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有關 700E DFC HV BEC 電力供應匯整.
亞拓林課長的說明
700DFC HV SUPER COMBO 所搭配的高壓無刷伺服器,可以直接接上7.4V的鋰電池供電,不需經過BEC降壓, 如過不想使用2S鋰電池直接供電的話,當然也可以接上BEC穩壓,規格的話只要是真的能持續耐電流6A的BEC就足夠了. 例如亞拓的B6X BEC ,我們也測試了很久,是足夠供給高壓無刷伺服器的!
鐵漢大對高壓伺服電源的說明
建議你，直接用2S直推就好，飛2趟充電一次即可，比你掛再好的bEC都要來的好，出HV舵機的用意本來就是為了鋰聚電池普及而誕生的。
註：鐵漢的700DFC HV是用海力士高壓BEC.
HOBA大對高壓BEC的看法
2s 其實不是電量問題,
2s 是由 8.4v 一路往下降,到低電壓為止約 7.6v (3.8x2) 這是在地面量測的到的值
但在空中負載時,你能確實的掌握到它的"實供"電壓嗎?(低頭看控,沒那麼猛吧?)
我也曾經目擊過 2s 直上的前輩就這樣兩眼開開的看機子往地上砸
也沒多少錢啦,大概一萬大洋就這樣給它企了...(這還不包含新機被開苞的心裡傷害,只計算物理價格)
後來檢測那顆電池,用力壓 ccpm 時壓降到 5.?v (用測電表大致量一下而已,不算準啦)
卡斯特
我有寫信去問卡斯特, 有關 BEC Pro 是否可以使用 3S Lipo 的問題.回文如下.
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By all means use a 3s 2200 mah lipo with the BEC Pro. This makes a great set
up and the BEC will be under less stress reducing 11.1 volts instead of 22.2
(half of 12s) or 45 volts (12s). It will be a full 20 amps for 30 second
burst on 3s, way more than any 700 sized heli servos will draw.
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大意是說,
BEC Pro 使用 3S Lipo 是一個不錯的組合設定, 相較於使用 6S, 12S 做為輸入電源, BEC Pro 的負擔會來得輕的許多. 而在 3S 做為電源時,最大電流可以到20A 並持續30杪, 足夠提供任何700級直昇機的動力.
在組裝700E DFC的感想
1. 主橫軸在在穿拆其中一邊旋翼夾時,須要輕敲才能拆裝.
2. H座射出成型精準度不夠,致使 Gyro 座即使在調整後,中間接合處依然略高.
解決方式：在黏完3GX後,已用數位螺距規量是在零度,暫沒有必要調整.
3. 十字盤已調在主軸行程中點,但調集體螺距0度時,DFC連桿A跟連桿頭只吃了一半的螺紋,令人很不放心.但在調整升降邊界極限時,預設的70%在集體螺距打到+12度時,會干涉,只好調到60%.
2012/8/4
拉高十字盤,二邊拉桿各二圈來補-3度的螺距，來加深DFC拉桿頭吃螺紋的深度.
主要是螺距、副翼伺服固定座比實際伺服長度略長，於是鎖伺服便有上下的差距，也影響到連桿長度
分析原因
因為 Pitch, AILE二個伺服器是固定在第一主軸固定座及第二主軸固定座,而第一主軸固定座及第二固定座間的鎖伺服孔位距離略大於伺服器中心孔位.伺服器在上了工字形伺服器及銅環後,二端銅環中心孔的距離較短.所以上方銅環鎖上第一主軸固定座時,下方就會離第二主軸固定座有段距離.
所以如您選擇中間的位置,也就是把伺服略低的位罝.這大約是拉桿4圈的距離.這4圈的距離約是集體螺距3度的距離.因此,當CCPM拉桿按照說明書長度調好,DFC拉桿轉到低時,這時在調機時,集體螺距在遙控器中立點時,會是-3度.這時如調DFC拉桿頭時,會致使DFC拉桿頭只吃約一半的螺紋.於是,這時只好把CCPM三支拉桿長度由原來說明書的長度再拉長3-4圈的距離,使得DFC拉桿頭可以吃到更多的螺紋(幾乎到底)而降低風險.
4. 在組尾雙推時,用來連接尾T型控制臂及尾控制連桿頭的軸套螺絲-銀(牙長3mm) M2x8mm, 未鎖到底,只能靠螺絲膠鎖定.還未鎖到底,就會干涉到尾控制連桿頭的活動了.後來詢問亞拓,此為正常設計.
5. 尾波箱在裝上尾管後,無論怎利用間隙調整,都無法保持水平,也就是看起來垂直尾翼下方會有點向左外翻的角度.
目前僅能儘量在可調範圍內調水平, 再看試機狀況.
6. 用亞拓2S/1900/40C電池直推,尾伺服及螺距伺服器在地面調機時,一開始會有快速小幅抖動的現象.一段時間就會消失.尾舵不定時也會小抖一下.
2012/8/4
隔天再次測試，尾舵竟然不抖了，正常了。只有剩副翼伺服在中立點會小幅＂微震＂。不同是，昨天2S充飽，電壓XG11回傳8.4V，調了二小時機到8.0V.
今天第二次試機，約一小時，電壓由7.9->7.7V，難道直推電壓太高？要用BEC穩壓？現在所以打算使用分離式3S供電加高壓BEC。由11.1/12V降至7.4V是安全又有效率的做法。像JR的高壓伺服及Server King 695規格上就標明耐壓到8.4V.這也是為何我決定上Castle BECPro的原因。因為電是沒有模擬二可的，必須很精準。因為但長期處於超壓工作的舵機，就算不故障。那天要罷工也不知。高壓伺服最近才開始普及，大家包含我自己也沒有經驗，只能邊試邊累積經驗。除了Castle BEC Pro外，JETI SBEC也是不錯的選擇。
2012/8/6
今天用充飽的2S/1900/40C再測試，一送電沒有抖。接著操作控，在36分鐘內XG11回傳的電壓由8.5->8.0, 沒有抖動。
結論
700DFC HV 我個人覺是架CP值很高的機子.相較於其他品牌700級的機子.亞拓在品質,功能及技術支援上都不錯.只是小弟第一次接觸到高壓伺服器及700等級, 每一地方都小心研究.或許它不完美,但亞拓即時不斷的連絡解決我的問題.我仍對它很滿意..
Security Forces patrolmen align their canteens during training at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, N.J. The intensive three-week, 12-hour-a-day course covers such subjects as cross-cultural awareness, legal considerations, embassy operations, airfield survey techniques, explosive ordnance awareness, aircraft searches, and unarmed self-defense techniques. Students are exposed to more than 70 use-of-force scenarios where stress is simulated using role players. Training includes instruction and realistic practical exercises in antiterrorism/force protection, weapon system security, verbal judo, combatives, tactical baton employment and advanced firearms proficiency. (U.S. Air Force photo by/Staff Sgt. Vernon Young Jr.)
Cette Amaro pourrait être la tienne pour 90€ d'aide aux réfugiés. Prochainement.
#DalidaRFG #réfugiésbienvenue #welcomerefugees #ongietorrierrefuxiatuak
A group of core networking volunteers and friends from past events (like What the Hack 2005, Hacking at Random 2009, Chaos Communication Camp 2011, Observe. Hack. Make 2013) needed to make alterations to a few kilometers of fiber optic cable to be ready for upcoming events such as Chaos Communication Camp 2015, Campzone 2015 and SHA2017.
This turned into a fusion splicing (fiber splicing) workshop.
The designer recommends starting with the daggerboard trunk and aligning frames to that, but I have no daggerboard trunk. Each bulkhead was positioned on the bottom panel using hinges to allow for the angle of each to the bottom. Bulkheads 3 and 5 were then levelled and braced to the jig.
This is how I aligned the rib attachments to the centerline. I think it worked well.
First I pre aligned the rib attachment, then I screwed one end in. Then I readjusted it so it was more or less perfect and screwed the other end in. That way seemed to be the easiest.
I use Titebond III wood glue and apply a generous amount along the entire length of each piece before adjoining the two.
Sculptures monumentales de Jean-Claude Lambert
lambertsculptor.canalblog.com/archives/2009/11/22/1588974...
L'association c'osmose : cosmose.typepad.fr/blog_cosmose/
This was result of being out with Shen then being attracted like zombies to the incandescent glow of Richard's Mill at sunset. We rushed up through one of the buildings but it seemed that the last light was always one step ahead of us, except for with this nice line-up of pillars illuminated through windows at the opposite side of the building.
Completely unedited as well.
Breastfeeding: Gift Your Child Aligned Teeth for Life. Breastfeeding is important for babies for the first 6 month for alignment and strong teeth.
via
Nếu như bạn là người quan tâm đến những dự án bất động sản, chắc chắn bạn sẽ không thể bỏ qua được biệt thự Akari City vô cùng ấn tượng và đẳng cấp. Hãy cùng nhau khám phá sức hút tuyệt vời của dự án Akari City nhé.
[caption id="attachment_212" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Biệt Thự Akari City Mang Phong Cách Nhật Bản Sang Trọng[/caption]
Lợi Thế Về Vị Trí Của Biệt Thự Akari City
Akari City là dự án tọa lạc tại đại lộ Võ Văn Kiệt, Quận Bình Tân (ngay liền kề với Quận 6). Vị trí này được đánh giá làc cửa ngõ phía Tây của thành phố. Với trục kết nối giao thông vô cùng tiện lợi chắc chắn việc di chuyển của các cư dân từ dự án đến những địa điểm vui chơi giải trí, hành chính của thành phố sẽ cực kỳ nhanh chóng. Hơn nữa giao thông tại khu vực này lại cực kì thông thoáng nên việc sdi chuyển về trung tâm sẽ dễ dàng hơn bao giờ hết, ví dụ như:
Chỉ 3 phút là đến được cảng Phú Định
Chỉ 5 phút là đến được chợ đầu mối Bình Điền
Chỉ 6 phút là đến được bệnh viện Triều An, bến xe Miền Tây cũ và mới hay công viên Phú Lâm
Chỉ 7 phút là đến được khu Tên Lửa (phiên bản thu nhỏ của Hồng Kông tại Việt Nam)
Chỉ 9 phút là đến được Chợ Lớn - trung tâm quận 5
Chỉ 10 phút là đến được trung tâm quận 1
Chỉ 12 phút là đến được trung tâm Thủ Thiêm - quận 2
Những Tiện Ích Akari City
Không gian nội khu của dự án căn hộ Akari City được thiết kế hiện đại, sang trọng theo chuẩn khách sạn 5* từ tầng hầm, sảnh tiếp tân đến thang máy,… đi kèm là những dịch vụ quản lý cao cấp theo chuẩn Nhật Bản.
Khu hồ bơi skyview, khu tập gym – yoga, khu café sân vườn, khu vui chơi cho trẻ em, sân bóng rổ,… đều được thiết kế thông minh, hiện đại, phục vụ cho nhu cầu vui chơi giải trí và tập luyện của cư dân,….
Nội khu biệt thự Akari City còn có khu thư viện được thiết kế không gian yên tĩnh, hiện đại, đảm bảo toàn bộ nhu cầu học tập của trẻ em, học sinh, sinh viên,….
Những trung tâm mua sắm nằm trên đường Võ Văn Kiệt cũng là một phần của dự án căn hộ Akari City, ngoài ra các căn hộ shophouse nằm rải rác ở khắp các Block sẽ phục vụ tốt nhất cho nhu cầu mua sắm của cư dân dự án.
Nhờ vào vị trí đẹp cùng việc giao thông thuận lợi, các cư dân của dự án Akari City sẽ có thể dễ dàng tiếp cận với các địa điểm nổi tiếng của khu trung tâm thành phố chỉ trong thời gian ngắn.
Xung quanh dự án là hàng loạt những tiện ích hiện hữu phục vụ cho nhu cầu sống của cư dân như các trường học, bệnh viện, trung tâm mua sắm,….
Thiết Kế Biệt Thự Akari City
[caption id="attachment_416" align="aligncenter" width="1024"] Mặt bằng biệt thự Akari City Nhật Bản[/caption]
Một số ưu điểm vô cùng tuyệt vời mà các biệt thự Akari City sở hữu đó là:
Không gian sống được thiết kế theo tiêu chí toàn bộ các phòng chức năng đều hướng về phòng khách - không gian sinh hoạt chung của cả gia đình, điều này sẽ khá phù hợp với truyền thống và văn hóa quây quần bên nhau của người Việt.
Toàn bộ phòng ngủ đều được lát sàn gỗ để mang lại cảm giác ấm cúng và sạch sẽ cho người sử dụng. Phòng ngủ chính của biệt thự có ban công lớn giúp đón nắng và đón gió tự nhiên, được tragn bị sẵn nhà vệ sinh riêng trong phòng và tủ áo cao cấp. Phòng ngủ nhỏ dành cho trẻ được thiết kế giường tầng, khu vực học tập và cửa sổ riêng.
Phòng bếp và phòng ăn của biệt thự Akari City được thiết kế liền kề nhau và được tích hợp hệ thống khử mùi, thoát khí vô cùng hiện đại. Tất cả bếp tại dự án Akari City đều là bếp tích hợp từ và bếp chồng ngoại cao cấp, nhập khẩu từ Đức theo tiêu chuẩn của châu Âu.
Phòng tắm cũng đã được thiết kế với nội thất sang trọng cao cấp đồng thời có cửa thông thoát mùi để căn hộ luôn sạch sẽ và khô thoáng.
Chủ Đầu Tư Akari City Uy Tín
Chủ đầu tư Nam Long Group
Nam Long Group là chủ đầu tư có nhiều năm kinh nghiệm trong việc phát triển dự án bất động sản tại TPHCM và trên cả nước. Với 25 năm kinh nghiệm của mình và hàng loạt những giải thưởng danh giá trong nước và quốc tế, Nam Long mang đến những cam kết cho khách hàng của mình như sau:
Cam kết về pháp lý của dự án
Cam kết chất lượng của dự án
Cam kết bàn giao nhà đúng hẹn
Những dự án mà Nam Long Group đã phát triển thành công và nhận được sự đón nhận của người mua nhà và các nhà đầu tư như: Ehome – dòng sản phẩm nhà ở có mức giá hợp lý; dòng sản phẩm căn hộ vừa túi tiền Flora; căn hộ cao cấp Mizuki Park; dòng sản phẩm nhà phố biệt thự Valora,….
Đối tác chiến lược đến từ Nhật Bản
Để phát triển dự án Akari City Bình Tân, Nam Long Group đã tiếp tục bắt tay hợp tác với 2 Hankyu Realty và Nishitetsu. Đây là 2 tập đoàn đa ngành nổi tiếng trong ngành xây dựng của Nhật Bản với trên 100 năm kinh nghiệm phát triển các dự án bất động sản tại Nhật và những nước khác trên thế giới.
Đây không phải là lần đầu tiên Nam Long phát triển dự án cùng 2 đối tác này, những dự án trước có sự góp mặt của cả 3 đơn vị đều được khách hàng đánh giá cao về chất lượng cũng như thời hạn bàn giao nhà đúng tiến độ. Chính vì thế khách hàng có nhu cầu sở hữu biệt thự, căn hộ Akari City hoàn toàn có thể yên tâm về tiến độ hoàn thành dự án và chất lượng của dự án.
Trên đây là một số thông tin cơ bản về biệt thự Akari City tại Bình Tân. Hy vọng với những thông tin mà chúng tôi mang lại, bạn sẽ lựa chọn Akari City là nơi an cư hoàn hảo cho cả gia đình mình.
Đọc nguyên bài viết tại : Biệt Thự Akari City Mang Phong Cách Nhật Bản Sang Trọng
FORT MCCOY, Wis. –
“Money is my military, each dollar a soldier. I never send my money into battle unprepared and undefended.”
~ Kevin O’Leary
Although O’Leary—a Canadian author, entrepreneur and television personality—was referring to his half billion dollar fortune, his words expose the Achilles Heel of nearly every individual and organization on the planet: money.
The U.S. Army, in particular, aligns with O’Leary’s analogy. With billions of dollars dedicated to training, equipping and caring for more than a million men and women in uniform, the Army seeks competent Soldiers who can conduct its countless and complex financial transactions. Those Soldiers are often assigned to sections and even platoon-sized elements dedicated to the understanding of all things pecuniary. Compartmentalizing financial intellect offers the Army the distinct advantage of enhancing readiness through realistic training in the art of money management.
Diamond Saber is an annual training exercise devoted to teaching, mentoring and certifying Soldiers operating within the Army’s intricate financial system. Conducted in Ft. McCoy, Wis., from Aug. 14-24, 2017, the exercise drew more than 650 Soldiers from the Army’s active, Reserve and National Guard components.
“Diamond Saber prepares units to deploy overseas by exposing Soldiers to financial activities found in theater,” said U.S. Army Col. Gregory T. Hinton, commander, 336th Financial Management Support Center. “The exercise combines classroom instruction with realistic training scenarios that cover a wide variety of tasks, missions and systems.”
These financial functions range from cashing checks and exchanging funds to resolving military pay issues and documenting captured currency. Based out of Lake Charles, La., the 336th FMSC demonstrated their expertise on these and other monetary subjects by developing policies, answering questions and providing technical support for Soldiers engaged in classrooms and simulations.
“We’re the financial advisors for this exercise,” said Hilton, a native of Fairmont, W. Va. “Our role here is very similar to what we do downrange.”
While the 336th FMSC supported the operational aspects of Diamond Saber, four Soldiers from the 143d Sustainment Command (Expeditionary), a 10,000 Soldier command headquartered in Orlando, Fla., immersed themselves in the exercise’s tactical side. Their participation marked a major milestone in the exercise’s 12-year history.
“This is the first time Diamond Saber has integrated Soldiers operating at the G8 (general officer, finance) level,” said U.S. Army Capt. Steven Andrews, comptroller, 143d ESC. “Prior to the exercise, our section attended several planning sessions to help ensure Diamond Saber’s curriculum was applicable to G8 level tasks.”
These planning sessions resulted in Andrews and his fellow 143d ESC Soldiers studying in a small classroom separated from the larger lecture halls housing hundreds of Soldiers at Ft. McCoy’s Financial Management Warrior Training Center.
“The specialized class size allowed our instructors to focus on G8 related functions such as vendor contracts, purchase orders and lines of accounting,” said Andrews, a Philadelphia, Pa., native. “The coursework also taught us how to provide better guidance and improved service to our downtrace units.”
The lectures and simulations also exposed Andrews and his team to the Army’s General Fund Enterprise Business System, a financial asset and financial accounting management web application.
“GFEBS is a powerful tool,” said U.S. Army Sgt. Victor T. Rosario, budget analyst, 143d ESC. “Its numerous features make it a bit overwhelming at first, but the daily practice, thorough instruction and graded tests should give us a firm foundation for our eventual mastery of this complex program.”
“Most Reserve Soldiers have little exposure to GFEBS prior to coming to Diamond Saber,” added Andrews. “As long as we continually take advantage of opportunities to maximize our exposure to GFEBS, then we will be successful in our mission.”
While most of the 143d ESC’s counterparts live and study in the relative comfort, the 143d ESC Soldiers must retain vast stockpiles of information while working in field conditions.
“Most of the 143d ESC is engaged in a CSTX (Combat Sustainment Support Exercise),” explained Rosario, a native of St. Cloud, Fla. “Since CSTX emulates a deployed environment, we must sleep in tents and walk through rugged terrain with our weapons and field gear during our daily commutes to and from the classroom.”
For Rosario, the long days are worth the effort as Diamond Saber also provides opportunities to complete online certifications.
“NCOs (Noncommissioned Officers) in my field must complete a series of online classes before we can attend our respective NCOES (Noncommissioned Officer Education System) courses,” said Rosario. “Completing these courses is essential to promotion and career progression. I am grateful Diamond Saber’s administrators afforded us the time to earn a few certifications.”
While Diamond Saber lacks the mass maneuvers and cinematic firefights found in front line field exercises, its presence signifies the Army’s understanding that ample funding and effective fighting are equally important in winning wars.
“Soldiers must be physically, mentally and financially ready to deploy,” said Hinton, who, when not wearing the uniform, serves as the command executive officer for the 79th Theater Support Command headquartered in Los Alamitos, Calif. “If the Army Reserve expects its Soldiers to deploy anywhere in the world in less than 30 days, then our financial units and sections must be masters of our craft. Diamond Saber helps ensure our Soldiers fight and win without the crippling effects of disputed contracts, misappropriated funds and unresolved pay issues.”
Story and Photos by Sgt. John L. Carkeet IV, 143d ESC
I'm going to try to mix it up between the recognizable Patagonia peak shots and everything else. Here's one from the hill near town. 180 degrees of crazy clouds on our last morning in El Chalten before heading out for 4 nights. These might be the most ridiculous clouds I've seen.
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Patagonia is one fickle mistress. She lures you in with views of stunning peaks and turquoise pools. Yet, once you arrive she dances just out of reach. Light and clouds rarely align just right with the iconic mountains. Still she strings you along with glimpses of what could be. Giving just enough golden light - in the wrong places – to not crush all hope. And finally, when you’re just about to give into frustration she relents - the light and peaks align. Hope is renewed.
~MW
Megan pretty much summed it up. I'll just say, I gave myself 12 days to photograph 3 locations. After 9 days, some nice light here and there, but zero check marks. The last three mornings the stars aligned and I caught the light I wanted at all three locations. I left Patagonia a tired and smelly, but happy man. Thanks to my wife for spending her vacation lugging around a big bag, waking up early and sleeping in the dirt with me.
In the history of breakfast cereal mascots in the UK, from Sunny Jim onwards, I can't think of a single one that was female.
Soldiers with the Danish Army sneak through the woods during an attack as a part of the multinational training exercise, Combined Resolve III at the Joint Multinational Readiness Center, Germany (U.S. Army photo by Capt. John Farmer, 1st BCT, 1st CD Public Affairs).
"To take a photograph is to align the head, the eye and the heart. It's a way of life." ~ Henri Cartier-Bresson
Natarang Ubha, Khel mandala - Natarang, Apsara Aali, Apsara Aali - Natrang
a note to self: tags ~ two views concept and aligned. 4:13 p.m. 28 August '12
Yelp Rochester Elites relaxed at newly minted Align Chiropractic with neck massages, kinesiotape demos, Karma Water, Lovin Cup wraps and soup, Young Living essential oils, Stokes Acupuncture, and Three Heads Brewing. Photos by www.laurenmclaughlin.com
Photo from a TFCD shoot with wrestler Bazooka Joe (Model Mayhem #1070784 - BazookaJoe), September 2009.
Braces or Braces for Teeth are usually used in orthodontics to align and straighten teeth and help to improve the patient's facial appearance. It is used to solve problems like overbites, under bites, incorrect jaw, and jaw disorders and joints correction.
[caption id="attachment_12894" align="alignleft" width="480" caption="Meadow Plants, Early Snow - Meadow plants bend beneath the weight of an early October snowfall, eastern Sierra Nevada, California."][/caption]
Meadow Plants, Early Snow. North Lake, Eastern Sierra Nevada, California. October 8, 2011. © Copyright 2011 G Dan Mitchell - all rights reserved.
Meadow plants bend beneath the weight of an early October snowfall, eastern Sierra Nevada, California.
I made this photograph on a very cold early October morning high in the eastern Sierra after a series of early season snow storms had passed over the Sierra. The gravel road to North Lake had apparently just opened again on the morning I arrived, and few other people were there. I was there to photograph autumn aspen color, but the opportunity to photograph snow scenes so early in the season distracted me.
As I walked the road skirting the edge of North Lake, I passed by meadows that were completely covered by new, untouched snow. Here and there a few small plants managed to poke up from beneath the white blanket.
Merry Christmas and Happy New Year!
G Dan Mitchell is a California photographer whose subjects include the Pacific coast, redwood forests, central California oak/grasslands, the Sierra Nevada, California deserts, urban landscapes, night photography, and more.
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Text, photographs, and other media are © Copyright G Dan Mitchell (or others when indicated) and are not in the public domain and may not be used on websites, blogs, or in other media without advance permission from G Dan Mitchell.
. . . 2. 3. 2007 - this is the first day of a funeral ceremony in Bori for a High Class Woman. She died on 18. 1. 2007 at the age of 85 years. The ceremony will last for one week. Today we will see the showing of the water buffalos, pigs, cow, horse, deer and chicken. All these animals are offered to be the servants of the died woman in her new life after death in Puya. We will see buffalo fighting. Men bet for the winner of those fightings. Two buffalos fight each other - the one running away lost the fight!
If you wonder why the quality of the pictures is a little less: these are no photographs - it all are snapshots of my videos! So sorry for the less resolution, but I think, they are worth to be shown.
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The Toraja are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja ("Land of Toraja"). Most of the population is Christian, and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk ("the way"). The Indonesian government has recognized this animist belief as Aluk To Dolo ("Way of the Ancestors").
The word toraja comes from the Bugis Buginese language term to riaja, meaning "people of the uplands". The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909. Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites, burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan, and colorful wood carvings. Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people and lasting for several days.
Before the 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity. When the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia: it was exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists. By the 1990s, when tourism peaked, Toraja society had changed significantly, from an agrarian model - in which social life and customs were outgrowths of the Aluk To Dolo - to a largely Christian society. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for major changes in the Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia and enhancing Toraja ethnic group pride.
ETHNIC IDENTITY
The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as a distinct ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonization and Christianization, Torajans, who lived in highland areas, identified with their villages and did not share a broad sense of identity. Although complexes of rituals created linkages between highland villages, there were variations in dialects, differences in social hierarchies, and an array of ritual practices in the Sulawesi highland region. "Toraja" (from the coastal languages' to, meaning people; and riaja, uplands) was first used as a lowlander expression for highlanders. As a result, "Toraja" initially had more currency with outsiders - such as the Bugis and Makassarese, who constitute a majority of the lowland of Sulawesi - than with insiders. The Dutch missionaries' presence in the highlands gave rise to the Toraja ethnic consciousness in the Sa'dan Toraja region, and this shared identity grew with the rise of tourism in the Tana Toraja Regency. Since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups - the Bugis (the majority, including shipbuilders and seafarers), the Makassarese (lowland traders and seafarers), the Mandarese (traders and fishermen), and the Toraja (highland rice cultivators).
HISTORY
From the 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company. Over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among the Makassarese and Bugis peoples. The Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians. In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government. In addition to introducing Christianity, the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sa'dan area and called Tana Toraja ("the land of Toraja"). Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap, and it was recognized in 1957 as one of the regencies of Indonesia.
Early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch, where they could be more easily controlled. Taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, and only a few Torajans were converted. In 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity.
In the 1930s, Muslim lowlanders attacked the Torajans, resulting in widespread Christian conversion among those who sought to align themselves with the Dutch for political protection and to form a movement against the Bugis and Makassarese Muslims. Between 1951 and 1965 (following Indonesian independence), southern Sulawesi faced a turbulent period as the Darul Islam separatist movement fought for an Islamic state in Sulawesi. The 15 years of guerrilla warfare led to massive conversions to
CHRISTIANITY
Alignment with the Indonesian government, however, did not guarantee safety for the Torajans. In 1965, a presidential decree required every Indonesian citizen to belong to one of five officially recognized religions: Islam, Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), Hinduism, or Buddhism. The Torajan religious belief (aluk) was not legally recognized, and the Torajans raised their voices against the law. To make aluk accord with the law, it had to be accepted as part of one of the official religions. In 1969, Aluk To Dolo ("the way of ancestors") was legalized as a sect of Agama Hindu Dharma, the official name of Hinduism in Indonesia.
SOCIETY
There are three main types of affiliation in Toraja society: family, class and religion.
FAMILY AFFILIATION
Family is the primary social and political grouping in Torajan society. Each village is one extended family, the seat of which is the tongkonan, a traditional Torajan house. Each tongkonan has a name, which becomes the name of the village. The familial dons maintain village unity. Marriage between distant cousins (fourth cousins and beyond) is a common practice that strengthens kinship. Toraja society prohibits marriage between close cousins (up to and including the third cousin) - except for nobles, to prevent the dispersal of property. Kinship is actively reciprocal, meaning that the extended family helps each other farm, share buffalo rituals, and pay off debts.
Each person belongs to both the mother's and the father's families, the only bilateral family line in Indonesia. Children, therefore, inherit household affiliation from both mother and father, including land and even family debts. Children's names are given on the basis of kinship, and are usually chosen after dead relatives. Names of aunts, uncles and cousins are commonly referred to in the names of mothers, fathers and siblings.
Before the start of the formal administration of Toraja villages by the Tana Toraja Regency, each Toraja village was autonomous. In a more complex situation, in which one Toraja family could not handle their problems alone, several villages formed a group; sometimes, villages would unite against other villages. Relationship between families was expressed through blood, marriage, and shared ancestral houses (tongkonan), practically signed by the exchange of water buffalo and pigs on ritual occasions. Such exchanges not only built political and cultural ties between families but defined each person's place in a social hierarchy: who poured palm wine, who wrapped a corpse and prepared offerings, where each person could or could not sit, what dishes should be used or avoided, and even what piece of meat constituted one's share.
CLASS AFFILIATION
In early Toraja society, family relationships were tied closely to social class. There were three strata: nobles, commoners, and slaves (slavery was abolished in 1909 by the Dutch East Indies government). Class was inherited through the mother. It was taboo, therefore, to marry "down" with a woman of lower class. On the other hand, marrying a woman of higher class could improve the status of the next generation. The nobility's condescending attitude toward the commoners is still maintained today for reasons of family prestige.
Nobles, who were believed to be direct descendants of the descended person from heaven, lived in tongkonans, while commoners lived in less lavish houses (bamboo shacks called banua). Slaves lived in small huts, which had to be built around their owner's tongkonan. Commoners might marry anyone, but nobles preferred to marry in-family to maintain their status. Sometimes nobles married Bugis or Makassarese nobles. Commoners and slaves were prohibited from having death feasts. Despite close kinship and status inheritance, there was some social mobility, as marriage or change in wealth could affect an individuals status. Wealth was counted by the ownership of water buffaloes.
Slaves in Toraja society were family property. Sometimes Torajans decided to become slaves when they incurred a debt, pledging to work as payment. Slaves could be taken during wars, and slave trading was common. Slaves could buy their freedom, but their children still inherited slave status. Slaves were prohibited from wearing bronze or gold, carving their houses, eating from the same dishes as their owners, or having sex with free women - a crime punishable by death.
RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION
Toraja's indigenous belief system is polytheistic animism, called aluk, or "the way" (sometimes translated as "the law"). In the Toraja myth, the ancestors of Torajan people came down from heaven using stairs, which were then used by the Torajans as a communication medium with Puang Matua, the Creator. The cosmos, according to aluk, is divided into the upper world (heaven), the world of man (earth), and the underworld. At first, heaven and earth were married, then there was a darkness, a separation, and finally the light. Animals live in the underworld, which is represented by rectangular space enclosed by pillars, the earth is for mankind, and the heaven world is located above, covered with a saddle-shaped roof. Other Toraja gods include Pong Banggai di Rante (god of Earth), Indo' Ongon-Ongon (a goddess who can cause earthquakes), Pong Lalondong (god of death), and Indo' Belo Tumbang (goddess of medicine); there are many more.
The earthly authority, whose words and actions should be cleaved to both in life (agriculture) and death (funerals), is called to minaa (an aluk priest). Aluk is not just a belief system; it is a combination of law, religion, and habit. Aluk governs social life, agricultural practices, and ancestral rituals. The details of aluk may vary from one village to another. One common law is the requirement that death and life rituals be separated. Torajans believe that performing death rituals might ruin their corpses if combined with life rituals. The two rituals are equally important. During the time of the Dutch missionaries, Christian Torajans were prohibited from attending or performing life rituals, but were allowed to perform death rituals. Consequently, Toraja's death rituals are still practised today, while life rituals have diminished.
CULTURE
TONGKONAN
Tongkonan are the traditional Torajan ancestral houses. They stand high on wooden piles, topped with a layered split-bamboo roof shaped in a sweeping curved arc, and they are incised with red, black, and yellow detailed wood carvings on the exterior walls. The word "tongkonan" comes from the Torajan tongkon ("to sit").
Tongkonan are the center of Torajan social life. The rituals associated with the tongkonan are important expressions of Torajan spiritual life, and therefore all family members are impelled to participate, because symbolically the tongkonan represents links to their ancestors and to living and future kin. According to Torajan myth, the first tongkonan was built in heaven on four poles, with a roof made of Indian cloth. When the first Torajan ancestor descended to earth, he imitated the house and held a large ceremony.
The construction of a tongkonan is laborious work and is usually done with the help of the extended family. There are three types of tongkonan. The tongkonan layuk is the house of the highest authority, used as the "center of government". The tongkonan pekamberan belongs to the family members who have some authority in local traditions. Ordinary family members reside in the tongkonan batu. The exclusivity to the nobility of the tongkonan is diminishing as many Torajan commoners find lucrative employment in other parts of Indonesia. As they send back money to their families, they enable the construction of larger tongkonan.
WOOD CARVINGS
To express social and religious concepts, Torajans carve wood, calling it Pa'ssura (or "the writing"). Wood carvings are therefore Toraja's cultural manifestation.
Each carving receives a special name, and common motifs are animals and plants that symbolize some virtue. For example, water plants and animals, such as crabs, tadpoles and water weeds, are commonly found to symbolize fertility. In some areas noble elders claim these symbols refer to strength of noble family, but not everyone agrees. The overall meaning of groups of carved motifs on houses remains debated and tourism has further complicated these debates because some feel a uniform explanation must be presented to tourists. The image to the left shows an example of Torajan wood carving, consisting of 15 square panels. The center bottom panel represents buffalo or wealth, a wish for many buffaloes for the family. The center panel represents a knot and a box, a hope that all of the family's offspring will be happy and live in harmony, like goods kept safe in a box. The top left and top right squares represent an aquatic animal, indicating the need for fast and hard work, just like moving on the surface of water. It also represents the need for a certain skill to produce good results.
Regularity and order are common features in Toraja wood carving (see table below), as well as abstracts and geometrical designs. Nature is frequently used as the basis of Toraja's ornaments, because nature is full of abstractions and geometries with regularities and ordering. Toraja's ornaments have been studied in ethnomathematics to reveal their mathematical structure, but Torajans base this art only on approximations. To create an ornament, bamboo sticks are used as a geometrical tool.
FUNERAL RITES
In Toraja society, the funeral ritual is the most elaborate and expensive event. The richer and more powerful the individual, the more expensive is the funeral. In the aluk religion, only nobles have the right to have an extensive death feast. The death feast of a nobleman is usually attended by thousands and lasts for several days. A ceremonial site, called rante, is usually prepared in a large, grassy field where shelters for audiences, rice barns, and other ceremonial funeral structures are specially made by the deceased family. Flute music, funeral chants, songs and poems, and crying and wailing are traditional Toraja expressions of grief with the exceptions of funerals for young children, and poor, low-status adults.
The ceremony is often held weeks, months, or years after the death so that the deceased's family can raise the significant funds needed to cover funeral expenses. Torajans traditionally believe that death is not a sudden, abrupt event, but a gradual process toward Puya (the land of souls, or afterlife). During the waiting period, the body of the deceased is wrapped in several layers of cloth and kept under the tongkonan. The soul of the deceased is thought to linger around the village until the funeral ceremony is completed, after which it begins its journey to Puya.
Another component of the ritual is the slaughter of water buffalo. The more powerful the person who died, the more buffalo are slaughtered at the death feast. Buffalo carcasses, including their heads, are usually lined up on a field waiting for their owner, who is in the "sleeping stage". Torajans believe that the deceased will need the buffalo to make the journey and that they will be quicker to arrive at Puya if they have many buffalo. Slaughtering tens of water buffalo and hundreds of pigs using a machete is the climax of the elaborate death feast, with dancing and music and young boys who catch spurting blood in long bamboo tubes. Some of the slaughtered animals are given by guests as "gifts", which are carefully noted because they will be considered debts of the deceased's family. However, a cockfight, known as bulangan londong, is an integral part of the ceremony. As with the sacrifice of the buffalo and the pigs, the cockfight is considered sacred because it involves the spilling of blood on the earth. In particular, the tradition requires the sacrifice of at least three chickens. However, it is common for at least 25 pairs of chickens to be set against each other in the context of the ceremony.
There are three methods of burial: the coffin may be laid in a cave or in a carved stone grave, or hung on a cliff. It contains any possessions that the deceased will need in the afterlife. The wealthy are often buried in a stone grave carved out of a rocky cliff. The grave is usually expensive and takes a few months to complete. In some areas, a stone cave may be found that is large enough to accommodate a whole family. A wood-carved effigy, called Tau tau, is usually placed in the cave looking out over the land. The coffin of a baby or child may be hung from ropes on a cliff face or from a tree. This hanging grave usually lasts for years, until the ropes rot and the coffin falls to the ground.
In the ritual called Ma'Nene, that takes place each year in August, the bodies of the deceased are exhumed to be washed, groomed and dressed in new clothes. The mummies are then walked around the village.
DANCE AND MUSIC
Torajans perform dances on several occasions, most often during their elaborate funeral ceremonies. They dance to express their grief, and to honour and even cheer the deceased person because he is going to have a long journey in the afterlife. First, a group of men form a circle and sing a monotonous chant throughout the night to honour the deceased (a ritual called Ma'badong). This is considered by many Torajans to be the most important component of the funeral ceremony. On the second funeral day, the Ma'randing warrior dance is performed to praise the courage of the deceased during life. Several men perform the dance with a sword, a large shield made from buffalo skin, a helmet with a buffalo horn, and other ornamentation. The Ma'randing dance precedes a procession in which the deceased is carried from a rice barn to the rante, the site of the funeral ceremony. During the funeral, elder women perform the Ma'katia dance while singing a poetic song and wearing a long feathered costume. The Ma'akatia dance is performed to remind the audience of the generosity and loyalty of the deceased person. After the bloody ceremony of buffalo and pig slaughter, a group of boys and girls clap their hands while performing a cheerful dance called Ma'dondan.
As in other agricultural societies, Torajans dance and sing during harvest time. The Ma'bugi dance celebrates the thanksgiving event, and the Ma'gandangi dance is performed while Torajans are pounding rice. There are several war dances, such as the Manimbong dance performed by men, followed by the Ma'dandan dance performed by women. The aluk religion governs when and how Torajans dance. A dance called Ma'bua can be performed only once every 12 years. Ma'bua is a major Toraja ceremony in which priests wear a buffalo head and dance around a sacred tree.
A traditional musical instrument of the Toraja is a bamboo flute called a Pa'suling (suling is an Indonesian word for flute). This six-holed flute (not unique to the Toraja) is played at many dances, such as the thanksgiving dance Ma'bondensan, where the flute accompanies a group of shirtless, dancing men with long fingernails. The Toraja have indigenous musical instruments, such as the Pa'pelle (made from palm leaves) and the Pa'karombi (the Torajan version of a jaw harp). The Pa'pelle is played during harvest time and at house inauguration ceremonies.
LANGUAGE
The ethnic Toraja language is dominant in Tana Toraja with the main language as the Sa'dan Toraja. Although the national Indonesian language is the official language and is spoken in the community, all elementary schools in Tana Toraja teach Toraja language.Language varieties of Toraja, including Kalumpang, Mamasa, Tae' , Talondo' , Toala' , and Toraja-Sa'dan, belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language from the Austronesian family. At the outset, the isolated geographical nature of Tana Toraja formed many dialects between the Toraja languages themselves. After the formal administration of Tana Toraja, some Toraja dialects have been influenced by other languages through the transmigration program, introduced since the colonialism period, and it has been a major factor in the linguistic variety of Toraja languages. A prominent attribute of Toraja language is the notion of grief. The importance of death ceremony in Toraja culture has characterized their languages to express intricate degrees of grief and mourning. The Toraja language contains many terms referring to sadness, longing, depression, and mental pain. Giving a clear expression of the psychological and physical effect of loss is a catharsis and sometimes lessens the pain of grief itself.
ECONOMY
Prior to Suharto's "New Order" administration, the Torajan economy was based on agriculture, with cultivated wet rice in terraced fields on mountain slopes, and supplemental cassava and maize crops. Much time and energy were devoted to raising water buffalo, pigs, and chickens, primarily for ceremonial sacrifices and consumption. Coffee was the first significant cash crop produced in Toraja, and was introduced in the mid 19th century, changing the local economy towards commodity production for external markets and gaining an excellent reputation for quality in the international market .
With the commencement of the New Order in 1965, Indonesia's economy developed and opened to foreign investment. In Toraja, a coffee plantation and factory was established by Key Coffee of Japan, and Torajan coffee regained a reputation for quality within the growing international specialty coffee sector Multinational oil and mining companies opened new operations in Indonesia during the 1970s and 1980s. Torajans, particularly younger ones, relocated to work for the foreign companies - to Kalimantan for timber and oil, to Papua for mining, to the cities of Sulawesi and Java, and many went to Malaysia. The out-migration of Torajans was steady until 1985. and has continued since, with remittances sent back by emigre Torajans performing an important role within the contemporary economy.
Tourism commenced in Toraja in the 1970s, and accelerated in the 1980s and 1990s. Between 1984 and 1997, a significant number of Torajans obtained their incomes from tourism, working in and owning hotels, as tour guides, drivers, or selling souvenirs. With the rise of political and economic instability in Indonesia in the late 1990s - including religious conflicts elsewhere on Sulawesi - tourism in Tana Toraja has declined dramatically. Toraja continues to be a well known origin for Indonesian coffee, grown by both smallholders and plantation estates, although migration, remittances and off-farm income is considered far more important to most households, even those in rural areas.
TOURISM AND CULTURAL CHANGE
Before the 1970s, Toraja was almost unknown to Western tourism. In 1971, about 50 Europeans visited Tana Toraja. In 1972, at least 400 visitors attended the funeral ritual of Puang of Sangalla, the highest-ranking nobleman in Tana Toraja and the so-called "last pure-blooded Toraja noble." The event was documented by National Geographic and broadcast in several European countries. In 1976, about 12,000 tourists visited the regency and in 1981, Torajan sculpture was exhibited in major North American museums. "The land of the heavenly kings of Tana Toraja", as written in the exhibition brochure, embraced the outside world.
In 1984, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism declared Tana Toraja Regency the prima donna of South Sulawesi. Tana Toraja was heralded as "the second stop after Bali". Tourism was increasing dramatically: by 1985, a total number of 150,000 foreigners had visited the Regency (in addition to 80,000 domestic tourists), and the annual number of foreign visitors was recorded at 40,000 in 1989. Souvenir stands appeared in Rantepao, the cultural center of Toraja, roads were sealed at the most-visited tourist sites, new hotels and tourist-oriented restaurants were opened, and an airstrip was opened in the Regency in 1981.
Tourism developers have marketed Tana Toraja as an exotic adventure - an area rich in culture and off the beaten track. Western tourists expected to see stone-age villages and pagan funerals. Toraja is for tourists who have gone as far as Bali and are willing to see more of the wild, "untouched" islands. However, they were more likely to see a Torajan wearing a hat and denim, living in a Christian society. Tourists felt that the tongkonan and other Torajan rituals had been preconceived to make profits, and complained that the destination was too commercialized. This has resulted in several clashes between Torajans and tourism developers, whom Torajans see as outsiders.
A clash between local Torajan leaders and the South Sulawesi provincial government (as a tourist developer) broke out in 1985. The government designated 18 Toraja villages and burial sites as traditional tourist attractions. Consequently, zoning restrictions were applied to these areas, such that Torajans themselves were barred from changing their tongkonans and burial sites. The plan was opposed by some Torajan leaders, as they felt that their rituals and traditions were being determined by outsiders. As a result, in 1987, the Torajan village of Kété Kesú and several other designated tourist attractions closed their doors to tourists. This closure lasted only a few days, as the villagers found it too difficult to survive without the income from selling souvenirs.
Tourism has also transformed Toraja society. Originally, there was a ritual which allowed commoners to marry nobles (puang) and thereby gain nobility for their children. However, the image of Torajan society created for the tourists, often by "lower-ranking" guides, has eroded its traditional strict hierarchy. High status is not as esteemed in Tana Toraja as it once was. Many low-ranking men can declare themselves and their children nobles by gaining enough wealth through work outside the region and then marrying a noble woman.
WIKIPEDIA