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With this version Toyota took a big leap in the direction of a more serious high-performance car. Again using subframe, suspension,and drivetrain assemblies from the Z30 Soarer (Lexus SC300/400), test model pre-production started in December 1992 with 20 models, and official mass production began in April 1993. The new Supra was completely redesigned, with rounded body styling and featured two new engines: a naturally aspirated Toyota 2JZ-GE producing 220 hp (164 kW; 223 PS) at 5800 rpm and 210 lb·ft (280 N·m) at 4800 rpm of torque and a twin turbocharged Toyota 2JZ-GTE making 276 hp (206 kW; 280 PS) and 318 lb·ft (431 N·m) of torque for the Japanese version. The styling, while modern, does seem to borrow some elements from Toyota's first grand touring sports car, the Toyota 2000GT. For the export model (America/Europe) Toyota upgraded the Supra turbo's engine (smaller, steel wheeled turbochargers, bigger fuel injectors, etc.). This increased the power output to 320 hp (239 kW; 324 PS) at 5600 rpm and 315 lb·ft (427 N·m) at 4000 rpm. (326hp / 325lbft for Europe)
The turbocharged variant could achieve 0–60 mph in as low as 4.6 seconds and 1/4 mile (402 m) in 13.1 seconds at 109 mph (175 km/h). The turbo version was tested to reach over 285 km/h (177 mph), but the cars are restricted to just 180 km/h (112 mph) in Japan and 250 km/h (155 mph) elsewhere. European versions of the car also had an air intake or scoop on the hood. Drag coefficient is 0.31 for the naturally aspirated models and 0.32 for the turbo models but unknown with the rear spoiler.
The twin turbos operated in sequential mode, not parallel. Initially, all of the exhaust is routed to the first turbine for reduced lag. This resulted in boost and enhanced torque as early as 1800 rpm, where it already produced 300 lb·ft (410 N·m) of torque. At 3500 rpm, some of the exhaust is routed to the second turbine for a "pre-boost" mode, although none of the compressor output is used by the engine at this point. At 4000 rpm, the second turbo's output is used to augment the first turbo's output. Compared to the parallel mode, sequential mode turbos provide quicker low RPM response and increased high RPM boost. This high RPM boost was also aided with technology originally present in the 7M-GE in the form of the Acoustic Control Induction System (ACIS) which is a way of managing the air compression pulses within the intake piping as to increase power.
For this generation, the Supra received a new 6-speed Getrag/Toyota V160 gearbox on the turbo models while the naturally aspirated models made do with a 5-speed manual W58, revised from the previous version. Each model was offered with a 4-speed automatic with manual shifting mode. Turbo models were equipped with larger brakes and tires (Unless you were in Japan where these were an optional extra). All vehicles were equipped with 5-spoke aluminium alloy wheels and a space saver spare tire on a steel wheel to save weight and space.
Toyota took measures to reduce the weight of this new model. Aluminium was used for the hood, targa top (when fitted), front crossmember, oil and transmission pans, and the suspension upper A-arms. Other measures included hollow carpet fibers, magnesium-alloy steering wheel, plastic gas tank and lid, gas injected rear spoiler, and a single pipe exhaust. Despite having more features such as dual airbags, traction control, larger brakes, wheels, tires, and an additional turbo, the car was at least 200 lb (91 kg) lighter than its predecessor. The base model with a manual transmission had a curb weight of 3,210 lb (1,460 kg). The Sport Roof added 40 lb (18 kg) while the automatic transmission added 55 lb (25 kg). It had a 51:49 (front:rear) weight distribution. The turbo model weighed 3,450 lb (1,560 kg) for the manual, automatic added another 10 lb (4.5 kg). Weight distribution was 53% front/47% rear. The Supra was heavier than the spartan Mazda RX-7 and all aluminium bodied Acura/Honda NSX, but it was lighter than the Nissan 300ZX and Mitsubishi 3000GT VR-4.
For the 1996 model year in the US, the turbo model was only available with the automatic transmission owing to OBD-II certification requirements. The targa roof was also made standard on all turbo models. For 1997, manual transmission returned for the optional engine along with a redesign of the tail lights, headlights, front fascia, chromed wheels, and other minor changes such as the radio and steering wheel designs. All 1997 models included badges indicating "Limited Edition 15th Anniversary". All turbo models came standard with the rear spoiler. For 1998, updates were a 3-spoke steering wheel and redesigned radio. In Japan, the turbo engines were installed with VVT-i. The SZ-R model was also updated with the introduction of a six-speed Getrag V161 transmission, the same used for the twin-turbo RZ models.
The stock A80 Supra chassis has also proven an effective platform for roadracing, with several top 20 and top 10 One Lap Of America finishes in the SSGT1 class. Despite its curb weight, in 1994 the A80 managed remarkable skidpad ratings of 0.95 lateral g's (200 ft) and 0.98 lateral g's (300 ft) Supra also featured a four-sensor four-channel track tuned ABS system with yaw control whereby each caliper is sensored and the brakes are controlled individually according to the speed, angle, and pitch of the approaching corner. This unique Formula One-inspired braking system allowed the Supra Turbo to record a 70 mph (113 km/h) -0 braking distance of 149 ft (45 m), the best braking performance of any production car tested in 1997 by Car and Driver magazine. This record was finally broken in 2004 by a Porsche Carrera GT, which does it in 145 ft (44 m) .
The US and UK market Supra featured bigger injectors, steel turbines and bigger inlet cam and had emissions in the range of 259 g/km CO2 despite the addition of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR). The Japanese market Supra had CO2 emissions in the range of 224 g/km.
By the late 90s, sales of all sporty coupes were declining in North America, so the Supra was withdrawn from the Canadian market in 1996 and the US in 1998. The Turbo was not available in 1998 in California Air Resources Board (CARB) states. Production continued in Japan until August 2002, ceasing owing to restrictive emission standards.
[Text from Wikipedia]
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Supra
This miniland-scale Lego Toyota Supra A80 Coupe has been created for Flickr LUGNuts' 92nd Build Challenge, - "Stuck in the 90's", - all about vehicles from the decade of the 1990s.
Finished restauration of my 1990 Racebike
1990 VRP aluminium chassis,swingarm,subframe,fuel tank
1990 Mugen engine
MRP custom exhaust pipe
Poletti suspension
The design phase for the second prototype is nearly complete! The 3D design phase is close to finished, but I still need to lay out 2D parts and adjust dimensions for the usual laser idiosyncrasies.
A short list of changes:
-Beefier construction overall: interlocking parts and double-thick side walls lend rigidity to the camera
-Slotted and keyed parts for easier construction: better absolute positioning for subframe elements
-Streamlined drive elements: drive rails are now recessed into the body to reduce thickness and improve aesthetics
-Upper support members to maintain front standard perpendicularity: also streamlined by being tucked under the strap points
-Stainless steel knobs: improved durability and styling
-Non-rigid viewfinder w/ support wire (more like the one shown in the video): the old solid viewfinder was an atrocity. Pop-up hoods take up more space and require more parts - so a cloth viewfinder is the best way to go
-Light seal engravings: neat, simple way to add light seals
-More space around the lens for easier Av and Tv adjustment: in the past, the aperture ring was hard to access.
-Mamiya 105mm f/3.5 "D" instead of "Chrome": kind of a gamble here, hopefully the D lenses have enough coverage to fill the frame. They are physically larger, so hopefully the slight design changes will accommodate this. If the D lens works, so will the DS, instantly adding to the lens selection.
A short video on the modifications needed for the lenses:
MG 6 Magnette (1st Gen) (2010-16) Engine 1796cc S4 Turbo
MG (Roewe) ALBUM
www.flickr.com/photos/45676495@N05/albums/72177720322876138/
The MG6 is a mid-size car under the MG marque, built by Chinese carmaker SAIC Motor, derived from the Roewe 550 and hence distantly related to the Rover 75, sharing its front subframe. It was initially announced in April 2009 at the Shanghai Auto Show as a hatchback, and in October 2010 at Shanghai Expo as a 4-door saloon model.
The five-door hatchback, known as the MG6 GT, went on sale in the United Kingdom in May 2011, the saloon, known as the MG6 Magnette, went on sale on 16 July 2011. A diesel model joined the range at the end of 2012.
For the MG 6 GT, three levels of trim are available with increasing levels of equipment and trim; S, SE and TSE. These all share the same mechanical specification, although the TSE gains 18" wheels over the standard 17".
The launch models are available with the petrol TCI-Tech 1.8-litre engine, available in two states of tune, 133 bhp (99 kW; 135 PS) and 158 bhp (118 kW; 160 PS) (with turbo), the latter being available from launch in China and as the only engine option at launch in the UK. In 2012 the petrol engine was joined by a 1849cc S4 DTi-Tech engine
The MG 6 was facelifted in 2015, receiving a range of minor exterior and interior changes including a 75kg reduction in weight. In the UK, the main change was the improvement in efficiency for the diesel model, and the withdrawal of the petrol version. The facelifted model can be identified with a new front bumper design.
In the UK sales have been slow with only 15 units in October 2011, only seven registrations for the MG brand as a whole were recorded in November (of which three were presumably TF roadsters). In December 2011, car rental company Avis UK Ltd announced that it would be running 100 MG 6 GT and Magnette in its rental fleet and took delivery of these cars. For 2012, MG sold 782 cars in the UK. Initial UK production was projected in the range of 2000 to 3000 per annum
The first generation MG 6 was replaced by a second generation five door liftback for 2017 model year, now made exclusively in Nanjing, China
Shot 07:06:2012 at the Staffordshire County Show, Stafford. Ref 83-078
This was a slightly briefer than intended look at the Crescent nebula on the night of 23-24 May when I had a technical issue that meant my first five eight-minute subframes showed slight elongation in the stars due to a small oscillation in RA and sadly I had to remove them from the final result. Once I realised what was happening I was able to stop the oscillation and start taking good subframes, but at this time of the year in the UK it isn't long before moving from astronomical twilight to nautical twilight. Even in H Alpha eventually the effect of a brighter twilight negates the benefits of taking more subframes for the image!
So this is a stack of just eight eight-minute subframes, showing both the Crescent and its surrounding nebulosity, taken in H Alpha. I haven't cropped the image.
Peter
Equipment:
Atik 460EX mono CCD, 0.75 reducer, 130mm triplet APO refractor, EQ8 mount, autoguided with a Lodestar, 2x Barlow and 60mm guide scope.
www.1001pallets.com/2017/04/custom-large-pallet-dog-house...
I was asked to try some roofing and siding products to create a couple of projects that inspired me. I made this Custom Large Dog House Custom Large Pallet Dog House, but designed it in such a way, that with a few simple changes, can be turned into a kid's playhouse! It's roomy enough to accommodate a Giant Breed dog (like my Mastiffs), or smaller kids! Not that you should store the kids outside, but you get the idea... haha!
How can I build my own Custom Large Pallet Dog House? Cut list
**note all measurements are approximate
Subframe Cut List:
2 pallet stringers @ 60”
6 pallet stringers @ ~33”
Frame Cut List:
Nine 2x4” pallet stringers @ 38” (for wall studs)
Two 2x4” pallet stringers @ 60” (for wall headers)
Four 2x4” pallet stringers @ 33” (cross pieces)
Two 2x3 pallet stringers @ 34 ½” (vertical portion of dog door frame – can be cut to match wall studs if you prefer, and we installed these at a later step)
Removable Roof Cut List:
One 2x4” pallet stringer @ 60”
Eight 1x4” pallet boards @31”
Two 1x4” pallet boards @ 60”
Four 1x4” pallet boards @ 32”
½” plywood to 62” x 33” (cut to overhang by 1” on eave and rake edges)
Drip railing to cover rake & eave edges (either piece together or cut the corners and bend a single long piece to fit each side)
Roofing felt to cover and overhang x 1” on leave & rake edges
Roofing material of your choice – follow manufacturer’s installation instructions for rake/eave overhang and proper sub-roof material prep.
Four scrap pieces of 2x4”, approximately 6” long and cut on angles to fit into the corners of the dog house frame to stabilize the removable roof (not shown on drawing)
Scrap 1x4” board, cut into the shape of a dog bone (optional) for name tag
12” of scrap small chain
Optional Vaulted Windows Cut List (for 3 windows total):
Three 1x2” pallet boards @ 28”
Six 1x2” pallet boards @ 21”
Triangular pieces of clear polycarbonate to fit (or leave open and screen)
Optional Porch Railing:
I had two heavier half-rounded posts that I used for the front porch supports to give it a log cabin feel. I fitted them and then used wood glue and screws to attach them together to create a full-round “log”. Substitute standard 2x4” boards if you don’t care about the log look.
I used old tree roots that were pulled up from a heavy rain a couple years back, and let them dry. However, if you choose to make a more traditional railing, you’ll have to measure and adjust accordingly for the materials you use.
What tools & consumables will I need to build a Custom Large Pallet Dog House?
Tools to break down pallets – we used a reciprocating saw (Sawzall)
Small punch to remove nail heads
Clawhammer
Utility knife
Miter/chop saw
Table saw
Random orbit sander
Palm sander
Tape measure
T-square
Utility scissors
Hacksaw
Band saw
Scroll saw
Jigsaw
Drill press
Belt sander
Disc sander
Sandpaper
Sanding sponge
Paint brushes/sponges (for polyurethane clear coat)
Drill & various drill bits
Impact driver
Circular saw
Pencil
Ink marker (Sharpie)
Chalk line
Triangle square
Bubble level
Clamps (various sizes are handy)
Hobby rotary tool (Dremel), various carving and sanding tips
Wood glue (water-resistant)
Gorilla Glue
Silicone sealer (optional) to make the house more weather resistant
Machine screws & Nylock nuts (nylon inserted nuts)
Scrap piece of pipe – we used copper
Small scrap piece of pipe strap, cut into two pieces
Wood filler
Two cup hooks
4” outdoor deck screws
3” outdoor deck screws
1 5/8” outdoor screws
1 ¼” outdoor screws
3/8" threaded rod (or slightly smaller) - we had a 36" piece left over from another project
Ondura Roofing Nails
Ondura Roofing Vent Support Foam
Tuftex Clear Polycarbonate panel
Tuftex Foam Supports
Let’s get to building this Custom Large Pallet Dog House:
First, decide on the size. The dimensions of this doghouse are 36" wide x 60" deep and 36" tall The height does NOT include the roof height. Design your roof as peaked, "lean-to", or a shallower slope to your liking. We went with a sharp-peaked roof at approx. 45-degree angles and used the main ridgepole.
Custom Large Pallet Dog House could be a kid's playhouse/cabin, or use the idea to build a chicken coop, rabbit hutch or other critter containment system for a flexible outdoor project.
Here's the sub-frame with the flooring installed (looking at it from the bottom up) so you could see what the sub-floor looks like.
I broke down approximately 8 pallets, but some were of a lightweight style with what looked like rounded fencing slats (they held lattice at our local home supply center). We loved the almost log feel of them, but you can side your doghouse any way you want. I used pallet stringers with the forklift arches for two reasons:
easier to move with hand-holds, and
it just looks cool. You could substitute 2x4" boards for a large dog house or kid's playhouse if you chose. I used two stringers in their complete length of 60" - this breaks down to a 24" front porch and a 36" doghouse structure. Then I cut 6 other stringers to 33" and installed them on the insides of the long stringers, 12" on center. I secured them with 4" exterior deck screws.
A frame's cool, but what about some walls in your Custom Large Pallet Dog House?
Walls are framed out, including opening for the dog door. Flooring is being started at this point. Note the front post is a pallet stringer, but it's a half-round shape. We liked it because it sort of resembled a log and used it purposely.
See the drawings for the cut list per section of build and cut your pieces. Double-check measurements since pallet wood aren't consistent! I installed the vertical wall supports first, pre-drilling and using 4” screws. Next, I installed the wall headers and then filled in with the cross pieces. I fitted in the dog door studs in later once I measured my dog. The height of a dog door is typically found by measuring to the point of your dog’s upper chest. Since my Mastiffs are getting older, I made it a bit taller than that so they wouldn’t have to duck too far. If you’re making a kid’s playhouse, simply frame for a door opening (with or without a porch).
Start flooring! Use any materials you like, but I used pallet wood for my Custom Large Pallet Dog House
Flooring has been installed, and siding is started.
I pre-sanded my floorboards so they’d be smooth for a dog’s paws. Additionally, I included a slight pattern on the porch section of the dog house just so it would look neat by staggering the joints. It’s not necessary, and won’t change the functionality. You can run your boards front-to-back or side-to-side. I had a lot of longer boards so I installed them front-to-back. There was some trimming around the wall studs, but it was easy to fit using a jig saw. When complete, patch the floorboards and let the wood filler dry.
Start siding the Custom Large Pallet Dog House in any type of materials you want
At this time I began siding the doghouse. The boards I was using were approximately 3/4” x 3” at the thickest points, tapering to a very thin edge. This meant that it was easy to hand-plane if they didn’t align. I started from the bottom up, since the roof overhang would hide any slight errors. I only did the three outer walls at this time since I still needed to fit the dog door. If you wished to fill in any gaps, you could use a silicone sealant at this time.
I mitered the corners around the back and sides, and straight cut along the dog door.
Siding is all installed. My dog is ticked off because I won't let him in the doghouse yet so sorry for the crabby face he's making.
Stop, it’s time to install the dog door before the Custom Large Pallet Dog House gets too heavy!
Next, I installed a cross piece to support the dog door frame along the front of the doghouse. You could absolutely use a store-bought doghouse, but I had Ondura’s clear polycarbonate panels to use instead. I measured the height I wanted and drilled two holes in the door frame supports big enough to support a scrap piece of ½” copper pipe. I cut the door-shape out of the plastic panel and used the foam supports that you buy with the panels as a template. Next, I transferred that wavy shape down the center of a scrap 1x2” board and cut it with a scroll saw for the most accuracy. Those two pieces sandwiched the plastic panel. I secured them with machine screws/nylock nuts/washers after pre-drilling. Then, I added two pieces of pipe strap as the hinges and wrapped those around the pipe, bent them until they touched and mounted them to the nuts/bolts. I trimmed the corners of the panel with scissors until the door swung freely but fit as close as possible. Finally, I finished siding the front now that the door was in.
Here's a view (above) of the complete homemade dog door using Ondura clear polycarbonate. It is mounted using a copper pipe secured to the vertical dog door frames on either side. We put a piece of threaded rod through it to add rigidity and the ability to center the pipe easily by adding washers on both sides, then nylocks on the outside. Two pieces of pipe strap are folded over the copper pipe and bolted in between the sandwiched pieces of wood with more machine screws and nylock nuts. The extra protruding bits on the machine screws were cut off with a hacksaw flush to the nut.
Here's a close-up of the hardware stack up. You can see the threaded rod protruding out to the right side - it runs down the center of the copper pipe to create a sturdy hinge that supports fully across the width of the door. We were pre-fitting the copper pipe straps over it in this picture. Ignore the screw. It was just there to hold something temporarily.
In the above picture, I used the foam padding that comes with Ondura and Tuftex panels to trace the shape of the corrugations onto a piece of 1x2" wood, then I cut it out with a scroll saw. I was test-fitting it to the curves of the corrugations and it worked!
Here's the cut board, with the piece of clear polycarbonate sandwiched between the two pieces of wood. I then ran machine screws through the wood, securing it in four places to prevent stress on the plastic. ALWAYS PRE-DRILL with the polycarbonate panels and vinyl panels.
Build the roof – after deciding on the style you like for your own Custom Large Pallet Dog House
There are many styles of roofs. I wanted a very peaked roof for the way it looked, but you could make one much flatter or a lean-to style with any slope direction you wanted. An additional feature of this roof is that it can be easily removed, but you can secure it permanently if you choose. First, I built the frame of it and made it match up/align with the house walls. I installed the rake boards to the ridge pole after cutting the angles the way I wanted. I mounted the ridgepoles to the roof frame and secured with screws. Then, we sheeted the sides with plywood, added drip edges, covered it with roofing felt and secured that in place. Finally, we roofed it using Ondura’s asphalt corrugated panel system.
We've just installed the window frames into the roof frame.
Finishing Touches on this Custom Large Pallet Dog House
I used old tree roots – I think they were Elm – that were washed up by heavy rains a year or so ago and were thoroughly dry. I chose some that had naturally straight pieces and angled branches to give the railing a bit of character. Once side was almost perfect as-is, but the other side I had to improvise and piece a couple parts together. I glued and screwed it all in, and before it is put into service, I’ll seal it with a UV-protectant varnish to ensure no bugs have their way. The last fun piece was just a piece of scrap wood that I carved into a bone shape on the scroll saw. I drilled two holes, one at each end, and attached a scrap bit of chain with machine screws and more nylock nuts. I hung it in place with two cup hooks installed on the front cross piece. Lots of touch-up sanding and the dog house is ready for use!
Here are some of the tree roots I sanded using sandpaper, sanding sponges, and even a Dremel to clean up some of the indents. I screwed two pieces to the main piece and glued it as well.
This is the other side of the railing. This piece of tree root had a nice natural split that didn't require any other pieces to be screwed together.
Here it is - the complete doghouse. The roof sits securely in place but is removable without any hardware. The dog-bone shaped plaque on the front is ready to be inscribed or painted. The natural root railings look rustic, and the curved pallet boards give a bit of that log-cabin feel. The three vaulted windows and polycarbonate door let in a lot of light for free warmth in the winter, and so your dog isn't relegated to a dark, depressing box.
The wind kept blowing the little plaque crooked. But here's the front view of the doghouse. The dog door is light and easy for the dogs to navigate - even those that are fearful of dog doors since they can easily see through it. The Ondura roofing was super easy to install and looks great!
To make this into a kid's cabin, enclose the whole thing, and just add an extension square in between the roof and the house... or plan on it and build the walls taller. Wouldn't you have loved a little 3x5' playhouse with windows like this as a kid? <3
VRP (Verona Racing Parts)
Rear subframe-airbox combo for Honda CR 1989/90
Much bigger airbox than stock
VRP (Verona Racing Parts)
Rear subframe-airbox combo for Honda CR 1989/90
Much bigger airbox than stock
VRP (Verona Racing Parts)
Rear subframe-airbox combo for Honda CR 1989/90
Much bigger airbox than stock
Finished restauration of my 1990 Racebike
1990 VRP aluminium chassis,swingarm,subframe,fuel tank
1990 Mugen engine
MRP custom exhaust pipe
Poletti suspension
'89 Mugen upsidedown forks
Poletti tuned rear shock
VRP aluminium gas tank
VRP aluminium rear subframe
Tisberger tuned engine (Mugen on my other '89 bike)
Messico exhaust
DLR silencer
I decided to modify my FJ Cruiser for a car camping setup for this summer / Fall. Built this using 2x2's, 3/4" plywood, screws, bolts, carpet padding, and carpet. Took me about a day and a half to lay it all out and build. Removed the factory rear seat and used the same hardware holes to secure the frame. The two piece carpeted panels fit nice and snug so no need to secure them to the frame at this time. With this sleeping platform installed I still have room to lay the seats all the way back with the seats slid all the way to the rear. I also have room to store a full gym bag of gear and my LowePro Computreker underneath the forward section.
Ken's Alpine White BMW E92 M3
APEX Wheels VS-5RS in Anthracite
18x10" ET25 on 275/35-18 Nitto NT01
12mm Rear Spacer for aesthetic purposes
Suspension/Brake Mods:
JRZ RS One dampers
-3.5 F, -2.0 R camber
SPL Suspension Links
Powerflex Purple Bushings
Bimmerworld Solid Rear Subframe Mounts
Vibra-technics Engine Mounts
Rotora 6 piston/380mm & 4 piston/355mm BBK with Project Mu 999 pads
Globular Cluster (Messier 3) in Canes Venatici captured 16 May 2022, ~22:00 hrs ET, Springfield, VA, USA. Bortle 8 skies, Celestron 8 inch SCT at f/6.3 (eff. fl 1290mm), Orion Atlas AZ/EQ-G Pro mount. QHY 294M Pro camera @ -10C, bin 1, exposure 32 seconds, gain 3100, 11MP mode, stack of 20 subframes, no calibration frames used. Baader Luminance filter.
Clouds: clear
Seeing: avg
Transparency: avg
Moon phase: full
FOV: 33 x 33 arcmin.
Resolution: 1.0 arcsec/pixel.
Orientation: Up is East.
From Wikipedia:
A globular cluster is a spherical collection of stars. Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity, with a high concentration of stars towards their centers. Their name is derived from Latin globulus—a small sphere. Globular clusters are occasionally known simply as globulars.
Although one globular cluster, Omega Centauri, was observed in antiquity and long thought to be a star, recognition of the clusters' true nature came with the advent of telescopes in the 17th century. In early telescopic observations, globular clusters appeared as fuzzy blobs, leading French astronomer Charles Messier to include many of them in his catalog of astronomical objects that he thought could be mistaken for comets. Using larger telescopes, 18th-century astronomers recognized that globular clusters are groups of many individual stars. Early in the 20th century, the distribution of globular clusters in the sky was some of the first evidence that the Sun is far from the center of the Milky Way.
Globular clusters are found in nearly all galaxies. In spiral galaxies like the Milky Way, they are mostly found in the outer, spheroidal part of the galaxy—the galactic halo. They are the largest and most massive type of star cluster, tending to be older, denser, and composed of fewer heavy elements than open clusters, which are generally found in the disks of spiral galaxies. The Milky Way has over 150 known globulars, and there may be many more.
The origin of globular clusters and their role in galactic evolution are unclear. Some are among the oldest objects in their galaxies and even the universe, constraining estimates of the universe's age. Star clusters are often assumed to consist of stars that all formed at the same time from one star-forming nebula, but nearly all globular clusters contain stars that formed at different times, or that have differing compositions. Some clusters may have had multiple episodes of star formation, and some may be remnants of smaller galaxies captured by larger galaxies.
The first known globular cluster, now called M22, was discovered in 1665 by Abraham Ihle, a German amateur astronomer. The cluster Omega Centauri, easily visible in the southern sky with the naked eye, was known to ancient astronomers like Ptolemy as a star, but was reclassified as a nebula by Edmond Halley in 1677, then finally as a globular cluster in the early 19th century by John Herschel. The French astronomer Abbé Lacaille listed NGC 104, NGC 4833, M55, M69, and NGC 6397 in his 1751–1752 catalogue. The low resolution of early telescopes prevented individual stars in a cluster from being visually separated until Charles Messier observed M4 in 1764.
When William Herschel began his comprehensive survey of the sky using large telescopes in 1782, there were 34 known globular clusters. Herschel discovered another 36 and was the first to resolve virtually all of them into stars. He coined the term globular cluster in his Catalogue of a Second Thousand New Nebulae and Clusters of Stars (1789). In 1914, Harlow Shapley began a series of studies of globular clusters, published across about 40 scientific papers. He examined the clusters' RR Lyrae variables—stars which he assumed were Cepheid variables—and used their luminosity and period of variability to estimate the distances to the clusters. It was later found that RR Lyrae variables are fainter than Cepheid variables, causing Shapley to overestimate the distances.
A large majority of the Milky Way's globular clusters are found in the celestial sky around the galactic core. In 1918, Shapley used this strongly asymmetrical distribution to determine the overall dimensions of the galaxy. Assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy’s center, he used the positions of the clusters to estimate the position of the Sun relative to the galactic center. He correctly concluded that the Milky Way's center is in the Sagittarius constellation and not near the Earth. He overestimated the distance, finding typical globular cluster distances of 10–30 kiloparsecs (33,000–98,000 ly); the modern distance to the galactic center is roughly 8.5 kiloparsecs (28,000 ly). Shapley's measurements indicated the Sun is relatively far from the center of the galaxy, contrary to what had been inferred from the observed uniform distribution of ordinary stars. In reality, most ordinary stars lie within the galaxy's disk and are thus obscured by gas and dust in the disk, whereas globular clusters lie outside the disk and can be seen at much further distances.
The count of known globular clusters in the Milky Way has continued to increase, reaching 83 in 1915, 93 in 1930, 97 by 1947, and 157 in 2010. Additional, undiscovered globular clusters are believed to be in the galactic bulge or hidden by the gas and dust of the Milky Way. The Andromeda Galaxy—comparable in size to the Milky Way—may have as many as 500 globulars. Every galaxy of sufficient mass in the Local Group has an associated system of globular clusters, as does almost every large galaxy surveyed. Some giant elliptical galaxies (particularly those at the centers of galaxy clusters), such as M87, have as many as 13,000 globular clusters.
Shapley was later assisted in his studies of clusters by Henrietta Swope and Helen Sawyer Hogg. In 1927–1929, Shapley and Sawyer categorized clusters by the degree of concentration of stars toward each core. Their system, known as the Shapley–Sawyer Concentration Class, identifies the most concentrated clusters as Class I and ranges to the most diffuse Class XII. In 2015, astronomers from the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile proposed a new type of globular cluster on the basis of observational data: dark globular clusters.
The formation of globular clusters is poorly understood.
Globular clusters have traditionally been described as a simple star population formed from a single giant molecular cloud, and thus with roughly uniform age and metallicity (proportion of heavy elements in their composition). Modern observations show that nearly all globular clusters contain multiple populations; the globular clusters in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) exhibit a bimodal population, for example. During their youth, these LMC clusters may have encountered giant molecular clouds that triggered a second round of star formation. This star-forming period is relatively brief, compared with the age of many globular clusters. It has been proposed that this multiplicity in stellar populations could have a dynamical origin. In the Antennae Galaxy, for example, the Hubble Space Telescope has observed clusters of clusters—regions in the galaxy that span hundreds of parsecs, in which many of the clusters will eventually collide and merge. Their overall range of ages and (possibly) metallicities could lead to clusters with a bimodal, or even multiple, distribution of populations.
Observations of globular clusters show that their stars primarily come from regions of more efficient star formation, and from where the interstellar medium is at a higher density, as compared to normal star-forming regions. Globular cluster formation is prevalent in starburst regions and in interacting galaxies. Some globular clusters likely formed in dwarf galaxies and were removed by tidal forces to join the Milky Way. In elliptical and lenticular galaxies there is a correlation between the mass of the supermassive black holes (SMBHs) at their centers and the extent of their globular cluster systems. The mass of the SMBH in such a galaxy is often close to the combined mass of the galaxy's globular clusters.
No known globular clusters display active star formation, consistent with the hypothesis that globular clusters are typically the oldest objects in their galaxy and were among the first collections of stars to form. Very large regions of star formation known as super star clusters, such as Westerlund 1 in the Milky Way, may be the precursors of globular clusters.
Many of the Milky Way's globular clusters have a retrograde orbit, including the most massive, Omega Centauri. Its retrograde orbit suggests it may be a remnant of a dwarf galaxy captured by the Milky Way.
Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of low-metal, old stars. The stars found in a globular cluster are similar to those in the bulge of a spiral galaxy but confined to a spheroid in which half the light is emitted within a radius of only a few to a few tens of parsecs. They are free of gas and dust and it is presumed that all of the gas and dust was long ago either turned into stars or blown out of the cluster by the massive first-generation stars.
Globular clusters can contain a high density of stars; on average about 0.4 stars per cubic parsec, increasing to 100 or 1000 stars/pc3 in the core of the cluster. In comparison, the stellar density around the sun is roughly 0.1 stars/pc3. The typical distance between stars in a globular cluster is about 1 light year, but at its core the separation between stars averages about a third of a light year—13 times closer than Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun.
Globular clusters are thought to be unfavorable locations for planetary systems. Planetary orbits are dynamically unstable within the cores of dense clusters because of the gravitational perturbations of passing stars. A planet orbiting at 1 astronomical unit around a star that is within the core of a dense cluster, such as 47 Tucanae, would only survive on the order of 100 million years. There is a planetary system orbiting a pulsar (PSR B1620−26) that belongs to the globular cluster M4, but these planets likely formed after the event that created the pulsar.
Some globular clusters, like Omega Centauri in the Milky Way and Mayall II in the Andromeda Galaxy, are extraordinarily massive, measuring several million solar masses (M☉) and having multiple stellar populations. Both are evidence that supermassive globular clusters are in fact the cores of dwarf galaxies that have been consumed by larger galaxies. About a quarter of the globular cluster population in the Milky Way may have been accreted this way, as with more than 60% of the globular clusters in the outer halo of Andromeda.
Globular clusters normally consist of Population II stars which, compared with Population I stars such as the Sun, have a higher proportion of hydrogen and helium and a lower proportion of heavier elements. Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as metals (distinct from the material concept) and to the proportions of these elements as the metallicity. Produced by stellar nucleosynthesis, the metals are recycled into the interstellar medium and enter a new generation of stars. The proportion of metals can thus be an indication of the age of a star in simple models, with older stars typically having a lower metallicity.
The Dutch astronomer Pieter Oosterhoff observed two special populations of globular clusters, which became known as Oosterhoff groups. The second group has a slightly longer period of RR Lyrae variable stars. While both groups have a low proportion of metallic elements as measured by spectroscopy, the metal spectral lines in the stars of Oosterhoff type I (Oo I) cluster are not quite as weak as those in type II (Oo II), and so type I stars are referred to as metal-rich (e.g. Terzan 7), while type II stars are metal-poor (e.g. ESO 280-SC06). These two distinct populations have been observed in many galaxies, especially massive elliptical galaxies. Both groups are nearly as old as the universe itself and are of similar ages. Suggested scenarios to explain these subpopulations include violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In the Milky Way, the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the bulge.
In the Milky Way, a large majority of the metal-poor clusters are aligned on a plane in the outer part of the galaxy's halo. This observation supports the view that type II clusters were captured from a satellite galaxy, rather than being the oldest members of the Milky Way's globular cluster system—as was previously thought. The difference between the two cluster types would then be explained by a time delay between when the two galaxies formed their cluster systems.
Close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often in globular clusters because of their high star density. These chance encounters give rise to some exotic classes of stars—such as blue stragglers, millisecond pulsars, and low-mass X-ray binaries—which are much more common in globular clusters. How blue stragglers form remains unclear, but most models attribute them to interactions between stars, such as stellar mergers, the transfer of material from one star to another, or even an encounter between two binary systems. The resulting star has a higher temperature than other stars in the cluster with comparable luminosity and thus differs from the main sequence stars formed early in the cluster's existence. Some clusters have two distinct sequences of blue stragglers, one bluer than the other.
Astronomers have searched for black holes within globular clusters since the 1970s. The required resolution for this task is exacting; it is only with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that the first claimed discoveries were made, in 2002 and 2003. Based on HST observations, other researchers suggested the existence of a 4,000 M☉(solar masses) intermediate-mass black hole in the globular cluster M15 and a 20,000 M☉ black hole in the Mayall II cluster of the Andromeda Galaxy. Both X-ray and radio emissions from Mayall II appear consistent with an intermediate-mass black hole; however, these claimed detections are controversial. The heaviest objects in globular clusters are expected to migrate to the cluster center due to mass segregation. One research group pointed out that the mass-to-light ratio should rise sharply towards the center of the cluster, even without a black hole, in both M15 and Mayall II. Observations from 2018 find no evidence for an intermediate-mass black hole in any globular cluster, including M15, but cannot definitively rule out one with a mass of 500–1000 M☉.
The confirmation of intermediate-mass black holes in globular clusters would have important ramifications for theories of galaxy development as being possible sources for the supermassive black holes at their centers. The mass of these supposed intermediate-mass black holes is proportional to the mass of their surrounding clusters, following a pattern previously discovered between supermassive black holes and their surrounding galaxies.
Hertzsprung–Russell diagrams (H–R diagrams) of globular clusters allow astronomers to determine many of the properties of their populations of stars. An H–R diagram is a graph of a large sample of stars plotting their absolute magnitude (their luminosity, or brightness measured from a standard distance), as a function of their color index. The color index, roughly speaking, measures the color of the star; positive color indices indicate a reddish star with a cool surface temperature, while negative values indicate a bluer star with a hotter surface. Stars on an H–R diagram mostly lie along a roughly diagonal line sloping from hot, luminous stars in the upper left to cool, faint stars in the lower right. This line is known as the main sequence and represents the primary stage of stellar evolution. The diagram also includes stars in later evolutionary stages such as the cool but luminous red giants.
Constructing an H–R diagram requires knowing the distance to the observed stars to convert apparent into absolute magnitude. Because all the stars in a globular cluster have about the same distance from Earth, a color–magnitude diagram using their observed magnitudes looks like a shifted H–R diagram—because of the roughly constant difference between their apparent and absolute magnitudes. This shift is called the distance modulus and can be used to calculate the distance to the cluster. The modulus is determined by comparing features (like the main sequence) of the cluster's color–magnitude diagram to corresponding features in an H–R diagram of another set of stars, a method known as spectroscopic parallax or main-sequence fitting.
Since globular clusters form at once from a single giant molecular cloud, a cluster's stars have roughly the same age and composition. A star's evolution is primarily determined by its initial mass, so the positions of stars in a cluster's H–R or color–magnitude diagram mostly reflect their initial masses. A cluster's H–R diagram, therefore, appears quite different from H–R diagrams containing stars of a wide variety of ages. Almost all stars fall on a well-defined curve in globular cluster H–R diagrams, and that curve's shape indicates the age of the cluster. A more detailed H–R diagram often reveals multiple stellar populations as indicated by the presence of closely separated curves, each corresponding to a distinct population of stars with a slightly different age or composition.
Observations with the Wide Field Camera 3, installed in 2009 on the Hubble Space Telescope, made it possible to distinguish these slightly different curves.
The most massive main-sequence stars have the highest luminosity and will be the first to evolve into the giant star stage. As the cluster ages, stars of successively lower masses will do the same. Therefore, the age of a single-population cluster can be measured by looking for those stars just beginning to enter the giant star stage, which form a "knee" in the H–R diagram called the main sequence turnoff, bending to the upper right from the main-sequence line. The absolute magnitude at this bend is directly a function of the cluster's age; an age scale can be plotted on an axis parallel to the magnitude.
The morphology and luminosity of globular cluster stars in H–R diagrams are influenced by numerous parameters, many of which are still actively researched. Recent observations have overturned the historical paradigm that all globular clusters consist of stars born at exactly the same time, or sharing exactly the same chemical abundance. Some clusters feature multiple populations, slightly differing in composition and age; for example, high-precision imagery of cluster NGC 2808 discerned three close, but distinct, main sequences. Further, the placements of the cluster stars in an H–R diagram—including the brightnesses of distance indicators—can be influenced by observational biases. One such effect, called blending, arises when the cores of globular clusters are so dense that observations see multiple stars as a single target. The brightness measured for that seemingly single star is thus incorrect—too bright, given that multiple stars contributed.[81] The computed distance is in turn incorrect, so the blending effect can introduce a systematic uncertainty into the cosmic distance ladder and may bias the estimated age of the universe and the Hubble constant.
The aforementioned blue stragglers appear on the H–R diagram as a series diverging from the main sequence in the direction of brighter, bluer stars. White dwarfs (the final remnants of some Sun-like stars), which are much fainter and somewhat hotter than the main sequence stars, lie on the bottom-left of an H–R diagram. Globular clusters can be dated by looking at the temperatures of the coolest white dwarfs, often giving results as old as 12.7 billion years. In comparison, open clusters are rarely older than about 500 million years. The ages of globular clusters place a lower bound on the age of the entire universe, presenting a significant constraint in cosmology. Astronomers were historically faced with age estimates of clusters older than their cosmological models would allow, but better measurements of cosmological parameters, through deep sky surveys and satellites, appear to have resolved this issue.
Studying globular clusters sheds light on how the composition of the formational gas and dust affects stellar evolution; the stars' evolutionary tracks vary depending on the abundance of heavy elements. Data obtained from these studies are then used to study the evolution of the Milky Way as a whole.
In contrast to open clusters, most globular clusters remain gravitationally bound together for time periods comparable to the lifespans of most of their stars. Strong tidal interactions with other large masses result in the dispersal of some stars, leaving behind "tidal tails" of stars removed from the cluster.
After formation, the stars in the globular cluster begin to interact gravitationally with each other. The velocities of the stars steadily change, and the stars lose any history of their original velocity. The characteristic interval for this to occur is the relaxation time, related to the characteristic length of time a star needs to cross the cluster and the number of stellar masses.[92] The relaxation time varies by cluster, but a typical value is on the order of one billion years.[93][94]
Although globular clusters are generally spherical in form, ellipticity can form via tidal interactions. Clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are typically oblate spheroids in shape, while those in the Large Magellanic Cloud are more elliptical.
Astronomers characterize the morphology (shape) of a globular cluster by means of standard radii: the core radius (rc), the half-light radius (rh), and the tidal or Jacobi radius (rt). The radius can be expressed as a physical distance or as a subtended angle in the sky. Considering a radius around the core, the surface luminosity of the cluster steadily decreases with distance, and the core radius is the distance at which the apparent surface luminosity has dropped by half. A comparable quantity is the half-light radius, or the distance from the core containing half the total luminosity of the cluster; the half-light radius is typically larger than the core radius.
Most globular clusters have a half-light radius of less than 10 parsecs (pc), although some globular clusters have very large radii, like NGC 2419 (rh = 18 pc) and Palomar 14 (rh = 25 pc). The half-light radius includes stars in the outer part of the cluster that happen to lie along the line of sight, so theorists also use the half-mass radius (rm)—the radius from the core that contains half the total mass of the cluster. A small half-mass radius, relative to the overall size, indicates a dense core. Messier 3 (M3), for example, has an overall visible dimension of about 18 arc minutes, but a half-mass radius of only 1.12 arc minutes.
The tidal radius, or Hill sphere, is the distance from the center of the globular cluster at which the external gravitation of the galaxy has more influence over the stars in the cluster than does the cluster itself. This is the distance at which the individual stars belonging to a cluster can be separated away by the galaxy. The tidal radius of M3, for example, is about 40 arc minutes, or about 113 pc.
In most Milky Way clusters, the surface brightness of a globular cluster as a function of decreasing distance to the core first increases, then levels off at a distance typically 1–2 parsecs from the core. About 20% of the globular clusters have undergone a process termed "core collapse". In such a cluster, the luminosity increases steadily all the way to the core region.
Models of globular clusters predict core collapse occurs when the more massive stars in a globular cluster encounter their less massive counterparts. Over time, dynamic processes cause individual stars to migrate from the center of the cluster to the outside, resulting in a net loss of kinetic energy from the core region and leading the region's remaining stars to occupy a more compact volume. When this gravothermal instability occurs, the central region of the cluster becomes densely crowded with stars, and the surface brightness of the cluster forms a power-law cusp. A massive black hole at the core could also result in a luminosity cusp. Over a long time this leads to a concentration of massive stars near the core, a phenomenon called mass segregation.
The dynamical heating effect of binary star systems works to prevent an initial core collapse of the cluster. When a star passes near a binary system, the orbit of the latter pair tends to contract, releasing energy. Only after this primordial supply of energy is exhausted can a deeper core collapse proceed. In contrast, the effect of tidal shocks as a globular cluster repeatedly passes through the plane of a spiral galaxy tends to significantly accelerate core collapse.
Core collapse may be divided into three phases. During a cluster's adolescence, core collapse begins with stars nearest the core. Interactions between binary star systems prevents further collapse as the cluster approaches middle age. The central binaries are either disrupted or ejected, resulting in a tighter concentration at the core. The interaction of stars in the collapsed core region causes tight binary systems to form. As other stars interact with these tight binaries they increase the energy at the core, causing the cluster to re-expand. As the average time for a core collapse is typically less than the age of the galaxy, many of a galaxy's globular clusters may have passed through a core collapse stage, then re-expanded.
The HST has provided convincing observational evidence of this stellar mass-sorting process in globular clusters. Heavier stars slow down and crowd at the cluster's core, while lighter stars pick up speed and tend to spend more time at the cluster's periphery. The cluster 47 Tucanae, made up of about one million stars, is one of the densest globular clusters in the Southern Hemisphere. This cluster was subjected to an intensive photographic survey that obtained precise velocities for nearly 15,000 stars in this cluster.
The overall luminosities of the globular clusters within the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy each have a roughly Gaussian distribution, with an average magnitude Mv and a variance σ2. This distribution of globular cluster luminosities is called the Globular Cluster Luminosity Function (GCLF). For the Milky Way, Mv = −7.29 ± 0.13, σ = 1.1 ± 0.1. The GCLF has been used as a "standard candle" for measuring the distance to other galaxies, under the assumption that globular clusters in remote galaxies behave similarly to those in the Milky Way.
Computing the gravitational interactions between stars within a globular cluster requires solving the N-body problem. The naive computational cost for a dynamic simulation increases in proportion to N 2 (where N is the number of objects), so the computing requirements to accurately simulate a cluster of thousands of stars can be enormous. A more efficient method of simulating the N-body dynamics of a globular cluster is done by subdivision into small volumes and velocity ranges, and using probabilities to describe the locations of the stars. Their motions are described by means of the Fokker–Planck equation, often using a model describing the mass density as a function of radius, such as a Plummer model. The simulation becomes more difficult when the effects of binaries and the interaction with external gravitation forces (such as from the Milky Way galaxy) must also be included. In 2010 a low-density globular cluster's lifetime evolution was first directly computed, star-by-star.
Completed N-body simulations have shown that stars can follow unusual paths through the cluster, often forming loops and falling more directly toward the core than would a single star orbiting a central mass. Additionally, some stars gain sufficient energy to escape the cluster due to gravitational interactions that result in a sufficient increase in velocity. Over long periods of time this process leads to the dissipation of the cluster, a process termed evaporation. The typical time scale for the evaporation of a globular cluster is 1010 years. The ultimate fate of a globular cluster must be either to accrete stars at its core, causing its steady contraction, or gradual shedding of stars from its outer layers.
Binary stars form a significant portion of stellar systems, with up to half of all field stars and open cluster stars occurring in binary systems. The present-day binary fraction in globular clusters is difficult to measure, and any information about their initial binary fraction is lost by subsequent dynamical evolution. Numerical simulations of globular clusters have demonstrated that binaries can hinder and even reverse the process of core collapse in globular clusters. When a star in a cluster has a gravitational encounter with a binary system, a possible result is that the binary becomes more tightly bound and kinetic energy is added to the solitary star. When the massive stars in the cluster are sped up by this process, it reduces the contraction at the core and limits core collapse.
Cluster classification is not always definitive; objects have been found that can be classified in more than one category. For example, BH 176 in the southern part of the Milky Way has properties of both an open and a globular cluster.
In 2005, astronomers discovered a new, "extended" type of star cluster in the Andromeda Galaxy's halo, similar to the globular cluster. The three new-found clusters have a similar star count as globular clusters and share other characteristics, such as stellar populations and metallicity, but are distinguished by their larger size—several hundred light years across—and some hundred times lower density. Their stars are separated by larger distances; parametrically, these clusters lie somewhere between a globular cluster and a dwarf spheroidal galaxy. The formation of these extended clusters is likely related to accretion. It is unclear why the Milky Way lacks such clusters; Andromeda is unlikely to be the sole galaxy with them, but their presence in other galaxies remains unknown.
When a globular cluster comes close to a large mass, such as the core region of a galaxy, it undergoes a tidal interaction. The difference in gravitational strength between the nearer and further parts of the cluster results in an asymmetric, tidal force. A "tidal shock" occurs whenever the orbit of a cluster takes it through the plane of a galaxy.
Tidal shocks can pull stars away from the cluster halo, leaving only the core part of the cluster; these trails of stars can extend several degrees away from the cluster. These tails typically both precede and follow the cluster along its orbit and can accumulate significant portions of the original mass of the cluster, forming clump-like features. The globular cluster Palomar 5, for example, is near the apogalactic point of its orbit after passing through the Milky Way. Streams of stars extend outward toward the front and rear of the orbital path of this cluster, stretching to distances of 13,000 light years. Tidal interactions have stripped away much of Palomar 5's mass; further interactions with the galactic core are expected to transform it into a long stream of stars orbiting the Milky Way in its halo.
The Milky Way is in the process of tidally stripping the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy of stars and globular clusters through the Sagittarius Stream. As many as 20% of the globular clusters in the Milky Way's outer halo may have originated in that galaxy. Palomar 12, for example, most likely originated in the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal but is now associated with the Milky Way. Tidal interactions like these add kinetic energy into a globular cluster, dramatically increasing the evaporation rate and shrinking the size of the cluster. The increased evaporation accelerates the process of core collapse.
Astronomers are searching for exoplanets of stars in globular star clusters.[141] A search in 2000 for giant planets in the globular cluster 47 Tucanae came up negative, suggesting that the abundance of heavier elements—low in globular clusters—necessary to build these planets may need to be at least 40% of the Sun's abundance. Because terrestrial planets are built from heavier elements such as silicon, iron and magnesium, member stars have a far lower likelihood of hosting Earth-mass planets than stars in the solar neighborhood. Globular clusters are thus unlikely to host habitable terrestrial planets.
A giant planet was found in the Messier 4 globular cluster orbiting a pulsar in the binary star system PSR B1620-26. The planet's eccentric and highly inclined orbit suggests it may have been formed around another star in the cluster, then "exchanged" into its current arrangement. The likelihood of close encounters between stars in a globular cluster can disrupt planetary systems; some planets break free to become rogue planets, orbiting the galaxy. Planets orbiting close to their star can become disrupted, potentially leading to orbital decay and an increase in orbital eccentricity and tidal effects.
Ken's Alpine White BMW E92 M3
APEX Wheels VS-5RS in Anthracite
18x10" ET25 on 275/35-18 Nitto NT01
12mm Rear Spacer for aesthetic purposes
Suspension/Brake Mods:
JRZ RS One dampers
-3.5 F, -2.0 R camber
SPL Suspension Links
Powerflex Purple Bushings
Bimmerworld Solid Rear Subframe Mounts
Vibra-technics Engine Mounts
Rotora 6 piston/380mm & 4 piston/355mm BBK with Project Mu 999 pads
Finished restauration of my 1990 Racebike
1990 VRP aluminium chassis,swingarm,subframe,fuel tank
1990 Mugen engine
MRP custom exhaust pipe
Poletti suspension
Finished restauration of my 1990 Racebike
1990 VRP aluminium chassis,swingarm,subframe,fuel tank
1990 Mugen engine
Poletti suspension
We are working on a new carbon fiber subframe for our moto2 bike, the BOTT M210.
With this design we will reduce weight and will improve aesthetics, aerodynamics, and ergonomy.
CAD design has been done by Jordi Massague.
Compare this view with the last but one to see the underlift subframe has been moved forward on the chassis. The underlift is now in its final position, and is awating the mounting plates to arrive so it can be bolted down.
Canon EOS450d, modded
24mm lens @ f/5.6
43 subframes, each 180s
125 bias frames
100 darkframes
unguided EQ5 mount
Location: Gran Canaria, near San Bartolome de Tirajanas
pic shows the fine dust streams in this region of the milky way.
Captured 28 April 2022, ~21:30 hrs ET, Springfield, VA, USA. Bortle 8 skies, Celestron 8 inch SCT at f/6.3 (eff. fl 1290mm), Orion Atlas AZ/EQ-G Pro mount. QHY 294M Pro camera @ -10C, bin 2, exposure 7.5 seconds, gain 3100, stack of 41 subframes, no calibration frames used. Baader Luminance filter.
Clouds: partly cloudy
Seeing: avg
Transparency: avg
Moon phase: ~5%
FOV: 15 x 13 arcmin.
Resolution: 0.45 arcsec/pixel.
Orientation: Up is North.
Appearance: Supernova outshines its host galaxy NGC 4647. Magnitude is approximately +11-12.
From Wikipedia:
A supernova is a powerful and luminous stellar explosion. This transient astronomical event occurs during the last evolutionary stages of a massive star or when a white dwarf is triggered into runaway nuclear fusion. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a neutron star or black hole, or is completely destroyed. The peak optical luminosity of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire galaxy before fading over several weeks or months.
Supernovae are more energetic than novae. In Latin, nova means "new", referring astronomically to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous. The word supernova was coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1929.
The most recent directly observed supernova in the Milky Way was Kepler's Supernova in 1604, but the remnants of more recent supernovae have been found. Observations of supernovae in other galaxies suggest they occur in the Milky Way on average about three times every century. These supernovae would almost certainly be observable with modern astronomical telescopes. The most recent naked-eye supernova was SN 1987A, the explosion of a blue supergiant star in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite of the Milky Way.
Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star such as a white dwarf, or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first class of events, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. Possible causes are an accumulation of material from a binary companion through accretion, or a stellar merger. In the massive star case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden collapse due to reduced energy from fusion rendering the star incapable of counteracting its own gravity, usually occurring after the fusion of iron in a star’s core, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical mechanics are established and accepted by the astronomical community.
Supernovae can expel several solar masses of material at speeds up to several percent of the speed of light. This drives an expanding shock wave into the surrounding interstellar medium, sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust observed as a supernova remnant. Supernovae are a major source of elements in the interstellar medium from oxygen to rubidium. The expanding shock waves of supernovae can trigger the formation of new stars. Supernova remnants might be a major source of cosmic rays. Supernovae might produce gravitational waves, though thus far, gravitational waves have been detected only from the mergers of black holes and neutron stars.
The Crab Nebula is a pulsar wind nebula associated with the 1054 supernova. A 1414 text cites a 1055 report: since "the baleful star appeared, a full year has passed and until now its brilliance has not faded."
Compared to a star's entire history, the visual appearance of a supernova is very brief, sometimes spanning several months, so that the chances of observing one with the naked eye is roughly once in a lifetime. Only a tiny fraction of the 100 billion stars in a typical galaxy have the capacity to become a supernova, restricted to either those having large mass or rare kinds of binary stars containing white dwarfs.
The earliest possible recorded supernova, known as HB9, could have been viewed and recorded by unknown prehistoric people of Indian subcontinent, on a rock carving found in Burzahama region in Kashmir, dated to 4500 ± 1000 BC. Later, SN 185 was viewed by Chinese astronomers in 185 AD. The brightest recorded supernova was SN 1006, which occurred in 1006 AD in the constellation of Lupus, and was described by observers across China, Japan, Iraq, Egypt, and Europe. The widely observed supernova SN 1054 produced the Crab Nebula. Supernovae SN 1572 and SN 1604, the latest to be observed with the naked eye in the Milky Way galaxy, had notable effects on the development of astronomy in Europe because they were used to argue against the Aristotelian idea that the universe beyond the Moon and planets was static and unchanging. Johannes Kepler began observing SN 1604 at its peak on October 17, 1604, and continued to make estimates of its brightness until it faded from naked eye view a year later. It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation (after SN 1572 seen by Tycho Brahe in Cassiopeia).
There is some evidence that the youngest galactic supernova, G1.9+0.3, occurred in the late 19th century, considerably more recently than Cassiopeia A from around 1680. Neither supernova was noted at the time. In the case of G1.9+0.3, high extinction along the plane of our galaxy could have dimmed the event sufficiently to go unnoticed. The situation for Cassiopeia A is less clear. Infrared light echos have been detected showing that it was a type IIb supernova and was not in a region of especially high extinction.
Observation and discovery of extragalactic supernovae are now far more common. The first such observation was of SN 1885A in the Andromeda Galaxy. Today, amateur and professional astronomers are finding several hundred every year, some when near maximum brightness, others on old astronomical photographs or plates. American astronomers Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky developed the modern supernova classification scheme beginning in 1941. During the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum intensities of supernovae could be used as standard candles, hence indicators of astronomical distances. Some of the most distant supernovae observed in 2003 appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the view that the expansion of the universe is accelerating. Techniques were developed for reconstructing supernovae events that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova event was determined from light echoes off nebulae, while the age of supernova remnant RX J0852.0-4622 was estimated from temperature measurements and the gamma ray emissions from the radioactive decay of titanium-44.
The most luminous supernova ever recorded is ASASSN-15lh, at a distance of 3.82 gigalight-years. It was first detected in June 2015 and peaked at 570 billion L☉, which is twice the bolometric luminosity of any other known supernova. However, the nature of this supernova continues to be debated and several alternative explanations have been suggested, e.g. tidal disruption of a star by a black hole.
Among the earliest detected since time of detonation, and for which the earliest spectra have been obtained (beginning at 6 hours after the actual explosion), is the type II SN 2013fs (iPTF13dqy) which was recorded 3 hours after the supernova event on 6 October 2013 by the Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory (iPTF). The star is located in a spiral galaxy named NGC 7610, 160 million light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus.
On 20 September 2016, amateur astronomer Victor Buso from Rosario, Argentina was testing his telescope. When taking several photographs of galaxy NGC 613, Buso chanced upon a supernova that had just become visible on Earth, as it began to erupt. After examining the images, he contacted the Instituto de Astrofísica de La Plata. "It was the first time anyone had ever captured the initial moments of the 'shock breakout' from an optical supernova, one not associated with a gamma-ray or X-ray burst." The odds of capturing such an event were put between one in ten million to one in a hundred million, according to astronomer Melina Bersten from the Instituto de Astrofísica. The supernova Buso observed was designated SN 2016gkg, a type IIb supernova likely to have formed from the collapse of a yellow supergiant star twenty times the mass of the sun. It showed the double peak that is common to many type IIb supernovae, rising to around magnitude 15.5 shortly after discovery and then again about 20 days later. The progenitor star has been identified in Hubble Space Telescope images from before its collapse. Astronomer Alex Filippenko, from the University of California, remarked that professional astronomers had been searching for such an event for a long time. He stated: "Observations of stars in the first moments they begin exploding provide information that cannot be directly obtained in any other way."
Early work on what was originally believed to be simply a new category of novae was performed during the 1920s. These were variously called "upper-class Novae", "Hauptnovae", or "giant novae". The name "supernovae" is thought to have been coined by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in lectures at Caltech during 1931. It was used, as "super-Novae", in a journal paper published by Knut Lundmark in 1933, and in a 1934 paper by Baade and Zwicky. By 1938, the hyphen had been lost and the modern name was in use. Because supernovae are relatively rare events within a galaxy, occurring about three times a century in the Milky Way, obtaining a good sample of supernovae to study requires regular monitoring of many galaxies.
Supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with any meaningful accuracy. Normally, when they are discovered, they are already in progress. To use supernovae as standard candles for measuring distance, observation of their peak luminosity is required. It is therefore important to discover them well before they reach their maximum. Amateur astronomers, who greatly outnumber professional astronomers, have played an important role in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer galaxies through an optical telescope and comparing them to earlier photographs.
Toward the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and CCDs for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional installations such as the Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope. The Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS) project uses a network of neutrino detectors to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy. Neutrinos are particles that are produced in great quantities by a supernova, and they are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk.
Supernova searches fall into two classes: those focused on relatively nearby events and those looking farther away. Because of the expansion of the universe, the distance to a remote object with a known emission spectrum can be estimated by measuring its Doppler shift (or redshift); on average, more-distant objects recede with greater velocity than those nearby, and so have a higher redshift. Thus the search is split between high redshift and low redshift, with the boundary falling around a redshift range of z=0.1–0.3—where z is a dimensionless measure of the spectrum's frequency shift.
High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate Hubble diagrams and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift. Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the Hubble curve, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies.
Supernova discoveries are reported to the International Astronomical Union's Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams, which sends out a circular with the name it assigns to that supernova. The name is formed from the prefix SN, followed by the year of discovery, suffixed with a one or two-letter designation. The first 26 supernovae of the year are designated with a capital letter from A to Z. Afterward pairs of lower-case letters are used: aa, ab, and so on. Hence, for example, SN 2003C designates the third supernova reported in the year 2003. The last supernova of 2005, SN 2005nc, was the 367th (14 × 26 + 3 = 367). Since 2000, professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several hundred supernovae each year (572 in 2007, 261 in 2008, 390 in 2009; 231 in 2013).
Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN 185, SN 1006, SN 1054, SN 1572 (called Tycho's Nova) and SN 1604 (Kepler's Star). Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (e.g. SN 1885A, SN 1907A, etc.)—this last happened with SN 1947A. SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, however, they have been needed every year. Since 2016, the increasing number of discoveries has regularly led to the additional use of three-digit designations.
Astronomers classify supernovae according to their light curves and the absorption lines of different chemical elements that appear in their spectra. If a supernova's spectrum contains lines of hydrogen (known as the Balmer series in the visual portion of the spectrum) it is classified Type II; otherwise it is Type I. In each of these two types there are subdivisions according to the presence of lines from other elements or the shape of the light curve (a graph of the supernova's apparent magnitude as a function of time).
Swiss 125cc championships in Niederwil / CH
1989 VRP Mugen Honda
Custom VRP aluminium chassis,airbox/subframe,gas tank
Day 11, 30 hours build time.
The neck subframe has now been attached to the cargo bay, and both side walls of the cargo bay have now been completed. The temporary cargo bay frame has been removed because I can use the walls of the cargo bay as size and distance references.