, the Alfons Mucha Museum, the African-Prague Museum, the Museum of Decorative Arts in Prague, the Náprstek Museum (Náprstkovo Muzeum), the Josef Sudek Gallery and The Josef Sudek Studio, the National Library and the National Gallery, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic.
There are hundreds of concert halls, galleries, cinemas and music clubs in the city. It hosts music festivals including the Prague Spring International Music Festival, the Prague Autumn International Music Festival, the Prague International Organ Festival and the Prague International Jazz Festival. Film festivals include the Febiofest, the One World Film Festival and Echoes of the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival. The city also hosts the Prague Writers' Festival, the Prague Folklore Days, Prague Advent Choral Meeting the Summer Shakespeare Festival,[55] the Prague Fringe Festival, the World Roma Festival, as well as the hundreds of Vernissages and fashion shows.
Many films have been made at Barrandov Studios and at Prague Studios. Hollywood films set in Prague include Mission Impossible, xXx, Blade II, Alien vs. Predator, Doom, Chronicles of Narnia, Hellboy, Red Tails, Children of Dune and Van Helsing.[56] Other Czech films shot in Prague include Empties, EuroTrip, Amadeus and The Fifth Horseman is Fear. Also, the romantic music video "Never Tear Us Apart" by INXS, "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" by Kanye West was shot in the city, and features shots of the Charles Bridge and the Astronomical Clock, among other famous landmarks. Rihanna's "Don't Stop the Music" video was filmed at Prague's Radost FX Club. The city was also the setting for the film Dungeons and Dragons in 2000. The music video "Silver and Cold" by AFI, an American rock band, was also filmed in Prague. Many Indian films have also been filmed in the city including Yuvraaj, Drona and Rockstar. Early 2000's europop hit "Something" by "Lasgo" was filmed at the central train station in Prague.
With the growth of low-cost airlines in Europe, Prague has become a popular weekend city destination allowing tourists to visit its many museums and cultural sites as well as try its famous Czech beers and hearty cuisine.
The city has many buildings by renowned architects, including Adolf Loos (Villa Müller), Frank O. Gehry (Dancing House) and Jean Nouvel (Golden Angel).
Recent major events held in Prague:
•International Monetary Fund and World Bank Summit 2000
•NATO Summit 2002
•International Olympic Committee Session 2004
•IAU General Assembly 2006 (Definition of planet)
•EU & USA Summit 2009
•Czech Presidency of the Council of the European Union 2009
•USA & Russia Summit 2010 (signing of the New START treaty)
Cuisine[edit]
In 2008 the Allegro restaurant received the first Michelin star in the whole of the post-Communist part of Central Europe. It retained its star until 2011. As of 2016 there are three Michelin-starred restaurants in Prague: Alcron, La Degustation, Bohême Bourgeoise, and Field.
In Malá Strana, Staré Město, Žižkov and Nusle there are hundreds of restaurants, bars and pubs, especially with Czech beer. Prague also hosts the Czech Beer Festival (Český pivní festival), which is the largest beer festival in the Czech Republic, held for 17 days every year in May. At the festival, more than 70 brands of Czech beer can be tasted.
Prague is home to many breweries including:
•Pivovary Staropramen (Praha 5)
•První novoměstský restaurační pivovar (Praha 1)
•Pivovar U Fleků (Praha 1)
•Klášterní pivovar Strahov (Praha 1)
•Pivovar Pražský most u Valšů (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský Hotel U Medvídků (Praha 1)
•Pivovarský dům (Praha 2)
•Jihoměstský pivovar (Praha 4)
•Sousedský pivovar U Bansethů (Praha 4)
•Vyukový a výzkumný pivovar – Suchdolský Jeník (Praha 6)
•Pivovar U Bulovky (Praha 8)
Economy[edit]
Prague's economy accounts for 25% of the Czech GDP[57] making it the highest performing regional economy of the country. According to the Eurostat, as of 2007, its GDP per capita in purchasing power standard is €42,800. Prague ranked the 5th best-performing European NUTS two-level region at 172 percent of the EU-27 average.[58]
The city is the site of the European headquarters of many international companies.[citation needed]
Prague employs almost a fifth of the entire Czech workforce, and its wages are significantly above average (~+25%). In December 2015, average salaries available in Prague reached 35,853 CZK, an annual increase of 3.4%, which was nevertheless lower than national increase of 3.9% both in nominal and real terms. (Inflation in Prague was 0.5% in December, compared with 0.1% nationally.)[58][59] Since 1990, the city's economic structure has shifted from industrial to service-oriented. Industry is present in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, printing, food processing, manufacture of transport equipment, computer technology and electrical engineering. In the service sector, financial and commercial services, trade, restaurants, hospitality and public administration are the most significant. Services account for around 80 percent of employment. There are 800,000 employees in Prague, including 120,000 commuters.[57] The number of (legally registered) foreign residents in Prague has been increasing in spite of the country's economic downturn. As of March 2010, 148,035 foreign workers were reported to be living in the city making up about 18 percent of the workforce, up from 131,132 in 2008.[60] Approximately one-fifth of all investment in the Czech Republic takes place in the city.
Almost one-half of the national income from tourism is spent in Prague. The city offers approximately 73,000 beds in accommodation facilities, most of which were built after 1990, including almost 51,000 beds in hotels and boarding houses.
From the late 1990s to late 2000s, the city was a popular filming location for international productions such as Hollywood and Bollywood motion pictures. A combination of architecture, low costs and the existing motion picture infrastructure have proven attractive to international film production companies.
The modern economy of Prague is largely service and export-based and, in a 2010 survey, the city was named the best city in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) for business.[61]
In 2005, Prague was deemed among the three best cities in Central and Eastern Europe according to The Economist's livability rankings.[62] The city was named as a top-tier nexus city for innovation across multiple sectors of the global innovation economy, placing 29th globally out of 289 cities, ahead of Brussels and Helsinki for innovation in 2010 in 2thinknow annual analysts Innovation Cities Index.[63] Na příkopě in New Town is the most expensive street in the whole of Central Europe.[64]
In the Eurostat research, Prague ranked fifth among Europe's 271 regions in terms of gross domestic product per inhabitant, achieving 172 percent of the EU average. It ranked just above Paris and well above the country as a whole, which achieved 80 percent of the EU average.[65][66]
Companies with highest turnover in the region in 2014:[67]
Name
Turnover, mld. Kč
ČEZ
200.8
Agrofert
166.8
RWE Supply & Trading CZ
146.1
Prague is also the site of some of the most important offices and institutions of the Czech Republic.
•President of the Czech Republic
•The Government and both houses of Parliament
•Ministries and other national offices (Industrial Property Office, Czech Statistical Office, National Security Authority etc.)
•Czech National Bank
•Czech Television and other major broadcasters
•Radio Free Europe – Radio Liberty
•Galileo global navigation project
•Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic
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Oneness Pentecostalism is a movement of Pentecostal Christianity that believes in the atoning death of Jesus Christ, His resurrection, His soon return, and the Word of God as contained in the Bible, but differs from mainstream Pentecostalism by following the doctrine of Oneness. Oneness Pentecostalism teaches a literal interpretation of the biblical teaching of salvation with emphasis on the teaching of Jesus Christ & His Apostles, citing "John 3:1-12 & Acts 2:38 experience" as necessary for salvation and places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the baptism of the Holy Spirit, as shown in the Biblical account of the Day of Pentecost. It teaches that personal conversion is to be followed by holy living and exhibiting the fruit of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22).
Contents
[hide]
* 1 Overview
* 2 History
o 2.1 The early Church
o 2.2 Modern History
* 3 Doctrine and theology
o 3.1 God
o 3.2 Salvation
o 3.3 Holiness
* 4 Common misunderstandings
o 4.1 Jesus' Name vs. Jesus Only
o 4.2 Oneness Theology IS NOT Unitarianism
* 5 Followers of Oneness Pentecostalism
o 5.1 Gospel and Contemporary Christian artists
* 6 References
* 7 See also
* 8 External links
o 8.1 Articles, indexes, & other resources
+ 8.1.1 Favoring views
+ 8.1.2 Comparative articles
+ 8.1.3 Other
* 9 Oneness Pentecostal Groups
o 9.1 North America
o 9.2 Other countries
[edit] Overview
Although both Oneness and Trinitarian denominations acknowledge the God of the Bible as the only God in existence, and that Jesus was born, died, and resurrected, Oneness doctrine differs from mainstream Christian denominations in that the traditional concept of the Trinity is rejected as an inadequate and inaccurate description of God. According to the United Pentecostal Church International, the largest Oneness Pentecostal body in the United States, Oneness Pentecostals identify Jesus essentially as the human manifestation of God (Jehovah), i.e. God incarnate. [1].
Citing 1Timothy 2:5, the Oneness doctrine affirms that God is indivisibly one, and sees the biblical distinction between God the Father and the man Jesus, as being a proper, observable father-son distinction, except between an incorporeal, transcendent, eternal God as Father, and a human, begotten man as Son, in whom God manifested Himself for the purpose of salvation. Oneness doctrine affirms the full deity of Jesus, by holding that God incarnate manifested Himself to humanity in the man Jesus. It refutes the Trinitarian proposal that the one, true God is composed of three co-divine, co-equal, co-eternal, co-powerful persons. In the sense that the one God and one man of 1Timothy 2:5 co-exist simultaneously, they teach that Jesus exists simultaneously both as man Jesus and as God (God the Father an invisible, transcendent, Spirit) inseparably united (see John 10:30) as the Son of God. Citing John 4:24 (God is a Spirit), Oneness doctrine uses the terms God the Father and Holy Spirit as references to the same one God, who is Spirit. It affirms that the Holy Spirit and God the Father are one in the same Godhead, but only as separate manifestations or relationships of the one person or being that is God.
"Oneness", "Apostolic" and "Jesus' Name" are adherents' preferred self-designations.[1].
Oneness Pentecostals have also been identified as "Holy Rollers" for their lively style of worship, which can include running church aisles, known as victory marches, as well as jumping, dancing, shouting, and clapping. The church services are also punctuated at times with acts of speaking in tongues (glossolalia), interpretations of tongues, prophetical messages, and the laying of hands for the purposes of healing. These events can happen spontaneously during normal service with no forewarning or direct guidance by the leader of the service, or more often at massive altar calls where the entire congregation is encouraged to come and pray together for various purposes at the altar.
Oneness Pentecostals commonly refer to all saved Christians as saints and often refer to the men as brothers and the women as sisters, often as a title (i.e. Bro. Smith or Sis. Henderson),in their normal day-to-day speech both in and outside of church.
While the UPCI, PAW, and other Oneness Pentecostal churches do allow women to serve as pastors and evangelize, some Oneness Pentecostals hold the belief that women ministers are unscriptural. Ministers at all levels are allowed to marry and have children. Homosexual marriages are forbidden under all circumstances.
[edit] History
Many people believe that the Oneness doctrine came into existence only in the early 20th century during the latter days of the Azusa Street Revival. Church historians, however, such as Dr. Curtis Ward, William Chalfant, Talmadge French, Dr. David Bernard, and Thomas Weisser in their research and writings argue there were Oneness believers long before the Azusa Street Revival that lead all the way to the beginning of the first century Christian church. Dr. Ward has proposed the view of an unbroken Church lineage and has chronologically traced its perpetuity throughout history. (see Matthew 16:18). Dr. Reckart has also done significant research in this area. Others teach the Apostolic church went into apostasy and became the Catholic Church. They believe modern Pentecostalism is a total restoration culminating after a step by step separation within Protestantism until the early Apostolic Church was fully restored (Acts 2:38 baptism and Oneness being the final restorations).
There are indications that the pioneering Oneness Pentecostal figures in the early twentieth century were guided and inspired by prior restorations within Protestantism. Yet none of them had any influence upon them by the ancient Modalists such as Sabellius, Noetus or Praxeas. Modern Oneness people respect the prior restorations within Protestantism but still stress dependence solely upon God and the Bible for the formation of their doctrines, seeking guidance not from ante and post-Nicene writings of men, but from illumination by the Holy Spirit upon the Scriptures. Pre and ante Nicene church history is deemed by Oneness people to be of great interest, but the neo-platoism, dogmas, creeds, and private interpretations are not binding upon them for their faith or doctrinal views. Thus, they are unorthodox to trinitarians but orthodox according to the literal sense of the word. Oneness Christians regard the historic Ecumenical Councils and creeds to be the opinions of men within an apostate falling away from the first Church. In contrast, Nicene (Catholic & Protestant) Christians (by their very definition of orthodox) regard all post-apostolic doctrinal developments as being guided by God's will using the councils and church leadership. As such all of the post-biblical stream of creeds, dogmas, decrees, papal decisions, and judgments of the councils and church leaders as binding upon them for their doctrinal views. Oneness discovered within trinitarian writings that the post-biblical interpretation of the trinity taken not from the Bible but classical Greek philosophy. It cannot be both Apostolic and a Greek invention thrust upon the Council of Nicaea. Catholics claim if Oneness Pentecostals deny the creeds and the actions of Catholic Bishops, they should not accept the Bible, as it was allegedly collected, compiled, and canonized by councils who believed in the Trinity. Oneness counter this by saying there was no Catholic church when the New Testament was written, therefore it was compiled and in a collected form two centuries before the Catholic church was born in 325AD. There are references to this collection before Nicaea and any such canonizing councils. In addition, sola scriptures, defines Oneness faith and that additional creeds, dogmas, papal decrees are unacceptable for doctrine, faith, and practice.
In the New Testament, Jews are described as rejecting Jesus' claims to divinity, accusing him of blasphemy. In the Gospel of Mark, for instance, Jesus forgives a man's sins and some Jewish teachers thought to themselves: "Why does this fellow talk like that? He's blaspheming! Who can forgive sins but God alone?" In the Gospel of John, some Jews began to stone Jesus, explaining that they did so "for blasphemy, because you, a mere man, claim to be God." This is the origin of dynamic monarchianism (Jesus is not God only a man). (see Unitarianism, Iglesia Ni Cristo, To God Be The Glory by Joel Hemphill, and Islam.
[edit] The early Church
Citing various sources, Oneness theologian David K. Bernard traces Oneness adherents back to the first converted Jews of the Apostolic Age, citing no evidence of Jews having any issues comprehending the new teachings and integrating them with their existing strict Judaistic monotheistic beliefs. In the Post-apostolic Age, he claims that Hermas, Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Polycrates and Ignatius from 90 to 140 A.D., and Irenaeus who died about 200 A.D, were either Oneness, modalist, or at most a follower of an "economic Trinity" (temporary Trinity, not eternal). [2]
Hear, O Israel: the LORD our God, the LORD is one. (The coming of the Messiah was not to bring the revelation of 2 or 3 god's [tritheism]- it was to make manifest the revelation of the One God (Jehovah/Yahweh) that manifested himself in human form.
—Deuteronomy 6:4
And without controversy great is the mystery of godliness: God was manifest in the flesh, justified in the Spirit, seen of angels, preached unto the Gentiles, believed on in the world, received up into glory.
—1Ti 3:16
In support of the theory that the majority of all believers up until Tertullian (died c. 225; first to use introduce the term "Trinity" to describe God) were Oneness adherents, Bernard quotes Tertullian as writing, "The simple, indeed (I will not call them unwise or unlearned), who always constitute the majority of believers, are startled at the dispensation (of the Three in One), on the very ground that their very Rule of Faith withdraws them from the world's plurality of gods to the one only true God; not understanding that, although He is the one only God, He must yet be believed in with His own economy. The numerical order and distribution of the Trinity, they assume to be a division of the Unity.[3]
Later Oneness, or closely similar to Oneness, teachers have been pointed out through history include the following: Abelard (1079-1142) who was accused of Sabellianism and forced into refuge in a monastery in France; Michael Servetus (1511-1553) eminent physician from Spain, sometimes cited as a motivating force of Unitarianism, who wrote, "There is no other person of God but Christ ... the entire Godhead of the Father is in him,"[4] was burned at the stake for heresy on October 27, 1553 for his anti-trinitarian doctrine, with the approval of John Calvin (for whom of Calvinism was named), though Calvin preferred Servetus be beheaded; Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772); Presbyterian minister John Miller, author of Is God a Trinity? (1876), John Clowes, pastor of St. John's Church in Manchester, reportedly wrote a book in 1828 that taught Oneness[5].
Bernard, as well as other Oneness historians and theologians, deny any direct link from earlier Oneness believers to the current Oneness Pentecostal movement.
[edit] Modern History
Oneness historian Morris Golder, cites PAW Bishop G. T. Haywood in an article from 1915 in The Voice in the Wilderness, as dating Oneness Pentecostalism to at least 1906 with the formation of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World - PAW. The founders were E. W. Doak, G. T. Haywood, and D. C. Opperman. According to Dr. David Bundy, a Pentecostal historian at the Christian Theological Seminary, as early as 1907, a white Baptist minister in Los Angeles, was preaching non-Trinitarian water baptism in the Name of Jesus. According to Dr. Deborah Sims LeBlanc, William and Maggie Bowden, the parents of former Assistant Presiding Bishop Frank Bowden, were baptized in the Name of Jesus after the Azusa Street Mission Revival (1906-1909).
However, the beginning for many was in April 1913 at The World-Wide Apostolic Camp Meeting held in Arroyo Seco, California and conducted by Maria Woodworth-Etter, organizers promised that God would "deal with them, giving them a unity and power that we have not yet known." [6] Canadian R. E. McAlister preached a message about water baptism "just prior to a baptismal service to be conducted". His message defended the "single immersion" method and "noted that apostolic baptism was administered as a single immersion in a single name, Jesus Christ", saying "'The words Father, Son, and Holy Ghost were never used in Christian baptism.'" This caused a controversy to erupt immediately when Frank Denny, missionary to China, jumped on the platform and tried to censor McAlister.
Oneness Pentecostals mark this occasion as the initial "spark" in the Oneness revival movement. "John G. Schaepe, a young minister, was so moved by McAlister's revelation, that after praying and reading the Bible all night, he ran through the camp the following morning shouting that he'd received a 'revelation' on baptism that the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost was Lord Jesus Christ." [7] Ironically, Frank Denny himself, along with G. T. Haywood, Harry Morse, John G. Schaepe, R. J. Scott, George Studd, R. E. McAlister, Andrew D. Urshan, and Homer L. Falkner embraced Lord Jesus Christ as the three-in-one name of the trinity for baptism as the "exclusive apostolic formula." When other Oneness objected to this trinitarian baptism and said Lord Jesus Christ was the full name only of Jesus (began Jesus-Only new issue), trinitarians such as John Schaepe, Robert McAlister, and E. N. Bell bolted and returned to the use of the titles "Father, Son, and Holy Ghost in Matthew 28:19.[8]
Schaepe (whose name is often misspelled Scheppe in a number of sources) claimed that the revelation he'd received during the camp meeting revival was that the baptismal command posited by Peter in Acts 2:38 - i.e., baptism "in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ" - was the fulfillment and counterpart of the Great Commission in Matthew 28:19 - i.e., baptism "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit." This conclusion was accepted by several others in the camp and developed further theologically by a minister named Frank J. Ewart. By 1914, Frank Ewart and Glenn Cook publicly baptized each other in "the name of the Lord Jesus Christ but as the one name of Jesus not as a trinitarian formula." Thus, in 1913 Oneness Pentecostalism was again "revealed and restored" to a group of Holy Spirit filled individuals. In 1914 it was again publicly practiced as was done in the Apostles time in Acts 2:38. A number of ministers claimed they were baptized "in the Name of Jesus Christ" before 1914, including Frank Small and Andrew D. Urshan. Urshan claims to have baptized in Jesus Christ name as early as 1910. [9] Even Charles Parham himself baptized using a Christological baptismal formula prior to Azusa Street (Dr. Charles Wilson, Our Heritage, p. 12). However it was not their baptismal formula which was the issue, but rather the rejection of the Trinity that was the bigger issue to other Pentecostal ministers.
Schaepe's revelation caused a great stir within Pentecostalism. During the next year, Frank J. Ewart, another Pentecostal minister, struggled between his Trinitarian teachings and the new issue. He often spent hours debating with R. E. McAlister, attempting to bring the two doctrines together. (R.E. McAlister, the man who had fired the shot heard around the world at Arroyo Seco, defected. He formally renounced the Oneness doctrine in 1919 [8]. Thereafter, he became one of the Canadian teachers of orthodox Trinitarianism among Pentecostals in Canada as well as a propagator of the 'finished work of Calvary' doctrine[10]. The camp ground in Arroyo Seco, California, just outside Los Angeles, where the revelation occurred was also owned by Seymour's Mission. Many were re-baptized in the name of Jesus Christ, including E.N.Bell, who did so out of conviction for obedience to scripture. He recanted after undergoing severe pressure from J.Roswell Flowers. The re-baptisms also had the opposite effect on the Assemblies causing a backlash from many Trinitarians who feared the direction their organization might be heading. The fear was within J. Roswell Flowers, who initiated a resolution designed to cause the "Jesus' name" baptizers to withdraw from the organization. He was successful and is now considerered the "father" of the AG. By October 1916 the issue finally came to a head at the Fourth General Council of the Assemblies of God. The mostly Trinitarian leadership, fearing the new issue might overtake their organization, drew up a doctrinal statement affirming the Trinity among other issues. When the final votes were tallied the "Statement of Fundamental Truths" was adopted. More than one quarter of their ministerial and assembly membership left to form their own Oneness fellowships.[citation needed]
According to PAW historians, "From 1913 to 1914, for one year, the battle raged within the Association regarding the God-head and the "new issue."[citation needed] Consequently, in 1914, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World experienced its first split.[citation needed] Essentially, there were two questions around which the debate was centered: (1) "Is there one God, or are there three distinct persons in the God-head? and (2) How then, should an individual be baptized? Should one be baptized in the Name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost, or should one be baptized in the Name of Jesus Christ? In 1916, after four years (1912-1916) of this intense and bitter debate, those leaders and individuals who embraced the Trinitarian concept (Father, Son and Holy Ghost) did not want the "Jesus' Name" baptizers among them any longer.[citation needed] The ministers who were rejected then formed the PAW which had no organizational board until 1919. During the transition period some minsters took their ministerial credentials from the Church of God in Christ group. In 1916 the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World was loosely organized in Indianapolis, Indiana, at the Christ Temple Assembly of the Apostolic Faith, where Bishop G. T. Haywood was the pastor.[citation needed] Bishop Haywood became the organization's first Presiding Bishop at that meeting.[citation needed] During that meeting, the organization's headquarters were established in Portland, Oregon.[citation needed] In 1919, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World headquarters were moved from Portland to Indianapolis, and was incorporated in the state of Indiana. The incorporators were E. W. Doak, G. T. Haywood, and D. C. Opperman". [11]
Several small Oneness ministerial groups formed after the 1914 restorations. Many of these merged into the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World (PAW) and some remained independent. Division occurred within the PAW over the role of women in ministry, wine or grape juice for communion, divorce and remarriage, and proper mode of water baptism. There were reports of racial tension in the early PAW. African Americans were joining the PAW in great numbers and were in many significant positions of leadership.[citation needed] In particular the African-American pastor G. T. Haywood served as General Secretary and signed all ministerial credentials. PAW resolutions were proposed that credentials be signed by individuals of the same race.[citation needed] This factor, along with Jim Crow segregation policy, contributed greatly to the split primarily along racial lines. In later decades progress has somewhat been made in racial relations in the UPCI in regard to leadership roles for all members of this fellowship.[citation needed] In 1932, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World was reorganized and elected Elder Samuel Grimes of New York, as the new Presiding Bishop.[citation needed] Bishop Grimes served as the Presiding Bishop for 35 years (1932-1967).
In 1945, a merger of two predominantly White Oneness Pentecostal organizations (the Pentecostal Church Incorporated and the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ) resulted in the formation of the United Pentecostal Church [12] Presently they are called United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI), adding the word "International" in 1972.
The UPCI has suffered several splinters since its inception in 1945.
* In 1955, a group of ministers led by Bishop C. B. Gillespie (Fairmont, WV), Bishop Ray Cornell (Cleveland, Ohio), and Bishop Carl Angle (Nashville, Tennessee) rechartered the PAJC using the original charter.[citation needed]
* 1968 a number of ministers organized the Apostolic Ministerial Fellowship - AMF, citing the UPCI as 'too liberal'. Central issues were holiness and local church government.
* In 1986, Pastor L. H. Hardwick, a UPCI pastor in Nashville, Tennessee, broke away from what he called "legalists" (referring to the issue of dress code and standards), and formed Global Christian Ministries (now Global Network of Christian Ministries).[citation needed]
* In 2001, Bishop Teklemarim Gezahagne and the more than 1 million members of the Apostolic Church of Ethiopia (ACI)broke their 45 year alignment with the UPCI. The official position of the UPCI is that the division was over Christology. Bishop Teklemarim taught that the flesh of Jesus was God and had no human connection to the seed of Adam, David, or his mother Mary. He taught one nature in Christ and it was divine. The UPCI has always taught two natures in Christ, human and Divine. Bishop Tekelmarim refused to reconsider his stance after high ranking envoys came from the UPCI to Ethiopia to discuss his error. Thus the interpretation of Christology caused the division.
* The Apostolic Assembly of the Faith in Christ Jesus (AAFCJ) and its sister church the Apostolic Church of the Faith in Christ Jesus (IAFCJ), left the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World to serve the Hispanic community in the United States and the nations of Latin America.[citation needed] The Apostolic Assembly is the largest Oneness Pentecostal group of primarily Spanish-speaking denomination in the United States of America, and it is also the oldest primarily Hispanic denomination in the World.[citation needed]
The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World has never left their original vision of a racially integrated body of believers. To this day, although predominantly black, they continue to reach out and work toward racial unity in worship and organization. There have been both white and black presiding bishops in this group. The United Pentecostal Church International in its worldwide ministry has accomplished a racially integrated body and this can be witnessed at the annual general convention. The same may be said of other "Jesus' Name" groups who are not only integrated, they hold no overt racist policies and engage in missionary work in many nations.
The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World is the oldest Oneness Pentecostal organization in existence.[citation needed] As a result of the Azusa Street Revival, a number of independent Pentecostal churches and their leaders, in an effort to stabilize these new works, felt the need to come together and form an Association of Churches of "like precious faith", thus forming the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. Its goal was to further spread the Gospel and to give support to each other. It should be noted, that after 1914 and the Hot Springs meeting, G.T.Haywood was baptized by Glen Cook, a white man, who had been the treasurer at Azusa street mission in Los Angeles.[citation needed]
The substantial number of Pentecostal congregations formed in the years immediately following the Azusa Street Revival inevitably caused the new movement to be faced with the problem of formal organization. The independent churches and missions of the first type were somewhat remedied by the recognition of lay boards and elected pastors.
For the next few years, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World focused upon general meetings and the development of its organizational structure.[citation needed] The late Bishop Morris E. Golder wrote: "The original organization bearing the name of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World came into existence in the year of 1906 in the city of Los Angeles, State of California.[citation needed] The late Bishop G. T. Haywood concurs with this fact, writing in the Voice In The Wilderness in 1921: "It (The Pentecostal Assemblies of the World) was started in 1906 in Los Angeles, California."[citation needed]
This was also the position asserted by Bishop Ross Paddock, the former Presiding Bishop of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World. He declared that after one year of being organized, the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World had its first annual business meeting and that, at the same time, it was Trinitarian in its doctrine and liturgy of water baptism.[citation needed]
It was in this context of varying ideas, personal differences, doctrinal and other conflicting elements that not only was the need of organization seen, but the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World in its original state (1906) came into existence.[citation needed] However, it was not until 1919 that it became incorporated and took on the identity of being an Apostolic "Oneness" body of ministers and believers.[citation needed]
According to Dr. David Bundy, a Pentecostal historian at the Christian Theological Seminary, as early as 1907, a white Baptist minister in Los Angeles, was preaching non-Trinitarian water baptism in the Name of Jesus. According to Dr. Deborah Sims LeBlanc, William and Maggie Bowden, the parents of former Assistant Presiding Bishop Frank Bowden, were baptized in the Name of Jesus Christ after the Azusa Street Mission Revival (1906-1909). It began in 1906, the same year the Azusa Street Revival began, making it older than even most of the Trinitarian Pentecostal organizations.[citation needed] It was never a part of the Assemblies of God and therefore never came out from it.[citation needed] "A few in the group which was ousted by the Assemblies of God later joined the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, but then demerged later [13].
[edit] Doctrine and theology
[edit] God
Oneness Pentecostalism holds to a conservative Jewish monotheistic view of God and stress Jesus Christ is the visible manifestation of God in the New Testament (the Father in the Son). God was known by several names and titles in the Old Testament, but with the New Covenant He has revealed His name as Jesus. It rejects all concepts of a polytheism, trinity, or other doctrines they see as representing multiple and separate Gods. As such it rejects three separate persons in the trinity who are each separately God. All concepts of Jesus Christ are explained as either the Father or the Son, the divine Spirit or the man Christ in two different modes. Jesus is fully God and fully human. As to his humanity Christ is the only begotten Son of God. They reject Jesus being seen as only one of three Gods. They believe Jesus as the Son is the only present high priest and at the same time God. Attempts to put into the mouth of Oneness that they believe the Son was only human (Unitarianism) have failed.
[edit] Salvation
Oneness Pentecostal doctrine and theology typically maintains that salvation comes by faith through grace. The acts of faith and subsequent grace is by obedience to specific commands and requirements that are found in the New Testament. These requirements necessary for salvation are: faith in Jesus Christ, repentance by faith, water baptism by faith in the name of Jesus Christ, and the gift of Holy Ghost baptism by faith with the evidence of speaking in tongues. The view of Oneness Pentecostals is that scripture either records the commandment of these acts of faith for salvation and explains that the lack of them would result in not having salvation. However, it should also be noted that not all Pentecostals who are Oneness regarding their view of the nature of God hold to this type of soteriology (the doctrine of salvation) and believe that water baptism and the baptism of the Holy Spirit are subsequent to salvation. One of the predecessor organizations of the UPCI, the Pentecostal Church, Inc. (PCI),brought this view over into the Oneness merger in 1945. These were called "one steppers"(which this view was held by a vocal minority) whereas those of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ (PAJC) following strictly Acts 2:38 were called "three steppers.
[edit] Holiness
Oneness Pentecostals believe that a Christian's lifestyle should be one characterized by holiness. This holiness begins at baptism where the blood of Jesus washes away sin and a person stands before God holy for the first time in their life. Subsequent to this sanctification, they hold separation from the world in both practical and moral areas will keep converts from lapsing back into the sins of their baptism. Moral or inward holiness is righteous living guided and powered by the indwelling Holy Spirit. Practical or outward holiness involves modest apparel and gender distinction. For some Oneness Pentecostal organizations, because of what they consider the amoral conduct of society in dress and nakedness, this involves establishing dress codes for its members (also known as "holiness standards") similar to those all Pentecostal denominations used for much of the first half of the 20th century. While these dress codes are officially treated as a matter of personal conviction, in practice there is strong social pressure in most circles to comply. Generally, women are expected not to wear pants, wear makeup or cut their hair; men are expected to be clean-shaven and short-haired. For a more in-depth review, see Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine)
For a contrast and comparison of Oneness and Trinity, see Oneness vs Trinity.
[edit] Common misunderstandings
[edit] Jesus' Name vs. Jesus Only
Jesus' Name doctrine is often misunderstood as is the pejorative "Jesus Only". These terms are even misunderstood and applied by Oneness believers themselves. Critics of Oneness believers refer to them as "Jesus Only", meaning they deny the Father and the Holy Spirit of the trinity. Most Oneness Pentecostals consider that term to be a misreprentation of their true beliefs on the issue. Oneness believers do not deny the Father or the Son; they just describe them differently from trinitarians. Oneness historians claim the usage of the term "Jesus-Only" is misleading many to believe they reject the Father and the Holy Spirit. Rejection and different interpretation are two different things. Oneness believers prefer the phrase Jesus' Name when referring to their baptism beliefs or themselves as believers who were baptized in the name of Jesus Christ only (with no reference to the Father or Holy Spirit). "Jesus' Name", to Oneness Pentecostals refers to the revealed name of God for the present Church age. Jesus inherited his name from the eternal name of the Godhead. I am come in my Father's name. Oneness Pentecostals place "essential" emphasis on use of the name of Jesus, and regard it as the "Name above all names". They invoke it in word or deed in all things.
Oneness Pentecostals generally see the use of the term "Jesus Only" by trinitarians as being an attempt to mislead and/or confuse those interested in study of the Oneness doctrine. The label arose early on in reference to their insistence on baptizing only in the name of Jesus, but it tends to be used only by the movement's critics. The Oneness position is that do indeed believe in baptism into the name of Jesus only, but that to describe them as "Jesus Only" Pentecostals implies a denial of the Father and Holy Spirit -- a contention they vigorously reject as false.
Oneness believers generally consider the term "Jesus Only" to be inflammatory, because the speaker is generally a trinitarian critic trying to lead interested persons away from the Oneness doctrine. True, Oneness believers do not believe in three separate persons in the Godhead who each have a separate Spirit, Body, Mind, and Being. To Oneness believers this constitutes three Gods. They see Jesus as the true personality of God manifest in the flesh (1Timothy 3:16). Trinitarians infer by this that Oneness Pentecostals deny the separate being of Father and the separate being of the Holy Spirit. Oneness believers in fact deny the entire concept of a Trinity including the use of the term "God the Son", since this is never found in the New Testament. "Jesus Only" as explained by trinitarians is an incorrect use of the term because Oneness Pentecostals actually affirm the Father and the Holy Spirit, but assert that the Father is the Holy Spirit, and vice versa. Oneness Pentecostals believe there is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit: one God.
[edit] Oneness Theology IS NOT Unitarianism
Some confuse the terms Unitarian and Oneness. Although Unitarians and Oneness people are similar in the belief that there is not a plurality of persons in the Godhead, Unitarians believe that Jesus was only a moral authority whereas the Deity and humanity of Jesus Christ are essential to Oneness doctrine.
[edit] Followers of Oneness Pentecostalism
Some of the better-known persons associated, or said to be associated, with Oneness Pentecostals are
* T.D. Jakes [14]
* Noel Jones
* Dr Bernie L. Wade
* Gaddi Vasquez
* Norman Wagner
* Tommy Tenney
[edit] Gospel and Contemporary Christian artists
* The Katinas
* Phillips, Craig and Dean
* Lee Greenwood
* Elvis Presley, the well known entertainer of early rock and roll, frequented Oneness Pentecostal Churches as well as Trinitarian Assemblies of God Churches and it is claimed that from these sources he picked up the rhythm and lively antics he incorporated into his performances. It is reported that Presley was baptized in the AG church, but was later rebaptized in the name of Jesus Christ by Bishop Joseph Rex Dyson a Oneness Pentecostal with the Church of Jesus Christ in Tennessee. (http://www.calvaryslighthouse.com/Memphis,TN.htm) [15] (http://www.commercialappeal.com/mca/elvis_presley/article/0,1426,MCA_457_1328348,00.html)[16]
* Jonny Lang, Grammy award winning singer and guitar player. Attends a UPCI church in Los Angeles.
[edit] References
1. ^ Dr. David K. Bernard, Unmasking Prejudice, Cyberjournal for Pentecostal-Charismatic Research
2. ^ Bernard, David K., The Oneness of God, Word Aflame Press, 1983, Ch. 10.
3. ^ Tertullian, Against Praxeas, 3, rpt. in Alexander Robers and James Donaldson, eds., The Ante-Nicene Fathers (rpt. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977), III, 598-599.
4. ^ "Unitarianism", Encyclopedia of Religion and Thics, XII, 520.
5. ^ Campbell, David, All the Fulness, Word Aflame Press, 1975, p. 167-173.
6. ^ "World-Wide Apostolic Faith Camp Meeting", Word and Witness, 20 March 1913, 1; Blumhofer, The Assemblies of God, 222; Blumhofer, Restoring, 20.
7. ^ Reckart, Sr. Dr. Gary P., Great Cloud Of Witnesses, Apostolic Theological Bible College, 124; Ewart, Phenomenon, 123-124; C. M. Rabic, Jr., "John G. Schaepe", in Dictionary, Burgess and McGee, 768-769; J. Schaepe, "A Remarkable Testimony", Meat in Due Season, 21 August 1917, 4; Minute Book and Ministerial Record of the General Assembly of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, 1919-1920, 11.
8. ^ a b Reckart, Sr. Dr. Gary P, Great Cloud Of Witnesses, Apostolic Theological Bible College, 1998, 124
9. ^ Andrew D. Urshan, Pentecost As It Was in the Early 1900's (by the author, 1923; revised edition Portland, OR: ApostolicBook Publishers, 1981, 77; The Life Story of Andrew Bar David Urshan: An Autobiography of the Author's First Forty Years (Apostolic Book Publishers, 1967),102; Cf. E. N. Bell, "The Sad New Issue", Word & Witness, June 1915, 2-3; Anderson, Disinherited, 176.
10. ^ Miller, Thomas William, Canadian Pentecostals, A History of Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, Full Gospel Publishing House, Messissauga, ON, 1994
11. ^ PAW - Taking the Word to the World!
12. ^ PCI and the remaining PAJC ministers, composed mostly of whites merged as the United Pentecostal Church (UPC). Beginning with 1,800 ministers and 900 churches, it has become the largest and, through aggressive evangelism and publishing efforts, most influential Oneness organization. thebereans.net/prof-onep.shtml
13. ^ (Dr. Charles Wilson, Our Heritage, p. 22)
14. ^ Christianity Today, February 2000
15. ^ www.calvaryslighthouse.com/Memphis,TN.htm
16. ^ Was the King baptized in two beliefs? : Local : Memphis Commercial Appeal
[edit] See also
[show]
v • d • e
Oneness Pentecostalism
Denominations
AAFCJ • ALJC • AM • Bible Way COOLJC • CJCI • CLJC • COOLJC • ICOF• PAJC • PAW • TJC • UPCI
People
Gilson Levi • Charles Gillespie • Raymond Cornell • T. D. Jakes • Bernie L. Wade • Noel Jones • William M. Branham; Kenneth Haney • Nathaniel Urshan • Don Johnson • John Pollard • David Bernard • Harold McFarlane •
Other Pages of Interest
Oneness Pentecostalism (doctrine) •Oneness vs Trinity • Jesus' Name doctrine
* Jesus' Name doctrine
[edit] External links
[edit] Articles, indexes, & other resources
[edit] Favoring views
* Apostolic Network Ministries
* Institute for Biblical Studies (Index of Oneness Pentecostal theological articles)
* Website of Apostolic results
* The Oneness of God (Book by Oneness scholar David K. Bernard, J.D., part of Series in Pentecostal Theology, Volume 1, freely available online)
* Testimonies of Jesus Christ by Oneness Pentecostals
* The Voice of the Pastor Study And The Word Became Flesh
* Understanding Pentecostal Theology (Blog about Oneness Pentecostal Theology with articles)
* Center for Oneness Research and Education (Blog by scholar Dr. Daniel Segraves with articles)
* Pentecostales del Nombre de Jesucristo page in Spanish
* Spanish Web Site Apostolic Studies in Spanish
* Articles of Study By Oneness Theologian Mike Blume
* Apostolic Theology.com Oneness Pentecostal Theology Site
[edit] Comparative articles
* Oneness Versus Trinity Links to various writings concerning Oneness vs. Trinity. Link is an opposing view site.
* Responding to Oneness Pentecostalism in the Light of Scripture
[edit] Other
* Apostolic Doctrine
* My Views on the Godhead - Christianity Today Magazine Bishop T. D. Jakes responds to Christianity Today article, "Apologetics Journal Criticizes Jakes."
* Apostolic Archives International Web Site dedicated to preserve the history of organizational leaders of various Oneness Pentecostal Denominations
[edit] Oneness Pentecostal Groups
Here are major and historical Oneness Pentecostal organizations. Not all Oneness Pentecostal churches affiliate with an organization. See Category:Oneness Pentecostalism for individual churches and organizations that may not be listed here.
[edit] North America
This is a list of Oneness Pentecostal organizations headquartered in North America.
* United Pentecostal Church International
* Apostolic Assembly of the Faith in Christ Jesus
* Assemblies of the Lord Jesus Christ
* Bible Way Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ
* Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith
* International Circle of Faith
* Pentecostal Assemblies of the World
* Pentecostal Assemblies of Jesus Christ
* Church of the Lord Jesus Christ
* Churches of Jesus Christ International
* World Christian Ministries Association
* Worldwide Pentecostal Fellowship
* Truelight Pentecostal Church
[edit] Other countries
This is a list of Oneness Pentecostal organizations headquartered outside North America.
* United Pentecostal Church of Australia
* True Jesus Church - China/Taiwan
* Assemblies Lord Jesus Christ - Canada
* Apostolic Church International - Ethiopia
* International Circle of Faith of Togo
* Church of Jesus Christ-Greece
* Jesus' Name Apostolic Church - Ecuador
* Apostolische Pfingstgemeinde Deutschland - Germany
* Assemblea Apostolica della fede in Cristo Gesù - Italy
You can either hit 'all sizes' to try and read the article (Kindly written with my permission by Nathan Meunier) of you can go out and buy a copy for yourself. I strongly encourage the latter.
Demel
The title of this article is ambiguous. Other uses, see Demel (disambiguation).
K.u.K. Hofzuckerbäcker Ch Demel 's Söhne GmbH
Founded in 1786
Coffee and pastry industry
Products Coffee, tea, cakes
website www.Demel.at
Interior furnishings from Komptoir Demel in Vienna, from Portois Fix
When decorating goods Visitors may watch.
Demel is one of the most famous Viennese pastry at the carbon (cabbage) market (Kohlmarkt) 14 in the first Viennese district Innere Stadt. Demel was a k.u.k. Hofzuckerbäcker and runs this item today in public.
History
1778 came the of Wurttemberg stemming confectioner Ludwig Dehne to Vienna. 1786, he founded his pastry shot at the place of St. Michael. Dehne died in 1799 of tuberculosis. His widow then married the confectioner Gottlieb Wohlfahrt. In 1813 they bought the house in St. Michael's Square 14. Despite numerous innovations such as frozen the company's finances could not be rehabilitated. After the death of Gottlieb Wohlfahrt in 1826 the widow and her son from her first marriage August Dehne succeeded but the economic boom. August Dehne managed to great wealth, he invested in land. As the son of August Dehne struck another career as a lawyer, Dehne sold the confectionery in 1857 to his first mate Christoph Demel.
Demel also had success in the continuation of the company and established it to a Viennese institution. After the death of Christoph Demel in 1867 his sons Joseph and Charles took over the business, which is why it since "Christoph Demel 's Söhne" means. On request Demel received 1874 the Hoflieferantentitel (the titel as purveyor to the court). The proximity to the Imperial Palace directly opposite made business more profitable. The Hofburg borrowed from Demel occasionally staff and tableware for special occasions such as proms and parties. Recent developments in the art of confectionery were brought from Paris. Trained at Demel, professionals quickly found employment.
1888 Old Burgtheater was demolished at Michael's place and transformed the place. Demel had to move out of the house and he moved to the Kohlmarkt 14. The new store inside was equipped inside with high costs by purveyor to the court Portois & Fix. The interior is decorated in the style of Neo-Rococo with mahogany wood and mirrors. Regulars were members of the Viennese court as Empress Elisabeth, and other prominent members of the Vienna society of the time, the actress Katharina Schratt and Princess Pauline von Metternich. A peculiarity of Demel from the time of the monarchy is that the always female attendance, which originally was recruited from monastic students, is dressed in a black costume with a white apron. They are called Demelinerinnen and address the guest traditionally in a special "Demel German", which is a polite form of the third person plural, omitting the personal salutation and with questions such as "elected Have you?" or "want to eat?" was known.
After the death of Joseph and Carl Demel took over Carl's widow Maria in 1891 the management. She also received the k.u.k. Hoflieferantentitel. From 1911 to 1917 led Carl Demel (junior) the business and then his sister Anna Demel (4 March 1872 in Vienna - November 8, 1956 ibid ; born Siding). Under her leadership, the boxes and packaging were developed by the Wiener Werkstätte. Josef Hoffmann established in 1932 because of a contract the connection of the artist Friedrich Ludwig Berzeviczy-Pallavicini to Anna Demel. The design of the shop windows at that time was an important means of expression of the shops and there were discussions to whether they should be called visual or storefront (Seh- or Schaufenster - display window or look window). While under the Sehfenster (shop window) an informative presentation of goods was understood, the goods should be enhanced by staging the showcase. From 1933 until his emigration in 1938 took over Berzeviczy-Pallavicini the window dressing of Demel and married in 1936 Klara Demel, the adopted niece of Anna Demel.
During the Nazi regime in Austria the confectioner Demel got privileges from the district leadership because of its reputation. Baldur von Schirach and his wife took the confectioner under their personal protection, there were special allocations of gastronomic specialties from abroad in order to continue to survive. But while the two sat in the guest room and consumed cakes, provided the Demelinerinnen in a hallway between the kitchen and toilet political persecutws, so-called U-Boats. Those here were also hearing illegal radio stations and they discussed the latest news.
1952 Anna Demel was the first woman after the war to be awarded the title Kommerzialrat. She died in 1956. Klara Demel took over the management of the bakery. Berzeviczy-Pallavicini, who lived in the United States until then returned to Vienna. After Clara's death on 19 April 1965, he carried on the pastry. During his time at Demel he established the tradition to make from showpieces of the sugar and chocolate craft extravagant neo-baroque productions. Baron Berzeviczy sold the business in 1972 for economic reasons to the concealed appearing Udo Proksch, who established in 1973 in the first floor rooms for the Club 45; also Defence Minister Karl Lütgendorf had his own salon. After Proksch was arrested in 1989 in connection with the Lucona scandal, he sold Demel to the non-industry German entrepreneur Günter Wichmann. 1993 it came to insolvency. Raiffeisen Bank Vienna as principal creditor, acquired the property in 1994 from the bankrupt company to initially continue itself the traditional Viennese company through a subsidiary. In the process of the renovation in March 1995 on the fourth floor were mura painting from the 18th century exposed and the baroque courtyard covered by a glass construction which since the re-opening on 18 April 1996 can be used as Schanigarten (pavement café) or conservatory.
In 2002 the catering company Do & Co took over the Demel. The company was awarded with the "Golden Coffee Bean " of Jacobs coffee in 1999. Demel now has additional locations in Salzburg and New York.
Products
Demel chocolate products
One of the most famous specialty of the house is " Demel's Sachertorte" . The world-famous Sachertorte was invented by Franz Sacher, but completed only in its today known form by his son Eduard Sacher while training in Demel. After a 1938 out of court enclosed process occurred after the Second World War a till 1965 during dispute between Demel and the Sacher Hotel: The hotel insisted on its naming rights, Demel, however, could pointing out already since the invention of the "Original Sacher" called pie "having used the denomination". Demel had after the death of Anna Sacher in 1930, under defined conditions, the generation and distribution rights for "Eduard-Sacher-Torte" received. The dispute was settled in favor of the Hotel Sacher and the Demelsche cake is today, "Demel 's Sachertorte" and is still made by hand. While a layer of apricot jam under the chocolate icing and another in the center of the cake can be found in the "Original Sacher-Torte", is in "Demel 's Sachertorte " the layer in the middle omitted.
Besides the Sachertorte helped another specialty the pastry to world fame: the original gingerbread figures whose modeling came from the collection of Count Johann Nepomuk Graf Wilczek on Castle Kreuzenstein. Then there are the Demel cake (almond-orange mass with blackcurrant jam, marzipan and chocolate coating), Anna Torte, Dobos cake, cake trays, Russian Punch Cake, Esterházy cake, apple strudel and other confectionary specialties. Popular with many tourists are the candied violets with which Demel earlier supplied the imperial court and they allegedly have been the Lieblingsnaschereien (favorite candies) of Empress Elisabeth ("Sisi"). Rooms in the upper floors as the Pictures Room, Gold Room and the Silver rooms are rented for events. In addition to the pastry shop Demel operates, as it did at the time of the monarchy, a catering service, after the re-opening in 1996 as well as storage, shipping and packaging was desettled in the 22nd District of Vienna. Demel is also responsible for the catering at Niki Aviation.
Description: Woman's Home Companion article by Julia Ward Howe and Maud Howe (her daughter) titled "American Drawing Rooms: The Story of My Boston Drawing Room", October, 1910. Page 2 of 3.
Full Text: ... remember as a girl at your father's house in Bond Street, New York?" "They were nearly all Milanese and they were all good people. I remember Forresti, Castiglia and Albinola; he established himself in business in New York and did very well. They must all be forgotten by now.""One never knows. Somebody may remember them,some descendant may read what you say about them, be glad to know that their names are preserved in the amber of your memory. Tell what you remember of your drawing-room in the time of the Civil War; which of the heroes of that time sat at your table?"
"John Brown was at Green Peace, but he came privately and alone, to take counsel with your father. I had been told that he was coming and myself opened the door for him. He was a middle-aged, middle-sized man with hair and beard of amber color streaked with gray. He looked a Puritan of the Puritans, forceful, concentrated and self -contained."
"And Lincoln?" • "He was never to my knowledge in Boston, and certainly never at our house. I only saw him once; that was in Washington. In the autumn of 1861 I went with your father, who was one of the founders of the Sanitary Commission and of the Freed-man's Bureau, to the Capitol. Our Minister, James Freeman Clarke, and Governor and Mrs. Andrew were of the party. It was an agonizing time, when McClellan's great army lay encamped, useless, about Washington and no possible issue to the war was in view. The secessionists had determined that Lincoln should never reach Washington alive. John Felton, a younger brother of our friend Cornelius, made a plan by which Lincoln was smuggled into Washington incognito. Nobody knew he was there until he was safe at the White House. Governor Andrew had arranged our meeting. We all went together and were received in one of the drawing-rooms. I remember well the sad expression of Lincoln's deep blue eyes, the only hand-some thing about his face."
"I have but two memories of the war," said the daughter. "I can see our dinner-table when the news came that Vicksburg had fallen; papa waving the newspaper over his head, Brother Harry jumping onto his chair and waving his napkin. The other memory is of a certain Sunday morning when I went before breakfast with papa to get the mail from the post-office. We were crossing the common between six and seven o'clock, when a pale man staggered up to us with a newspaper in his hand, grasped papa by the arm and cried out:
"'Have you heard? Lincoln is murdered, God help us!' I remember my father's reeling as if he had been struck and our sitting down on a bench until he had fully recovered from the shock."
"It must have been during the war that I gave my reception for Edwin Booth, one of many, for he was often at our house. The winter before he had played an engagement at the Boston Theater. Lovely Mary Devlin, to whom he was engaged to be married, was his leading lady. Their acting of Romeo and Juliet bench until he had fully recovered from the shock." "It must have been during the war that I gave my reception for Edwin Booth, one of many, for he was often at our house. The winter before he had played an engagement at the Boston Theater. Lovely Mary Devlin, to whom he was engaged to be married, was his leading lady. Their acting of Romeo and Juliet was an ideal performance. My reception was given after their marriage. The Booths came early; when the other guests began to arrive, I looked in vain for Mr. Booth. Finally we found him in one of the back rooms with you. He had made his handkerchief into a rabbit and was making shadow pictures on the wall to amuse the little girl of the house."
"Yes, I remember, and he wanted to kiss me, and I would not let him."
"I shall never forget," continued the mother, "the funeral of Mary Booth. It was at the chapel at Mt. Vernon, where Thomas Crawford's statue of Otis stands, one of the finest portrait statues in America. I could not help thinking of the funeral of Ophelia in Hamlet,' as I looked at the pale, agonized face of the young widower, so lately a bridegroom. When I said this to Louis Agassiz, he said, 'It probably made him think of it, too.' As the funeral cortege entered, a young man of great physical beauty followed the coffin. He was dressed in English clothes and had rather a foreign air. I remember the strong contrast between his very blue eyes and his very black hair. He wore alight overcoat and had a strange air of not quite be-longing to the occasion. He proved to be Wilkes Booth, Edwin Booth's younger brother, afterward the assassin of Lincoln."
"How could you manage to entertain, when you were all so busy?"
"We always kept open house. I am glad to remember that our house was one of the places where Governor Andrew used to take refuge when the need of rest became imperative. Henry Wilson, the vice-president, was a familiar guest at our house. He was from the town of Natick. A very good man, though he got his abuse as much as the others. I remember Mrs. Silsbee, wife of the treasurer of Harvard College, coming to one of our parties at this time in thread gloves. She showed them to your father, saying, 'While my country is in such distress, I do not intend to wear kid gloves.' "
"That thought was in the air. Your poem, 'Our Orders,' expresses it:
"Weave no more silks, you Lyons looms,
To deck our girls for gay delights!
The crimson flower of battle blooms,
And solemn marches fill the night.
"Weave but the flag whose bars to-day
Drooped heavy o'er our early dead,
And homely garments, coarse and gray,
For orphans that must earn their bread!
"I can dimly remember a party given for General Grant in the early seventies when we were living in Miss Nabby Joy's old house on Mt. Vernon Street. Our neighbor, Mr. William Gray, had given a splendid reception for General McClellan. I have an impression that papa asked you to give this reception and that it had some political significance and was meant rather to offset the effect of the splendid reception for McClellan."
"Your father sent me with Mrs. Andrew to call upon the Grants, who were, I think, staying at the Parker House. I asked Mrs. Grant if the general and she could come to us the next evening; it was their last day in Boston. She said that they could, and I gathered together all the friends that could to meet them. It was a very large reception in spite of the shortness of the time. What I observed most in Grant that evening was his remarkable power of effacing himself from notice. He was essentially a, very modest man. I had continually to say to myself during the evening, The general-in-chief of all our armies is here. What can I do to help him pass the evening pleasantly?' "
"Do you remember the party given for General Grant by Healy, the American portrait-painter, in Paris?"
The first portrait made of Julia Ward Howe when a child aged three years. From an oil-painting, to an unknown artist, which has never heretofore been reproduced. This painting hangs in the drawing-room of Mrs. Howe's summer home' at Newport.
"Perfectly. It was either in 1877 or 1878. The Grants were on their way home from their tour around the world. They were received everywhere with royal honors, and held experienced the same sort of triumphal progress that Mr. Roosevelt has lately been enjoying. Mr. Healy asked us to come punctually; when we arrived, we understood why I was to dance in the quadrille of honor with which the ball opened. Gambetta was then President of France. He danced with Mrs. Healy, Mr. Healy danced with Mrs. Grant, the general was my partner.
"John Sullivan Dwight was called the Nestor of Music in Boston. He was our beloved house friend. You children all adored him and spoke of him affectionately as 'Dwighty.' He took us to the most delightful concerts and brought many of the great foreign musicians who came to Boston to our house. He was always a little in love with the pretty young women singers, pianists and violinists. I remember you spared his enthusiasm for Christine Nilsson, Adelaide Top, Theresa Carreno. In the days before the Symphony Orchestra he was the prime mover of the old Harvard Musical Concerts at the Boston Music Hall. Carl Jerrahn was the conductor of the orchestra, and of the Handel and Haydn Society as well. 'Dwight's Journal of Music' was the authority on all musical matters then. Mr. Dwight lived at the rooms of the Harvard Musical Society, of which. he was the moving spirit. He was a passionate admirer of Dickens. I remember his reading aloud to us the whole of 'Our Mutual Friend: 'Oliver Twist' and 'Nicholas Nickleby."
"Tell about Charlotte Cushman," prompted the daughter.
"Charlotte was an interesting woman and the first American actress of her time. She often came to our house and has told me much of her stage life. Her first hit was at the old Par Theater. She was an understudy for the part of Meg Merrilies in an excellent play, made from Scott's novel, 'Guy Mannering.' The leading lady, who was to have played Meg Merrilies, was taken ill and Charlotte was called upon to take the part. Just as she went on the stage she heard one of the gypsies, who was repeating his lines say, 'Meg grows merciful.' She took her cue from the words and deter- mined to put a new tenderness in the acting of Meg toward the boy. With this original interpretation of the role, which she really created, Charlotte made her first palpable hit. Later she played with Macready in Byron's 'Werner' and had a certain success. Macready made her an offer to go with him to Paris; the terms were so unsatisfactory that she refused. I remember her telling me of the-first really great impression she made. It was in England, in the provinces. She was to appear that evening for the first time in 'Fazio.' a play that had a great vogue. Charlotte's devoted maid Sally, a mulatto girl, was her standby. The morning of the play Charlotte said to Sally: 'I would like to spend three and sixpence for ribbons to dress up that part to-night; can we afford it?' "
'No, Miss Charlotte, we can't afford no three and sixpence for ribbons,' said Sally. Charlotte went on the stage in the old dress without the ribbons. She was playing the part of Fazio's neglected wife. In one of the scenes, when the unfaithful husband returns to her, she gave the line, 'Fazio, you have been with Wilhelmina !' After she had gone so far she heard a great noise and looked to see what it was; to her astonishment it was applause! It was some minutes before she could go on with her part. From that time she went up and up, till she very quickly reached the top."
"I suppose the great interest you took in theatrical people at that time was the result of your writing for the stage."
"I think it must have been. The dramatic impulse was so strong in me that, besides my serious plays, I kept writing charades and monologues and drawing-room comedies; I could not help it, my mind was full of it. I was forced to express it in a dozen different forms."
"Tell about the two serious plays you wrote for the stage."
"My first play, 'The World's Own,' was produced at Wallack's Theater, with the elder Sothern in the leading part. It was before he made his hit as Lord Dundreary in 'The American Cousin.' The play (it was published later by Ticknor and Fields) is a story of modern romance with no particularly new feature of any kind. Although it did not, as they say, 'keep the stage,' it made such an impression on those who saw it that Edwin Booth, then at the beginning of his career, asked me to write a play for him. I promised to do this and devoted to it the better part of half a year. In the meantime I had made Mr. Booth's acquaintance and seen him act frequently. 1 had formed some idea of the sort of character that would suit him. I had recently seen Rachel in 'Phedre.' This somehow suggested to my mind the ideal character of Hippolytus, the youth in love with the goddess of chastity, Artemis, as a very suitable character for Booth. The play was written, offered, accepted. The parts were given out, the performance arranged, when some stage imbroglio led the manager, E. L. Davenport, to reverse his decision, so that the play was not given then or since. I understood at the time that Mrs. Davenport, the manager's wife, was dissatisfied with the part assigned her, and that this led to my so great disappointment.
"Charlotte Cushman, who was then at the very height of her fame, was to have taken the part of the heroine."
"If your plays for the public did not have the success you hoped for, your private theatricals succeeded beyond belief. I remember that Boston rang with them when I was too young to be allowed to sit lip in the evening to see them. The older children told me about them. Was it while we were living in Chestnut Street that you wrote 'The Socio-ll1aniac?' "
"No, later; it must have been in Boylston Place. It was the year your sister Laura came out, and I gave two receptions to introduce her to society. s During these receptions I caught such confused -scraps of conversation as these, 'How is Mr. So-and-so?' 'Is Mrs. Cats foot better?' 'Athanais is in love,' and so on. I had the idea of a heroine who had gone mad from too much society, and who kept repeating all the little bits of disjointed talk that one hears at a large reception. 'The Sociomaniac,' however, was never really written, only planned. I composed the music and the words for two or three of the songs!"
"Alas, the day!" sighed the daughter. "I think it a [illegible portion] in love,' and so on. I had the idea of a heroine who had gone mad from too much society, and who kept repeating all the little bits of disjointed talk that one hears at a large reception. 'The Sociomaniac,' however, was never really written, only planned. I composed the music and the words for two or three of the songs!"
"Alas, the day!" sighed the daughter. "I think it a great shame and loss that the public should know so little of the fun, the frolic, the joyous nonsense with which you have always bubbled over. After all, it’s the rarest and most endearing of all human gifts. The world knows you as a poet and reformer; it has had hardly a glimpse of you in cap and bells. Sing me the Boston Song, the best of 'The Sociomaniac' ditties."
The old piano in the front drawing-room still has a sweet tone-and the old singer's voice? To some of us it is more uplifting than Tettrazini's or Melba's.
THE BOSTON SONG FROM "THE SOCIOMANIAC"
"Her mother was a Shaw and her father was a Tompkins, Her sister was a bore and her brother was a bumpkins.
CHORUS-Oh, soci-, oh, soci-, oh, soci-i-i-i-i-i-i-itY.
"Her flounces were of gold and her slippers were of ermin, And she looked a little bold when she went to lead in Germin in.
CHORUS-Oh, soci-, oh, soci-, oh, soci-i-i-i-i-i-i-it),.
"For my part I never saw where she kept her fascination, But I thought she had an awful conceit and affectation. CHORUS-Oh, soci-, oh, soci-, oh, soci-i-i-i-i-i-i-ity.
"Though I had too much serious business on my hands at the time to give even a little leisure to comic composition, I did ftt1d time to amuse the so-called Brain Club with a mock presentation at court, which made them laugh so violently that some of the members claimed that their laughter made them ill. I had read a very foolish and stilted account written by a southern woman of her presentation at the English Court; this I turned into ridicule in my monologue, 'Mrs. Some Pumpkins at Court.' I made Queen Victoria speak with the cockney accent. Once when I gave this in the South at a friend's house, an English lady of a very literal turn of mind, who was present, became furious and kept repeating 'Our queen!' in a tone of deep resentment. In the course of Mrs. Some Pumpkins' audience with the queen, the latter asks: 'Is it teroo that Butler's wife hev a diamond clasp to her honi soit qui mal y pense?'"
"Motley's the wear, you make them laugh still! What suggested the 'Parlor-Macbeth' to you? That festivity was before my day, though I have a certain vicarious knowledge of it, gained by putting up your lovely white Lady Macbeth dress in camphor every spring for thirty years, until I had the happy thought of making it up into the white pope's gown you are wearing this very minute !"
"The 'Parlor Lady Macbeth' was suggested by my seeing the opera of 'Der Frieschutz' given by a very poor company in a very small theater at Newport. This seemed to me like the performance of 'Macbeth' by one person, and that one could only be Lady Macbeth, so I had no rest of mind until I had composed this mono-logical 'Macbeth,' in which my dear minister, James Freeman Clarke, told me that in spite of the fun there was some of the feeling of the horror of the play. The Duncan was of the firm of Duncan, Sherman and Company, well known at that day. [CONCLUDED ON PAGE 80]
Date: 1910
Creator: Woman's Home Companion
Format: text
Digital Identifier: AG28-19-7
Biographical note: Julia Ward Howe (1819-1910) was an author, lecturer, poet, activist, abolitionist and leader in the Women's suffrage movement. Born in New York City to affluent parents, Ward Howe was well educated but expected to be a wife. In 1843 Ward Howe married Samuel Gridley Howe the founding director of Perkins after meeting him at a tour of the school. Despite conventional expectations that she not live a public life she initially published work anonymously before becoming a social activist that wrote, spoke, and worked for many social causes. She is commonly known for writing the words to “Battle Hymn of the Republic” and in 1908, she became the first woman elected to the American Academy of Arts. In 1988 she was inducted into the National Women’s Hall of Fame.
Source: Hale, Jen. (2022) ”Julia Ward Howe”. Hale, Jen. “Julia Ward Howe” Perkins Archives Blog, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown MA, October 26, 2022
Rights: Samuel P. Hayes Research Library, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA
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A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism, a monotheistic religion which originated during the 15th century in the Punjab region. The term "Sikh" has its origin in the Sanskrit words शिष्य (śiṣya; disciple, student) or शिक्ष (śikṣa; instruction). A Sikh is a disciple of a guru. According to Article I of the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Sikh code of conduct), a Sikh is "any human being who faithfully believes in One Immortal Being; ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh; Guru Granth Sahib; the teachings of the ten Gurus and the baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru". "Sikh" properly refers to adherents of Sikhism as a religion, not an ethnic group. However, because Sikhs often share strong ethno-religious ties, many countries, such as the U.K., recognize Sikh as a designated ethnicity on their censuses. The American non-profit organization United Sikhs has fought to have Sikh included on the U.S. census as well, arguing that Sikhs "self-identify as an 'ethnic minority'" and believe "that they are more than just a religion".
Male Sikhs usually have "Singh" (Lion), and female Sikhs have "Kaur" (Princess) as their middle or last name. Sikhs who have undergone the khanḍe-kī-pahul (the Sikh initiation ceremony) may also be recognized by the five Ks: uncut hair (kesh); an iron or steel bracelet (kara); a kirpan (a sword tucked into a gatra strap); kachehra, a cotton undergarment, and kanga, a small wooden comb. Baptized male Sikhs must cover their hair with a turban, which is optional for baptized female Sikhs. The greater Punjab region is the historic homeland of the Sikhs, although significant communities exist around the world.
HISTORY
Sikh political history may be said to begin with the death of the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjan Dev, in 1606. Guru Nanak was a religious leader and social reformer in the 15th-century Punjab. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh on 30 March 1699. Singh baptized five people from a variety of social backgrounds, known as the Panj Piare (the five beloved ones) to form the Khalsa, or collective body of initiated Sikhs. Sikhism has generally had amicable relations with other religions, except for the period of Mughal rule in India (1556–1707). Several Sikh gurus were killed by the Mughals for opposing their persecution of minority religious communities including Sikhs. Sikhs subsequently militarized to oppose Mughal rule. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under Ranjit Singh was characterized by religious tolerance and pluralism, with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The confederacy is considered the zenith of political Sikhism, encompassing Kashmir, Ladakh and Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa, the commander-in-chief of the Sikh army in the North West Frontier, expanded the confederacy to the Khyber Pass. Its secular administration implemented military, economic and governmental reforms. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947 were marked by conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims. This caused the religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab, mirroring a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab.
The 1960s saw growing animosity between Sikhs and Hindus in India, with the Sikhs demanding the creation of a Punjab state on a linguistic basis similar to other states in India. This was promised to Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Jawaharlal Nehru, in return for Sikh political support during negotiations for Indian independence. Although the Sikhs obtained the Punjab, they lost Hindi-speaking areas to Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. Chandigarh was made a union territory and the capital of Haryana and Punjab on 1 November 1966.
Tensions arose again during the late 1970s, fueled by Sikh claims of discrimination and marginalisation by the Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress party and tactics adopted by the Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
According to Katherine Frank, Indira Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government", and her increasing "paranoia" about opposing political groups led her to institute a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage". Sikh leader Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale articulated Sikh demands for justice, and this triggered violence in the Punjab. The prime minister's 1984 defeat of Bhindranwale led to an attack on the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and to her assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Gandhi's assassination resulted in an explosion of violence against Sikh communities and the killing of thousands of Sikhs throughout India. Khushwant Singh described the riots as a Sikh pogrom; he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany". Since 1984, relations between Sikhs and Hindus have moved toward a rapprochement aided by economic prosperity. However, a 2002 claim by the Hindu right-wing Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) that "Sikhs are Hindus" disturbed Sikh sensibilities. The Khalistan movement campaigns for justice for the victims of the violence, and for the political and economic needs of the Punjab.
In 1996, United Nations Commission on Human Rights Freedom of Religion or Belief Special Rapporteur Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004) visited India to report on religious discrimination. The following year Amor concluded, "In India it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment (sic) sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the military, and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi".
Although Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks of the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, they make up 1.87 percent of the Indian population.
During the 1999 Vaisakhi, Sikhs worldwide celebrated the 300th anniversary of the creation of the Khalsa. Canada Post honoured Sikh Canadians with a commemorative stamp in conjunction with the 300th anniversary of Vaisakhi. On April 9, 1999, Indian president K.R. Narayanan issued a stamp commemorating the 300th anniversary of the Khalsa.
DEFINITION
According to Guru Granth Sahib:
One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, the Sikh is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, the Sikh is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. Then, at the rising of the sun, the Sikh is to sing Gurbani; whether sitting down or standing up, the Sikh is to meditate on the Lord's Name. One who meditates on my Lord, Har, with every breath and every morsel of food – that Gursikh becomes pleasing to the Guru's Mind. That person, unto whom my Lord and Master is kind and compassionate – upon that Gursikh, the Guru's Teachings are bestowed. Servant Nanak begs for the dust of the feet of that Gursikh, who himself chants the Naam, and inspires others to chant it.
Simran of the Lord's name is a recurring theme of Guru Granth Sahib, and Sukhmani Sahib were composed to allow a devotee to recite Nam throughout the day. Rising at Amrit Velā (before sunrise) is a common Sikh practice. Sikhism considers the spiritual and secular lives to be intertwined: "In the Sikh Weltanschauung ... the temporal world is part of the Infinite and partakes of its characteristics." According to Guru Nanak, living an "active, creative, and practical life" of "truthfulness, fidelity, self-control and purity" is superior to a purely contemplative life.
FIVE Ks
The five Ks (panj kakaar) are five articles of faith which all baptized Sikhs (Amritdhari Sikhs) are obliged to wear. The symbols represent the ideals of Sikhism: honesty, equality, fidelity, meditating on God and never bowing to tyranny. The five symbols are:
- Kesh: Uncut hair, usually tied and wrapped in a Dastar
- Kanga: A wooden comb, usually worn under a Dastar
- Katchera: Cotton undergarments, historically appropriate in battle due to increased mobility when compared to a dhoti. Worn by both sexes, the katchera is a symbol of chastity.
- Kara: An iron bracelet, a weapon and a symbol of eternity
- Kirpan: An iron dagger in different sizes. In the UK Sikhs can wear a small dagger, but in the Punjab they might wear a traditional curved sword from one to three feet in length.
MUSIC & INSTRUMENTS
The Sikhs have a number of musical instruments: the rebab, dilruba, taus, jori and sarinda. Playing the sarangi was encouraged in Guru Har Gobind. The rubab was first played by Bhai Mardana as he accompanied Guru Nanak on his journeys. The jori and sarinda were designed by Guru Arjan. The taus was made by Guru Hargobind, who supposedly heard a peacock singing and wanted to create an instrument mimicking its sounds (taus is the Persian word for peacock). The dilruba was made by Guru Gobind Singh at the request of his followers, who wanted a smaller instrument than the taus. After Japji Sahib, all of the shabda in the Guru Granth Sahib were composed as ragas. This type of singing is known as Gurmat Sangeet.
When they marched into battle, the Sikhs would play a Ranjit Nagara (victory drum) to boost morale. Nagaras (usually two to three feet in diameter, although some were up to five feet in diameter) are played with two sticks. The beat of the large drums, and the raising of the Nishan Sahib, meant that the singhs were on their way.
DISTRIBUTION
Numbering about 27 million worldwide, Sikhs make up 0.39 percent of the world population; approximately 83 percent live in India. About 76 percent of all Sikhs live in the north Indian State of Punjab, where they form a majority (about two-thirds) of the population. Substantial communities of Sikhs (more than 200,000) live in the Indian states or union territories of Haryana (more than 1.1 million), Rajasthan, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh Assam and Jammu and Kashmir.
Sikh migration from British India began in earnest during the second half of the 19th century, when the British completed their annexation of the Punjab. The British Raj recruited Sikhs for the Indian Civil Service (particularly the British Indian Army), which led to Sikh migration throughout India and the British Empire. During the Raj, semiskilled Sikh artisans were transported from the Punjab to British East Africa to help build railroads. Sikhs emigrated from India and Pakistan after World War II, most going to the United Kingdom but many to North America. Some Sikhs who had settled in eastern Africa were expelled by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin in 1972. Economics is a major factor in Sikh migration, and significant communities exist in the United Kingdom, Canada, the United States, Malaysia, East Africa, Australia and Thailand.
Although the rate of Sikh migration from the Punjab has remained high, traditional patterns of Sikh migration favouring English-speaking countries (particularly the United Kingdom) have changed during the past decade due to stricter immigration laws. Moliner (2006) wrote that as a consequence of Sikh migration to the UK "becom[ing] virtually impossible since the late 1970s", migration patterns evolved to continental Europe. Italy is a rapidly growing destination for Sikh migration, with Reggio Emilia and Vicenza having significant Sikh population clusters. Italian Sikhs are generally involved in agriculture, agricultural processing, the manufacture of machine tools and horticulture.
Primarily for socio-economic reasons, Indian Sikhs have the lowest adjusted growth rate of any major religious group in India, at 16.9 percent per decade (estimated from 1991 to 2001). Johnson and Barrett (2004) estimate that the global Sikh population increases annually by 392,633 (1.7 percent per year, based on 2004 figures); this percentage includes births, deaths and conversions.
REPRESENTATION
Sikhs have been represented in Indian politics by former Indian prime minister Manmohan Singh and the deputy chairman of the Indian Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia. Punjab Chief Minister Parkash Singh Badal is also a Sikh. Past Sikh politicians in India include former president Giani Zail Singh, Sardar Swaran Singh (India's first foreign minister), Speaker of Parliament Gurdial Singh Dhillon and former Chief Minister of Punjab Pratap Singh Kairon.
Politicians from the Sikh diaspora include the first Asian American member of the United States Congress, Dalip Singh Saund, British MPs Piara Khabra, Parmjit Dhanda and Paul Uppal, the first couple to sit together in a Commonwealth parliament (Gurmant Grewal and Nina Grewal, who requested a Canadian government apology for the Komagata Maru incident), former Canadian Shadow Social Development Minister Ruby Dhalla, Canadian Minister of State for Sport Baljit Singh Gosal and Legislative Assembly of Ontario members Vic Dhillon and Jagmeet Singh. Ujjal Dosanjh was the New Democratic Party Premier of British Columbia from July 2004 to February 2005, and was later a Liberal frontbench MP in Ottawa. In Malaysia, two Sikhs were elected MPs in the 2008 general elections: Karpal Singh (Bukit Gelugor) and his son, Gobind Singh Deo (Puchong). Two Sikhs were elected assemblymen: Jagdeep Singh Deo (Datuk Keramat) and Keshvinder Singh (Malim Nawar).
Sikhs comprise 10 to 15 percent of all ranks in the Indian Army and 20 percent of its officers, while making up 1.87 percent of the Indian population. The Sikh Regiment is one of the most-decorated regiments in the army, with 73 Battle Honours, 14 Victoria Crosses, 21 first-class Indian Orders of Merit (equivalent to the Victoria Cross), 15 Theatre Honours, five COAS Unit Citations, two Param Vir Chakras, 14 Maha Vir Chakras, five Kirti Chakras, 67 Vir Chakras and 1,596 other awards. The highest-ranking general in the history of the Indian Air Force is a Punjabi Sikh, Marshal of the Air Force Arjan Singh. Plans by the United Kingdom Ministry of Defence for a Sikh infantry regiment were scrapped in June 2007.
Historically, most Indians have been farmers and 66 percent of the Indian population are engaged in agriculture. Indian Sikhs are employed in agriculture to a lesser extent; India's 2001 census found 39 percent of the working population of the Punjab employed in this sector. The success of the 1960s Green Revolution, in which India went from "famine to plenty, from humiliation to dignity", was based in the Punjab (which became known as "the breadbasket of India"). The Punjab is the wealthiest Indian state per capita, with the average Punjabi income three times the national average. The Green Revolution centred on Indian farmers adopting more intensive and mechanised agricultural methods, aided by the electrification of the Punjab, cooperative credit, consolidation of small holdings and the existing, British Raj-developed canal system. According to Swedish political scientist Ishtiaq Ahmad, a factor in the success of the Indian green revolution was the "Sikh cultivator, often the Jat, whose courage, perseverance, spirit of enterprise and muscle prowess proved crucial". However, not all aspects of the green revolution were beneficial. Indian physicist Vandana Shiva wrote that the green revolution made the "negative and destructive impacts of science [i.e. the green revolution] on nature and society" invisible, and was a catalyst for Punjabi Sikh and Hindu tensions despite a growth in material wealth.
Punjabi Sikhs are engaged in a number of professions which include science, engineering and medicine. Notable examples are nuclear scientist Piara Singh Gill (who worked on the Manhattan Project), fibre-optics pioneer Narinder Singh Kapany and physicist, science writer and broadcaster Simon Singh.
In business, the UK-based clothing retailers New Look and the Thai-based Jaspal were founded by Sikhs. India's largest pharmaceutical company, Ranbaxy Laboratories, is headed by Sikhs. UK Sikhs have the highest percentage of home ownership (82 percent) of any religious community. UK Sikhs are the second-wealthiest (after the Jewish community) religious group in the UK, with a median total household wealth of £229,000. In Singapore Kartar Singh Thakral expanded his family's trading business, Thakral Holdings, into total assets of almost $1.4 billion and is Singapore's 25th-richest person. Sikh Bob Singh Dhillon is the first Indo-Canadian billionaire. The Sikh diaspora has been most successful in North America, especially in California’s fertile Central Valley. American Sikh farmers such as Harbhajan Singh Samra and Didar Singh Bains dominate California agriculture, with Samra specialising in okra and Bains in peaches.
Sikh intellectuals, sportsmen and artists include writer Khushwant Singh, England cricketer Monty Panesar, former 400m runner Milkha Singh, Indian wrestler and actor Dara Singh, former Indian hockey team captains Ajitpal Singh and Balbir Singh Sr., former Indian cricket captain Bishen Singh Bedi, Harbhajan Singh (India's most successful off spin cricket bowler), Bollywood actress Neetu Singh, Sunny Leone, actors Parminder Nagra, Neha Dhupia, Gul Panag, Mona Singh, Namrata Singh Gujral, Archie Panjabi and director Gurinder Chadha.
Sikhs have migrated worldwide, with a variety of occupations. The Sikh Gurus preached ethnic and social harmony, and Sikhs comprise a number of ethnic groups. Those with over 1,000 members include the Ahluwalia, Arain, Arora, Bhatra, Bairagi, Bania, Basith, Bawaria, Bazigar, Bhabra, Chamar, Chhimba, Darzi, Dhobi, Gujar, Jatt, Jhinwar, Kahar, Kalal, Kamboj, Khatri, Kumhar, Labana, Lohar, Mahtam, Mazhabi, Megh, Mirasi, Mochi, Nai, Rajput, Ramgarhia, Saini, Sarera, Sikligar, Sunar, Sudh, Tarkhan and Zargar.
An order of Punjabi Sikhs, the Nihang or the Akalis, was formed during Ranjit Singh's time. Under their leader, Akali Phula Singh, they won many battles for the Sikh Confederacy during the early 19th century.
IN THE INDIAN & BRITISH ARMIES
Sikhs supported the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. By the beginning of World War I, Sikhs in the British Indian Army totaled over 100,000 (20 percent of the force). Until 1945 fourteen Victoria Crosses were awarded to Sikhs, a per-capita regimental record. In 2002 the names of all Sikh VC and George Cross recipients were inscribed on the monument of the Memorial Gates on Constitution Hill, next to Buckingham Palace. Chanan Singh Dhillon was instrumental in campaigning for the memorial.
During World War I, Sikh battalions fought in Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Gallipoli and France. Six battalions of the Sikh Regiment were raised during World War II, serving in the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Burma and Italian campaigns and in Iraq and receiving 27 battle honours. Around the world, Sikhs are commemorated in Commonwealth cemeteries.
In the last two world wars 83,005 turban wearing Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. They all died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world, and during shell fire, with no other protection but the turban, the symbol of their faith.
—General Sir Frank Messervy
British people are highly indebted and obliged to Sikhs for a long time. I know that within this century we needed their help twice [in two world wars] and they did help us very well. As a result of their timely help, we are today able to live with honour, dignity, and independence. In the war, they fought and died for us, wearing the turbans.
—Sir Winston Churchill
IN THE WEST
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Sikhs began to emigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom. In 1907 the Khalsa Diwan Society was established in Vancouver, and four years later the first gurdwara was established in London. In 1912 the first gurdwara in the United States was founded in Stockton, California.
Since Sikhs (like Middle Eastern men) wear turbans, some in Western countries have been mistaken for Muslim or Arabic men since the September 11 attacks and the Iraq War. Several days after the 9/11 attacks Sikh Balbir Singh Sodhi was murdered by Frank Roque, who thought Sodhi was connected with al-Qaeda. CNN suggested an increase in hate crimes against Sikh men in the United States and the UK after the 9/11 attacks.
Since Sikhism has never actively sought converts, the Sikhs have remained a relatively homogeneous ethnic group. The Kundalini Yoga-based activities of Harbhajan Singh Yogi in his 3HO (Happy, Healthy, Holy) organisation claim to have inspired a moderate growth in non-Indian adherents of Sikhism. In 1998 an estimated 7,800 3HO Sikhs, known colloquially as ‘gora’ (ਗੋਰਾ) or ‘white’ Sikhs, were mainly centred around Española, New Mexico and Los Angeles, California. Sikhs and the Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund overturned a 1925 Oregon law banning the wearing of turbans by teachers and government officials.
In an attempt to foster Sikh leaders in the Western world, youth initiatives by a number of organisations have begun. The Sikh Youth Alliance of North America sponsors an annual Sikh Youth Symposium, a public-speaking and debate competition held in gurdwaras throughout the U.S. and Canada.
ART & CULTURE
Sikh art and culture are nearly synonymous with that of the Punjab, and Sikhs are easily recognised by their distinctive turban (Dastar). The Punjab has been called India’s melting pot, due to the confluence of invading cultures (Greek, Mughal and Persian) from the rivers from which the region gets its name. Sikh culture is therefore a synthesis of cultures. Sikhism has forged a unique architecture, which S. S. Bhatti described as "inspired by Guru Nanak’s creative mysticism" and "is a mute harbinger of holistic humanism based on pragmatic spirituality".
During the Mughal and Afghan persecution of the Sikhs during the 17th and 18th centuries, the latter were concerned with preserving their religion and gave little thought to art and culture. With the rise of Ranjit Singh and the Sikh Raj in Lahore and Delhi, there was a change in the landscape of art and culture in the Punjab; Hindus and Sikhs could build decorated shrines without the fear of destruction or looting.
The Sikh Confederacy was the catalyst for a uniquely Sikh form of expression, with Ranjit Singh commissioning forts, palaces, bungas (residential places) and colleges in a Sikh style. Sikh architecture is characterised by gilded fluted domes, cupolas, kiosks, stone lanterns, ornate balusters and square roofs. A pinnacle of Sikh style is Harmandir Sahib (also known as the Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
Sikh culture is influenced by militaristic motifs (with the Khanda the most obvious), and most Sikh artifacts - except for the relics of the Gurus - have a military theme. This theme is evident in the Sikh festivals of Hola Mohalla and Vaisakhi, which feature marching and displays of valor.
Although the art and culture of the Sikh diaspora have merged with that of other Indo-immigrant groups into categories like "British Asian", "Indo-Canadian" and "Desi-Culture", a minor cultural phenomenon which can be described as "political Sikh" has arisen. The art of diaspora Sikhs like Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (the "Singh Twins") is influenced by their Sikhism and current affairs in the Punjab.
Bhangra and Giddha are two forms of Punjabi folk dancing which have been adapted and pioneered by Sikhs. Punjabi Sikhs have championed these forms of expression worldwide, resulting in Sikh culture becoming linked to Bhangra (although "Bhangra is not a Sikh institution but a Punjabi one").
PAINTING
Sikh painting is a direct offshoot of the Kangra school of painting. In 1810, Ranjeet Singh (1780–1839) occupied Kangra Fort and appointed Sardar Desa Singh Majithia his governor of the Punjab hills. In 1813 the Sikh army occupied Guler State, and Raja Bhup Singh became a vassal of the Sikhs. With the Sikh kingdom of Lahore becoming the paramount power, some of the Pahari painters from Guler migrated to Lahore for the patronage of Maharaja Ranjeet Singh and his Sardars.
The Sikh school adapted Kangra painting to Sikh needs and ideals. Its main subjects are the ten Sikh gurus and stories from Guru Nanak's Janamsakhis. The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, left a deep impression on the followers of the new faith because of his courage and sacrifices. Hunting scenes and portraits are also common in Sikh painting.
WIKIPEDIA
apparently considered a blighted property by the locals.
Tahoe Daily Tribune
February 16, 2008
"More than 120 Incline Village residents spent their Saturday morning talking about nuisances.They identified where the nuisances were, what the nuisances were and why they were nuisances.Mike Sullivan talked about the Country Club Center's excessive lighting. He said the building detracts from the natural nighttime beauty of Tahoe by blotting out the stars he can see from his Country Club home.Alan Schaevitz said a bar near his Southwood Boulevard home plays loud music late into the night.Marianne Ericcson said boats and trailers parked along her east slope street are unsafe and unsightly.
Residents discussed these nuisances and more at Saturday's Incline Village/Crystal Bay Nuisance Workshop. The workshop served as a forum where residents could identify the nuisances particular to the Incline Village/Crystal Bay area.Residents were separated into tables of 10 and asked to address a set of 10 nuisances one at a time. They were asked to identify the what, why and where the nuisance was a problem in 10 minutes before moving onto the next nuisance. A resident recorded their table's findings on a large sheet of paper, which was collected by members of Washoe County's Community Development committee. The findings will be condensed into a report and presented at the May 7 Incline Village/Crystal Bay citizen's advisory board meeting. Six issues were originally slated to be discussed at the workshop: lighting, blighted properties, noise, parking, vacation rentals and signage. At the outset of the 10 a.m. meeting, community members were asked if they would like to add any perceived nuisances to the day's discussion. Trash, animal control, ongoing construction and fractional ownership were added.At the conclusion of the identification period, all tables were asked to identify their top two nuisances and present possible solutions.One of the nuisances which drew the most consensus was blighted properties. In particular, the unoccupied Orbit gas station on the corner of State route 28 and Lakeshore Boulevard.
"As a solution, we suggest they maybe level the Orbit station," said Incline resident Bea Epstein, who served as spokeswoman for her table. The statement was met with widespread applause from those in attendance.Tom Hill was also congratulated with applause for suggesting no new ordinances were needed when he spoke for his table. "We all agreed there is no need for new ordinances," Hill said. "If anything, we need better enforcement of the ordinances in place."Table after table agreed with Hill's."We have signage ordinances, we don't need anymore. We just need to enforce them," said Mike Young, speaking for his table.
Ron Stichter made the case for the enforcement of nuisance ordinances which are currently on the books."Why load on new ordinances when we don't even enforce what we have," Stichter asked.Gene Brockman, a representative to the Washoe County Nuisance committee, said enforcement is an issue he hopes to address and improve. He would like to set up a code enforcement department, which will alleviate the criminal justice system of nuisance complaints."Once a complaint is made to the code enforcement department, they will attempt to resolve the issue with the help of a hearing officer," Brockman said. "If that doesn't work, the issue will go before an arbitration officer, and if they can't settle it, the issue will go to the criminal courts."Brockman said he is hoping to speed up the enforcement of nuisance ordinance violations. "Right now nuisance claims are taking months to go through the criminal courts, and we're hoping to shorten that process," Brockman said."
Photos were captured at the Pacific Slope Archaeological Laboratory on the Oregon State University Campus in Corvallis, Dec. 13, 2016, to accompany the feature story below: "Printing the past: 3-D archaeology and the first Americans." Article online here (and below): goo.gl/viKEZF
Photo + Story by Toshio Suzuki, BLM
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For the first Americans, and the study of them today, it all starts with a point.
A sharp point fastened to a wooden shaft gave the hunter 13,000 years ago a weapon that could single-handedly spear a fish or work in numbers to take down a mammoth.
For a prehistoric human, these points were the difference between life and death. They were hunger-driven, handmade labors of love that took hours to craft using a cacophony of rock-on-rock cracks, thuds and shatters.
They have been called the first American invention, and some archaeologists now think 3-D scanning points can reveal more information about both the technology and the people.
The Pacific Slope Archaeological Laboratory at Oregon State University takes up only a few rooms on the ground floor of Waldo Hall, one of the supposedly haunted buildings on campus.
There are boxes of cultural history everywhere, and floor-to-ceiling wood cabinets with skinny pull-out drawers housing even more assets, but the really good stuff, evidence of the earliest known cultures in North America, lives in an 800-pound gun safe.
Loren Davis, anthropology professor at OSU and director of the lab, thinks 3-D scanning, printing, and publishing can circumvent the old traditions of the field, that artifacts are only to be experienced in museums and only handled by those who have a Ph.D.
“We are reimagining the idea of doing archaeology in a 21st century digital way,” said Davis. “We don’t do it just to make pretty pictures or print in plastic, we mostly want to capture and share it for analysis,” he added.
Nearby in the L-shaped lab, one of his doctoral students is preparing to scan a point that was discovered on Bureau of Land Management public lands in southeast Oregon.
Thousands of points have been unearthed since the 1930s in North America, the first being in eastern New Mexico near a town called Clovis. That name is now known worldwide as representing the continent’s first native people.
More recently, though, other peoples with distinctive points were found elsewhere, and some researchers think it means there was differing technology being made at the same time, if not pre-Clovis.
One such location is the Paisley Caves in southern Oregon ― one of the many archaeologically significant sites managed by the BLM.
The earliest stem point from Paisley Caves was scanned at Davis’ lab and a 3-D PDF was included in a 2012 multi-authored report in the journal Science.
Davis estimates his lab at OSU has scanned as many as 400 points, including others from BLM-managed lands in Idaho, Nevada, Oregon and Washington.
More scans would mean a bigger database for comparing points and determining what style they are.
“Ideally, we want to get as many artifacts scanned as possible,“ said Davis. “The BLM offers a lot of access to public data ― this is just another way of doing it.”
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Transforming a brittle piece of volcanic glass, by hand, into a beautiful and deadly 4-inch-long spear point is a process.
In one hand would be a hard shaping rock, or maybe a thick section of antler, and in the other would be the starter stone, which in addition to igneous could be jasper, chert, or any other chippable rock that creates a hide-puncturing level of sharpness.
After what might be hundreds of controlled strokes and rock rotations, the rough shape of a lance or spear tip would take form. Discarded shards of stone would often result in more points, or other useful tools like scrapers and needles.
Clovis points are distinguished by their length, bifacial leaf shape and middle channels on the bottom called flutes. Eventually the repetitive flaking of the point would stop, and the hunter would use precise pressure points to create the flute on one or each side that likely helped slot the finished product into a spear-like wooden pole.
The hunter was now mobile and ready to roam.
---
Prior to 3-D scanning, OSU doctoral student Sean Carroll picks up a can of Tinactin, gives it the obligatory shake, and completely covers “one of the oldest technologies in North America” with antifungal spray.
The talc and alcohol from the athlete’s foot remedy helps the software see even the slightest indents in the point, and it rubs right off afterwards.
“I want to scan all the Clovis I can get my hands on,” said Carroll, who came to OSU because of Davis’ 3-D lab and is using the medium as a big part of his dissertation.
Two random items, a power plug adapter and a ball of clay, are placed on each side of the fluted point to give the camera and light projector perspective. The objects create margins that force the structured light patterns to bend and capture more of the point’s surface detail.
Even so, like the hunter rotating the shaping rock, the archaeologist has to rotate the foam square holding the three items. Each scan takes about six seconds.
Carroll and Davis estimate that the learning curve for this process was about 100 hours. One hundred hours of trial and error -- and a lot of watching YouTube videos -- for a finished product that they think is indisputably worth it.
A completed 3-D scan of a point will have about 40,000 data points per square inch. The measurements are so precise, they can determine the difference between flake marks as thin as a piece of paper.
Davis says no archaeologist with a pair of calipers can come close to measuring the data obtained via 3-D, because simply, “there are some jobs that robots are really good at.”
“If the end game is measurements, well you could spend your whole life with a pair of calipers trying to achieve what we can do in 10 minutes,” said Davis.
---
Last year, the famous human relative nicknamed Lucy had 3-D scans of her 3.2 million year old bones published in the journal Nature.
In 2015, archaeologists from Harvard University completed a 3-D scan of a winged and human-headed stone bull from Mesopotamia that stands 13 feet high at the Louvre Museum.
And the Smithsonian Institution is currently beta testing a website dedicated to publishing 3-D models from its massive collection, including molds of President Abraham Lincoln’s face and the entire Apollo 11 command module.
All of these new-school efforts are based upon the old-school scientific principles of preservation and promotion.
Rock points, fossils, hieroglyphics -- various forms of cultural assets are susceptible to environmental conditions and not guaranteed to be around forever. Three-dimensional scanning is the most accurate way to digitally preserve these items of merit.
Once accurate preservation is done, there are opportunities for promoting not just science, but specific research goals.
In the case of the Lucy bones, scientists hope that crowdsourcing the 3-D data will help get more experts to look at the fossils and prove that the tree-dwelling ape died from a fall.
When it comes to comparing one specific stemmed point to an entire hard drive of scanning data, BLM archaeologist Scott Thomas thinks the work being done at the OSU lab can move archaeology to a new level.
“The 3-D scanning method blows anything we have done out of the water,” said Thomas.
That ability to compare points can lead to insights on how these hunting tools moved over geography, and even expand theories about how native groups learned new technologies.
“It’s going to be a really powerful tool someday -- not too far off,” said Thomas.
While long-term data analysis may not be the sexiest form of archaeology, holding a 3-D printed stem point is a pretty cool educational tool.
Davis of OSU has incorporated 3-D prints into his classes and said his students are able to make a tactile connection with artifacts that otherwise are not available.
“The students really enjoy these printed and digital models and often say that they are almost like the real thing,” said Davis.
---
This spring, Davis is traveling to Magadan, Russia -- aka Siberia -- to inspect and scan some points that may be linked to Clovis peoples.
The goal in Siberia, of course, is to further expand the 3-D database. He is specifically interested in comparing them to stems from a BLM-managed site he excavated in Idaho called Cooper’s Ferry.
As his student, Carroll, begins to clean up and put the scanned points into their individually labeled ziplocked bags, Davis can’t help but mention how much easier international research could be with 3-D scanning.
“You can share cultural resource info with people in other countries and you don’t have to come visit,” he said, adding that Russia isn’t the easiest country to enter.
“It’s as easy as sending an email,” Carroll agreed.
Davis then mentioned his 11-year-old child and how much of school curriculum these days is web-based as opposed to text-based.
“There’s nothing wrong with books, I’m a huge fan of books, but it’s a different way of learning,” said the archaeology professor.
And with that, he made another point.
-- by Toshio Suzuki, tsuzuki@blm.gov, @toshjohn
Best places to find 3-D archaeology online:
-- Sketchfab.com is one of the biggest databases on the web for 3-D models of cultural assets. Institutions and academics alike are moving priceless treasures to the digital space for all to inspect. Two examples: via the British Museum, a 7.25-ton statue of Ramesses II is available for viewing and free download; and via archaeologist Robert Selden Jr., hundreds of 3-D models are open to the public for study, including several Clovis points from the Blackwater Draw National Historic Site in New Mexico.
-- The Smithsonian Institution is bringing the best of American history to a new audience via their 3-D website (3d.si.edu). Amelia Earhart's flight suit? Check. Native American ceremonial killer whale hat? Check. Face cast of President Abraham Lincoln? Check and check -- there are two. And their biggest 3-D scan is still coming: the 184-foot-long space shuttle Discovery.
-- Visitors to Africanfossils.org can filter 3-D model searches by hominids, animals and tools, and also by date, from zero to 25 million years ago.
The sleek website, with partners like National Geographic and the National Museums of Kenya, makes it easy to download or share 3-D scans, and each item even comes with a discovery backstory and Google map pinpointing exactly where it was found.
Title: “Cradle of Catholicism” Article
Reference Code: 005.04.GS.01
Date: 1 June 1942
Creator: The Jeffersonian, Cambridge
________________________________________________
▶ from the Parish Historical Files Collection (005.002.2)
▶ St. Patrick Church, Gibson Station
▶ The photos on the Diocese of Steubenville Archive's Flickr site may be used by non-commercial entities only for educational and/or research purposes as long as credit is given to the "Diocese of Steubenville Archive, Steubenville, OH." These photos may not be reproduced in any format for profit or other presentation without the permission of the Diocese.
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An article about my experience at the 1989 Academy Awards appeared in my local newspaper, the Moline IL Daily Disaptch
Outside of the Romney Marsh, ruined churches are rare in Kent. So St Mary, romantically situated beside the lake that brought about it's collapse is one to seek out. Even though, judging by the graffiti carved into the chalk block walls, and litter left strewn about, this is some kind of location used for partying or something else.
Eastwell and Challock used to be neighbouring parishes, and still are really, but the direct road between the two is cut by Eastwell Estate, the two churches each stand at the end of a dead end lane that used to join the two churches. To get between the two involves a ten minute drive around the estate back to Ashford and up along the main Canterbury road.
You approach St Mary down a narrow lane, it is not signposted. But you can see the still standing tower just above the mature trees growing in the churchyard. Just beyond the church is the gate to the Eastwell Estate.
Two points of interest; one a fine flint cross in the south face of the tower. And that St Mary might be the resting place of Richard Plantagenet, son of Richard III.
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One of the few ruined churches in the county, St Mary's stands in a well-kept churchyard on the edge of Eastwell Park Lake. Only the west tower is intact and shows in its lower stage one of the unusual inset flint crosses probably inserted during the construction of the building to mark the day of the patronal festival. To the south of the tower is a nineteenth-century chapel built to house the romantic monument to Lady Winchelsea, which can now be seen in the Victoria & Albert Museum. A stone table in the churchyard marks the burial place of Richard Plantagenet, the illegitimate son of Richard III, who is reputed to have lived in the house which still stands to the east. His burial is recorded in the church register of December 1550. The church was built almost entirely of chalk blocks which, following the construction of the lake in 1841, started to soak up water which eventually resulted in the total collapse of the church in 1951. The ruins are now maintained by the Friends of Friendless Churches, a national charity, both as a place of pilgrimage and a historic monument.
www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Eastwell
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EASTWELL
IS the last parish remaining to be described in this hundred. It is written in antient records, Est-welles, and Estwelle, and sometimes only Welles; taking its name from the springs, with which it is watered, such being called by the Saxons, wells; and it has the addition of East from its situation, and to distinguish it from the adjoining parish of Westwell.
THE PARISH of Eastwell is very small, being not more than a mile across each way, containing in it about thirteen houses. It lies in a very healthy country, on a clean firm soil, at the side of the Ashford vale, at the foot of the range of down hills below Molash and Challock, which are here covered with woods, at the outskirt of a dreary barren country, where the soil is much addicted to chalk; but within this parish in the vale, and within the park, it becomes a flat, even and pleasant country, the soil changing to a sertile and kindly red earth of loamy clay, which produces a great deal of rich pasture. The greatest part of it is included in the park, which extends likewise into the parishes of Westwell, Challock, and Boughton Aluph, the church of Challock standing close to the pales on the north side, and that of Eastwell and the courtlodge, to those on the opposite side of it. The mansion of Eastwell-place stands at a small distance from the south east corner of the park, the pales of which join the high Faversham road and Boughton lees.
The house is very large, though the building is not extraordinary in the whole, yet the back front has something very noble and grand in the look of it. The park, though in the vale, yet it stands on higher ground that the rest of the vale beneath, having a beautiful prospect southward as far as the quarry hills, contains about 1600 acres, and by far the sinest situation in this county, the soil of it being very firm and hard, and the lower parts exceedingly sertile; the venison sed in it being accounted the sinest of any is Kent. The north-west part of it has fine inequality of ground, and being richly clothed with wood, shews nature in a most pleasing and picturesque state. In this part of the park is a very high hill, on the top of which is an octagon plain, from whence are cut eight several avenues or walks, called the Star Walks, the intermediare spaces being filled with fine venerable trees, so thick as to exclude the light from beneath them, making a very awful and majestic appearance. The view from the top of this hill is very extensive, for from it may be seen the course of the river Medway to Sheerness, and the buoy of the Nore toward the German ocean, and on the opposite side the British channel towards France beyond Romney Marsh, besides a very extensive and beautiful land prospect almost on every side.
One side of the village on Boughton lees in within this parish, at the eastern boundary of it, and there is another hamlet at the opposite part of the parish, called Linacre street, in which there is a house called Linacrehall, late belonging to Mr. Thomas Munn, of Ashford. This parish is watered by three springs, one of which rises at the bottom of the park, under Boughton-lees, and thence runs by Wilmington and Clipmill, into the river Stour, under Frogbrooke, having been joined by another which rises near the church; the third rises at the south corner of the park, near the other, and thence flows down by Kennington-common and Burton, into the river near Wilsborough-lees, just before which it is called Bacon's water.
There is a tradition, that a natural son of king Richard III. named Richard Plantagenet, sled hither from Leicester immediately after the fatal battle of Bosworth, fought in 1485, in which the king lost both his life and crown, and that he lived here in a mean capacity, having leave given him by Sir Tho. Moyle, as soon as he was discovered by him, to build for himself a small house, in one of his fields near his mansion of Eastwell-place, in which he afterwards lived and died; which is corroborated by an entry of his burial in the parish registry. He died in 1550, anno 4 king Edward VI. aged, as is supposed, about eighty-one. The entry in the parish register is as follows, under the article of burials: V. Richard Plantagenet, Desember 22d, 1550; the letter V prefixed being put before the name of every person of noble family mentioned in it; and against the north wall of the high chancel there is an antient tomb, without inscription, with the marks of two coats of arms, the brasses gone, which is reported to be that of this Richard Plantagenet. There was then no park here, but when there was one made, this small hut was included in it, and remained in being till it was pulled down by Heneage, earl of Winchelsea, who died in 1689. (fn. 1)
At the time of taking the general survey of Domesday, in the 15th year of the Conqueror's reign, this place was part of the possessions of Hugo de Montfort, under the general title of whose lands it is thus entered in it:
Hugo de Montfort holds one manor, Estwelle, which Frederic held of king Edward. It was taxed at one suling. There are three yokes within the division of Hugo, and the fourth yoke is without, and is of the fee of the bishop of Baieux. The arable land is three carucates in the whole. In demesne there are two carucates, and five villeins, and five borderers having one carucate and an half. There are ten servants, and twelve acres of meadow, and a wood. In the time of king Edward the Confessor, it was worth seventy shillings, and afterwards thirty shillings, now seventy shillings.
And the following entries in the same record, under the general title of the bishop of Baieux's lands, seem to relate to his possessions in this parish:
Ralph de Curbespine holds of the bishop Essewelle. It was taxed at three sulings. The arable land is . . . . . In demesne there are three carucates, and one villein, with seven borderers having half a carucate. There is one servant. It is worth six pounds. Molleue held it of king Edward.
The other entry is thus: Osbern holds of the bishop one manor, which three free tenants held of king Edward. It was taxed at one suling and an half. The arable land is . . . . In demesne there is one carucate, and one villein, with one borderer having half a caruacate. In the time of king Edward it was, and is now worth four pounds.
Hugo de Montfort, before-mentioned, had accompanied the Conqueror in his expedition hither, and after the battle of Hastings was rewarded for his services with many lordships in different counties, and among them with this of Eastwell. Robert, his grandson, was general of king William Rufus's army; but favouring the title of Robert Curthose, in opposition to king Henry I. to avoid being called in question upon that account, obtained leave to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, leaving his possessions to the king, by which means this manor came into the hands of the crown, of which it was afterwards held by a family who took their surname from it; one of whom, Matilda de Estwelles, held this manor, with the advowson of the church of it, of the king in capite, at her death in the 52d year of king Henry III. Soon after which it seems to have come into the possession of the family of Criol; for Bertram, son of John de Criol, died possessed of it in the 23d year of king Edward I. holding it in the like manner, and by ward to Dover castle, being part of those lands which made up the barony, called the Constabularie. He left two sons, John and Bertram, and a daughter Joane, who afterwards married Sir Richard de Rokesle. Both these sons died s.p. the former of them left his wife Alianor surviving, who entitled her second husband Edmund Gaselyn to this manor for her life, and she died possessed of it in the 23d year of king Edward III. upon which this manor descended to Agnes and Joane, the two daughters and coheirs of Joane her late husband's sister before-mentioned, by Sir Richard de Rokesley; and upon the division of their inheritance, the manor of Eastwell was allotted to Agnes the eldest, who entitled Thomas de Poynings her husband to it; and in his descendants this manor, with the advowson of the church, continued down to Robert de Poynings, who died possessed of it in the 25th year of king Henry VI. leaving Alianore, his grand-daughter, wife of Henry, lord Percy, eldest son of Henry, earl of Northumberland, his next heir; who in the 27th year of it had summons to parliament among the barons of this realm, as lord Poynings. Six years after which he succeeded his father as earl of Northumberland, and in his descendants this manor, with the advowson, continued down to Henry, earl of Northumberland, who in the 23d year of king Henry VIII. conveyed it to seossees, who soon afterwards passed it away by sale to Sir Christopher Hales, the king's attorney-general, whose lands were disgavelled by the act of the 31st of Henry VIII. and he died possessed of it in the 33d year of that reign, holding it of the king, as of the honor of his castle of Dover, by knight's service. He left three daughters his coheirs, and they, with their respective husbands, joined in the sale of it to Sir. Tho. Moyle, of Eastwell, whose lands were disgaveiled by the acts of 31 king Henry VIII. and second and third of Edward VI. being the son of John, descended from a family of this name at Bodmin, in Cornwall, and youngest brother of Walter Moyle, of Buckwell. (fn. 2) He was speaker of the house of commons anno 34 king Henry VIII. and chancellor of the court of augmentation, who was in high esteem with that prince, and accumulated a large fortune in his profession of the law. He new built the mansion of Eastwell place, and died possessed of this manor, with the advowson of the church of it in 1560, leaving two daughters his coheirs, Catherine, married to Thomas Finch, gent. and Anne, married to Sir Thomas Kempe, of Wye, but this manor, with the advowson, had been settled on the former, on her marriage with Mr. Thomas Finch, who was afterwards knighted, and resided at Eastwell-place, The family of Finch, according to John Philipott, Rouge Dragon, was originally descended from Henry Fitz-Herbert, chamberlain to king Henry I. whose descendant Matthew Fitz-Herbert, who was one of the magnates or barons, at the compiling of Magna Charta, as was his son of the same name in that parliament, which was convened to meet at Tewksbury. The alteration of this name to Finch was about the 10th of king Edward I. at which time Herbert Fitz-Herbert purchased the manor of Finches, in Lid, of which being entire lord, which he was not of his more antient patrimony of Netherfield, in Suffex, he assumed his surname from that, as many other families in that age did from those places of which they possessed the entire seignory, bearing for his arms, Argent, a chevron between three griffins, segreant, sable. Vincent Herbert, alias Finch, was of Netherfield, about the end of the reign of king Edward II. and left two sons, Henry and John, the latter of whom was father of John, prior of Christ-church. Henry Herbert, alias Finch, the eldest son, inherited Nethersfield, and died anno 8 king Richard II. and left Vincent Herbert, alias Finch, (with whom the pedigree of this family begins in the Heraldic Visitation of this county, in 1619) whose son Vincent, was living in the reigns of king Richard II. and Henry IV. and by his wife Isabel, daughter and coheir of Robert Cralle, of Cralle, in Sussex, had two sons, William and John; which latter married Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Seward, of Linsted, from whom descended the Finch's, of Sewards, Norton, Kingsdown, Faversham, Wye, and other places in this county. William Finch, the eldest son, by which name only he and his descendants wrote themselves, was of Netherfield, and had a son Henry Finch, esq. who married Alice, only daughter and heir of Philip Belknap, of the Moat, near Canterbury, uncle to Sir Ed ward Belknap, which marriage not only occasioned the first residence of this branch of the family in Kent, but rendered it more illustrious by a descent from many noble ones. Their eldest son Sir William Finch, was of the Moat in king Henry the VIIIth's reign, and was father of Sir Thomas Finch, of Eastwell, before-mentioned, (fn. 3) of which he died possessed in 1563. They had three sons and one daughter, of whom Henry, the third son, was sergeant-at-law, and left one son John, who was chief justice of the common pleas, lord keeper, and created anno 16 Charles I. lord Finch, baron of Fordwich, and died in 1661; the eldest, Sir Moyle Finch, was created a baronet at the first institution of that order, and surviving his mother, who had remarried Nicholas St. Leger, esq. (and lies buried in this church, as well as her father Sir Thomas Moyle, and all her descendants, to the present time) became possessed of this manor and advowson. He married Elizabeth, only daughter and heir of Sir Thomas Heneage, and resided at Eastwell-place, which he made very great additions to, and in 1589, obtained the queen's licence to inclose his grounds here, not exceeding one thousand acres, and to turn the highways that might be annoyed by it, and to embattle his house of Estwell. He died in 1614, leaving his widow, the lady Elizabeth Finch, surviving, who was by letters patent in 1623, anno 21 James I. created viscountess Maidstone; and afterwards, in 1628, anno 4 king Charles I. countess of Winchelsea, in Sussex. She died in 1633, and was buried at Eastwell, under a noble monument erected there for her and her husband, by whom she had several sons and daughters, the eldest son, Sir Theophilus Finch, bart. died s.p. the second, Sir Thomas, succeeded as earl of Winchelsea; the third, Sir John, was resident with the grand duke of Tuscany, and ambassador in Turkey, of whom there is no issue. He died in 1642, and was buried in Queen's college chapel, in Cambridge, to which he was a good benefactor; the fourth, Sir Heneage Finch, sergeant-at-law, and recorder of London, who died in 1641, was ancestor to the late earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham; and the fifth, Francis, was barrister-at-law, and an ingenious poet, who died s.p. Sir Thomas Finch, bart. the eldest surviving son, succeeded her as earl of Winchesea, &c. and in her possessions here, whose eldest son Heneage, second earl of Winchelsea, was one of those nobles who favored the restoration of king Charles II. and as such, was by general Monk entrusted with the government of Dover castle, and after king Charles's return was, in acknowledgment of his services, and of being descended from the antient family of Herbert, created baron Fitz-Herbert, of Eastwell, in the 12th year of his reign, and constituted lord lieutenant and custos rotulorum of this county, and shortly after sent ambassador extraordinary into Turkey. He was lord lieutenant when king James II. was taken, on his leaving this kingdom, and brought to Faversham, where, for protection from the insults of the populace, he sent to lord Winchelsea from Eastwell, who immediately came and persuaded the king to return to London. He died in 1689, having married four wives, by whom he had in all twenty-seven children, of whom sixteen lived to some maturity. At length these honors and estates descended afterwards down to John his son, by his fourth wife, his other intermediate descendants being dead without issue, who became the fifth earl of Winchelsea, who dying likewise s.p. in 1729, the titles of earl of Winchelsea and viscount Maidstone, for that of baron Fitz-Herbert became extinct, together with this manor and advowson, and the mansion and park of Eastwell, with the rest of the earl's estates in this county, devolved on Daniel, second earl of Nottingham, son and heir of Sir Heneage Finch, who had been created earl of Nottingham in 1681, son and heir of Sir Heneage Finch, the fourth son of Sir Moyle Finch, of Eastwell, knight and baronet, by his wife Katherine, who was created countess of Winchelsea as beforementioned. Sir Heneage Finch above-mentioned, was eminent in the profession of the law, and was recorder of London, and in the first year of king Charles I. elected speaker of the house of commons, and resided at Kensington, in the house now the royal palace. He died in 1631. Heneage, his son and heir, was in 1660, made solicitor-general, knighted, and created a baronet, being then of Raunston, in Buckinghamshire. He was afterwards attorney-general, and in 1673 made lord keeper; shortly after which he was in 1674, created lord Finch, baron of Daventry; and next year made lord chancellor, and in 1681 created earl of Nottingham; he had fourteen children, of which seven sons and one daughter survived him. Of the sons, Daniel succeeded him as earl of Nottingham; 2, Heneage was created baron of Guernsey and earl of Aylesford, of whom and his descendants a full account may be seen under that parish. (fn. 4) Charles was fellow of All Souls college, and Henry was dean of York, and lies buried there with his brother Edward, who was prebendary of that church. Daniel, second earl of Nottingham, above-mentioned, became the sixth earl of Winchelsea, and entered early into life, being of the privy council to king Charles II. after whose death he took an active part in the politics of the succeding reigns, and was, for his great learning and abilities, highly trusted and employed in the great affairs of state till the year 1716, when he retired from all public affairs, and lived so till his death in 1730. He was twice married, first to lady Essex Rich, second daughter and coheir of Robert, earl of Warwick, by whom he had one daughter Mary; secondly to Anne, only daughter of Christopher, viscount Hatton, by whom he had five sons and eight daughters, besides seventeen other children who died young. The eldest son was Daniel, who succeeded him in titles and estate; William was envoy extraordinary to Sweden and the States General, and afterwards privy counsellor and vice-chamberlain of the houshold, who left a son George, who on his uncle's death, succeeded him in his titles, as will be further mentioned; John was solicitor-general to king George II. when prince of Wales, and afterwards king's council. Henry was surveyor of his Majesty's works; and Edward afterwards took the name of Hatton, pursuant to the will of Anne his aunt, the youngest daughter of Christopher, viscount Hatton, and heir of her brother William, viscount Hatton. He married Anne, daughter and coheir of Sir Thomas Palmer, bart. of Wingham, by whom he had George Finch Hatton, of whom more hereaster, and four other sons, and three daughters.—He was succeeded in the titles of earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, viscount Maidstone, and baron of Daventry, as well as in his estates in this county, by Daniel his eldest son, who was constantly employed from the accession of king George I in the most important offices of the state, till the year 1766, when he retired from all public business, having been in 1752 elected a knight of the garter. He was twice married; first to Frances, daughter of Basil Fielding, earl of Denbigh, by whom he had one daughter Charlotte; and secondly, to Mary, daughter and coheir of Sir T. Palmer, bart. above-mentioned, by whom he had four daughters, Heneage, Essex, Hatton, and Augusta. He died in 1769, æt. 81, full of years and wisdom, and was buried among his ancestors, in the church of Eastwell. On his death without issue male, his titles, together with his seat at Burleigh, and estates in Rutlandshire and other counties, descended to his nephew George, son of his next brother William, but he by his will devised the manor and advowson of Eastwell, with the park and mansion of Eastwell-place, together with all the rest of his Kentish estates, to his nephew George Finch Hatton, esq. eldest son of his youngest brother Edward Finch Hatton, who is the present possessor of them. He married Elizabeth-Mary, daughter of David, late lord viscount Stormont, afterwards earl of Mansfield, by whom he has issue, and now resides at Eastwell-place. He bears for his arms those of Finch before-mentioned, quartered with those of Hatton, being Azure, a chevron, between three garbs, or.
POTHERY is a small manor within the bounds of this parish, which seems to have been part of that estate belonging to Odo, bishop of Baieux, described in Domesday before, which, on his disgrace about four years afterwards, that is, about the year 1084, became with the rest of his possessions, consiscated to the crown, of which it was afterwards held by the family of Criol; and John de Criol, younger son of Bertram, held it, together with the manor of Seaton, in Boughton Aluph, already descriebed before, in the account of that parish, at his death in the 48th year of Henry III. In his descendants it continued till it passed at length with that manor in marriage to Rokesle, and thence again in like manner to the Perys, and was sold with it by Henry, earl of Northumberland, in Henry the VIIIth.'s reign, to Sir Christopher Hales, whose three coheirs sold it to Sir Thomas Moyle, whence it went by marriage again to Finch, whose descendant Daniel, earl of Winchelsea and Nottingham, dying in 1769, without male issue, gave it by will to his nephew, George Finch Hatton, esq. now of Eastwell, the present owner of it.
Charities.
SIR WALTER MOYLE, of this parish, by will, anno 1480, ordered that his feoffees should deliver an estate in see simple to three or four honest and trusty men, in two acres of arable land in this parish, in a field called Cotingland, to the use of the church of Eastwell, in recompence of a certain annual rent of two pounds of wax, by him wrested and detained from it against his conscience.
MR. THOMAS KIPPS left by will in 1680, 20s. per annum to the use of the poor, out of a field in Great Chart, rented at 6l. per annum, the remainder of the rent being left to five other parishes.
THERE is an alms house in this parish.
The poor constantly relieved are about seven, casually five.
EASTWELL is within the ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Charing.
¶The church, which is dedicated to St. Mary, consists of two isles and two chancels, having a square embattled tower at the west end, in which hang three bells. It is an antient building of slint, with ashler stone round the windows, which are small, and of only one compartment. The arms of Poynings still remain in the east window of the high chancel. Within the altar rails is a memorial for Nicholas Toke, clerk, obt. 1670, and for Nicholas Toke, his eldest son, obt. 1673. On the south side of the chancel is the tomb of Sir Thomas Moyle. In the south chancel is a sumptuous tomb, on which lie the figures of a man and woman in white marble, at full length, their sons and daughters round the sides of it; it had till within these few years, a beautiful dome or canopy over them, supported by eight pillars of black marble, the fragments of which now lie scattered about the chancel. It was erected for Sir Moyle Finch, knight and bart. who died in 1614, and Elizabeth his wife, created counteis of Winchelsea, &c. And a monument for Sir Heneage Finch, sergeant-at law, and recorder of London, who died in 1631, and of his first wife, who died in 1627. At the upper end of the south isle is a vault, for the Finch family, in which are thirty-eight coffins; the Hon. Edward Finch Hatton, father of the present Mr. Hatton, of Eastwell, being the last who was buried in it.
The church of Eastwell was always esteemed an appendage to the manor, and continues so, the lord of it, George Finch Hatton, esq. being the present patron of this rectory.
It is valued in the king's books at 9l. 16s. 8d. It is now a discharged living, of the clear yearly certified value of forty-two pounds. In 1588, it was valued at forty pounds per annum, communicants fifty-five. In 1640 the same.
Lohas magazine in China contacted me a few months ago about doing an article about me. Kind of funny to see my photos and name in a magazine I can't read.
Dangerous Liaisons
by Choderlos de Laclos
An article by Valerie Mamicheva
Choderlos de Laclos, an eighteenth-century French novelist, is best remembered for Les liaisons dangereuses, or Dangerous Liaisons. This epistolary novel tells of the unscrupulous libertinism practiced by the central characters, Valmont and Merteuil. Together they plot for pleasure and power, but their scheme turns against them.
Laclos was a reasonably successful army general in his time. Although at one stage he was imprisoned for his work on Les liaisons dangereuses, the novel was an enormous success (and a veritable scandal).
And, obviously, the main characters of "Dangerous liaisons" are vicomte de Valmont and madam de Merteuil. Exactly they braid all intrigues together and spoil the lives of so many people. That is what we see on the example of Cecile de Volanges and madam de Tourvel. The famous director Milos Foreman in his filming of "Dangerous Liaisons" remarked, that the main theme and idea of the novel is opening of the image and the goal of of the deeds of unamendabled lover Valmont, his growing up under influence of madam de Tourvel's love? That's why Milos Foreman renamed his film from "Dangerous Liaisons" to simply "Valmont". Exactly, in Valmont Choderlos de Laclos wanted to show vices of his century, Valmont is its reflection. But madam de Merteuil hasn't gone too far from Valmont. In the novel we are watching their correspondence. Why Choderlos de Laclos chose epistolary genre? Because only in a letter we can clearly consider and perceive some thoughts and feelings of a man. Even a style of writing a letter can can tell us much about him. For example, let us take madam de Merteuil – she writes in a exquisite and dainty style, using many epithets and specific words, in her "speech" we see utterances of the famous philosophers of her time, her own dictums. And more, this dainty schemer owns a flexible and sharp wit, sense of humour, and she is well educated and interested in all latest news about theatre and music. She is an interesting person to deal with. Madam de Merteuil can stand for herself, she can get every man she wants, she can be charming and attractive, virtuous and modest (remember her relationships with madam de Volanges). She early understood that a woman can conquer a man, subordinate him, if she wants so. But this woman is ought not only to be able to talk about a fashion and to have good manners – wise marquise consulted with philosophers, writers, moralists. She knows how to behave herself with men and she knows what she wants. She enjoys this "game of love" and a sharp intrigue she twisted between the lovers -- chevalier Danceny and Cecile de Volanges. It gives her pleasure and joy. Cecile is too young and naive to understand a cunning plan of de Merteuil. But Danceny revealed her bad nature at the end. Her accomplice is skilful in love vicomte de Valmont.
Valmont is a face of his age. It is worth of thinking, was Valmont the only representative of such "tending to love" in all Paris? Off course, no. But, maybe, Valmont isn't so insidious lecher as it seemed at first. Maybe, the matter is in marquise de Merteuil, who supplies this poisonous source in his soul and culls her vanity in it. That is what Valmont couldn't understand, he was only a toy in the hands of the cunning marquise, who calculated everything. Yet, marquise realized that Valmont's new love (madam de Tourvel) began to ennoble him and change him. And she insisted on his brake with madam de Tourvel because she is afraid to lose him. The intrigue with de Tourvel went too far, she considers. Not realizing – that, Valmont fights for his love he suggests an alternative to marquise, she chooses a war. And he loses, he dies, he has a talk with Danceny, to whom he opened what he understood quite recently – now he knows all essence of this maleficent woman. He died, but morally towered over her. He died free from burden of his sins.
And what do Valmont and de Merteil have common and and different? Both of them – mean souls, capable to fraud and treason, connoisseurs of a sharp intrigue and they are interested in its flexible uncoupling. To use surrounding people in your own purposes is the greatest pleasure. An intrigue for them is a whole art, ability to stay alive and to get wishing. Hundreds, or even thousands of people got victims of this art. They are accomplices in their sins, the plans they invent together. That is what united them. But their lives in society ended differently. For madam de berteuil – it was a great disgrace, departure in big hurry from France, she got ravaged and ashamed. Valmont – he dies in a duel with Danceny, but he dies with realization of his terrible way of life, he understands that he spoiled a lot of women's reputations, and he is sorry for that. He apologizes to Madam de Tourvel, his soul is saved from marquise's poison. His did exalted him.
One more heroine of "Dangerous liaisons" is Cecile de Volanges. She has just arrived from the monastery, she is young and inexperienced, trustful and lightheaded. She fell in love with Danceny. Having fallen into the trap made by Valmont and marquise de Mereuil she let them use herself how do they like. She is defenseless before their cunning and dainty cruelty. And the love to Danceny made her absolutely simple victim. De Merteuil wants to revenge her last lover and Cecile de Volanges is only one section in a chain of cunningly braided intrigues. They shamed her before the all society, before her own mother. Poor Cecile, at the end, went to a monastery. Her pure and noble soul couldn't solve this riddle. Her mother didn't find out the all truth about what had happened.
One more noble heart and virtuous soul is madam de Tourvel. For Valmont to spoil a woman with a high moral principles and pure soul is a real victory. But for madam de Tourvel it was a real pure and beautiful love which happens only once in a life. Valmont's letters she read for hundreds times and knew them by heart. But for him it is only a fine game, light amusement. Madam de Tourvel couldn't betray her moral principles, her husband and a religion. Valmont made her do it. Gradually, Valmont didn't mention himself to fall in love with madam de Tourvel. He didn't notice that his feelings began to change from shameful and dirty into gentle and romantic. He wanted to donate his love in the name of his reputation of the "first reprobate in Paris". The result of his mistake was madam de Tourvel's death. Though he was in time to analyze his mistake and not only this one, but others either. At the end, we can say, that "Dangerous Liaisons's goal was not only the reflection of the atmosphere of dainty libertinism and lie hidden with virtue but to suppress these vices and others on the example of Valmont and madam de Merteuil.
"Dangerous liaisons" is very moral, special philosophical-moral-ethical creation.
— Valerie Mamicheva
Summer holiday 2014
In and around Berlin Germany
Berlin
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This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
State of Germany
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Flag of Berlin
Flag Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Location within European Union and Germany
Location within European Union and Germany
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E
Country
Germany
Government
• Governing Mayor
Michael Müller (SPD)
• Governing parties
SPD / CDU
• Votes in Bundesrat
4 (of 69)
Area
• City
891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (December 2013)[1]
• City
3,517,424
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Demonym
Berliner
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code(s)
10115–14199
Area code(s)
030
ISO 3166 code
DE-BE
Vehicle registration
B[2]
GDP/ Nominal
€109.2 billion (2013) [3]
NUTS Region
DE3
Website
berlin.de
Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]
Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.
Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]
20th to 21st centuries[edit]
Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]
The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.
All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.
The Brisbane Courier
15 November 1926
VICTIM'S DEATH. AN ARREST MADE. CUSTOMS HOUSE ACCIDENT.
Mr. William Joseph Charles Shaw (46, single), who was knocked down by a motor car at the Customs House tram stop at about midnight on Friday, and who sustained a fracture of the skull, died at the General Hospital at 11.45 on Saturday morning. Mr. Shaw, who was a shopwalker at M'Donnell and. East Ltd.'s, lived at New Farm. A. brother, Mr. "John Shaw, resides in Kenilworth street, Sherwood.
Stanley Harrison Young, Kent-stieet, New Farm, was arrested yesterday in connection with the matter, and a charge of unlawful killing will be preferred against him in the Police Court this morning.
Queensland State Archives DR18
Brisbane's recorded history dates from 1799, when Matthew Flinders explored Moreton Bay on an expedition from Port Jackson, although the region had long been occupied by the Yugara and Turrbal aboriginal groups. First Nations Australians lived in coastal South East Queensland (SEQ) for at least 22,000 years, with an estimated population between 6,000 and 10,000 individuals before European settlers arrived in the 1820s.
At this time the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal people, (Turrbal also being the name of the language they spoke) who knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning "place shaped as a spike". Archaeological evidence suggests frequent habitation around the Brisbane River, and notably at the site now known as Musgrave Park.
The first convict jail was built in Redcliffe in 1824 and that was moved to the site of the present-day CBD in 1825. Officials believed the natural bend in the river provided an effective barrier against escape.
Read more about the Moreton Bay convict settlement in this article: blogs.archives.qld.gov.au/2021/10/05/moreton-bay-convict-...
Its suitability for fishing, farming, timbering, and other occupations, however, caused it to be opened to free settlement in 1838. Civilian occupation of the area began in 1842, and by the late 1880s Brisbane became the main site for commerce, and the capital-to-be began to develop distinct architectural features and culture.
With an abundance of sunshine and laid-back lifestyle, Brisbane quickly drew people eager to settle in its environs. The city grew steadily over the years and a turning point in its advancement was during World War II when it housed the main allied headquarters in the South Pacific for Australian and American service personnel.
The post-war population boom brought a spurt in industry and Brisbane staked a claim as the third-largest city in Australia.
Despite its rapid progress, Brisbane was often seen as lagging culturally behind Sydney and Melbourne. But two landmark events in the 1980s brought about a major change and accelerated Brisbane towards Australia’s new world city it is today.
The Commonwealth Games came to Brisbane in 1982, and this resulted in a massive injection of new infrastructure and sporting facilities. Then the eyes of the world turned to Brisbane in 1988 and thousands of visitors flocked to Expo 88. The subsequent birth of South Bank on the Expo site has resulted in a thriving cultural hub and Brisbane is more than matching it with its southern counterparts.
FIRST NATIONS HISTORY
Prior to European colonisation, the Brisbane region was occupied by Aboriginal tribes, notably clans of the Yugara, Turrbal and Quandamooka peoples. The oldest archaeological site in the Brisbane region comes from Wallen Wallen Creek on North Stradbroke Island (21,430±400 years before present), however, settlement would likely occurred well prior to this date.
The land, the river and its tributaries were the source and support of life in all its dimensions. The river's abundant supply of food included fish, shellfish, crab, and prawns. Good fishing places became campsites and the focus of group activities. The district was defined by open woodlands with rainforest in some pockets or bends of the Brisbane River.
A resource-rich area and a natural avenue for seasonal movement, Brisbane was a way station for groups travelling to ceremonies and spectacles. The region had several large (200–600 person) seasonal camps, the biggest and most important located along waterways north and south of the current city heart: Barambin or 'York's Hollow' camp (today's Victoria Park) and Woolloon-cappem (Woolloongabba/South Brisbane), also known as Kurilpa. These camping grounds continued to function well into historic times, and were the basis of European settlement in parts of Brisbane.
TOWN PLAN
Buildings were constructed for the convict settlement, generally at right angles to the river's shoreline in the direction of Queen Street, and along the shoreline south-east of today's Victoria Bridge. The outstanding surviving building is the Commissariat Store (1828-29), originally two storeys, in William Street. The street layout, however, developed from a thoroughfare from the river's edge running north-east to the prisoners' barrack near the corner of today's Queen and Albert Streets. When a town survey was done in 1840 that thoroughfare was chosen as the main street – Queen Street – and the grid pattern of square blocks moved out from the Queen Street axis. There were several versions of the town survey. The proposed streets varied in width from 20 to 28 metres but Governor Gipps, anticipating an inauspicious future for the settlement, trimmed them back to the lesser figure. Streets running parallel to Queen Street were named after British and related royalty, among them Queen Mary II, Queen Charlotte (wife of George III) and Queen Adelaide (wife of William IV). William, George, Albert and Edward Streets, running at right angles, had similar royal antecedents. Creek Street's position approximated the course of a minor stream, Wheat Creek.
The town survey occurred about three years after a select committee of the British Parliament had concluded that transportation had ceased to deter crime and, in any event, was tainted with inhumanity. By 1839 Moreton Bay was being transformed from a convict settlement to a free settlement, and in July 1842 the first sales of Brisbane land took place in Sydney. Nearly 60 allotments, each of 36 perches, in North and South Brisbane were offered. Twelve months later blocks in Kangaroo Point were sold. Little care was taken to reserve land or space along the river's edge for public purposes, but the government farm at the south-east end was kept and in time became the botanic gardens.
OUTER SETTLEMENTS
The scatter of urban land sales detracted from North Brisbane's role as a central place in Moreton Bay. Wharves were set up on both sides of the river, and there was an Ipswich-Cleveland 'axis' backed by rural interests which wanted the administrative centre and a port at those places. Probably it was the building of a customs house in 1849 on the river in North Brisbane which had a decisive effect: wharf interests moved, to be closer to the customs house, which in turn influenced the location of warehouses and merchandising. South Brisbane remained at a disadvantage until a permanent Victoria Bridge (1874) replaced ferry crossings.
Four years after the first land sales North and South Brisbane's populations were 614 and 346 respectively. The town was nothing much to look at: convict buildings were dilapidated, new structures had been roughly built and mainly it was the steady inflow of new inhabitants which held the best prospects for improvement. A Catholic school had been opened in 1845 and the Moreton Bay Courier weekly newspaper began publication in 1846, but it was not until the end of the decade that noticeable civic amenities emerged. Coinciding with the arrival of the Fortitude immigrants in 1849 (who were settled outside the town boundary, north of Boundary Street), an Anglican school was opened and a Wesleyan church built in Albert Street. A school of arts was established, moving into its own hall in Creek Street in 1851. Regular postal deliveries were introduced in Brisbane in 1852.
During the 1850s most Churches constructed substantial buildings: St Stephens Catholic in Elizabeth Street (1850), St Johns Anglican, William Street, Presbyterian, Ann Street (1857) and Baptist, Wharf Street (1859). There were three ferry services, to South Brisbane, Kangaroo Point and the 'middle' service from Edward Street, also to Kangaroo Point. The Brisbane Municipal Council was proclaimed, just before colonial self-government, in 1859.
There had been land sales well beyond the town boundaries, but in the early 1860s allotments were cut up for working-class cottages in Spring Hill, Petrie Terrace and Fortitude Valley. In 1861 a census recorded over 8000 people in Brisbane and another 5000 in adjoining areas. An Ipswich to Brisbane telegraph began operation and the unused convict windmill (1828) up in Wickham Terrace was converted to a signal station with a time ball.
TOWN IMPROVEMENTS
Municipal improvements were brought in with improved town lighting from the Brisbane gas works (1864) in Petrie Bight, north of the customs house, and the widely felt need for recreation space was officially recognised by a survey of Yorks Hollow (where the Fortitude migrants had been sent) for Victoria Park. Progress there was slow, with the council using the site for sewage disposal until 1886. Fires rid parts of Queen Street of time-worn commercial buildings in 1864, clearing the way for better structures built under the supervision of fire-protection bylaws. The council also found the need to divide its area into four wards, expanding it into six in 1865 (East, West, North, South, Valley and Kangaroo Point). The council also expanded to a new town hall in Queen Street (1866), by when a short-lived bridge to South Brisbane (1865-67) was in operation. The water supply ponds were hopelessly inadequate, and in 1866 a supply from Breakfast Creek, Enoggera, was turned on.
Gympie gold (1867) brought prosperity to the colony, but the rural-dominated legislature spent the money outside Brisbane, a prime example being the Darling Downs railway to Ipswich (1867) with the intent of having a port on the Bremer River. Legislative shenanigans could not stop the growth of the capital city's population (15,000 in 1871, 23,000 in 1881) nor that of the adjoining suburbs. Brisbane's 1881 population of 23,000 included South Brisbane. Ten years later, after South Brisbane had been made a separate municipality in 1887, their combined populations were 49,000. By 1891 Brisbane and suburbs had a population of over 100,000.
With population and export income from gold there came pressure for public buildings appropriate to the town's growing prosperity. The first of them was the general post office in Queen Street (1872), followed by the government printing office (1874) near the Commissariat Store in William Street. A torrent came in the 1880s, with the Queensland National Bank at the corner of Queen and Creek Streets, the Margaret Street Synagogue, Finney Isles Big Block emporium in Adelaide Street, and in 1889 the new Customs House, the Treasury Building in William Street and the Ann Street Presbyterian church. The legislature aspired to grandeur quite early, in 1868, with its Parliament House near the botanic gardens.
TRAINS AND TRAMS
The Ipswich railway line was joined to Brisbane by a bridge across the river at Chelmer and Indooroopilly in 1876. Ten years later a line to the South Coast was under construction, but the lines were at first organised with rural freight rather than suburban passengers in mind. Suburban transport services started with a horse tram out to New Farm (1885-86), and across the Victoria Bridge to West End. Electric powered trams began in 1887. Central Brisbane was crossed by a Queen Street tram, connected to termini at Newstead, West End and Logan Road at Buranda. The main shopping centre was around Queen, George and Adelaide Streets, competing with Brunswick and Wickham Streets in Fortitude Valley. The south side had shopping at Five Ways, Woolloongabba, and at South Brisbane, although the latter declined after the 1893 floods.
Northside tram lines from Red Hill, Kelvin Grove, Clayfield and Hamilton were opened during 1897-1902, coming into the city via Edward Street in most cases. By 1890 there were also suburban railway lines, to Sandgate via Nundah (1882), to Enoggera and to Cleveland (1889). Brisbane Central station (1889) brought northside travellers right into Brisbane, as before then the Sandgate line had ended at Roma Street via a cost saving line through Victoria Park. The line to Brisbane Central station also passed through busy Fortitude Valley.
With the addition of a tram line to Lutwyche and Kedron in 1913 the pressure of traffic led to the construction of a line along Adelaide Street (1915), which in turn required the Council to widen Adelaide Street by four metres between George and Creek Streets in 1922-23.
HOUSE SIZES
Since 1885 minimum house allotments had been set at 16 perches (10m x 40m). Residents could therefore look forward to more airy, spacious houses outside the city and its adjoining suburbs such as Spring Hill and Petrie Terrace. The better-off population invariably sought out the higher ridges on elevated sites overlooking the river, making Hamilton (with a tram in 1899) one of the most sought after suburbs. It was the new upper-working and middle-class suburbs, however, that showed the change most clearly.
CENTRAL CITY SHOPPING
Central Brisbane had grand department stores, Finney Isles, and Allan and Stark, but not as many as Fortitude Valley. A third one came later in George Street, near the Roma Street railway station: McDonnell and East built a low-rise emporium there in 1912. Commercial and government buildings, usually of a modest height, sometimes had a massive footprint. An exception to the prevailing height practice was the Queensland (later Commonwealth) Bank administration building of eight storeys at the corner of George and Elizabeth Streets (1920) clad with sandstone and granite. The CML building, next to the GPO, went to the legal limit of 11 storeys in 1931 and was exceeded in height only by the Brisbane City Hall tower (1930).
The changing commercial centre was thought to need a distinctive civic space and an Anzac Square was proposed in 1915. It was completed in 1930, coinciding with the City Hall and the construction of a second bridge out of the city, across the river to South Brisbane. Named after William Jolly, first Lord Mayor of the amalgamated Brisbane Metropolitan Council (1925), the bridge was opened in 1932. A third bridge was opened in 1940 from the other (eastern) end of the city across to Kangaroo Point. Neither bridge had trams, but each integrated with the metropolitan council's planned arterial road system.
The opening of the Story Bridge was followed by 20 years of building quietude in central Brisbane. The war and postwar recovery explains part of the inactivity, but central Brisbane made do with its prewar building stock during the 1950s. Suburban expansion was the focus of activity, exemplified by Allan and Stark building a drive-in shopping centre at Chermside in 1957. Another change was the removal of the wholesale food market from Roma Street to Rocklea in 1962.
After recovery from the 1961 credit squeeze, commercial pressure and interstate example succeeded in raising the building height limit. The Pearl Assurance building (1966) at Queen Street was 15 storeys and the Manufacturers Mutual Insurance building (1967), also in Queen Street, was 22 storeys. The SGIO building (1970) in Turbot Street was an even more significant structure.
A lack of building activity in central Brisbane in the 1950s did not detract from its role as a retailing destination. Central city shopping boomed while there were low postwar car ownership and strong radial public transport services. The 1953 retail census for metropolitan Brisbane showed that the city and inner suburbs (Fortitude Valley, Bowen Hills, South Brisbane etc) had 74% of total retail sales.
OFFICES AND SHOPS
Set against the decline in retailing was the growth in high-rise office and commercial buildings. By the late 1980s central Brisbane had about 1.75 million sq metres of office space, ten times the amount of retail floor space. Its share of metropolitan office space was over 70%, and fringe areas such as Spring Hill, Fortitude Valley, Milton and Woolloongabba had another 25%. The change in Brisbane's skyline was evident from across the river, an example being the view from Kangaroo Point to the Riverside Centre office building (1987) at Eagle Street. The eastern commercial end of Ann, Adelaide and Queen Streets began to resemble the closed in narrow streets of Sydney's office precinct.
In contrast to office high rise, the Queen Street retailing centre has kept many of its old buildings. The facades are partly concealed by pedestrian mall shade sails and other structures, but the shops and arcades generate plenty of activity. The most significant addition was the Myer Centre (1988) with eight cinemas and 200 other stores, bounded by Queen, Albert and Elizabeth Streets. It replaced Allan and Stark (Queen Street, opposite side) and McWhirters, Fortitude Valley, which had both been taken over by Myer several years before. When opened, the Myer Centre's retail floor area was nearly 108,000 sq m, 26% more than the largest competing regional drive-in centre, at Upper Mount Gravatt.
PARKS AND RESIDENTS
By the 1960s the growth of metropolitan population and motor traffic was putting central Brisbane's streets under strain. All three river bridges fed into the central business district, although the Centenary Bridge (1960) at Jindalee gave temporary relief. Closer in, relief came in 1969 with the widening of the Story Bridge approaches, and the opening of the fourth Victoria Bridge, often known as the Melbourne Street Bridge. The Riverside Expressway was completed in 1976, a close-in ring road along the western edge of central Brisbane, from Victoria Bridge to the new Captain Cook Bridge, and leading to the south-eastern suburbs. The Expressway decisively altered the appearance of Central Brisbane. The tram crossing had ceased to function when trams were replaced by buses, but a railway crossing came very belatedly with the Merivale Bridge, linking South Brisbane and Roma Street stations in 1978. Prior to that the lines from Beenleigh and Cleveland and the trunk standard gauge from Sydney terminated at the South Brisbane station.
Roma Street had been the site of the wholesale food market, and for decades the land had remained under-used. The central city had incrementally added open spaces to its fabric – King George Square enlarged in 1975 and the Post Office Square opened in 1984 – and in 2001-03 the largest addition, the 16 ha Roma Street Parkland was completed.
Along with Albert Park and Wickham Park, the Parkland gives inner city residents generous open space. The residential population of central Brisbane, however, changed little between 1981 and 2001. The inner city (approximately between Ann and Elizabeth Streets) had just 45 dwellings in 1981 and 689 in 2001. The resident populations for the respective years were 1174 and 976, a decrease. Apartments had replaced boarding houses and rooms. The rest of central Brisbane (including Petrie Terrace) also saw an increase in dwellings (758 to 1282) and a decrease in population (3511 to 1797). Single person apartments had increased, multi-person dwellings had decreased and some of each were not lived in full time, often being held for prospective capital gain. The boom in apartment building from 2001 has added thousands of apartments, many rented by overseas students.
The distinctive features of twenty-first century Brisbane are its increasing resemblance to other capital city office precincts, with forecourts, sub-tropical decorative plants and outdoor cafes. Queen Street's signature silver bullet trams last ran in 1969, but the street's unusual width (Andrew Petrie apparently persuaded Governor Gipps on this point) has provided for a signature shopping mall with generous outdoor seating and dining areas. Out of the central retail area elegant sandstone government and commercial buildings have survived, surely an iconic architectural form. Some buildings have removed their clerks and accountants, substituting hotel patrons, tourists and casino visitors. The historic customs house was purchased by The University of Queensland from the federal government, and includes meeting, dining and gallery space. The City Hall (1930), once the tallest building, has been dwarfed by surrounding skyscrapers, so its clock tower no longer affords a commanding view over Central Brisbane. In 2008 the Brisbane City Council agreed to underpin City Hall which was in danger of gradual sinking on inadequate foundations.
The gothic-style St Johns Anglican Cathedral, commenced in 1901-06, was finally completed in 2009. Bounded by Ann and Adelaide streets, the cathedral roof and other buildings sustained extensive damage in a storm in 2014.
Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane & www.visitbrisbane.com.au/information/about-brisbane/histo... & queenslandplaces.com.au/brisbane-central
The Brisbane Customs House, located at the northern end of Queen Street and beside the Brisbane River at the northern end of the Town Reach, is an imposing two-storeyed rendered brick building in the classical style. The site is prominent due to the proximity to the river, the bend in Queen Street and the general topography which opens up many views to and from the building. A prominent feature is the large copper dome at the semi-circular northern end which is a focal point viewed from both directions along Queen Street and from the river for ships arriving from Moreton Bay. The architectural form of the building announces the northern edge of the city centre and is sympathetic to the landscape features of cliffs and river bends.
The architectural form clearly demonstrates the intended purpose of the building with the double entrance from both the city and the river, which is a response to the siting of the building between the river and the town. The riverside setting allows long views across and along the river to the building.
Other features of the Brisbane Customs House which demonstrate its former use are more characteristic of late 19th century customs houses in Australia, especially the general design and planning arrangement of the building to include an imposing masonry façade, an impressive public space (the former Long Room now used for functions), a secure bonded warehouse (the former Queens Warehouse, now converted to an art gallery), offices and a secure boundary fence.
The Brisbane Customs House is a well proportioned and skilfully designed example of a Victorian building in the Renaissance mode executed to take best advantage of its dominant site and solve the practical problems of dual access from the town and from the river. It has considerable unity in its scale, form and use of materials.
The main structure of the building is of brick on a stone foundation. The columns, pilasters, balusters to the colonnade, the parapet and side entrances are of Murphy's Creek sandstone. There are cast iron balustrades on the recessed verandahs and external stairs. The main roof is clad with corrugated iron. Timber window and door joinery survives reasonably intact on the exterior walls.
The exterior of the building is very intact except for the loss of the original roof, which was replaced by the present steel trussed roof in the 1940s, the removal of chimneys and the widening of the northwestern end of the balconies in the 1940s.
The interior fabric is less intact due to the alterations and additions carried out during its use as a customs house and to the most recent refurbishment, which removed much of the 1940s fabric but recovered aspects of the 19th century form, including reconstruction of the original timber staircase.
Inside the building the most imposing space is that of the Long Room beneath the dome. Fluted Corinthian pilasters of painted plaster are below the coffered ceiling of the dome, which has a central glazed section. In the basement some of the original walls with arched openings remain.
The 1890-91 Moggill sandstone retaining wall carries around the perimeter of the site reasonably intact and incorporates a wrought iron balustrade, masonry piers, stairs and rooms for the former underground privies at the river's edge. There is a small ground with a mature fig tree and sunken garden, which contribute to the building's riverside setting.
The Brisbane Customs House at the northern end of the Town Reach of the Brisbane River, near Petrie's Bight, was erected between 1886 and 1889 to a design prepared by Charles McLay of the Queensland Colonial Architect's Office.
The 1880s building replaced an earlier and much smaller customs house on the site. The location had been chosen in 1849 following the declaration of Moreton Bay as a port of entry in 1846 and after considerable discussion as to the most suitable location for a customs house. At the time shipping activity was centred on the South Brisbane Reach and the decision to locate a customs house at the northern end of the Town Reach acted as an impetus for the development of wharves along this part of the river. A small building was erected for customs purposes in 1850 and in the following decades became increasingly inadequate as Brisbane emerged as the principal commercial centre and port of Queensland.
In 1884 the Queensland Government decided to construct a new customs house. In March 1886 a design by Charles McLay was selected from many proposals in the Colonial Architect's Office for a new Brisbane Customs House. McLay completed the specification in May 1886 and construction commenced in September that year.
Charles McLay was the major designer under the colonial architect George Connolly and was appointed Chief Draftsman in 1889. His works include the Bundaberg Post Office, probably the Fortitude Post Office and the Lady Norman Wing Brisbane Children's Hospital (with JJ Clark), of which the Brisbane Customs House is by far the most ambitious and prominent design.
The contract was let to one of Brisbane's oldest and most respected contractors, John Petrie & Son, who tendered with a price of £37,342. The contract time was 30 months but because of difficulties with the supply of some materials, especially stone for the foundations, and alterations to the original plans, the building took longer than anticipated to complete and it was opened on 2 September 1889. Retaining walls, fencing, a double staircase down to the river and nearby earth closets were also constructed.
Construction was finished in three years at a cost of £38,346. The downstream end of the Brisbane central business district was selected to spur the development of wharves in the precinct known as Petrie Bight. The lower floor contained a secure warehouse where goods not having been passed customs were stored.
The completed building incorporated pedimented gables and a massive colonnade. Heraldic scenes in the pediments were precursors to the official Queensland coat of arms, which was not granted until 1893. A curved iron balustrade to the balconies included the initials of the reigning sovereign, Victoria Regina, in the cast. Red cedar was used extensively for desks, counters, cabinets and tables as well as for a massive and elegant staircase.
The Brisbane Customs House was built during a period of economic prosperity and a construction 'boom' in Queensland and was amongst the more impressive of a number of notable public and commercial buildings erected in Brisbane during the 1880s, which included the first stage of the Treasury Building (1886-1889). Public pride in the new customs house was considerable. On 7 September 1889, a few days after the building was opened for business, the local Brisbane Courier newspaper drew attention to "the handsome and imposing appearance, especially as seen from the river or from Petrie's Bight" and predicted that the Brisbane Customs House with its tall columns, pilasters and large copper-sheathed dome would "become one of the features of the city".
In 1891 stables, additional retaining walls and fencing, and more earth closets were erected at a cost of £446. By the mid-1890s gardens and a driveway had been developed. The mature fig tree now at the site was possibly planted about this time. Minor repairs were carried out throughout the 1890s, including some work in 1895 after seven feet (2.1 m) of water inundated the basement during the Brisbane River floods early in 1893.
By December 1908 the Brisbane Customs House, valued at £80,804 (£40,804 for the structure and £40,000 for the site), had been transferred to the Commonwealth.
In 1906 the inadequacies of the original flat roof were overcome by the installation of a new hipped roof. Rearrangement of counters and partitions in the Long Room was carried out in 1911 and again in 1919. Frequently minor repairs, cleaning and maintenance work was carried out to the interior of the building in succeeding decades. In 1947 major internal alterations were undertaken: all but two of the internal masonry walls were demolished; the timber floors were replaced by concrete slabs; the cedar staircase was removed and a new terrazzo one was installed at another location; mezzanine floors were erected in the Long Room; and the roof was replaced - without the original chimneys. In 1978 part of the exterior was cleaned, repaired and sealed and painted.
In the mid-1980s the Australian Customs Department moved out of the building to Australia House. The building remained vacant from 1988 until leased by the University of Queensland and restored as a convention centre and art gallery in the mid-1990s. At this period some of the interior masonry walls that had been removed in 1947 were replaced and the original timber stair was reconstructed. Non-significant partitions added after 1948 and parts of the 1940s fit out were removed except for some good quality intact 1940s office cabinetry which survived and part of the 1940s main stair which provided access to the basement. Two of the 1940s galleries added to the Long Room were removed and one, at the southwest end, retained and adapted. Timber window and door joinery was conserved and plaster mouldings reconstructed where they were missing.
In 2015, Customs House continues to be used by the University of Queensland as a function centre, art gallery and restaurant.
©AVucha 2014
News article obtained from the Northwest Herald:
LAKEWOOD – A 19-year-old woman is dead and two others were hurt after a head-on, rollover crash Saturday afternoon at Route 47's north intersection with Route 176, police said.
The woman shortly after 4 p.m. was driving a Chevrolet northbound on Route 47 when she jumped the median and her car struck a southbound Acura SUV with two passengers, Lakewood Police Chief Leigh Rawson said. The Chevrolet driven by the woman then rolled over before catching fire.
The woman's identity was not available Saturday evening, pending a preliminary investigation by the McHenry County Coroner's Office, Rawson said. It was not known Saturday evening why the car jumped the median.
Bystanders pulled over and began trying to pry open the door and free the woman, witnesses Michelle Myshkowec and Carlos Zavala said.
"There were five, six people jumping out of their cars trying to get her out," Myshkowec said.
Myshkowec's husband, Andrew, tried to pry the door open with the sway bar from their trailer until another man reached in and extricated the woman through the window. Another bystander, a nurse, performed CPR on the woman until help arrived.
The nurse then began calming the driver of the Acura and tried to get the driver and passenger to keep their heads down in case the other car exploded, Myshkowec said.
All three victims were taken to Centegra Hospital Woodstock, where the woman was declared dead, Woodstock Fire Rescue Capt. Brendan Parker said. The injuries of the SUV's passengers were not life-threatening, he said.
Police shut down Route 47 and detoured traffic for more than four hours, reopening it to traffic at about 8:30 p.m.
Knidos (Cnidus)
Ancient City, Turkey
Written By: The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
See Article History
Cnidus, ancient Greek city on the Carian Chersonese, on the southwest coast of Anatolia. The city was an important commercial centre, the home of a famous medical school, and the site of the observatory of the astronomer Eudoxus. Cnidus was one of six cities in the Dorian Hexapolis and hosted the Dorian games every four years. The Cnidians claimed they were of Spartan origin.
First founded on the southern coast of the Reşadiye peninsula, it was moved in c. 330 bc to Deveboynu Burnu (Cape Kriyo), where a small island was artificially joined to the mainland. One of the two harbours thus created served ships of war, the other merchant shipping. Cnidus founded colonies on Lipara, north of Sicily, and at Black Corcyra (modern Korčula, Croatia) in the Adriatic Sea.
After a vain attempt to convert their peninsula into an island, the Cnidians submitted to the Persians soon after 546 bc; they supported Athens in the Delian League against Persia but revolted against Athens in 412. Cnidus became a democracy in the 4th century bc and was under Ptolemaic control in the 3rd century. It was a free city within the Roman province of Asia, enduring until the 7th century ad, when it was abandoned.
C.T. Newton, excavating the site in 1857–59, found a marble statue of the seated Demeter there. Later excavation revealed the axial plan of the ancient city, a few private dwellings, and numerous public buildings. The most significant of these is the Temple of Aphrodite, a circular Doric temple, excavated by Iris C. Love in 1970. At this site Love found the marble base and fragments of the famous statue of Aphrodite sculpted by Praxiteles in the 4th century bc. The statue, one of the most celebrated in classical antiquity, was purchased by the people of Cnidus after the citizens of the Cos had rejected it on account of its nudity.
www.britannica.com/place/Cnidus
www.triphistoric.com/historic-sites/knidos
The Lion of Knidos
www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collecti...
DEMETER FROM KNIDOS
The sculpture of Demeter, found in her sanctuary at Knidos in 1858, was first recorded in modern times by English travelers in 1812. The inherent pathos of the figure – the deep-set eyes and other facial characteristics – is often associated with works of the 4th century BCE. sculptor Skopas. However, the work is also often attributed to other sculptors, and some sources date the origin of the work to later centuries.
Here, Demeter is shown seated on a throne - the back part and arm-rails have broken away and are missing. Her lower arms and hands are also lost, though she probably once held a libation bowl or torch. The head was carved separately from the body and socketed into the neck. Demeter is portrayed as a model of Greek womanhood - serene, mature, motherly and modestly veiled. It is speculated that the piece may have originally been accompanied by a standing figure, presumably Persephone. It is also speculated that weary in her search, she sits alone.
Historical Context:
The Sanctuary of Demeter at Knidos was laid out at about the same time as the re-founding of the city, around 350 BCE. The sanctuary consisted of a long platform terraced into the side of an acropolis, with spectacular views of the city below and the sea beyond. Many votive sculptures were once displayed within the sanctuary. Most of these survive only as fragments, but this cult statue of Demeter herself is remarkably intact.
www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collecti...
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Summer holiday 2014
In and around Berlin Germany
Berlin
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the capital of Germany. For other uses, see Berlin (disambiguation).
Berlin
State of Germany
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Clockwise: Charlottenburg Palace, Fernsehturm Berlin, Reichstag building, Berlin Cathedral, Alte Nationalgalerie, Potsdamer Platz and Brandenburg Gate.
Flag of Berlin
Flag Coat of arms of Berlin
Coat of arms
Location within European Union and Germany
Location within European Union and Germany
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′ECoordinates: 52°31′N 13°23′E
Country
Germany
Government
• Governing Mayor
Michael Müller (SPD)
• Governing parties
SPD / CDU
• Votes in Bundesrat
4 (of 69)
Area
• City
891.85 km2 (344.35 sq mi)
Elevation
34 m (112 ft)
Population (December 2013)[1]
• City
3,517,424
• Density
3,900/km2 (10,000/sq mi)
Demonym
Berliner
Time zone
CET (UTC+1)
• Summer (DST)
CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code(s)
10115–14199
Area code(s)
030
ISO 3166 code
DE-BE
Vehicle registration
B[2]
GDP/ Nominal
€109.2 billion (2013) [3]
NUTS Region
DE3
Website
berlin.de
Berlin (/bərˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people,[4] Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union.[5] Located in northeastern Germany on the River Spree, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has about 4.5 million residents from over 180 nations.[6][7][8][9] Due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.[10]
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin became the capital of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1417), the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).[11] Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world.[12] After World War II, the city was divided; East Berlin became the capital of East Germany while West Berlin became a de facto West German exclave, surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989).[13] Following German reunification in 1990, the city was once more designated as the capital of all Germany, hosting 158 foreign embassies.[14]
Berlin is a world city of culture, politics, media, and science.[15][16][17][18] Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the service sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations, and convention venues.[19][20] Berlin serves as a continental hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination.[21] Significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction, and electronics.
Modern Berlin is home to renowned universities, orchestras, museums, entertainment venues, and is host to many sporting events.[22] Its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions.[23] The city is well known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts, and a high quality of living.[24] Over the last decade Berlin has seen the upcoming of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene.[25]
20th to 21st centuries[edit]
Street, Berlin (1913) by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
After 1910 Berlin had become a fertile ground for the German Expressionist movement. In fields such as architecture, painting and cinema new forms of artistic styles were invented. At the end of World War I in 1918, a republic was proclaimed by Philipp Scheidemann at the Reichstag building. In 1920, the Greater Berlin Act incorporated dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into an expanded city. The act increased the area of Berlin from 66 to 883 km2 (25 to 341 sq mi). The population almost doubled and Berlin had a population of around four million. During the Weimar era, Berlin underwent political unrest due to economic uncertainties, but also became a renowned center of the Roaring Twenties. The metropolis experienced its heyday as a major world capital and was known for its leadership roles in science, the humanities, city planning, film, higher education, government, and industries. Albert Einstein rose to public prominence during his years in Berlin, being awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
Berlin in ruins after World War II (Potsdamer Platz, 1945).
In 1933, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power. NSDAP rule effectively destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which had numbered 160,000, representing one-third of all Jews in the country. Berlin's Jewish population fell to about 80,000 as a result of emigration between 1933 and 1939. After Kristallnacht in 1938, thousands of the city's persecuted groups were imprisoned in the nearby Sachsenhausen concentration camp or, starting in early 1943, were shipped to death camps, such as Auschwitz.[39] During World War II, large parts of Berlin were destroyed in the 1943–45 air raids and during the Battle of Berlin. Around 125,000 civilians were killed.[40] After the end of the war in Europe in 1945, Berlin received large numbers of refugees from the Eastern provinces. The victorious powers divided the city into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the United States, the United Kingdom and France) formed West Berlin, while the Soviet sector formed East Berlin.[41]
The Berlin Wall in 1986, painted on the western side. People crossing the so-called "death strip" on the eastern side were at risk of being shot.
All four Allies shared administrative responsibilities for Berlin. However, in 1948, when the Western Allies extended the currency reform in the Western zones of Germany to the three western sectors of Berlin, the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the access routes to and from West Berlin, which lay entirely inside Soviet-controlled territory. The Berlin airlift, conducted by the three western Allies, overcame this blockade by supplying food and other supplies to the city from June 1948 to May 1949.[42] In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was founded in West Germany and eventually included all of the American, British, and French zones, excluding those three countries' zones in Berlin, while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in East Germany. West Berlin officially remained an occupied city, but it politically was aligned with the Federal Republic of Germany despite West Berlin's geographic isolation. Airline service to West Berlin was granted only to American, British, and French airlines.
The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989. On 3 October 1990, the German reunification process was formally finished.
The founding of the two German states increased Cold War tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by East German territory, and East Germany proclaimed the Eastern part as its capital, a move that was not recognized by the western powers. East Berlin included most of the historic center of the city. The West German government established itself in Bonn.[43] In 1961, East Germany began the building of the Berlin Wall between East and West Berlin, and events escalated to a tank standoff at Checkpoint Charlie. West Berlin was now de facto a part of West Germany with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of East Germany. John F. Kennedy gave his "Ich bin ein Berliner" – speech in 1963 underlining the US support for the Western part of the city. Berlin was completely divided. Although it was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other side through strictly controlled checkpoints, for most Easterners travel to West Berlin or West Germany prohibited. In 1971, a Four-Power agreement guaranteed access to and from West Berlin by car or train through East Germany.[44]
In 1989, with the end of the Cold War and pressure from the East German population, the Berlin Wall fell on 9 November and was subsequently mostly demolished. Today, the East Side Gallery preserves a large portion of the Wall. On 3 October 1990, the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin again became the official German capital. In 1991, the German Parliament, the Bundestag, voted to move the seat of the (West) German capital from Bonn to Berlin, which was completed in 1999. Berlin's 2001 administrative reform merged several districts. The number of boroughs was reduced from 23 to twelve. In 2006 the FIFA World Cup Final was held in Berlin.
Alexanderplatz
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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View over Alexanderplatz
Neighborhoods in Berlin-Mitte: Old Cölln [1] (with Museum Island [1a], Fisher Island [1b]), Altberlin [2] (with Nikolaiviertel [2a]), Friedrichswerder [3], Neukölln am Wasser [4], Dorotheenstadt [5], Friedrichstadt [6], Luisenstadt [7], Stralauer Vorstadt (with Königsstadt) [8], Alexanderplatz Area (Königsstadt and Altberlin) [9], Spandauer Vorstadt [10] (with Scheunenviertel [10a]), Friedrich-Wilhelm-Stadt [11], Oranienburger Vorstadt [12], Rosenthaler Vorstadt [13]
Alexanderplatz (pronounced [ʔalɛkˈsandɐˌplats] ( listen)) is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin, near the Fernsehturm. Berliners often call it simply Alex, referring to a larger neighbourhood stretching from Mollstraße in the northeast to Spandauer Straße and the Red City Hall in the southwest
History[edit]
Alexanderplatz in 1796
Early history[edit]
Originally a cattle market outside the city fortifications, it was named in honor of a visit of the Russian Emperor Alexander I to Berlin on 25 October 1805 by order of King Frederick William III of Prussia. The square gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the Stadtbahn station of the same name and a nearby market hall, followed by the opening of a department store of Hermann Tietz in 1904, becoming a major commercial centre. The U-Bahn station of the present-day U2 line opened on 1 July 1913.
Its heyday was in the 1920s, when together with Potsdamer Platz it was at the heart of Berlin's nightlife, inspiring the 1929 novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (see 1920s Berlin) and the two films based thereon, Piel Jutzi's 1931 film and Rainer Werner Fassbinder's 15½ hour second adaptation, released in 1980. About 1920 the city's authorities started a rearrangement of the increasing traffic flows laying out a roundabout, accompanied by two buildings along the Stadtbahn viaduct, Alexanderhaus and Berolinahaus finished in 1932 according to plans designed by Peter Behrens.
Manufacturer/Model: Ross 1st Series Prism Binocular (Barton’s Patent) 10x20
Field of View: estimate 4 deg = 70 m/1,000 m; APFOV 40 deg
Weight: 453 gr
Exit Pupil: 2 mm
Serial #/Year of Manufacture: 1105 = 1899-1900
Notes: This is Ross' 1st Series prism binocular model which was made from 1899-1900 and which is distinguished by a unique inter-pupillary adjustment mechanism utilizing cantilevers (See View 3: www.flickr.com/photos/binocwpg/26415385558/in/photostream/ ) It was soon replaced in 1900 by the 2nd Series models which had its prism plates extended to form the hinge instead of cantilevers. The objective lenses of this binocular are in-line with the eyepieces in order not to violate Zeiss' patent (which didn’t expire until 1908) for spacing the objective lenses farther apart than the eyepieces to give the view a stereoscopic effect.
This binocular's cantilever arrangement was created and patented by by an English inventor named John Henry Barton who later created the unusual "Folding Minim" binocular (See: www.flickr.com/photos/binocwpg/25416050287/in/photostream/ ). For more information about J. H. Barton, the binoculars he designed and his patents see: home.europa.com/~telscope/Ross/Barton.J.H.by.T.Wayland.pdf
Optically the binocular is quite good for its time period and build quality is very high. Although the cantilever IPD arrangement is surely not as durable as the conventional hinge and post one and probably cost more to manufacture as well, the system on this example still works perfectly smoothly after more than 100 years and mechanically it's appealing. When I purchased the binocular I only wanted to add a Barton's Patent Ross cantilever for the collection and was pleasantly surprised when I researched the original owner’s name, Captain W. Forrest, engraved on the binocular (See View 2: www.flickr.com/photos/binocwpg/40287935141/in/photostream/ ) and discovered its Boer War provenance:
"Colonel William Forrest, D.S.O.
...Colonel Forrest has considerable knowledge of military matters. Prior to coming to South Wales he was a lieutenant in the Lanark Volunteer Regiment, and in 1891 he joined the old Glamorgan Militia. In March, 1900, the regiment having volunteered for service in South Africa, Colonel Forrest, then a captain, proceeded thither with his regiment, and in June, 1900, he was gazetted major. Almost immediately afterwards he was appointed commandant at Prieska, in the heart of the rebellious part of Cape Colony, where he served for about 18 months. Subsequently he was appointed provost-marshal at Kimberley. He was mentioned in despatches, and was gazetted D.S.O. on the return of the regiment to England in March, 1902, after an absence of exactly two years. He is now second-in-command of the battalion, of which Colonel W. Watts is the O.C., and the Earl of Plymouth the honorary colonel. Colonel Forrest, who married in 1898 Miss Marie Spencer Lewis, fifth daughter of Sir William Thomas Lewis, is a justice of the peace for the county of Glamorgan…" (Excerpted from the Cardiff Times April 2, 1910 article titled, “Colonel William Forrest. EARL OF PLYMOUTH'S NEW AGENT.”)
Note: If you have a vintage binocular you either wish to sell or would just like some information about, I can be contacted at flagorio@shaw.ca .
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See the article at www.eriegaynews.com/news/article.php?recordid=201110pride...
Erie Pride Parade & Rally a Great Time!
by Michael Mahler
On Saturday, August 27, about 230 people participated in the Erie Pride Parade & Rally. This year’s Pride events were organized by the Pride Planning committee, which is an informal coalition of groups and individuals.
Parade
About 100 people marched in the parade from the Zone Dance Club to Perry Square. John Daly King was the Grand Marshal for the parade, in a convertible driven by Caitlyn. Also in the parade were beloved local gay icons Jesse and Ricardo, who rode their tandem bike.
Parade units included
Lake Erie Belly Dance
Doctor Who contingent
PFLAG Erie/Crawford County
Erie Gay News
Lake Erie Derby Dames
LBT Women
Latonia Theatre
PFLAG Butler
Erie Sisters
Unitarian Universalist Congregation of Erie
Community United Church
OUT (Pittsburgh newspaper)
There were also many people marching as individuals, as well as a float carrying current and former Miss Eries.
Rally
The rally in Perry Square begins at 2 PM and will include speakers and performers. Please check in at the registration table when you arrive in Perry Square. The rally will include a variety of vendors and information booths.
Speakers and performers included:
Greg Rabb, Openly gay Jamestown City Council President and Councilman at Large
Misty Kall, Miss Erie 2011
Rich McCarty of Equality PA, Greater Erie Alliance for Equality and Community United Church
Chris Wolfe, Erie Idol finalist 2011
Tammie Johnson, 2 term President of ACLU-NWPA
Brian T, singer, also with Pittsburgh Out TV
Jason Landau Goodman, founding Executive Director of the Pennsylvania Student Equality Coalition. The first and only youth-led statewide LGBTQ organization in the nation
Michelle Michaels, Former Miss Erie and Coordinator for FACE Show at Zone
Fiona Hensley, Chair of the Student Network Across Pennsylvania, SNAP, Regional Chair of the Erie-West region for SNAP and President of Queers and Allies at Allegheny College in Meadville, PA.
Diva D’Vyne
Games
The Dunk a Drag Queen game was very popular! We look forward to making this an annual tradition
Donors
Many businesses and organizations gave generously to help support Pride this year. These included
AdultMart
Allegheny College Bookstore
BeautiControl
Blue Heron Inn
Body Language
Chicory Hill Herbs
Coca-Cola/Erie
Country Fair
Craze Night Club
Crime Victim Center of Erie County
Douglas Kolcun
Drenched Fur
Earthshine Company
Eerie Horror Film Festival
emma's revolution
Erie Book Store
Erie County Democratic Party
Erie County Department of Health
Erie Playhouse
Erie Seawolves
Erie Sisters
Erie Spine and Wellness
Family United Counseling
Gaudenzia / SHOUT Outreach
Giant Eagle - Buffalo Road
Glass Growers
Good Health Rejuvenation
Greater Erie Alliance for Equality, Inc.
Hal Leonard Performing Arts Publishing Group
Hollywood Stories
Horomanski's DJ'ing Services
JR's Last Laugh
Kensington Books
La bella
Larese Floral Design
LBT Women
Lion's Den Adult Super Store
MLR Books
Pennsylvania Coaltion to End Homelessness
Pie in the Sky Cafe
Presque Isle Gallery Coffeehouse
Sam's Club
Shakira Nakelle's Mementos, Gifts & More
Silk Screen Unlimited
Smith's Hot Dogs
State Farm Insurance Agent Natalie Braddock
Tanglez Hair and Nail Studio
The Ringbearer
Tops Friendly Markets - W 38th St
Wegman's- Peach St
Wendy's of Erie
Zone Dance Club
Committee Members & Volunteers
Many people from the committee worked hard to make the day enjoyable for everyone! Committee members included
Season
Chris
Preston
Mark H
Erin Moll
Amy
Sue McCabe
Alex
Jeff H
John Daly King
Kerry
In addition to the committee members, volunteers included:
Kevin Schultz
Dok
Johauna
Wanda
Bob H
Eric Rogers
Maria S.
Deb Spilko
Brian
Info Tables & Vendors
Info tables included:
Adagio Health
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), NWPA Chapter
Community United Church
Crime Victim Center of Erie County
Equality Pennsylvania
Erie County Democratic Party
Erie County Human Relations Commission
Erie Gay News
Erie Sisters
Lake Erie Derby Dames
LBT Women
Pennsylvania Student Equality Coalition
PFLAG Erie/Crawford County
SafeNet Center
United Way of Erie County
Voices for Independence
Vendors included
BeautiControl
Book Merchant
Christopher's Novelty Gifts
Shakira Nakelle's Mementos, Gifts & More
Collecting Food
We collected 23 pounds of food for the Second Harvest Food Bank of NW PA.