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It breaks my heart that the little ol' abandoned house this was taken in is being renovated into a retirement village :(
National Guard and Falfurrias (FLF) Station agents conduct firearms qualifications May 21, in the Hollywood Camp (La Borcitas Creek Ranch). The National Guard will relieve agents of Range Safety Officer duties during Operation Guardian Support, which allows agents to return to enforcement duties...Photographer: Border Patrol Agent Arturo Villalobos
This was a special cookie, and I worked very hard to come up with a UNIQUE design for them. They were ordered by a wife for her husband who is finishing his third tour of duty in Iraq. This was for their anniversary. I didn't ask a lot of questions, but their "thing" is sheep. So this is my sheep with an army twist. Camo background, dog tags, and a heart from his wife.
I made an exception to my ABSOLUTELY NO SHIPPING rule. I packed them for her, and her best friend agreed to ship them. I am very glad it worked out so well. Now lets pray they make it to Iraq safely and in a timely manner!
Considering new information about the real impact of the whole story with the stalkers and the band, we thought that for once, they really need a huge demonstration of love from their real fans.
We were here for them , when bill was sick... and along all things they went through this last 3 years and half.
Thats why we raised up a Fanaction, that we need to be global and international to show them our endless support and respect for their music and for the boys they are.
So here is the deal, i’m part of the French forum THSekunde (http://tokiohotelsekunde.forumandco.com/). We believe most of the Fanctions won’t be known by the band (unfortunately), or even by other fans worldwide. That’s why we decided to organize a BIG GLOBAL action for all the countries supporting Tokio Hotel, not only Tom, but all the band.
We want to do a big download day on the song « ich bin da » (or “by your side”, depends on your country). The aim is to make a huge buzz and to take the song on the top of the worldwide charts ! If it succeeds, the band, medias, people, and all fans will know it immediately : why a song available for 2 years (1 year in some countries) is suddendly #1 ? We choose “ich bin da” because of the lyrics. We want this action to be broadcast everywhere the same day.
We all know the atmosphere is extremely COLD between worldwide fans, it’is the biggest opportunity to change it and show everyone that we are united by music. As a return to the source. The download-day will be on May, 16th on iTunes.
Some of the staff from this forum will be back to explain you how iTunes works.
Thanks for helping us to support our boys.
The Official Fanclubs from Croatia, Switzerland, Estonia, Italy, France, and USA are already ok with the project. We're waiting for the others.
If you have any questions, thsekunde@hotmail.fr
If you have a PC problem, and you know where to find him. Maybe you can call... PC Support Man.
Running low on FDF ideas... so I've had to delve into my own past here.
The now-rare Creative Master Northcord Mercedes Sprinter is an excellent model but can be improved still further with a set of whitemetal wheels to represent the heavier-duty 515CDI model as seen here. Inspired a pair of such vehicles operated by Buckinghamshire Fire & Rescue, this one is designated an operational support unit and is towing a scratchbuilt trailer carrying hose reels.
Swedish Air Force Historic Flight support Citation bathed in evening sunshine in the enormous static display at RIAT 2022, RAF Fairford, Gloucestershire. With an early start to the flying, we were left with a lot to get round in the evening and Fairford is a huge base... Well worth it though to see so many armed forces' aircraft (and privately owned historic military aircraft for that matter) gathered in one place in superb weather. A vintage RIAT.
Some fabulous art work done by our great "inclusion" support teacher Elaine. These drawings were done to support workshops for district staff and classroom teachers.
Best viewed large.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
In early 1968, the Soviet Ministry of Defense decided to develop a specialized shturmovik armored assault aircraft in order to provide close air support for the Soviet Ground Forces. The idea of creating a ground-support aircraft came about after analyzing the experience of shturmovaya (ground attack) aviation during World War II, and in local wars during the 1950s and 1960s. The Soviet fighter-bombers in service or under development at this time (Su-7, Su-17, MiG-21 and MiG-23) did not meet the requirements for close air support of the army. They lacked essential armor plating to protect the pilot and vital equipment from ground fire and missile hits, and their high flight speeds made it difficult for the pilot to maintain visual contact with a target. Ordnance load and loiter time were also insufficient.
In March 1969, a competition was announced by the Soviet Air Force that called for designs for a new battlefield close-support aircraft. Participants in the competition were the Design Bureaus of Sukhoi, Yakovlev, Ilyushin and Mikoyan. The original request was for a simple, relavtively light aircraft, that was easy to produce and maintain and would allow a high survivabilty in a combat environment.
The aircraft was to be powered by two Ivchenko AI-25T non-afterburning turbofans, each with a thrust of 1.750 kgp (3.860 lbst) - a modification of the AI-25 developed for the Yak-40 feederliner, and the same engine that powered the Czech-built L-39 Albatros trainer. The aircraft was to carry an internal cannon and was only intended to carry unguided weapons - bombs of up to 500 kg caliber and rockets/rocket pods.Sighting was to be simple, consisting of a collimating gunsight and a laser rangefinder.
Normal combat payload was to be 1.500 kg (3.310 lb), increasing to 2.500 kg (5.511 lb) in overload configuration. Normal TOW would be 8.200 kg (18.080 lb) and MTOW in the 10.000 kg (22.050 lb) range
All OKBs made submissions, but in the course of the proposals the requirements were widened, eventually necessitating a bigger, more capable aircraft. This eventually led to the Ilyushin’s Il-42 (later renamed into Il-102) and Sukhoi’s T-8 (the later Su-25), which remained in the official competition and the Su-25 would, aftre a long development phase, turn out to be the winner.
OKB Yakovlev had been late with its submission, which was still based on the original requirement. it was clear that their aircraft, internally known as the Yak-35, would neither meet the more demanding profile, nor offer the development potential for a heavier type. Anyway, OKB Yakovlev kept the development going, as a lot of export potential was expected.
Until May 1970 a total of three prototypes were built and successfully tested. The Yak-35 was a compact aircraft with clean lines, and it took the experience from the recently built (but rejected) Yak-30/32 trainer (NATO code "Magnum/Mantis") further. The modern design featured shoulder-mounted, slightly swept wings and a swept cruciform tail. The AI-25T engines were buried side by side in the rear fuselage, fed by lateral air intakes. The pilot sat in an armored cockpit that would withstand 0.5" caliber fire, and the slanted nose offered good for- and downward view. The aircraft reminded vaguely of the Saab 105 trainer or Sukhoi's initial, light T-8 design.
The rugged landing gear with single low pressure tires retracted into the fuselage. Armement compriseda pair of 30mm Nudelman-Richter NR-30 cannons with 100RPG, mounted under the air intakes, and a total of seven hardpoints (three under each wing, one under the fuselage) for ordnance. The inner pair of pylons was "wet" and could carry PTB-600 drop tanks, the fuselage hardpoint was intended for extre equipment like a reconnaissance pod, an ECM jammer or (in later versions, see below) guidance pods for air to ground missiles. For self-defence, IR-guided missiles like the R-3S, R-13M and later the R-60 could be carried on the outer pylons.
Avionics included a passive SPO-10 Sirena 3M RHAWS, coupled with a set of KDS-23 chaff/flare dispensers at the rear base of the fin, and an active SPS-141 Siren jammer. A Fon laser rangefinder was fitted into the nose tip, coupled with an S-17VG-1sighting mechanism, a DISS-7 doppler speed and drift measurement unit and a PKB-3 sight for toss bombing, an ASP-17B gunsight, an RV-5R radar altimeter and a V-144 computer.
Western officials first became aware of the new type during the October Parade 1972 in Moscow, when the three initial Yak-35 made a single pass at medium altitude. The unknown type immediately received the NATO code "Fraudster". The prototypes and two static airframes continued the development program at slow pace - no serious problem occured, and the Yak-35 turned out to be a stable and agile weapon platform, receiving positive praise from the test pilots.
As time went by, things turned into favor of the the Yak-35, which eventually got its chance: As the shturmovaya program around the Su-25 ran into more and more delay, and a new attack aircraft was direly needed - not long ago, tensions with China concerning the disputed Damanskiy and Kirkinskiy Islands on the Ussuri River had caused much alert. Finally, the Yak-35 was ordered into production, while parts of its fuselage design had already been used for the Yak-38 VTOL aircraft for the Soviet Navy.
From 1974 on the Yak-35 was delivered to front line squadrons, in parallel with the VG Su-17 fighter bomber. The service aircraft were updated with Delta-N radio guidance equipment, placed in a fairing in front of the fin, which would allow the Yak-35D ('dorabotanyy' = Updated; NATO code "Fraudster B") to carry radio-guided AGMs like the Kh23 or Kh-25 missiles. The emitter had to be carried in an external pod, though, normally placed under the fuselage. A pair of these missiles could be carried on launch rails on the inner pair of pylons.
A total of 110 Yak-35Ds were built until 1979, all of them remained in Soviet Air Force Service, and almost exclusively in transbaikalian units. None of them were deployed to Afghanistan, as the rather weak engine powered was deemed unsatisfactory for the 'hot and high' conflict theatre.
From 1982 on the Yak-35Ds were quickly replaced by the then-finally-ready Su-25 and relegated into second line services. Most of the remaining Yak-35Ds were kept in use for weapon training, mostly at flight academies along MiG-21 fighters until 1990, and some served as target tugs with frontline units in the Far East. No specimen was ever exported.
General characteristics
Crew: One
Length incl. pitot: 14.54 m (47 ft 7 3/4 in) incl. pitot
Wingspan: 9,52 m (31 ft 2½ in)
Height: 4.6 m (15 ft ½ in)
Empty weight: 6.525 kg (14.375 lb)
Loaded weight: 8.750 kg (19.275 lb)
Max. take-off weight: 11.400 kg (25.110 lb)
Powerplant:
2× Ivchenko AI-25T non-afterburning turbofans, each with a thrust of 1.750 kgp (3.860 lbst)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 1.050 km/h (652 mph/Mach 0.9) at height, clean configuration; 825 km/h (512 mph) with external stores at sea level
Range: 1.450 km (900 mi); high, clean configuration
Ferry range: 2.500 km (1,553 mi)
Service ceiling: 14.000 m (45.850 ft)
Rate of climb: 76 m/s (14.936 ft/min)
Thrust/weight: 0.54
Armament:
2× NR-30 30mm cannons with 100 RPG
7 hardpoints for up to 2.500 kg (5.511 lb) of external ordnance, including rails for 2× IR-guided air-to-air missiles for and a wide variety of general-purpose bombs, cluster bombs, gun pods, rocket pods, drop tanks and radio-guided air-to-surface missiles like the Kh-23 or Kh-25.
The kit and its assembly:
This fantasy thing was spawned by the vague thought that one could turn the rather crude Yak-38 kit from Tsukuda Hobby into "something pretty". The plan had been lingering for some time, and when I got hands on an incomplete Yak-38 (Revell re-boxing of the kit, canopy missing) I eventually started with the surgery, letting inspiration and donation parts flow.
I had a vague idea of what the aircraft should look like, but the overall layout evolved step by step. One initial measure was to shorten the fuselage considerably: plugs from in front of and behind the original wings were cut out, and the remaining three fuselage pieces glued together. As the fuselage has an almost even diameter and shape all along its length, this turned out to be pretty easy, but still needed considerably putty work.
The original fittings for the wings and tail surfaces were then filled with styrene plugs and sanded even.
Moving the wings from their original mid-position to the shoulders was already something I had in mind before the project started. But the eventual solution just evolved as I had the fuselage ready and could judge positions and proportions.
The wings I used come from a Alpha Jet (Heller), and they were not simply stuck to the fuselage. Due to the curved back of the Yak-38 I had to add a kind of console, made from the upper wing's mid section of a Matchbox SBC Helldiver biplane (!). This connector piece was placed into a carved fairing on top of the fuselage, the new wings attached to it, and the missing bodywork sculpted with 2C putty. This way I was able to blend the new arrangement into the rest of the body with matching wing roots, without having it look as if the wings had simple been stuck onto it. The result is pretty good, looks rather organic.
The tail is new, too. Original plan had been to use the Yak-38 tail, maybe with a T-tail arrangement - but that simply did not look good. Finding a replacement was tough, I finally settled on an A-4M (Italeri) fin, which had to be modified with a clipped top, Yak-38 style, in order NOT to remind too much of the Douglas creation! It fits in shape and size, though.
New stabilizers had to be used, too - the original Yak-38 looked much too small and flimsy. A T-tail was not possible anymore, so I used a cruciform tail, A-4 style, even though the stabilizers had to be moved upwards since the Yak-38 tail is much wider than an A-4. The stabilizers themselves are new, too: a pair of F-86 fins(!), leftover from Hobby Boss kits. They are a bit thick, but look great and blend well into the whole arrangement.
The main landing gear was taken OOB, but with new wheels and extra struts fitted. The front wheel is totally new, it belongs to a Fiat G-91. The cockpit received a new seat (from a MiG-29), a pilot figure and a primitive dashboard, and a donation canopy had to be found and integrated (I think it comes from a Tamiya 1:100 F-105).
All around the hull small details were added, including the seven pylons and the rocket pod ordnance.
Painting and markings:
It took a while and some research to turn up a suitable, tactical paint scheme. Normally I keep whifs rather subtle, and I did not want to paint the Yak-35 in a dark green/brown scheme, typical for Eastern Europe aircraft.
Afghanistan was a vague idea, a desert/mountainous scheme, as well as the Su-25 prototype which appreared at Le Bourget ("301 Blue"), with its two-tone brown livery and a few green accents.
I finally found a Su-7UM trainer in a light, three-tone camouflage which I transplanted on my Yak-35. It consists of two sand tones (Humbrol 187 and 63) and a green tone (Humbrol 155). Looks rather surreal! The undersides are kept in Russian Blue (Humbrol 115).
Since much of the fuselage consists of pure putty and re-engraving would be rather hazardous I painted panel lines, with a mix of sepia ink and acrylic matt varnish. A second-best solution, but the result is O.K., when you do not take a closer look...
The whole thing received a light wash with black ink in order to emphasize panel line and details and the leading edges were lightly dry-brushed with pale grey. Basic colors were also ‘tamed down’ trough dry painting with shades of light beige and grey, for a worn and bleached look.
Cockpit interior was painted in typical, Soviet "anti fatigue" turquoise, the landing gear was painted in a mix of Aluminum and Olive Drab. Di-electric panels were painted in a bright green, a mix of Humbrol 2 and 175.
Most markings come from the scrap box, insignia and tactical code come from a Carpena Decals 1:72 MiG17 aftermarket sheet.
This thing was a major surgical act, but turned out nicely. With an arrestor hook this could also have become a maritime fighter bomber, e. g. an alternative to the French Dassault Ètendard or the Jaguar M? It looks familiar, has some serious Su-25 appeal, yet the thing looks unique. And the desert/mountain style paint scheme suits the aircraft well.
While I'm working Kippie gives me lots of "support" in the office. Poor thing... worked so hard he just had to get in a quick nap!
All rights reserved ©2023
Amsterdam Light Festival 2015
Infinite Support is a project created by the Dutch collective Lightform, which is made up by the young creatives Dorus van Lieshout, Ivar Posthumus, Daniël Thomassen and Raoul van der Ploeg. The collective, four sworn friends, focuses on finding exiting applications of new technologies. With Infinite Support they translated their ideas about friendship into a beautiful light object. ’To us friendship means supporting one another through thick and thin. As far as we’re concerned, friendship is never ending.’
What we see are two drop-shaped objects, visible from afar beause of the subtle changes of different colours of light, enticing the public to come closer. The two shapes turn out to need each other to stay upright. If we come even closer, the sculpture, that can be touched, turns out to contain mirrors, suggesting an unfathomable depth. According to Lightform, the mirrors symbolise real friendship: a bond without limits.
(Source: www.amsterdamlightfestival.com/en)
Taken by: Emiel Dekker (emield.myportfolio.com/)
This weekend, the students of DePauw University will unite with a tremendous display of campus support for the 2005 Special Olympics Indiana Women's State Basketball Tournament. Thirty-eight Special Olympics Indiana basketball teams will compete Saturday and Sunday, March 12 and 13 in state championship competition at the University's Lilly Physical Education and Recreation Center. The event takes place, in part, thanks to the support of the Finish Line® Youth Foundation.
"DePauw basically adopts this event and does the nuts and bolts to make it happen," said Scott Mingle, assistant director of sports management for Special Olympics Indiana. "The students do so much, from getting tables and special olympics logo.gifchairs in place to providing volunteers to run registration and serve as court captains, timekeepers, scorers and announcers. They house Special Olympics athletes, throw parties for the teams, and ensure that the athletes experience this as a big-time tournament."
Thirty-eight teams consisting of 382 players will compete Saturday and Sunday at the annual state championship -- the world's largest Special Olympics women's basketball tournament. Athletes range in age from nine to 61.
Tournament competition includes rounds of play in 10 divisions organized by team ability level. Prior to competing in the state tournament, all teams completed a required minimum of eight weeks of training and played at least two games within the Special Olympics Indiana basketball program. All state tournament games will play on the courts of the main gymnasium at the Lilly Center.
Ehasz Giacalone Architects P. C., of Farmingdale, NY, designed the two-story Research Support Building, which features a glass atrium-style lobby connecting two wings of offices covered by a metal panel facade. The Science Laboratory Infrastructure Program of the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science funded the total cost of the $12.6 million building.
The Research Support Building tops New York State requirements for energy efficiency by 15 percent, and the structure is considered "green," or environmentally friendly, based on the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design, also known as LEED, rating system.
RFA Diligence was a forward repair ship of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary. Launched in 1981 as a support ship for North Sea oil rigs, she was chartered by the British government to support naval activities during the 1982 Falklands War and was later bought outright as a fleet maintenance vessel.
In 2016 she was decommissioned and put up for sale by the Ministry of Defence. In March 2017, Diligence was towed from Birkenhead to Portsmouth where she was waiting for disposal when this picture was taken
younger generation thinks that the older generation would need their support...but its the other way round...we shall always need the shoulders and experience of the older generation....
U.S. Army Soldiers conduct marksmanship training during cultural support training.The U.S. Army Special Operations Command's cultural support program prepares all-female Soldier teams to serve as enablers supporting Army special operations- combat forces in and around secured objective areas. The Cultural Support Assessment and Selection program is conducted by the U.S Army John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School at Fort Bragg, N.C. and is five days of physical, mental and intellectual evaluations designed to determine a candidate's ability to maintain her composure, apply logic, communicate clearly and solve problems in demanding environments. During this time, candidates are expected to skillfully manage simultaneous tasks and comprehend ambiguous instructions while working under varying degrees of uncertainty with little feedback. The program is as much a mental test as it is a physical test. The desired outcome of Assessment and Selection is a candidate pool of female Soldiers who are eager to serve with an Army special - operations unit. Their primary task is to engage female populations in objective areas when such contact may be deemed culturally inappropriate if performed by a male service member. The program is conducted at Camp Mackall, in Hofman N.C. If selected, candidates are invited back to Fort Bragg as Cultural Support training students. The training period is between four and six weeks and focuses on cross-cultural communication skills. Students are also trained to negotiate, mediate, communicate through an interpreter and engage with local leaders in a deployed environment. (U.S.Army photo by SSG. Russell Lee Klika JFKSWCSPAO).Released.
+++ DISCLAIMER +++
Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based historical facts. BEWARE!
Some background:
In early 1968, the Soviet Ministry of Defense decided to develop a specialized shturmovik armored assault aircraft in order to provide close air support for the Soviet Ground Forces. The idea of creating a ground-support aircraft came about after analyzing the experience of shturmovaya (ground attack) aviation during World War II, and in local wars during the 1950s and 1960s. The Soviet fighter-bombers in service or under development at this time (Su-7, Su-17, MiG-21 and MiG-23) did not meet the requirements for close air support of the army. They lacked essential armor plating to protect the pilot and vital equipment from ground fire and missile hits, and their high flight speeds made it difficult for the pilot to maintain visual contact with a target. Ordnance load and loiter time were also insufficient.
In March 1969, a competition was announced by the Soviet Air Force that called for designs for a new battlefield close-support aircraft. Participants in the competition were the Design Bureaus of Sukhoi, Yakovlev, Ilyushin and Mikoyan. The original request was for a simple, relavtively light aircraft, that was easy to produce and maintain and would allow a high survivabilty in a combat environment.
The aircraft was to be powered by two Ivchenko AI-25T non-afterburning turbofans, each with a thrust of 1.750 kgp (3.860 lbst) - a modification of the AI-25 developed for the Yak-40 feederliner, and the same engine that powered the Czech-built L-39 Albatros trainer. The aircraft was to carry an internal cannon and was only intended to carry unguided weapons - bombs of up to 500 kg caliber and rockets/rocket pods.Sighting was to be simple, consisting of a collimating gunsight and a laser rangefinder.
Normal combat payload was to be 1.500 kg (3.310 lb), increasing to 2.500 kg (5.511 lb) in overload configuration. Normal TOW would be 8.200 kg (18.080 lb) and MTOW in the 10.000 kg (22.050 lb) range
All OKBs made submissions, but in the course of the proposals the requirements were widened, eventually necessitating a bigger, more capable aircraft. This eventually led to the Ilyushin’s Il-42 (later renamed into Il-102) and Sukhoi’s T-8 (the later Su-25), which remained in the official competition and the Su-25 would, aftre a long development phase, turn out to be the winner.
OKB Yakovlev had been late with its submission, which was still based on the original requirement. it was clear that their aircraft, internally known as the Yak-35, would neither meet the more demanding profile, nor offer the development potential for a heavier type. Anyway, OKB Yakovlev kept the development going, as a lot of export potential was expected.
Until May 1970 a total of three prototypes were built and successfully tested. The Yak-35 was a compact aircraft with clean lines, and it took the experience from the recently built (but rejected) Yak-30/32 trainer (NATO code "Magnum/Mantis") further. The modern design featured shoulder-mounted, slightly swept wings and a swept cruciform tail. The AI-25T engines were buried side by side in the rear fuselage, fed by lateral air intakes. The pilot sat in an armored cockpit that would withstand 0.5" caliber fire, and the slanted nose offered good for- and downward view. The aircraft reminded vaguely of the Saab 105 trainer or Sukhoi's initial, light T-8 design.
The rugged landing gear with single low pressure tires retracted into the fuselage. Armement compriseda pair of 30mm Nudelman-Richter NR-30 cannons with 100RPG, mounted under the air intakes, and a total of seven hardpoints (three under each wing, one under the fuselage) for ordnance. The inner pair of pylons was "wet" and could carry PTB-600 drop tanks, the fuselage hardpoint was intended for extre equipment like a reconnaissance pod, an ECM jammer or (in later versions, see below) guidance pods for air to ground missiles. For self-defence, IR-guided missiles like the R-3S, R-13M and later the R-60 could be carried on the outer pylons.
Avionics included a passive SPO-10 Sirena 3M RHAWS, coupled with a set of KDS-23 chaff/flare dispensers at the rear base of the fin, and an active SPS-141 Siren jammer. A Fon laser rangefinder was fitted into the nose tip, coupled with an S-17VG-1sighting mechanism, a DISS-7 doppler speed and drift measurement unit and a PKB-3 sight for toss bombing, an ASP-17B gunsight, an RV-5R radar altimeter and a V-144 computer.
Western officials first became aware of the new type during the October Parade 1972 in Moscow, when the three initial Yak-35 made a single pass at medium altitude. The unknown type immediately received the NATO code "Fraudster". The prototypes and two static airframes continued the development program at slow pace - no serious problem occured, and the Yak-35 turned out to be a stable and agile weapon platform, receiving positive praise from the test pilots.
As time went by, things turned into favor of the the Yak-35, which eventually got its chance: As the shturmovaya program around the Su-25 ran into more and more delay, and a new attack aircraft was direly needed - not long ago, tensions with China concerning the disputed Damanskiy and Kirkinskiy Islands on the Ussuri River had caused much alert. Finally, the Yak-35 was ordered into production, while parts of its fuselage design had already been used for the Yak-38 VTOL aircraft for the Soviet Navy.
From 1974 on the Yak-35 was delivered to front line squadrons, in parallel with the VG Su-17 fighter bomber. The service aircraft were updated with Delta-N radio guidance equipment, placed in a fairing in front of the fin, which would allow the Yak-35D ('dorabotanyy' = Updated; NATO code "Fraudster B") to carry radio-guided AGMs like the Kh23 or Kh-25 missiles. The emitter had to be carried in an external pod, though, normally placed under the fuselage. A pair of these missiles could be carried on launch rails on the inner pair of pylons.
A total of 110 Yak-35Ds were built until 1979, all of them remained in Soviet Air Force Service, and almost exclusively in transbaikalian units. None of them were deployed to Afghanistan, as the rather weak engine powered was deemed unsatisfactory for the 'hot and high' conflict theatre.
From 1982 on the Yak-35Ds were quickly replaced by the then-finally-ready Su-25 and relegated into second line services. Most of the remaining Yak-35Ds were kept in use for weapon training, mostly at flight academies along MiG-21 fighters until 1990, and some served as target tugs with frontline units in the Far East. No specimen was ever exported.
General characteristics
Crew: One
Length incl. pitot: 14.54 m (47 ft 7 3/4 in) incl. pitot
Wingspan: 9,52 m (31 ft 2½ in)
Height: 4.6 m (15 ft ½ in)
Empty weight: 6.525 kg (14.375 lb)
Loaded weight: 8.750 kg (19.275 lb)
Max. take-off weight: 11.400 kg (25.110 lb)
Powerplant:
2× Ivchenko AI-25T non-afterburning turbofans, each with a thrust of 1.750 kgp (3.860 lbst)
Performance:
Maximum speed: 1.050 km/h (652 mph/Mach 0.9) at height, clean configuration; 825 km/h (512 mph) with external stores at sea level
Range: 1.450 km (900 mi); high, clean configuration
Ferry range: 2.500 km (1,553 mi)
Service ceiling: 14.000 m (45.850 ft)
Rate of climb: 76 m/s (14.936 ft/min)
Thrust/weight: 0.54
Armament:
2× NR-30 30mm cannons with 100 RPG
7 hardpoints for up to 2.500 kg (5.511 lb) of external ordnance, including rails for 2× IR-guided air-to-air missiles for and a wide variety of general-purpose bombs, cluster bombs, gun pods, rocket pods, drop tanks and radio-guided air-to-surface missiles like the Kh-23 or Kh-25.
The kit and its assembly:
This fantasy thing was spawned by the vague thought that one could turn the rather crude Yak-38 kit from Tsukuda Hobby into "something pretty". The plan had been lingering for some time, and when I got hands on an incomplete Yak-38 (Revell re-boxing of the kit, canopy missing) I eventually started with the surgery, letting inspiration and donation parts flow.
I had a vague idea of what the aircraft should look like, but the overall layout evolved step by step. One initial measure was to shorten the fuselage considerably: plugs from in front of and behind the original wings were cut out, and the remaining three fuselage pieces glued together. As the fuselage has an almost even diameter and shape all along its length, this turned out to be pretty easy, but still needed considerably putty work.
The original fittings for the wings and tail surfaces were then filled with styrene plugs and sanded even.
Moving the wings from their original mid-position to the shoulders was already something I had in mind before the project started. But the eventual solution just evolved as I had the fuselage ready and could judge positions and proportions.
The wings I used come from a Alpha Jet (Heller), and they were not simply stuck to the fuselage. Due to the curved back of the Yak-38 I had to add a kind of console, made from the upper wing's mid section of a Matchbox SBC Helldiver biplane (!). This connector piece was placed into a carved fairing on top of the fuselage, the new wings attached to it, and the missing bodywork sculpted with 2C putty. This way I was able to blend the new arrangement into the rest of the body with matching wing roots, without having it look as if the wings had simple been stuck onto it. The result is pretty good, looks rather organic.
The tail is new, too. Original plan had been to use the Yak-38 tail, maybe with a T-tail arrangement - but that simply did not look good. Finding a replacement was tough, I finally settled on an A-4M (Italeri) fin, which had to be modified with a clipped top, Yak-38 style, in order NOT to remind too much of the Douglas creation! It fits in shape and size, though.
New stabilizers had to be used, too - the original Yak-38 looked much too small and flimsy. A T-tail was not possible anymore, so I used a cruciform tail, A-4 style, even though the stabilizers had to be moved upwards since the Yak-38 tail is much wider than an A-4. The stabilizers themselves are new, too: a pair of F-86 fins(!), leftover from Hobby Boss kits. They are a bit thick, but look great and blend well into the whole arrangement.
The main landing gear was taken OOB, but with new wheels and extra struts fitted. The front wheel is totally new, it belongs to a Fiat G-91. The cockpit received a new seat (from a MiG-29), a pilot figure and a primitive dashboard, and a donation canopy had to be found and integrated (I think it comes from a Tamiya 1:100 F-105).
All around the hull small details were added, including the seven pylons and the rocket pod ordnance.
Painting and markings:
It took a while and some research to turn up a suitable, tactical paint scheme. Normally I keep whifs rather subtle, and I did not want to paint the Yak-35 in a dark green/brown scheme, typical for Eastern Europe aircraft.
Afghanistan was a vague idea, a desert/mountainous scheme, as well as the Su-25 prototype which appreared at Le Bourget ("301 Blue"), with its two-tone brown livery and a few green accents.
I finally found a Su-7UM trainer in a light, three-tone camouflage which I transplanted on my Yak-35. It consists of two sand tones (Humbrol 187 and 63) and a green tone (Humbrol 155). Looks rather surreal! The undersides are kept in Russian Blue (Humbrol 115).
Since much of the fuselage consists of pure putty and re-engraving would be rather hazardous I painted panel lines, with a mix of sepia ink and acrylic matt varnish. A second-best solution, but the result is O.K., when you do not take a closer look...
The whole thing received a light wash with black ink in order to emphasize panel line and details and the leading edges were lightly dry-brushed with pale grey. Basic colors were also ‘tamed down’ trough dry painting with shades of light beige and grey, for a worn and bleached look.
Cockpit interior was painted in typical, Soviet "anti fatigue" turquoise, the landing gear was painted in a mix of Aluminum and Olive Drab. Di-electric panels were painted in a bright green, a mix of Humbrol 2 and 175.
Most markings come from the scrap box, insignia and tactical code come from a Carpena Decals 1:72 MiG17 aftermarket sheet.
This thing was a major surgical act, but turned out nicely. With an arrestor hook this could also have become a maritime fighter bomber, e. g. an alternative to the French Dassault Ètendard or the Jaguar M? It looks familiar, has some serious Su-25 appeal, yet the thing looks unique. And the desert/mountain style paint scheme suits the aircraft well.
People like Cristy Garcia make this slice of life better for all of us. Please pass on some support and affirmation to someone you know today.
Pippa's new helmet design features the same lines as her previous design, however the primary color has been transformed to pink to support the pink racing program, and not visible in this photo, but a Susan G. Komen Running Ribbon was also added to the top of the helmet over the hatchings to show Pippa's support for, and partnership with Komen.
Photographed by ©Sara Al.bawardy.
ما هو سرطان الثدي؟
هو السرطان الأكثر حدوثاً عند المرأة حيث يشكل حوالي ربع السرطانات عند النساء و أسبابه غير المعروفة بدقة و لكن هناك عوامل تزيد من خطورة إصابة المرأة بسرطان الثدي و هي بالتفصيل :
أ. عوامل وراثية : فوجود حالة مماثلة في العائلة لسرطان الثدي يزيد احتمال الإصابة .
ب. بدء الدورات الطمثية بشكل مبكر.
ت. سن يأس متأخر و تقل نسب حدوث سرطان الثدي عند حدوث سن اليأس بوقت طبيعي .
ث. التأخر في الإنجاب لأول مرة إلى بعد عمر الثلاثين أو عدم الإنجاب .
ج. الطعام الغني بالدسم قد يزيد من احتمال الإصابة . استعمال الإستروجين لمدة طويلة خاصة بعد التشخيص الشعاعي أو الأشعة الكهرومغناطيسية التي تنتج عن خطوط الكهرباء ذات التوتر العالي .
ح. الإصابة بالداء السكري الليفي أو سرطان ثدي آخر أو سرطان مبيض يزيد من احتمال الإصابة .
خ. العمر: سرطان الثدي نادر قبل سن العشرين ويتزايد مع تقدم السن .
د. قد يكون للإرضاع والرياضة دور في الوقاية من الداء .
الظواهر التي يسببها الورم:
1- أول ما يشير الداء له هو ظهور كتلة في الثدي تكتشفه المريضة بنفسها وعادةً تكون الكتلة غير مؤلمة .
2- سيلان دموي أو مصلي من الحلمة .
3- إنكماش في الجلد ويصبح فوق الورم يشبه قشر البرتقال .
4- تضخم الغدد الليمفاوية (العقد) وخاصة تحت الإبط.
الانتقالات المتوقعة للورم:
العقد (الغدد الليمفاوية) الإبطية
عقد (الغدد الليمفاوية) الثدي الداخلية
عقد (الغدد الليمفاوية) فوق الترقوية
الرئتين _الكبد_ العظم _الكظر _المبيض_ الدماغ
الإنذار :
يتعلق الإنذار المتوقع بعدة عوامل تتعلق بمرحلة الورم وعمر المريضة ومكان توضع الورم ولكن العامل الأهم في الإنذار هو إصابة العقد الإبطية (الغدد الليمفاوية) أو عدم إصابتها ,وبشكل عام فقد تحسن إنذار سرطان الثدي كثيراً في السنوات الأخيرة والعامل الحاسم في تحسن الإنذار هو الكشف المبكر عن الآفة والذي يتم خاصة من خلال فحص الثدي الذاتي الذي يجب أن تقوم به المرأة بنفسها مع العلم أن الورم حتى يصبح قابلاً للجس يجب أن يمر على بدأ تشكله عدة سنوات قد تصل حتى 5 سنوات .
سرطان الثدي والحمل:
قد يكتشف سرطان الثدي في العديد من الحالات أثناء الحمل ولا يختلف إنذار الداء عن ما يحدث بدون الحمل وينبغي قبل البدء بالعلاج تحديد الانتقالات فإذا لم توجد فتعامل المريضة كغيرها من المريضات الغير حوامل ,أما المصابات بانتقالات بعيدة وكان العلاج المختار هو المعالجة الكيماوية فينبغي إجهاض المريضات لما يسببه العلاج الكيماوي من تشوهات على الجنين أما الجراحة فيمكن إجراؤها أثناء الحمل , ولا يوجد دليل يمنع المرأة المصابة بسرطان ثدي والمعالجة جيداً من الحمل مستقبلاً بعد التأكد من عدم حدوث انتكاس لديهن .
العـلاج :
أ- الجراحة : يلجأ لها في المراحل الأولى بقصد الشفاء وفي المراحل الأخيرة لتلطيف الأعراض .
ب- العلاج الشعاعي : يستخدم خاصة بعد العمل الجراحي لتقليل احتمال الانتكاس.
ت- العلاج الكيماوي: يستخدم في الحالات المتقدمة والتي تترافق مع انتقالات ,أو بعد الاستئصال الجراحي حيث ثبت أنه يقلل من احتمال الانتكاس و الانتقال .
ث- العلاج الهرموني : يستخدم عند بعض الحالات لتجنب استئصال المبيضين أو الكظرين في الحالات التي تتطلب استئصالهما .
ج- يوجد عمليات إعادة تصنيع للثدي بعد استئصاله: وهي عمليات تجميلية فائدتها معنوية وجمالية
Original Caption: The Cherokee who did not support the New Echota Treaty, which stripped the tribe of their land and rights and eventually led to the Trail of Tears, sent this petition to the Senate in 1836.
U.S. National Archives’ Local Identifier: SEN24B-C4
From:: Records Relating to Treaties with Indian Tribes, compiled 1789 - 1871
Created By:: U.S. Senate. (03/04/1789 - )
Production Date: 1836
Persistent URL: arcweb.archives.gov/arc/action/ExternalIdSearch?id=2127291
Repository: Center for Legislative Archives (NWL), National Archives Building
Reproductions may be ordered via an independent vendor. NARA maintains a list of vendors at www.archives.gov/research/order/vendors-photos-maps-dc.html
Access Restrictions: Unrestricted
Use Restrictions: Unrestricted
[See also -
Images of all major London protests supporting Gaza in 2014.]
Labour MP Jeremy Corbyn chats with writer and broadcaster Tariq Ali, as the march gets ready to start.
A huge crowd - reportedly the largest ever for Palestine in the UK - gathered in London (and in other cities across the UK and around the world) to protest the ongoing Israeli assault on Gaza. Organised by the Palestine Solidarity Campaign, Stop the War, Friends of al-Aqsa, CND, and others, the march started outside BBC HQ, in Portland Place, and headed via the US Embassy to Hyde Park.
9th August 2014
Photos: RonF
The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported the ideology of Nazism. Its precursor, the German Workers' Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei; DAP), existed from 1919 to 1920. The Nazi Party emerged from the extremist German nationalist ("Völkisch nationalist"), racist and populist Freikorps paramilitary culture, which fought against communist uprisings in post–World War I Germany. The party was created to draw workers away from communism and into völkisch nationalism. Initially, Nazi political strategy focused on anti–big business, anti-bourgeois, and anti-capitalist rhetoric; it was later downplayed to gain the support of business leaders. By the 1930s, the party's main focus shifted to antisemitic and anti-Marxist themes. The party had little popular support until the Great Depression, when worsening living standards and widespread unemployment drove Germans into political extremism.
Central to Nazism were themes of racial segregation expressed in the idea of a "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft). The party aimed to unite "racially desirable" Germans as national comrades while excluding those deemed to be either political dissidents, physically or intellectually inferior, or of a foreign race (Fremdvölkische). The Nazis sought to strengthen the Germanic people, the "Aryan master race", through racial purity and eugenics, broad social welfare programs, and a collective subordination of individual rights, which could be sacrificed for the good of the state on behalf of the people. To protect the supposed purity and strength of the Aryan race, the Nazis sought to disenfranchise, segregate, and eventually exterminate Jews, Romani, Slavs, the physically and mentally disabled, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, and political opponents. The persecution reached its climax when the party-controlled German state set in motion the Final Solution – an industrial system of genocide that carried out mass murders of around 6 million Jews and millions of other targeted victims in what has become known as the Holocaust.
Adolf Hitler, the party's leader since 1921, was appointed Chancellor of Germany by President Paul von Hindenburg on 30 January 1933, and quickly seized power afterwards. Hitler established a totalitarian regime known as the Third Reich and became dictator with absolute power.
Following the military defeat of Germany in World War II, the party was declared illegal. The Allies attempted to purge German society of Nazi elements in a process known as denazification. Several top leaders were tried and found guilty of crimes against humanity in the Nuremberg trials, and executed. The use of symbols associated with the party is still outlawed in many European countries, including Germany and Austria.
Oskar Schindler's Enamel Factory (Polish: Fabryka Emalia Oskara Schindlera) is a former metal item factory in Kraków. It now hosts two museums: the Museum of Contemporary Art in Kraków, on the former workshops, and a branch of the Historical Museum of the City of Kraków, situated at ul. Lipowa 4 (4 Lipowa Street) in the district of Zabłocie [pl], in the administrative building of the former enamel factory known as Oskar Schindler's Deutsche Emailwarenfabrik (DEF), as seen in the film Schindler's List. Operating here before DEF was the first Malopolska factory of enamelware and metal products limited liability company, instituted in March 1937.
History
Pierwsza Małopolska Fabryka Naczyń Emaliowanych i Wyrobów Blaszanych “Rekord,”Spółka z ograniczoną odpowiedzialnością w Krakowie ('Rekord' First Małopolska Factory of Enamel Vessels and Tinware, Limited Liability Company in Kraków) was established in March 1937 by three Jewish entrepreneurs: Michał Gutman from Bedzin, Izrael Kahn from Kraków, and Wolf Luzer Glajtman from Olkusz. The partners leased the production halls from the factory of wire, mesh, and iron products with its characteristic sawtooth roofs, and purchased a plot at ul. Lipowa 4 for their future base. It was then that the following were built: the stamping room where metal sheets were processed, prepared and pressed, the deacidification facility (varnishing) where the vessels were bathed in a solution of sulfuric acid to remove all impurities and grease, and the enamel shop, where enamel was laid in a number of layers: the priming coat first, then the colour, and finally another protective coat.
The ownership of the company changed a number of times, and its financial situation continued to worsen. In June 1939, the company applied for insolvency, which was officially announced by the Regional Court in Kraków.
World War II
On 1 September 1939, Nazi Germany invaded Poland and the Second World War broke out. On 6 September, German troops entered Kraków. It was also probably around that time in which Oskar Schindler, a Sudeten German who was a member of the Nazi Party and an agent of the Abwehr, arrived in Kraków. Using the power of the German occupation forces in the capacity of a trustee, he took over the German kitchenware shop on ul. Krakowska, and in November 1939, on the power of the decision of the Trusteeship Authority he took over the receivership of the "Rekord" company in Zabłocie. He also produced ammunition shells, so that his factory would be classed as an essential part of the war effort. He managed to build a subcamp of the Płaszów forced labor camp in the premises where "his" Jews had scarce contact with camp guards.
In January 1940, Schindler changed the name of the factory to Deutsche Emailwarenfabrik - DEF. Initially, non-Jewish Poles predominated among the employed workers. Year by year, the number of Jewish Poles workers recruited through the ghetto wage office increased. Schindler in this respect was initially driven by economic reasons—employing Jews significantly decreased the costs of recruitment, as they did not receive any compensation. For each Polish Jew worker, the factory director paid a small fee to the SS - 4 złotys per day for a working woman and 5 złotys per day for a working man. The non-Jewish Poles remained employed mainly in administrative positions. The number of Polish Jew workers increased from over 150 in 1940 to around 1100 in 1944 (this is the sum of workers from three nearby factories, barracked in the sub-camp at DEF).
From the very beginning of the factory's operation, Schindler used part of its profits to provide food for its Jewish workers. The working conditions were difficult, especially at the stands at enamel furnaces and at ladles with sulfuric acid, with which the workers (predominantly women) had direct contact. Other difficulties included low temperatures in the winter, as well as lice epidemics, which caused mainly dysentery, but also typhus. On the other hand, workers at Schindler's factory received bigger food portions than in other factories based on forced labour. During the existence of the ghetto in Podgórze, Jewish workers were led to the factory under the escort of industrial guards (Werkschutzs) or Ukrainians.
When in 1943 the ghetto was liquidated, Kraków Jews who escaped death at that time were transferred to the Plaszow labour camp. The distance from the ghetto to Schindler’s Emalia factory had not been very far, but from the Płaszów camp the inmates had to walk several miles. Their workday was already twelve hours long, and Schindler felt sorry for his people. Schindler then applied for a permit to establish a sub-camp of the Plaszow camp on the premises of his factory. He argued that his employees had to walk more than ten kilometers from the camp to the factory every day. Bringing them to the factory would increase its efficiency. His arguments as well as bribes made his plan come to life. In the barracks in Zabłocie, employees of DEF and three neighboring companies producing for the needs of the German army were accommodated. The camp was surrounded by barbed wire, watchtowers were built, and an assembly square was situated between the barracks. The nutritional conditions were much better than in the Płaszow camp, especially due to the cooperation with Polish employees - they contacted people in the city, brought letters and food to the Jewish workers.
The production in the factory and the camp was controlled, and Amon Göth, the commandant of the Plaszow camp, was often a guest here. Thanks to Schindler's efforts, the inspections were not so burdensome for the plant employees. It was only after the Płaszow camp was transformed into a concentration camp in January 1944 that the prisoners from Zabłocie were subject to permanent SS control. The work initially lasted 12 hours in a two-shift system, then 8 hours in a three-shift system. As the eastern front approached Kraków, the Germans began to liquidate the camps and prisons in the east of the General Government. It was then that Oskar Schindler decided to evacuate the factory with its employees to Brünnlitz in the Czech Republic.
Post-war
After the war, as early as 1946, the factory was nationalized. In the 1948–2002 period, the former DEF facilities were used by Krakowskie Zakłady Elektroniczne Unitra-Telpod (later renamed Telpod S.A.), a company manufacturing telecommunications equipment. Only in 2005, the territory returned to the use of the city of Krakow, and since 2007 the exposition of the ‘Krakow Historical Museum’ called ”Krakow. The period of occupation 1939-1945” has been located here. The museum has the desk and the stairs from the set of Schindler's List as part of the tour.
Kraków, also seen spelled Cracow or absent Polish diacritics as Krakow, is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city dates back to the seventh century. Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596 and has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, economic, cultural and artistic life. Cited as one of Europe's most beautiful cities, its Old Town with Wawel Royal Castle was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, one of the world's first sites granted the status.
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second-most-important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was reported by Ibrahim ibn Yaqub, a 10th-century merchant from Córdoba, as a busy trading centre of Central Europe in 985. With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918 and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. As of 2023, the city has a population of 804,237, with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km (62 mi) radius of its main square.
After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany at the start of World War II, the newly defined Distrikt Krakau (Kraków District) became the capital of Germany's General Government. The Jewish population of the city was forced into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto, from where they were sent to Nazi extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz, and Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów. However, the city was spared from destruction and major bombing.
In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II—the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. Also that year, UNESCO approved Kraków's entire Old Town and historic centre and the nearby Wieliczka Salt Mine as Poland's first World Heritage Sites. Kraków is classified as a global city with the ranking of "high sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Its extensive cultural heritage across the epochs of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque architecture includes Wawel Cathedral and Wawel Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula, St. Mary's Basilica, Saints Peter and Paul Church and the largest medieval market square in Europe, Rynek Główny. Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University, one of the oldest universities in the world and traditionally Poland's most reputable institution of higher learning. The city also hosts a number of institutions of national significance such as the National Museum, Kraków Opera, Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, National Stary Theatre and the Jagiellonian Library. The city is served by John Paul II International Airport, the country's second busiest airport and the most important international airport for the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland.
In 2000, Kraków was named European Capital of Culture. In 2013, Kraków was officially approved as a UNESCO City of Literature. The city hosted World Youth Day in 2016 and the European Games in 2023.
Kraków is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland, with the urban population of 804,237 (June, 2023). Situated on the Vistula river (Polish: Wisła) in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1596, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918, and the capital of Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.
Timeline of Kraków
Historical affiliations
Vistulans, pre X century
Duchy of Bohemia, X century–ca. 960
Duchy of Poland, ca. 960–1025
Kingdom of Poland, 1025–1031
Duchy of Poland, 1031–1320
∟ Seniorate Province, 1138–1227
Duchy of Kraków, 1227–1320
Kingdom of Poland, 1320–1569
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 1569–1795
Austrian Empire, 1795–1809
∟ Galicia
Duchy of Warsaw, 1809–1815
Free City of Cracow, 1815–1846
Austrian Empire, 1846–1867
Austria-Hungary, 1867–1918
∟ Grand Duchy of Kraków (subdivision of Galicia)
Republic of Poland, 1918–1939
General Government, 1939–1945 (part of German-occupied Europe)
Provisional Government of National Unity, 1945–1947
Polish People's Republic, 1947–1989
Poland, 1989–present
Early history
The earliest known settlement on the present site of Kraków was established on Wawel Hill, and dates back to the 4th century. Legend attributes the town's establishment to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a ravenous dragon, Smok Wawelski. Many knights unsuccessfully attempted to oust the dragon by force, but instead, Krakus fed it a poisoned lamb, which killed the dragon. The city was free to flourish. Dragon bones, most likely that of mammoth, are displayed at the entrance of the Wawel Cathedral. Before the Polish state had been formed, Kraków was the capital of the tribe of Vistulans, subjugated for a short period by Great Moravia. After Great Moravia was destroyed by the Hungarians, Kraków became part of the kingdom of Bohemia. The first appearance of the city's name in historical records dates back to 966, when a Sephardi Jewish traveller, Abraham ben Jacob, described Kraków as a notable commercial centre under the rule of the then duke of Bohemia (Boleslaus I the Cruel). He also mentioned the baptism of Prince Mieszko I and his status as the first historical ruler of Poland. Towards the end of his reign, Mieszko took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty.
By the end of the 10th century, the city was a leading center of trade. Brick buildings were being constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with the Rotunda of Sts. Felix and Adauctus, Romanesque churches, a cathedral, and a basilica. Sometime after 1042, Casimir I the Restorer made Kraków the seat of the Polish government. In 1079 on a hillock in nearby Skałka, the Bishop of Kraków, Saint Stanislaus of Szczepanów, was slain by the order of the Polish king Bolesław II the Generous. In 1138, the Testament of Bolesław III Wrymouth came into effect upon his death. It divided Poland into five provinces, with Kraków named as the Seniorate Province, meant to be ruled by the eldest male member of the royal family as the High Duke. Infighting among brothers, however, caused the seniorate system to soon collapse, and a century-long struggle between Bolesław's descendants followed. The fragmentation of Poland lasted until 1320.
Kraków was almost entirely destroyed during the Mongol invasion of Poland in 1241, after the Polish attempt to repulse the invaders had been crushed in the Battle of Chmielnik. Kraków was rebuilt in 1257, in a form which was practically unaltered, and received self-government city rights from the king based on the Magdeburg Law, attracting mostly German-speaking burgers. In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols, 18 years after the first raid. A third attack, though unsuccessful, followed in 1287. The year 1311 saw the Rebellion of wójt Albert against Polish High Duke Władysław I. It involved the mostly German-speaking burghers of Kraków who, as a result, were massacred. In the aftermath, Kraków was gradually re-Polonized, and Polish burghers rose from a minority to a majority.
Further information: History of Poland in the Middle Ages
Medieval Kraków was surrounded by a 1.9 mile (3 km) defensive wall complete with 46 towers and seven main entrances leading through them (see St. Florian's Gate and Kraków Barbican). The fortifications were erected over the course of two centuries. The town defensive system appeared in Kraków after the city's location, i.e. in the second half of the 13th century (1257). This was when the construction of a uniform fortification line was commenced, but it seems the project could not be completed. Afterwards the walls, however, were extended and reinforced (a permit from Leszek Biały to encircle the city with high defensive walls was granted in 1285). Kraków rose to new prominence in 1364, when Casimir III of Poland founded the Cracow Academy, the second university in central Europe after the University of Prague. There had already been a cathedral school since 1150 functioning under the auspices of the city's bishop. The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty (1386–1572). As the capital of a powerful state, it became a flourishing center of science and the arts.
Kraków was a member of the Hanseatic League and many craftsmen settled there, established businesses and formed craftsmen's guilds. City Law, including guilds' depictions and descriptions, were recorded in the German language Balthasar Behem Codex. This codex is now featured at the Jagiellonian Library. By the end of the thirteenth century, Kraków had become a predominantly German city. In 1475 delegates of the elector George the Rich of Bavaria came to Kraków to negotiate the marriage of Princess Jadwiga of Poland (Hedwig in German), the daughter of King Casimir IV Jagiellon to George the Rich. Jadwiga traveled for two months to Landshut in Bavaria, where an elaborate marriage celebration, the Landshut Wedding took place. Around 1502 Kraków was already featured in the works of Albrecht Dürer as well as in those of Hartmann Schedel (Nuremberg Chronicle) and Georg Braun (Civitates orbis terrarum).
During the 15th century extremist clergymen advocated violence towards the Jews, who in a gradual process lost their positions. In 1469 Jews were expelled from their old settlement to Spiglarska Street. In 1485 Jewish elders were forced into a renunciation of trade in Kraków, which led many Jews to leave for Kazimierz that did not fall under the restrictions due to its status as a royal town. Following the 1494 fire in Kraków, a wave of anti-Jewish attacks took place. In 1495, King John I Albert expelled the Jews from the city walls of Kraków; they moved to Kazimierz (now a district of Kraków).
Renaissance
The Renaissance, whose influence originated in Italy, arrived in Kraków in the late 15th century, along with numerous Italian artists including Francesco Fiorentino, Bartolommeo Berrecci, Santi Gucci, Mateo Gucci, Bernardo Morando, and Giovanni Baptista di Quadro. The period, which elevated the intellectual pursuits, produced many outstanding artists and scientists such as Nicolaus Copernicus who studied at the local Academy. In 1468 the Italian humanist Filip Callimachus came to Kraków, where he worked as the teacher of the children of Casimir IV Jagiellon. In 1488 the imperial Poet Laureate and humanist Conrad Celtes founded the Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana ("Literary Society on the Vistula"), a learned society based on the Roman Academies. In 1489, sculptor Veit Stoss (Wit Stwosz) of Nuremberg finished his work on the high altar of St. Mary's Church. He later made a marble sarcophagus for his benefactor Casimir IV Jagiellon. By 1500, Johann Haller had established a printing press in the city. Many works of the Renaissance movement were printed there during that time.
Art and architecture flourished under the watchful eye of King Sigismund I the Old, who ascended to the throne in 1507. He married Bona Sforza of a leading Milan family and using his new Italian connections began the major project (under Florentine architect Berrecci) of remaking the ancient residence of the Polish kings, the Wawel Castle, into a modern Renaissance palace. In 1520, Hans Behem made the largest church bell, named the Sigismund Bell after King Sigismund I. At the same time Hans Dürer, younger brother of Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter. Around 1511 Hans von Kulmbach painted a series of panels for the Church of the Pauline Fathers at Skałka and the Church of St. Mary. Sigismund I also brought in Italian chefs who introduced Italian cuisine.
In 1558, a permanent postal connection between Kraków and Venice, the capitals of the Kingdom of Poland and the Republic of Venice respectively, was established and Poczta Polska was founded. In 1572, King Sigismund II died childless, and the throne passed briefly to Henry of Valois, then to Sigismund II's sister Anna Jagiellon and her husband Stephen Báthory, and then to Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa. His reign changed Kraków dramatically, as he moved the government to Warsaw in 1596. A series of wars ensued between Sweden and Poland.
After the partitions of Poland
In the late 18th century, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was partitioned three times by its expansionist neighbors: Imperial Russia, the Austrian Empire, and the Kingdom of Prussia. After the first two partitions (1772 and 1793), Kraków was still part of the substantially reduced Polish nation. In 1794 Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated a revolt against the partitioning powers, the Kościuszko Uprising, in Kraków's market square. The Polish army, including many peasants, fought against the Russian and Prussian armies, but the larger forces ultimately put down the revolt. The Prussian army specifically took Kraków on 15 June 1794, and looted the Polish royal treasure kept at Wawel Castle. The stolen regalia, valued at 525,259 thalers, was secretly melted down in March 1809, while precious stones and pearls were appropriated in Berlin. Poland was partitioned for the third time in 1795, and Kraków became part of the Austrian province of Galicia.
When Napoleon Bonaparte of the French Empire captured part of what had once been Poland, he established the Duchy of Warsaw (1807) as an independent but subordinate state. West Galicia, including Kraków, was taken from the Austrian Empire and added to the Duchy of Warsaw in 1809 by the Treaty of Schönbrunn, which ended the War of the Fifth Coalition. The Congress of Vienna (1815) restored the partition of Poland, but gave Kraków partial independence as the Free City of Cracow.
The city again became the focus of a struggle for national sovereignty in 1846, during the Kraków Uprising. The uprising failed to spread outside the city to other Polish lands, and was put down. This resulted in the annexation of the city state to the Austrian Empire as the Grand Duchy of Cracow, once again part of the Galician lands of the empire.
In 1850 10% of the city was destroyed in the large fire.
After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Austria granted partial autonomy to Galicia, making Polish a language of government and establishing a provincial Diet. As this form of Austrian rule was more benevolent than that exercised by Russia and Prussia, Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a center of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny) or "Polish Mecca" to which Poles would flock to revere the symbols and monuments of Kraków's (and Poland's) great past. Several important commemorations took place in Kraków during the period from 1866–1914, including the 500th Anniversary of the Battle of Grunwald in 1910, in which world-renowned pianist Ignacy Paderewski unveiled a monument. Famous painters, poets and writers of this period, living and working in the city include Jan Matejko, Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, Jan Kasprowicz, Juliusz Kossak, Wojciech Kossak, Stanisław Wyspiański and Stanisław Przybyszewski. The latter two were leaders of Polish modernism.
The Fin de siècle Kraków, even under the partitions, was famously the center of Polish national revival and culture, but the city was also becoming a modern metropolis during this period. In 1901 the city installed running water and witnessed the introduction of its first electric streetcars. (Warsaw's first electric streetcars came in 1907.) The most significant political and economic development of the first decade of the 20th century in Kraków was the creation of Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków), the incorporation of the surrounding suburban communities into a single administrative unit. The incorporation was overseen by Juliusz Leo, the city's energetic mayor from 1904 to his death in 1918 (see also: the Mayors of Kraków).
Thanks to migration from the countryside and the fruits of incorporation from 1910 to 1915, Kraków's population doubled in just fifteen years, from approx. 91,000 to 183,000 in 1915. Russian troops besieged Kraków during the first winter of the First World War, and thousands of residents left the city for Moravia and other safer locales, generally returning in the spring and summer of 1915. During the war Polish Legions led by Józef Piłsudski set out to fight for the liberation of Poland, in alliance with Austrian and German troops. With the fall of Austro-Hungarian Empire, Poles liberated the city and it was included with the newly reborn Polish state (1918). Between the two World Wars Kraków was also a major Jewish cultural and religious center (see: Synagogues of Kraków), with the Zionist movement relatively strong among the city's Jewish population.
World War II
Poland was partitioned again at the onset of the Second World War. The Nazi German forces entered Kraków on September 6, 1939. The residents of the city were saved from German attack by the courageous Mayor Stanisław Klimecki who went to meet the invading Wehrmacht troops. He approached them with the call to stop shooting because the city was defenseless: "Feuer einstellen!" and offered himself as a hostage. He was killed by the Gestapo three years later in the Niepołomice Forest. The German Einsatzgruppen I and zbV entered the city to commit atrocities against Poles. On September 12, the Germans carried out a massacre of 10 Jews. On November 4, Kraków became the capital of the General Government, a colonial authority under the leadership of Hans Frank. The occupation took a heavy toll, particularly on the city's cultural heritage. On November 6, during the infamous Sonderaktion Krakau 184 professors and academics of the Jagiellonian University (including Rector Tadeusz Lehr-Spławiński among others) were arrested at the Collegium Novum during a meeting ordered by the Gestapo chief SS-Obersturmbannführer Bruno Müller. President of Kraków, Klimecki was apprehended at his home the same evening. After two weeks, they were sent to Sachsenhausen concentration camp, and in March 1940 further to Dachau. Those who survived were released only after international protest involving the Vatican. On November 9–10, during the Intelligenzaktion, the Germans carried out further mass arrests of 120 Poles, including teachers, students and judges. The Sicherheitspolizei took over the Montelupich Prison, which became one of the most infamous in German-occupied Poland. Many Poles arrested in Kraków, and various other places in the region, and even more distant cities such as Rzeszów and Przemyśl, were imprisoned there. Over 1,700 Polish prisoners were eventually massacred at Fort 49 of the Kraków Fortress and its adjacent forest, and deportations of Polish prisoners to concentration camps, incl. Ravensbrück and Auschwitz, were also carried out. The prison also contained a cell for kidnapped Polish children under the age of 10, with an average capacity of about 70 children, who were then sent to concentration camps and executed. From September to December 1939, the occupiers also operated a Dulag transit camp for Polish prisoners of war.
Many relics and monuments of national culture were looted and destroyed (yet again), including the bronze statue of Adam Mickiewicz stolen for scrap. The Jewish population was first ghettoized, and later murdered. Two major concentration camps near Kraków included Płaszów and the extermination camp of Auschwitz, to which many local Poles and Polish Jews were sent. Specific events surrounding the Jewish ghetto in Kraków and the nearby concentration camps were famously portrayed in the film Schindler's List, itself based on a book by Thomas Keneally entitled Schindler's Ark. The Polish Red Cross was also aware of over 2,000 Polish Jews from Kraków, who escaped from the Germans to Soviet-occupied eastern Poland, and then were deported by the Soviets to the USSR.
The Polish resistance movement was active in the city. Already in September 1939, the Organizacja Orła Białego resistance organization was founded. Kraków became the seat of one of the six main commands of the Union of Armed Struggle in occupied Poland (alongside Warsaw, Poznań, Toruń, Białystok and Lwów). A local branch of the Żegota underground Polish resistance organization was established to rescue Jews from the Holocaust.
The Germans operated several forced labour camps in the city, and in 1942–1944, they also operated the Stalag 369 prisoner-of-war camp for Dutch, Belgian and French POWs. In 1944, during and following the Warsaw Uprising, the Germans deported many captured Poles frow Warsaw to Kraków.
A common account popularized in the Soviet-controlled communist People's Republic of Poland, held that due to a rapid advance of the Soviet armies, Kraków allegedly escaped planned destruction during the German withdrawal. There are several different versions of that account. According to a version based on self-written Soviet statements, Marshal Ivan Konev claimed to have been informed by the Polish patriots of the German plan, and took an effort to preserve Kraków from destruction by ordering a lightning attack on the city while deliberately not cutting the Germans from the only withdrawal path, and by not aiding the attack with aviation and artillery. The credibility of those accounts has been questioned by Polish historian Andrzej Chwalba who finds no physical evidence of the German master plan for demolition and no written proof showing that Konev ordered the attack with the intention of preserving the city. He portrays Konev's strategy as ordinary – only accidentally resulting in little damage to Kraków – exaggerated later into a myth of "Konev, savior of Kraków" by Soviet propaganda. The Red Army entry into the city was accompanied by a wave of rapes of women and girls resulting in official protests.
Post-war period
After the war, the government of the People's Republic of Poland ordered the construction of the country's largest steel mill in the suburb of Nowa Huta. This was regarded by some as an attempt to diminish the influence of Kraków's intellectual and artistic heritage by industrialization of the city and by attracting to it the new working class. In the 1950s some Greeks, refugees of the Greek Civil War, settled in Nowa Huta.
The city is regarded by many to be the cultural capital of Poland. In 1978, UNESCO placed Kraków on the list of World Heritage Sites. In the same year, on October 16, 1978, Kraków's archbishop, Karol Wojtyła, was elevated to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years.
Kraków's population has quadrupled since the end of World War II. After the collapse of the Soviet Empire and the subsequent joining of the European Union, Offshoring of IT work from other nations has become important to the economy of Kraków and Poland in general in recent years. The city is the key center for this kind of business activity. There are about 20 large multinational companies in Kraków, including centers serving IBM, General Electric, Motorola, and Sabre Holdings, along with British and German-based firms.
In recent history, Kraków has co-hosted various international sports competitions, including the 2016 European Men's Handball Championship, 2017 Men's European Volleyball Championship, 2021 Men's European Volleyball Championship and 2023 World Men's Handball Championship.
A CBP Office of Air and Marine UH-60 assists in the hunt for escaped prisoners Richard Matt and David Sweat in upstate New York. Photographer: Kristoffer Grogan
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