Colonial Drugs was the site of a 1960 sit in to end segregation in Chapel Hill, North Carolina in Orange County. It is on West Franklin Street. The building no longer houses a drug store. It is now an event space, The Story.

blogs.lib.unc.edu/uarms/2012/03/02/1960-sit-in-at-colonia...

Samburu National Reserve

Kenya

East Africa

BEST VIEWED IN LARGER SIZE

Musth or must /ˈmʌst/ is a periodic condition in bull (male) elephants, characterized by highly aggressive behavior and accompanied by a large rise in reproductive hormones. Testosterone levels in an elephant in musth can be as much as 60 times greater than in the same elephant at other times. However, whether this hormonal surge is the sole cause of musth, or merely a contributing factor, is unknown; scientific investigation of musth is problematic because even the most placid elephants become highly violent toward humans and other elephants during musth, requiring segregation and isolation until they recover. Female elephants do not undergo musth.

Often, elephants in musth discharge a thick tar-like secretion called temporin from the temporal ducts on the sides of the head. Temporin contains proteins, lipids (notably cholesterol), phenol and 4-methyl phenol,[2][3] cresols and sesquiterpenes (notably farnesol and its derivatives).[4] Secretions and urine collected from zoo elephants have been shown to contain elevated levels of various highly odorous ketones and aldehydes. The elephant's aggression may be partially caused by a reaction to the temporin, which naturally trickles down into the elephant's mouth. Another contributing factor may be the accompanying swelling of the temporal glands; this presses on the elephant's eyes and causes acute pain comparable to severe root abscess toothache. Elephants sometimes try to counteract this pain by digging their tusks into the ground.

Musth is linked to sexual arousal or establishing dominance, but this relationship is far from clear. Cases of elephants goring and killing rhinoceroses without provocation in national parks in Africa have been documented and attributed to musth in young male elephants, especially those growing in the absence of older males. Studies show that reintroducing older males into the elephant population of the area seems to prevent younger males from entering musth, and therefore, stop this aggressive behavior.

Three years ago, I made a video/ machinima about miscegeny and race in mid 20th century US: Falling Between Worlds.

Yet preparing it sucked me down into a dark space: the actors who had organised online around the far right and gamergate who now had delivered Trump after trialling through Brexit.

I wrote a blog post at the time, having written something much longer about how the ideas came together. A key point was that as Trump was inaugurated the Rev said about it raining and boding well - I went back to the tradition of rain being associated with funerals. That seems almost prophetic now.

Made at One Caress in Second Life.

Most historians date the beginning of the modern civil rights movement in the United States to December 1, 1955. That was the day when an unknown seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama refused to give up her bus seat to a white passenger. This brave woman, Rosa Parks, was arrested and fined for violating a city ordinance, but her lonely act of defiance began a movement that ended legal segregation in America, and made her an inspiration to freedom-loving people everywhere.

"Back then," Mrs. Parks recalled in an interview, "we didn't have any civil rights. It was just a matter of survival, of existing from one day to the next. I remember going to sleep as a girl hearing the Klan ride at night and hearing a lynching and being afraid the house would burn down." In the same interview, she cited her lifelong acquaintance with fear as the reason for her relative fearlessness in deciding to appeal her conviction during the bus boycott. "I didn't have any special fear," she said. "It was more of a relief to know that I wasn't alone."

The bus incident led to the formation of the Montgomery Improvement Association, led by the young pastor of the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The association called for a boycott of the city-owned bus company. The boycott lasted 382 days and brought Mrs. Parks, Dr. King, and their cause to the attention of the world. A Supreme Court Decision struck down the Montgomery ordinance under which Mrs. Parks had been fined, and outlawed racial segregation on public transportation.

"I do the very best I can to look upon life with optimism and hope and looking forward to a better day, but I don't think there is anything such as complete happiness. It pains me that there is still a lot of Klan activity and racism. I think when you say you're happy, you have everything that you need and everything that you want, and nothing more to wish for. I haven't reached that stage yet."

- www.achievement.org/

Rosa Parks died yesterday at her home in Detroit.

She was 92.

__________________________________________________

If you can, please make a contribution towards the disaster relief efforts

in India and Pakistan (as well as continuing efforts in New Orleans and

Texas) by donating to the Red Cross/Red Crescent.

__________________________________________________

[ - ]

As a way of returning the extraordinary generosity and support you have all shown me in this great community, whenever I upload a new pic or series of shots this year, I'll provide a link to another flickr photog whose work, personality, or spirit I feel you should discover.

Visit and introduce yourself. Make a friend. Share the love.

Open your eyes to yanni today.

Company/Owner: Marikina Autoline Transport Corporation

Fleet/Bus Number: 4000

Classification: Air-conditioned City Bus

Coachbuilder: Almazora Motors Corporation

Body Model: Isuzu/Almazora City Star Forward FV

Engine Model: Isuzu 6HK1-TCN

Chassis Model: Isuzu FVR34S (PABFVR34SLQB)

Transmission: 6-speed Manual Transmission

Suspension: Leaf Spring Suspension

Seating Configuration: 3×2

Seating Capacity: 56

Franchise route: San Mateo (Rizal)–Baclaran via EDSA, Ayala, Commonwealth Ave.

Route: Baclaran, Parañaque City / World Trade Center, Pasay City–San Mateo, Rizal via N61 (Roxas Boulevard: from NAIA Road to EDSA) / N120 (Roxas Boulevard: from EDSA to Buendia Avenue) / N190 (Buendia Avenue/Sen. Gil Puyat Avenue) / Ayala Avenue / N1 (EDSA) / N174 (East Avenue) / N170 [Commonwealth Avenue (Quezon City)] / Batasan Road / Batasan–San Mateo Road

Areas passing (underlines are designated stops for this bus scheme - EDSA area only: Magallanes–Ermin Garcia Avenue): Bayview International Towers\City of Dreams\Airport Road\Baclaran Market/Baclaran Church\Japanese Embassy\Cuneta Astrodome/HK Sun Plaza/Department of Foreign Affairs\F.B. Harrison Street\BIR Pasay City\LRT Gil Puyat Station/Taft Avenue\Osmeña Highway/PNR Buendia Station\Chino Roces Avenue (Pasong Tamo)\Makati Central Post Office\RCBC Plaza Yuchengco Tower\V.A. Rufino\PBCOM Tower\Ayala Triangle\Makati Avenue/The Peninsula Manila Hotel\Glorietta 5\Buendia Avenue\Estrella\Guadalupe\Boni/Pioneer\Reliance\Shaw Boulevard\SM Megamall\Ortigas Avenue\Robinsons Galleria\Boni Serrano\Main Avenue\Araneta Center Cubao\Baliwag Transit/Five Star\Ermin Garcia Avenue\Ermin Garcia Avenue\LTFRB Central Office/LTO Central Office\NIA Road\V. Luna Avenue/Land Registration Authority East Ave\Philippine Statistics Authority\SSS East Ave/BSP East Ave\BIR Road\East Avenue Medical Center\Philippine Heart Center\Matalino Street/Nat'l Kidney Transplant Institute\Quezon Memorial Circle/Quezon City Hall Gate 10\Nat'l Housing Authority Main Office/Maharlika Street\Philcoa\Techno Hub\Central Avenue\Tandang Sora Avenue\Luzon Avenue\Ever Gotesco\Batasan Hills Park\Batasan Hills National High School\Serbisyong Bayan Park\SM City San Mateo\Santa Ana Cemetery\San Mateo Doctors Hospital\San Mateo Municipal Hall\Maly Elementary School

Type of Operation: City Operation Public Utility Bus (Bus C Segregation | Regular Class)

Area of Operations: National Capital Region (NCR) / CALABARZON (Region IV-A)

Shot Location: EDSA-Boni, Mandaluyong City

Date Taken: May 14, 2018 (6:45H)

Notices:

* Please DON'T GRAB A PHOTO WITHOUT A PERMISSION. If you're going to GRAB IT, please give A CREDIT TO THE OWNER. Also, don't PRINT SCREEN my photos.

** If I have mistakes on the specifications, please comment in a good manner so that I can edit it immediately.

*** The specifications and routes (for provincial, inter-provincial, and city operation) mentioned above are subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice.

**** The vehicle's registration plate(s), conduction sticker(s), and/or persons (if applicable) were pixelated/blurred to prevent any conflict with the photographer, the bus company and/or to the car owner for their security and/or privacy purposes. So, don't use their plate number, conduction sticker, and vehicle tag as an evidence for any incident. And, I have taken this photo for bus fanatics, bus enthusiasts, and bus lovers purposes.

Riff, PD#18245, a land art monument celebrating 100 years of the Zuiderzee Act

A collaboration of artist Bob Gramsma and engineer WaltGalmarini AG

Riff, PD#18245 is a site-specific work, a Land Art monument. The tectonic work looks like it is emerging from the natural-cultural landscape and, at the same time, helps to frame it. A mound of soil was heaped up on a foundation of slanted pillars. Large cavities were dug into the mound and then cast in concrete, thus creating an inverted sculptural reproduction of the void in the mound. Afterwards, the mound was removed, and the concrete sculpture cleaned of loose soil and sand. The result is a large-scale work, supported by three stalactite-shaped concrete volumes and the pillars of the foundation, which are partially visible. The monument is in context with the horizon, the landscape and the sunset. A stairway leads up to the top of the structure, inviting visitors to overview its surface.

The process of digging uses the labour of construction to create traces of landscape – space without architecture. The sculpture re-interprets the material and historical conditions of the site. The slightly slanted volume echoes characteristics of the Polder, like dikes, ditches, canals, plots, embankment, drainage, extraction, renaturation and depilution (vertical segregation). At the same time, Riff, PD#18245 also appears foreign in this environment – a hull resting on slanted pillars, aligned with the dikes. It is reminiscent of other interventions in this particular landscape: water management, flood protections, the signs of the transition from fishing to agriculture, and the renaturation of the landscape. It literally emerges from, and melds into, the artificial topography, the geology, the IJsselmeer polder and the Zuiderzee bed.

At the same time, Riff, PD#18245 is a trace of the artistic and the production process, outlining an interstice between the present and the past. The trace as an index of the working process creates a nexus between time and spatiality. The monumental blueprint of an excavation, which has long since disappeared, turns into a poetic sculpture, a hollow resonant body with a natural patina growing over time. Riff, PD#18245 looks southwest westward across the renatured land in the direction of the sunset and the amusement parks, providing a visual link to the Veluwemeer and the Flevopolder, the largest man-made island and its physical vastness.

Riff, PD#18245 becomes a space for the audience to project, or to reanimate, their understanding of the site, its history and its present. The sculpture is at once a tool to reflect on history and an incitement for the viewer to dream those stories. It is a way of visualizing both absence and presence, a sculpted ghost, or spirit, that opens up a new space for rethinking the relationship between material and memory. It is a residue of memory, honouring the past, while serving the present. By means of the elemental exposure of the earth, the missing cast, and the past that it encapsulates, we are reminded that earth and its history — as well as the cosmic forces or energies shaping it — are beyond human intelligibility. But we can try to understand, or appreciate, their unfathomable presence in time as we access this exhumed vestige.

Production

After creating a foundation by driving piles deep into the ground, a huge mound (70 x 40 x 7 m, 15.000 m3) was heaped up on top of it, consisting of sand and clay from the agricultural land and from the bottom of the Zuiderzee on the site. A wide sinkhole, reaching 2 m under sea level, and two narrow deep pits, reaching down to the level of the pillars, were dug into the mound. Reinforcement structures were built, and concrete poured and pneumatically projected into the cavities to produce an inverted sculptural reproduction of the empty space. After the concrete had dried, the heaped-up soil was bulldozed away and returned to build the new environment for the New Nature Programme. An immersive sculpture, whose platform hovers above the ground, is revealed. A small staircase cuts into the platform. The piece is approx. 37,5 m long, 13 m wide and 7 m high.

Using the local soil as false work, as well as formwork, and reusing it after the production for the new reserve is a very ecological, as well as economical, casting technique. It allows to produce an intricate seamless hollow concrete cast in one piece. After the structure was cleaned, it is ready for the public and the winds to take over. Within time, an ecosystem will evolve on the inside of the hollow body, and the surface will be partly covered with moss, chalk, and salt efflorescence. Little gaps in the shell enable insects and animals to build viable habitats inside the hollow body. The whole production process was open to the public to provide an in-depth vision and understanding in the making of Riff, PD#18245. The sculpture itself thus starts to generate memories in the minds of the audience – a process that will continue well into the future as weather and nature gradually take over the sculpture, altering its shape and functions over time, while the wind is playing on its resonant body.

Text: Martin Jaeggi

When you can't make it to Spencer to partake in the foamfest, let Spencer's foam fest come to you!

042 with the NS 4612, a GP59 is seen leading the Pan Am Southern, New Haven, Wabash, and B&O cab units to points north.

James Leonard Farmer Jr. (1920-1999) was an American civil rights activist and leader in the Civil Rights Movement "who pushed for nonviolent protest to dismantle segregation, and served alongside Martin Luther King Jr." He was the initiator and organizer of the first Freedom Ride in 1961, which eventually led to the desegregation of interstate transportation in the United States.

In 1942, Farmer co-founded "CORE", The Congress of Racial Equality, in Chicago. It was dedicated to ending racial segregation in the United States through nonviolence. Farmer served as its national chairman from 1942 to 1944.

American artist Alice Neel (1900-1984 painted this commanding portrait of Farmer in 1964, the same year he was arrested while staging a protest against segregation and racial violence at the World's Fair in Flushing Meadows, Queens. Neel's portrait of Farmer, his brow furrowed and his body coiled high, is a study in focus, intensity, and determination.

Seen and photographed on display at The de Young Museum in San Francisco in an exhibit of Neel's works entitled 'Alice Neel: People Come First'.

Seattle Autumn

Pentax 67 - Kodak Portra 400

ELES ANDAM AÍ - DIZ NÃO AO SEGREGACIONISMO / THEY ARE OUT THERE - SAY NO TO SEGREGATIONISM

by Daniel Arrhakis (2025) Inspired in a post by

@PaulleyTicks

Chhath (Devanagari: छठ, छठी, छठ पर्व, छठ पुजा, डाला छठ, डाला पुजा, सुर्य षष्ठी) is an ancient Hindu Vedic festival of Nepalese and Indian devotes dedicated to the Hindu Sun God, Surya and Chhathi Maiya (ancient Vedic Goddess Usha).[2][3] The Chhath Puja is performed in order to thank Surya for sustaining life on earth and to request the granting of certain wishes.[4] This festival is observed by people living in Nepal and India (mainly in the State of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

The Sun, considered as the god of energy and of the life-force, is worshiped during the Chhath festival to promote well-being, prosperity and progress. In Hinduism, Sun worship is believed to help cure a variety of diseases, including leprosy, and helps ensure the longevity and prosperity of family members, friends, and elders.

The rituals of the festival are rigorous and are observed over a period of four days. They include holy bathing, fasting and abstaining from drinking water (Vratta), standing in water for long periods of time, and offering prashad (prayer offerings) and arghya to the setting and rising sun.

Although the festival is observed most elaborately in in Mithila Region of Nepal, Terai-Madhesh of Nepal, Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand and eastern UP, it is also more prevalent in areas where migrants from those areas have a presence. It is celebrated in all Northern regions and major Northern urban centers in India bordering Nepal. The festival is celebrated in the regions including but not exclusive to the northeast region of India, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Chandigarh, Gujarat[5][6] banglore,[7] Mauritius, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname and Jamaica.

Chhath puja is performed on Kartika Shukla Shashthi, which is the sixth day of the month of Kartika in the Vikram Samvat. This falls typically in the month of October or November in the Gregorian English Calendar. The exact date of the festival is decided by Central division of Janakpurdham in Mithila Region of Nepal which is applicable to Worldwide adherents.

It is also celebrated in the summer (March–April), on Chaitra Shashthi, some days after Holi; this event is called Chaiti Chhath.[8] The former is more popular because winter is the usual festive season in Nepal and also in Bihar of North India. Chhath, being an arduous observance, requiring the worshipers to fast without water for around 36 hours continuously, is easier to undertake in the Indian winters but little harder in Nepalese Winter for Nepali Maithils due to cold climate in Terai and Mithila region of Nepal.

Etymology[edit]

The word chhath means sixth in Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Hindi and local dialects and the festival is celebrated on the sixth day of the month Kārtika of the Hindu lunar Nepali calendar. The word is a Prakrit derivation from the Sanskrit ṣaṣṭhi, meaning sixth.It is the longest and most important festival after navratri. The very first day of chhath starts exactly 4 days from Diwali and last for 4 more days. This day the people who observe fast take bath at a river or pond and prepare lunch (consisting of rice, dal mixed with pumpkin and pumpkin, made in pure ghee). The second day (5th day from Diwali) is known as kharna or kheer- roti. In which the kheer( A Indian recipe where rice is prepared with sweetened milk instead of water) and chapati ( called roti in many Indian provinces). The people observe fast for the full day without taking even water and eat this kheer-roti as dinner after offering it to the rising moon and Goddess Ganga. This is the only time when they eat or drink anything from the starting of the day till the last day of chhath. The third day is the main festival day(exactly 6th day from Diwali)of chhath is observed by offering surya namashkar and fruits to the setting sun followed by the next day (exactly 7th day from Diwali) event of offering surya namashkar and fruits to the rising sun on the fourth or last day of chhath.

History[edit]

It is believed that the ritual of Chhath puja may even predate the ancient Vedas texts, as the Rigveda contains hymns worshiping the Sun god and describes similar rituals. The rituals also find reference in the Sanskrit epic poem Mahābhārata in which Draupadi is depicted as observing similar rites.

In the poem, Draupadi and the Pandavas, rulers of Indraprastha (modern Delhi), performed the Chhath ritual on the advice of noble sage Dhaumya. Through her worship of the Sun God, Draupadi was not only able to solve her immediate problems, but also helped the Pandavas later regain their lost kingdom.

Its yogic/scientific history dates back to the Vedic times. The rishis of yore used this method to remain without any external intake of food as they were able to obtain energy directly from the sun's rays. This was done through the Chhath method.[9]

Another history behind celebrating the Chhath puja is the story of Lord Rama. It is considered that Lord Rama of India and Sita of Nepal had kept fast and offer puja to the Lord Sun in the month of Kartika in Shukla Paksh during their coronation after returning to the Ayodhya after 14 years of exile. From that time, chhath puja became the significant and traditional festival in the Hindu religion and started celebrating every year at the same date in Sita's homeland Janakpur and adjoining Indian states of Bihar but has not been popular in Rama's kingdom of Ayodhya.

Chhathi Maiya[edit]

The Goddess who is worshipped during the famous Chhath Puja is known as Chhathi Maiya. Chhathi Maiya is known as [goddess] in the Vedas. She is believed to be the beloved younger sister of Surya, the sun god. Some scholars believed that she is the only sister of sun god. Usha and Pratyusha are his wives and Aditi is his mother.

Usha is the term used to refer to dawn– The first light of day. But in the Rig Veda she has more symbolic meaning. Symbolically Usha is the dawn of divine consciousness in the individual aspirant. It is said - Usha and Pratyusha, wives of Sun are the main source of Sun. Both Usha and Pratyusha are worshiped along with Sun in chhath parva. Usha (literally-the first morning sun-ray) is worshipped on the last day and Pratyusha(the last sun-ray of day) is worshipped in the evening by offering water or milk to the rising and setting sun respectively. This is the only parva which signifies rising sun as well as setting sun both.

Rituals and traditions[edit]

Chhath is a festival of bathing and worshipping,that follows a period of abstinence and segregation of the worshiper from the main household for four days. During this period, the worshiper observes purity, and sleeps on the floor on a single blanket.This is the only holy festival which has no involvement of any pandit (priest).The devotees offer their prayers to the setting sun, and then the rising sun in celebrating its glory as the cycle of birth starts with death. It is seen as the most glorious form of Sun worship.

Nahay khay[edit]

On the first day of Chhath Puja, the devotees take a dip, preferably in the river Kosi river, Karnali and Ganga and carry home the holy water of these historical rivers to prepare the offerings. The house and surroundings are scrupulously cleaned. The ladies observing the Vrata called vratin allow themselves only one meal on this day.

Lohanda and Kharna[edit]

On the second day of Chhath Puja, the day before Chhath, the Vratins observe a fast for the whole day, which ends in the evening a little after sunset. Just after the worship of Sun and moon, the offerings of Kheer (rice delicacy), puris (deep-fried puffs of wheat flour) and bananas, are distributed among family and friends. The Vratins go on a fast without water for 36 hours after 2nd day evening prashad (kheer)..

Sandhya Arghya (evening offerings) OR Pahela Aragh[edit]

This day is spent preparing the prasad (offerings)at home. On the eve of this day, the entire household accompanies the Vratins to a riverbank, pond or a common large water body to make the offerings (Arghya) to the setting sun. It is during this phase of Chhath Puja that the devotees offer prayers to the just setting sun. The occasion is almost a carnival. Besides the Vratins, there are friends and family, and numerous participants and onlookers, all willing to help and receive the blessings of the worshipper. The folk songs sung on the evening of Chhath.

Usha Arghya (morning offerings) OR Dusra Aragh[edit]

On the final day of Chhath Puja, the devotees, along with family and friends, go to the riverbank before sunrise, in order to make the offerings (Arghya) to the rising sun. The festival ends with the breaking of the fast by the Vratins. Friends, Relatives visit the houses of the devotees to receive the prashad.

The main worshipers, called Parvaitin (from Sanskrit parv, meaning 'occasion' or 'festival'), are usually women. However, a large number of men also observe this festival. The parvaitin pray for the well-being of their family, and for the prosperity of their offsprings. Once a family starts performing Chhatt Puja, it is their duty to perform it every year and to pass it on to the following generations. The festival is skipped only if there happens to be a death in the family that year.

The prasad offerings include sweets, Kheer, Thekua and fruit offered in small bamboo soop winnows. The food is strictly vegetarian and it is cooked without salt, onions or garlic. Emphasis is put on maintaining the purity of the food.[10]

Ségrégation !

Reds, Fasts and Fats !

Follow me also on my website : www.yoannlambertphoto.fr & on my facebook page : www.facebook.com/yoannlambertphoto/

Suivez-moi aussi sur mon site personnel : www.yoannlambertphoto.fr & sur ma page facebook : www.facebook.com/yoannlambertphoto/

Jackson, MS (est. 1821, pop. 165,000)

Marker:

front

"On May 28, 1961, a Greyhound bus with nine Freedom Riders aboard arrived here, the third group of Riders into Jackson. The first two came on Trailways buses May 24. That summer 329 people were arrested in Jackson for integrating public transportation facilities. Convicted on "breach of peace" and jailed, most refused bail and were sent to the state penitentiary. Their protest worked. In September 1961, the federal government mandated that segregation in interstate transportation end."

back

"Greyhound Bus Station This former Greyhound bus station was the scene of many historic arrests in 1961, when Freedom Riders challenged racial segregation in Jackson’s bus and train stations and airport. The Freedom Riders, part of a campaign created by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), pressured the federal government to enforce the law regarding illegal racially separate waiting rooms, rest rooms, and restaurants—common in public transportation facilities across the South.

"On May 4, 1961, thirteen Riders—blacks and whites, men and women—left Washington, D.C., on two buses. Trained in nonviolent direct action, they planned to desegregate bus stations throughout the South. They integrated stations in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia with few incidents but were attacked by vicious mobs in Anniston, Birmingham, and Montgomery, Alabama. The Kennedy administration implored them to stop, a call echoed by the media and some civil rights leaders. The Riders, however, reinforced with new volunteers from the Nashville Student Movement, were determined to continue.

"On May 24, two buses of Freedom Riders left Montgomery bound for Jackson, with highway patrolmen and National Guardsmen as armed guards. Instead of a protest mob, policemen met them in Jackson, urging them to “move on” when the Riders tried to use facilities denied them. When the Riders refused, they were arrested, charged with “breach of peace,” and quickly convicted.

"Embracing the "jail-no bail" tactic, they invited new Riders from around the country to join them in Jackson. Within three weeks the city’s jails were full, and the Riders were transferred to the state penitentiary at Parchman, where most served six weeks, suffering indignities and injustices with fortitude and resolve. Between May 24 and September 13, 329 people were arrested in Jackson—half black, half white, and a quarter of them women. Most were between the ages of eighteen and thirty. They came from thirty-nine states and ten other countries; forty-three were from Mississippi.

"On September 23, the Interstate Commerce Commission mandated an end to segregation in all bus and train stations and airports. The victorious Freedom Riders left a legacy of historic changes, proving the value of nonviolent direct action, providing a template for future campaigns, and helping jump-start the movement in Mississippi."

Old Greyhound Station History

• in the mid-1930s, as America struggled through Great Depression, Greyhound Lines adopted a Streamline Moderne design for their buses & terminals, echoing the speed lines of their Super Coaches which, like the Greyhound logo, promised a swift, state of the art ride • brought in engineer Dwight Austin (1897-1960) to create the new Super Coach design & Louisville architect William Strudwick Arrasmith (1898-1965) to reimagine Greyhound terminal design

• in 1937, Greyhound Lines contracted for a Streamline Moderne style terminal in Jackson, topped by a vertical, illuminated "Greyhound" sign • the bldg. was faced with blue Vitrolux structural glass panels and ivory Vitrolite trim • included a coffee shop with a horseshoe-shaped counter & bathing facilities for women (a bath tub) and men (a shower)

• the design is widely believed to be one of the ~60 Moderne Greyhound stations credited to Arrasmith, although photographic evidence suggests that Memphis architect William Nowland Van Powell (1904-1977) — working with George Mahan Jr. (1887-1967) — was responsible for the design, with or without Arrasmith as the consulting architect

• restoration architect Robert Parker Adams acquired the then threatened bldg. in 1988, moved in after restoration, retaining the original neon sign —Wikipedia

The Farish Street Historic District

“but out of the bitterness we wrought an ancient past here in this separate place and made our village here.” —African Village by Margaret Walker (1915-1998)

• during the Reconstruction era that followed the American Civil War, white Southerners struggled to reclaim their lives as millions of black Southerners sought new ones • with the stroke of a pen, the Emancipation Proclamation had transformed African slaves into African Americans & released them into hostile, vengeful & well-armed white communities amid the ruins of a once flourishing society

• the antebellum South had been home to over 262,000 rights-restricted "free blacks" • post-emancipation, the free black population soared to 4.1 million • given that the South had sacrificed 20% of it's white males to the war, blacks now comprised over half the total population of some southern states • uneducated & penniless, most of the new black Americans depended on the Freedman's Bureau for food & clothing

• the social & political implications of this disruptive shift in demographics fueled a violence-laced strain of American racism • in this toxic environment, de facto racial segregation was a given, ordained as Mississippi law in 1890 • with Yankees (the U.S. Army) patrolling Jackson & Maine-born Republican Adelbert Ames installed in the Governor's Mansion, the Farish Street neighborhood was safe haven for freedmen

• as homeless African American refugees poured into Jackson from all reaches of the devastated state, a black economy flickered to life in the form of a few Farish Street mom-and-pops • unwelcome at white churches, the liberated slaves built their own, together with an entire neighborhood's worth of buildings, most erected between 1890 & 1930

• by 1908 1/3 of the district was black-owned, & half of the black families were homeowners • the 1913-1914 business directory listed 11 African American attorneys, 4 doctors, 3 dentists, 2 jewelers, 2 loan companies & a bank, all in the Farish St. neighborhood • the community also had 2 hospitals & numerous retail & service stores —City Data

• by mid-20th c. Farish Street, the state's largest economically independent African American community, had become the cultural, political & business hub for central Mississippi's black citizens [photos] • on Saturdays, countryfolk would come to town on special busses to sell produce & enjoy BBQ while they listened to live street music • vendors sold catfish fried in large black kettles over open fires • hot tamales, a Mississippi staple, were also a popular street food —The Farish District, Its Architecture and Cultural Heritage

“I’ve seen pictures. You couldn’t even get up the street. It was a two-way street back then, and it was wall-to-wall folks. It was just jam-packed: people shopping, people going to clubs, people eating, people dancing.” — Geno Lee, owner of the Big Apple Inn

• as Jackson's black economy grew, Farish Street entertainment venues prospered, drawing crowds with live & juke blues music • the musicians found or first recorded in the Neighborhood include Robert Johnson, Sonny Boy Williamson II & Elmore James

• Farish Street was also home to talent scouts & record labels like H.C. Speir, & Trumpet Records, Ace Records • both Speir & Trumpet founder Lillian McMurry were white Farish St. business owners whose furniture stores also housed recording studios • both discovered & promoted local Blues musicians —The Mississippi Encyclopedia

• Richard Henry Beadle (1884-1971), a prominent Jackson photographer, had a studio at 199-1/2 N. Farish • he was the son of Samuel Alfred Beadle (1857-1932), African-American poet & attorney • born the son of a slave, he was the author of 3 published books of poetry & stories

• The Alamo Theatre was mainly a movie theater but periodically presented musical acts such as Nat King Cole, Elmore James & Otis Spann • Wednesday was talent show night • 12 year old Jackson native Dorothy Moore entered the contest, won & went on to a successful recording career, highlighted by her 1976 no. 1 R&B hit, "Misty Blue" [listen] (3:34)

• in their heyday, Farish Street venues featured African American star performers such as Bessie Smith & the Rabbit Foot Minstrels, Louis Armstrong, Count Basie, Duke Ellington & Dinah Washington —Farish Street Records

• on 28 May, 1963, John Salter, a mixed race (white/Am. Indian) professor at historically black Tougaloo College, staged a sit-in with 3 African American students at the "Whites Only" Woolworth's lunch counter in downtown Jackson • they were refused service • an estimated 300 white onlookers & reporters filled the store

• police officers arrived but did not intercede as, in the words of student Anne Moody, "all hell broke loose" while she and the other black students at the counter prayed • "A man rushed forward, threw [student] Memphis from his seat and slapped my face. Then another man who worked in the store threw me against an adjoining counter." • this act of civil disobedience is remembered as the the signature event of Jackson's protest movement —L.A. Times

"This was the most violently attacked sit-in during the 1960s and is the most publicized. A huge mob gathered, with open police support while the three of us sat there for three hours. I was attacked with fists, brass knuckles and the broken portions of glass sugar containers, and was burned with cigarettes. I'm covered with blood and we were all covered by salt, sugar, mustard, and various other things." —John Salter

• the Woolworth Sit-in was one of many non-violent protests by blacks against racial segregation in the South • in 1969 integration of Jackson's public schools began • this new era in Jackson history also marked the beginning of Farish Street's decline —The Farish Street Project

"Integration was a great thing for black people, but it was not a great thing for black business... Before integration, Farish Street was the black mecca of Mississippi.” — Geno Lee, Big Apple Inn

• for African Americans, integration offered the possibility to shop outside of the neighborhood at white owned stores • as increasing numbers of black shoppers did so, Farish Street traffic declined, businesses closed & the vacated buildings fell into disrepair

• in 1983, a Farish St. redevelopment plan was presented

• in 1995 the street was designated an endangered historic place by the National Trust for Historic Preservation

• in the 1990s, having redeveloped Memphis' Beale Street, Performa Entertainment Real Estate was selected to redevelop Farish St

• in 2008, The Farish Street Group took over the project with plans for a B.B. King's Blues Club to anchor the entertainment district

• in 2012, having spent $21 million, the redevelopment — limited to repaving of the street, stabilizating some abandoned buildings & demolishing many of the rest — was stuck in limbo —Michael Minn

• 2017 update:

"Six mayors and 20 years after the City of Jackson became involved in efforts to develop the Farish Street Historic District, in hopes of bringing it back to the bustling state of its heyday, the project sits at a standstill. Recent Mayor Tony Yarber has referred to the district as “an albatross.” In September of 2014, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development sanctioned the City of Jackson, the Jackson Redevelopment Authority, and developers for misspending federal funds directed toward the development of the Farish Street Historic District. Work is at a halt and "not scheduled to resume until December 2018, when the City of Jackson repays HUD $1.5 million." —Mississippi Dept. of Archives & History

• Farish Street Neighborhood Historic District, National Register # 80002245, 1980

For the first time, natanaw ko nang matino ang Euromidi ni CEM. =) Wala akong masabi dahil okay na okay pala ang itsura nya; kaporma talaga sa personal kapag nakikita ito.

Company/Owner: CEM Trans Services, Inc.

Fleet/Bus Number: 91423–57 Roadrunner

Classification: Air-conditioned City Bus

Coachbuilder: Santarosa Motor Works, Inc./Columbian Motors Corporation

Body Model: Iveco/Santarosa Euromidi CC150

Engine Model: Iveco Tector 6 E25 / Iveco Tector F4A E25

Chassis Model: Iveco EuroCargo CC150 (ZCFA1LJ0402)

Transmission: 6-speed Manual Transmission

Suspension: Parabolic Leaf Spring Suspension

Seating Configuration: 3×2

Seating Capacity: 58

Franchise route: Grotto (SJDM Bulacan)–NAIA via EDSA, SM Fairview

Route: Our Lady of Lourdes Grotto / Tungkong Mangga, San Jose del Monte City, Bulacan–Ninoy Aquino International Airport, Pasay City via N170 [Commonwealth Avenue (Quezon City)] / N174 (East Avenue) / N1 (EDSA) / N63 (NAIA Road) and vice versa

Areas passing (underlines are designated stops for this bus scheme - EDSA area only: Kamuning–Mantrade): SM Tungko (SM SJDM)/Pecsonville Subdivision\Savano Park\Diamond Crest Village\Pleasant Hills Subdivision/Altaraza Town Center\Sampaguita\Ascoville Road\Funnside Ningnangan Caloocan\Malaria Road\Cefels Park 3 Subdivision\Sapang Alat\North Caloocan Doctors Hospital/Bankers Village 2\Pangarap Village\Mountain Heights Subdivision\Guadanoville Subdivision\Amparo Subdivision Gate 2\Midway Park Subdivision\Dela Costa Homes 2/Sacred Heart Village\Quezon City–Caloocan Boundary\Sacred Heart Novitiate\Mater Carmeli School\Hilltop Mansion Subdivision/Our Lady of Fatima Hilltop\Trees Residences\Fairview Terraces/SM City Fairview\Robinsons Novaliches\Belfast-SM Annex\Hanging Gardens/Mary the Queen Parish\Neopolitan Cycling Grounds\OB Montessori Center, Inc. Fairview/Brittany Square/McDo Belfast\Mindanao Ave-Jollibee\Labayani\North Fairview\Fairlane/NCBA Fairview\Fairview Center Mall\Pearl Drive\Puregold North Commonwealth\Winston Street\Don Fabian\Doña Carmen Avenue\Litex\Manggahan/Commonwealth Market\Riverside\COA/Sandiganbayan\St. Peter Parish\Ever Gotesco/Don Antonio\Diliman Doctors Hospital\Puregold Luzon Commonwealth\Luzon Avenue\Tandang Sora Avenue\INC Templo Central\New Era University/Central Avenue\UP Ayala TechnoHub\Philcoa\Quezon Memorial Circle/Quezon City Hall Gate 10\Nat'l Kidney Transplant Institute/Matalino Street\Philippine Heart Center\East Avenue Medical Center\BIR Road\SSS East Ave/BSP East Ave\Philippine Statistics Authority\Land Registration Authority East Ave/V. Luna Avenue\NIA Road\LTFRB Central Office/LTO Central Office\Kamuning\Ermin Garcia\Monte de Piedad\Arayat Cubao\Main Avenue\Santolan\VV Soliven\Connecticut\POEA Ortigas\Shaw Boulevard/Starmall EDSA-Shaw\Reliance\Pioneer/Boni Avenue\Guadalupe\Estrella\Buendia Avenue\Ayala Avenue\Mantrade\Evangelista\Malibay/Pasay Rotonda/Taft Avenue\F.B. Harrison Street\SM Mall of Asia (Globe Rotunda)\Heritage Hotel\Double Dragon Plaza\Baclaran Church\Airport Road\City of Dreams\Bayview International Towers\Coastal Mall

Type of Operation: City Operation Public Utility Bus (Bus Segregation C | Regular Class)

Area of Operations: Central Luzon (Region III) / National Capital Region (NCR)

Shot Location: Pasay Rotonda, Pasay City

Date Taken: May 11, 2018

Notices:

* Please DON'T GRAB A PHOTO WITHOUT A PERMISSION. If you're going to GRAB IT, please give A CREDIT TO THE OWNER. Also, don't PRINT SCREEN my photos.

** If I have mistakes on the specifications, please comment in a good manner so that I can edit it immediately.

*** The specifications and routes (for provincial, inter-provincial, and city operation) mentioned above are subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice.

**** The vehicle's registration plate(s), conduction sticker(s), and/or persons (if applicable) were pixelated/blurred to prevent any conflict with the photographer, the bus company and/or to the car owner for their security and/or privacy purposes. So, don't use their plate number, conduction sticker, and vehicle tag as an evidence for any incident. And, I have taken this photo for bus fanatics, bus enthusiasts, and bus lovers purposes.

A colorized and painted version of an 1895 caricature of Jim Crow laws in the American South. The source image is available at the Library of Congress: www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2005686751/

American Arcade postcard. Collection: Marlene Pilaete.

American actress, singer-songwriter, and comedian Hattie McDaniel (1893-1952) won the Oscar for Best Supporting Actress for her role as "Mammy” in Gone with the Wind (1939). She was the first African American to win an Oscar. She appeared in over 300 films, although she received screen credits for only 83. Encountering racism and racial segregation throughout her career, McDaniel was unable to attend the premiere of Gone with the Wind in Atlanta because it was held at a whites-only theatre. When she died in 1952, her final wish - to be buried in Hollywood Cemetery - was denied because the graveyard was restricted to whites only.

Hattie McDaniel was born in Denver in 1893 to formerly-enslaved parents in Wichita, Kansas. She was the youngest of 13 children. Her mother, Susan Holbert, was a singer of gospel music, and her father, Henry McDaniel, fought in the Civil War with the 122nd United States Colored Troops. In 1900, the family moved to Colorado, living first in Fort Collins and then in Denver, where Hattie attended Denver East High School and in 1908 entered a contest sponsored by the Women’s Christian Temperance Union, reciting 'Convict Joe'. McDaniel was a songwriter as well as a performer. She honed her songwriting skills while working with her brother Otis McDaniel's carnival company, a minstrel show. McDaniel and her sister Etta Goff launched an all-female minstrel show in 1914 called the McDaniel Sisters Company. After the death of her brother Otis in 1916, the troupe began to lose money, and Hattie did not get her next big break until 1920. From 1920 to 1925, she appeared with Professor George Morrison's Melody Hounds, a black touring ensemble. In the mid-1920s, she embarked on a radio career, singing with the Melody Hounds on station KOA in Denver. From 1926 to 1929, she recorded many of her songs for Okeh Records and Paramount Records in Chicago. After the stock market crashed in 1929, McDaniel could only find work as a washroom attendant at Sam Pick's Club Madrid near Milwaukee. Despite the owner's reluctance to let her perform, she was eventually allowed to take the stage and soon became a regular performer.

In 1931, Hattie McDaniel moved to Los Angeles to join her brother Sam, and sisters Etta and Orlena. When she could not get film work, she took jobs as a maid or cook. Sam was working on a KNX radio program, 'The Optimistic Do-Nut Hour', and was able to get his sister a spot. She performed on radio as "Hi-Hat Hattie", a bossy maid who often "forgets her place". Her show became popular, but her salary was so low that she had to keep working as a maid. She made her first film appearance in The Golden West (1932), in which she played a maid. Her second appearance came in the highly successful Mae West film I'm No Angel (Wesley Ruggles, 1933), in which she played one of the black maids with whom West camped it up backstage. She received several other uncredited film roles in the early 1930s, often singing in choruses. In 1934, McDaniel joined the Screen Actors Guild. She began to attract attention and landed larger film roles, which began to win her screen credits. Fox put her under contract to appear in The Little Colonel (David Butler, 1935), with Shirley Temple, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson and Lionel Barrymore. Judge Priest (John Ford, 1934), starring Will Rogers, was the first film in which she played a major role. She had a leading part in the film and demonstrated her singing talent, including a duet with Rogers. McDaniel and Rogers became friends during filming. In 1935, McDaniel had prominent roles, as a slovenly maid in Alice Adams (George Stevens, 1935); a comic part as Jean Harlow's maid and traveling companion in China Seas (Tay Garnett, 1935), McDaniels's first film with Clark Gable; and as the maid Isabella in Murder by Television (Clifford Sanforth, 1935), with Béla Lugosi. She appeared in the romantic comedy Vivacious Lady (George Stevens, 1938), starring James Stewart and Ginger Rogers. McDaniel had a featured role as Queenie in the musical Show Boat (James Whale, 1936), starring Allan Jones and Irene Dunne, in which she sang a verse of 'Can't Help Lovin' Dat Man' with Dunne, Helen Morgan, Paul Robeson, and a black chorus. She and Robeson sang 'I Still Suits Me', written for the film by Kern and Hammerstein. After Show Boat, she had major roles in the romantic comedy Saratoga (Jack Conway, 1937), starring Jean Harlow and Clark Gable; The Shopworn Angel (H. C. Potter, 1938), with Margaret Sullavan; and the screwball comedy-mystery film The Mad Miss Manton (Leigh Jason, 1938), starring Barbara Stanwyck and Henry Fonda. She had a minor role in the Carole Lombard–Frederic March film Nothing Sacred (William A. Wellman, 1937), in which she played the wife of a shoeshine man (Troy Brown) masquerading as a sultan. She was criticized by members of the black community for the roles she accepted and for pursuing roles aggressively rather than rocking the Hollywood boat. For example, in The Little Colonel (David Butler, 1935), she played one of the black servants longing to return to the Old South, but her portrayal of Malena in Alice Adams angered white Southern audiences because she stole several scenes from the film's white star, Katharine Hepburn. McDaniel ultimately became best known for playing a sassy, opinionated maid.

The competition to win the part of Mammy in Gone with the Wind (Victor Fleming, 1939) was almost as fierce as that for Scarlett O'Hara. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt wrote to film producer David O. Selznick to ask that her own maid, Elizabeth McDuffie, be given the part. McDaniel did not think she would be chosen because she had earned her reputation as a comic actress. One source claimed that Clark Gable recommended that the role be given to McDaniel; in any case, she went to her audition dressed in an authentic maid's uniform and won the part. Upon hearing of the planned film adaptation, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) fought hard to require the film's producer and director to delete racial epithets from the movie (in particular the offensive slur "nigger") and to alter scenes that might be incendiary and that, in their view, were historically inaccurate. Of particular concern was a scene from the novel in which black men attack Scarlett O'Hara, after which the Ku Klux Klan, with its long history of provoking terror on black communities, is presented as a savior. Throughout the South, black men were being lynched based upon false allegations they had harmed white women. That attack scene was altered, and some offensive language was modified, but another epithet, "darkie", remained in the film, and the film's message with respect to slavery remained essentially the same. Consistent with the book, the film's screenplay also referred to poor whites as "white trash", and it ascribed these words equally to characters black and white. Loew's Grand Theater on Peachtree Street in Atlanta, Georgia was selected by the studio as the site for the 15 December 1939 premiere of Gone with the Wind. Studio head David O. Selznick asked that McDaniel be permitted to attend, but MGM advised him not to, because of Georgia's segregation laws. Clark Gable threatened to boycott the Atlanta premiere unless McDaniel was allowed to attend, but McDaniel convinced him to attend anyway. While Jim Crow laws kept McDaniel from the Atlanta premiere, she did attend the film's Hollywood debut on 28 December 1939. Upon Selznick's insistence, her picture was also featured prominently in the program. For her performance as the house slave who repeatedly scolds her owner's daughter, Scarlett O'Hara (Vivien Leigh), and scoffs at Rhett Butler (Clark Gable), McDaniel won the 1939 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, the first black actor to have been nominated and win an Oscar. Gone with the Wind won eight Academy Awards.

Hattie McDaniel once again played a domestic in In This Our Life (John Huston, 1942), starring Bette Davis, but one who confronts racial issues when her son, a law student, is wrongly accused of manslaughter. McDaniel was also in Thank Your Lucky Stars (David Butler, 1943), with Humphrey Bogart and Bette Davis. McDaniel continued to play maids during the war years in The Male Animal (Elliott Nugent, 1942) and Since You Went Away (John Cromwell, 1944), but her feistiness was toned down to reflect the era's somber news. She also played the maid in the live-action/animated drama Song of the South (Harve Foster, Wilfred Jackson, 1946) for Disney. She made her last film appearances in the coming-of-age film Mickey (Ralph Murphy, 1948) and the domestic comedy Family Honeymoon (Claude Binyon, 1949), where that same year, she appeared on the live CBS television program The Ed Wynn Show. She remained active on radio and television in her final years, becoming the first black actor to star in her own radio show with the comedy series 'Beulah'. She also starred in the television version of the show, replacing Ethel Waters after the first season. Waters had apparently expressed concerns over stereotypes in the role. Beulah was a hit, however, and earned McDaniel $2,000 per week; however, the show was controversial. In 1951, the United States Army ceased broadcasting Beulah in Asia because troops complained that the show perpetuated negative stereotypes of black men as shiftless and lazy and interfered with the ability of black troops to perform their mission. After filming a handful of episodes, however, McDaniel learned she had breast cancer. By the spring of 1952, she was too ill to work and was replaced by Louise Beavers.

Hattie MacDaniel did not join the Negro Actors Guild of America until 1947, late in her career. McDaniel married Howard Hickman in 1911, in Denver, Colorado. He died in 1915. Her second husband, George Langford, died of a gunshot wound in 1925, soon after she married him and while her career was on the rise. In 1941, she married James Lloyd Crawford, a real estate salesman, and in 1945 she was pregnant. McDaniel began buying baby clothes and set up a nursery in her house. Her plans were shattered when she suffered a false pregnancy and fell into a depression. She never had any children. She divorced Crawford in 1945, after four and a half years of marriage. She married Larry Williams, an interior decorator, in 1949, but divorced him in 1950 after testifying that their five months together had been marred by "arguing and fussing." In 1952, McDaniel died of breast cancer at age 59 in the hospital on the grounds of the Motion Picture House in Woodland Hills, California. She was survived by her brother Sam McDaniel. In her will, McDaniel wrote that she wished to be buried in the Hollywood Cemetery, the resting place of film stars such as Douglas Fairbanks and Rudolph Valentino. Its owner, Jules Roth, refused to allow her to be buried there because the cemetery practiced racial segregation. Her second choice was Rosedale Cemetery (now Angelus-Rosedale Cemetery), where she lies today. McDaniel has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in Hollywood: one at 6933 Hollywood Boulevard for her contributions to radio and one at 1719 Vine Street for motion pictures. In 1975, she was inducted posthumously into the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame. In 2002, McDaniel's legacy was celebrated in Beyond Tara, The Extraordinary Life of Hattie McDaniel (Madison D. Lacy, 2001), hosted by Whoopi Goldberg. This one-hour special depicted McDaniel's struggles and triumphs in the presence of rampant racism and brutal adversity. The film won the 2001–2002 Daytime Emmy Award.

Sources: Wikipedia and IMDb.

And, please check out our blog European Film Star Postcards.

Waste segregation... Colored glass on the left, white on the right...

Pang-King Long ang salamin na gamit nitong Royal Economy ni Shanine & Pauline Transport na madalas ay naka-default na parang sa Hyundai.

Company/Owner: Shanine & Pauline Transport Corporation

Fleet/Bus Number: 350

Classification: Air-conditioned City Bus

Coachbuilder: Zyle Daewoo Bus Corporation

Body Model: Daewoo BH115E Royal Economy

Engine Model: Doosan DE12TIS

Chassis Model: Daewoo BH115 (KL5UN61JD3P)

Transmission: 5-speed Manual Transmission

Suspension: Leaf Spring Suspension

Seating Configuration: 2×2

Seating Capacity: 49

Franchise route: Angat, Bulacan–LRT Terminal, Leveriza via Ayala, EDSA

Route: World Trade Center, Pasay City [WTC, PY]–Enviro Gas Station, Angat, Bulacan [AGT, BU] via N1 (EDSA) / E1 [NLEX-Balintawak–NLEX-Turo (Bocaue)] / Norzagaray–Santa Maria Road / General Santos Alejo Highway

Barangays/areas passing (underlines are designated stops for this bus scheme - EDSA area only: Estrella–Ermin Garcia): F.B. Harrison Street\BIR Pasay City\LRT Gil Puyat Station/Taft Avenue\Osmeña Highway/PNR Buendia Station\Chino Roces Avenue (Pasong Tamo)\Makati Central Post Office\RCBC Plaza Yuchengco Tower\RCBC Plaza\V.A. Rufino\PBCOM Tower\Ayala Triangle\Makati Ave./The Peninsula Manila Hotel\Glorietta\Buendia Avenue\Estrella\Guadalupe\Boni/Pioneer\Reliance\Shaw Boulevard\SM Megamall\Ortigas Avenue\Robinsons Galleria\Boni Serrano\Main Avenue\Araneta Center Cubao\Baliwag Transit/Five Star\Kamuning/Kamias\East Avenue/GMA/Timog/MRT GMA Kamuning Station\NIA Road\ETON Centris/Quezon Avenue\Vertis North\Trinoma/Paramount\SM North

Muñoz/Roosevelt/LRT Roosevelt Station\Kaingin\LRT Balintawak Station–Bocaue: Turo; Santa Maria: PTT Bypass\McDonald's Santa Clara\Walter Mart Santa Maria\Guyong Elementary School\Caypombo\Pulong Buhangin\Garden; Norzagaray: Partida/Sunjin Philippines\Norzagaray Public Wet Market\Poblacion Rotonda

Type of Operation: City Operation Public Utility Bus (Bus B Segregation | Regular Class)

Area of Operations: National Capital Region (NCR) / Central Luzon (Region III)

Shot Location: EDSA-Boni, Mandaluyong City

Date and Time Taken: May 14, 2018 (06:40H)

Notices:

* Please DON'T GRAB A PHOTO WITHOUT A PERMISSION. If you're going to GRAB IT, please give A CREDIT TO THE OWNER. Also, don't PRINT SCREEN my photos.

** If I have mistakes on the specifications, please comment in a good manner so that I can edit it immediately.

*** The specifications and routes (for provincial, inter-provincial, and city operation) mentioned above are subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice.

**** The vehicle's registration plate(s), conduction sticker(s), and/or persons (if applicable) were pixelated/blurred to prevent any conflict with the photographer, the bus company and/or to the car owner for their security and/or privacy purposes. So, don't use their plate number, conduction sticker, and vehicle tag as an evidence for any incident. And, I have taken this photo for bus fanatics, bus enthusiasts, and bus lovers purposes.

Built around 1920 through Pierre S. du Pont's school rebuilding program, the Nassau School, also known as the Belltown School, served students of color until 1965, 11 years after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled segregation in schools unconstitutional. A coalition was announced in November, 2019 with the goal of saving this building, although it will have to be moved due to plans for the highway on which it stands (Route 9).

Belltown was established by a free African American in 1840 and became the first non-white village in Sussex County, Delaware. Most of the buildings of Belltown are gone and the population has moved on as highways have encroached on the town.

Follow this sign from the bus stop with color coded badge/sticker placed at the upper right corner of the bus windshield and door. Take note that Bus "C" will serve all bus stops..

Princs Park Bowling Club

Nikon D90 with Nikkor AFS 24-70 F2.8.

Much better if you View On Black

Company/Owner: Jasper Jean Services, Inc.

Fleet/Bus Number: 90221

Classification: Air-conditioned City Bus

Coachbuilder: (Xiamen) King Long United Automotive Industry Company, Ltd.

Body Model: King Long XMQ6117Y Team Star

Engine Model: Hino J08E-UT

Chassis Model: King Long XMQ6102R (LA6R1FSF49B)

Transmission: 6-speed Manual Transmission

Suspension: Air Suspension

Seating Configuration: 2×2

Seating Capacity: 49

Franchise route: Pala-pala (Dasmariñas, Cavite)–Navotas via EDSA (new); Dasmariñas (Cavite)–Bacoor via Coastal Road (old)

Route: Ortigas Avenue, Quezon City and Mandaluyong City–SM City Dasmariñas, Pala-Pala, Dasmariñas City, Cavite via N1 (EDSA) / E3 (CAVITEX) / Radial Road 2 and/or N419 (Aguinaldo Highway) / N. Guevarra Street / Don Placido Campos Avenue

Areas passing (underlines are designated stops for this bus scheme - EDSA area only: Ortigas–Mantrade): Mandaluyong City: POEA Ortigas\Shaw Boulevard/Starmall EDSA-Shaw\Reliance\Pioneer/Boni Avenue; Makati City: Guadalupe\Estrella\Buendia Avenue\Ayala Avenue\Magallanes\Mantrade\Magallanes\Evangelista; Pasay City: Malibay/Pasay Rotunda/Taft Avenue\Heritage Hotel\Double Dragon/Macapagal Boulevard\City of Dreams\DFA Office of Consular Affairs/Aseana Avenue/City of Dreams\Seaside Drive\Coastal Mall; Bacoor City: Longos-CAVITEX\Talaba\Real Street\Bacoor City Police Station\Niog\Puregold Bacoor\SM City Bacoor\Angelus Eternal Garden; Imus City: FRC Mall/Puregold Imus\Lumina Point Mall\Robinsons Place Imus\Patindig Araw Road/South Supermarket Imus\SM Hypermarket Imus\CityMall Anabu\S&R Imus\EMI-Yazaki\Puregold Anabu/Anabu Kostal Road/Shopwise Anabu\Daang Hari Road\Metro Department Store Imus\The District Imus\Patio Tirona; Dasmariñas City: Central Mall Dasmariñas\Dasmariñas Elementary School/Immaculate Concepcion Parish\Dasmariñas City Hall\Sacred Heart Memorial Gardens\The Villas Dasmariñas

Type of Operation: City Operation Public Utility Bus (Bus C Segregation | Regular Class)

Area of Operations: National Capital Region (NCR) / CALABARZON (Region IV-A)

––––––––––

Company/Owner: Saint Martin of Tours Trailways, Inc.

Fleet/Bus Number: 5555

Classification: Air-conditioned City Bus

Coachbuilder: Santarosa Motor Works, Inc./Columbian Manufacturing Corporation

Body Model: Daewoo/Santarosa BF106

Engine Model: Doosan DE08TIS

Chassis Model: Daewoo BF106 (PL5FJ50HDAK)

Transmission: 6-speed Manual Transmission

Suspension: Leaf Spring Suspension

Seating Configuration: 3×2

Seating Capacity: 56

Franchise route: Baclaran–Malanday via EDSA, MacArthur, Ayala

Route: Malanday, Valenzuela City–World Trade Center/Leveriza, Pasay City via N2 (MacArthur Highway) / N1 (EDSA) / N190 (Gil Puyat Avenue/Buendia Avenue)

Areas passing (underlines are designated stops for this bus scheme - EDSA area only: Kamuning–Buendia): Dalandanan\Malinta\Karuhatan/SM City Valenzuela\Marulas/Our Lady of Fatima University/BBB\Potrero\Monumento\MCU Caloocan\Bagong Barrio\Balintawak\Kaingin Road\Muñoz/Roosevelt\SM North EDSA/TriNoma/Paramount\West Avenue\Quezon Avenue\GMA-Kamuning\Kamuning\Ermin Garcia\Monte de Piedad\Arayat Cubao\Main Avenue\Santolan\VV Soliven\Connecticut\POEA Ortigas\Shaw Boulevard/Starmall EDSA-Shaw\Pioneer/Boni\Reliance\Guadalupe\Estrella\Buendia Avenue\Glorietta 5\Makati Avenue\Ayala Triangle\Paseo de Roxas\PBCOM Tower\V. A. Rufino\H. V. Dela Costa\RCBC Plaza Yuchengco Tower\Makati Central Fire Station\Malungay Loop\FEU Makati\Buendia Avenue\Makati Central Post Office\Makati Medical Center\Chino Roces Avenue (Pasong Tamo)\CEU Makati\Washington\Mayapis/Osmeña Highway/PNR Buendia Station\Dian Street\Bautista Street\LRT Gil Puyat Station/Taft Avenue\F.B. Harrison Street

Type of Operation: City Operation Public Utility Bus (Bus B Segregation | Regular Class)

Area of Operation: National Capital Region (NCR)

Shot Location: EDSA-Ortigas Avenue, Quezon City

Date Taken: May 24, 2018

Notices:

* Please DON'T GRAB A PHOTO WITHOUT A PERMISSION. If you're going to GRAB IT, please give A CREDIT TO THE OWNER. Also, don't PRINT SCREEN my photos.

** If I have mistakes on the specifications, please comment in a good manner so that I can edit it immediately.

*** The specifications and routes (for provincial, inter-provincial, and city operation) mentioned above are subjected for verification and may be changed without prior notice.

**** The vehicle's registration plate(s), conduction sticker(s), and/or persons (if applicable) were pixelated/blurred to prevent any conflict with the photographer, the bus company and/or to the car owner for their security and/or privacy purposes. So, don't use their plate number, conduction sticker, and vehicle tag as an evidence for any incident. And, I have taken this photo for bus fanatics, bus enthusiasts, and bus lovers purposes.

In 1963 this Knoxville, Tennessee landmark along the Asheville Highway, U.S. Route 11E, was one of the first restaurants in the area to end a policy of segregation. I'd love to know if this sign was there then as witness when Helma Gilreath first opened her doors to all; it looks old enough. The place sits empty now.

Photographer Bruce Davidson's 'Man and Boy Leaning against a Chevrolet, 1962' from his book, 'Time of Change'.

This and other photographs by Davidson were published in his book entitled "Time of Change".....images that described the mood that prevailed during the civil rights movement in the early 1960's....images that are both poignant and profound. Davidson bore witness to these historical times and events, and documented through his photography the degradation and segregation that were endured....he gives testimony to the struggle for freedom, equality, justice and human dignity.

Bruce Davidson (1933- ) is an American photographer. He has been a member of the Magnum Photos agency since 1958. His photographs, notably those taken in the South during the civil rights movement, have been widely exhibited and published.

Photographed on display at the de Young Museum in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California.

Birmingham, Alabama, 1951.

"Segregation in the South." Photo by John Vachon for Look magazine.

I managed to find the story behind the history behind the Rosa parks Bus and what happened to it, after the 1955 event. The articles are a bit long, but I thought it would be interesting to share with others. It's an amazing piece of historical importance and almost unbelievable that it was kept safe and finally restored. You can board the bus and sit in the actual seat that Rosa parks did on that particular day, which lead to the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1955/56. It's an actual physical connection to an important period of history. Aboard the bus, there's also a guide who tells you the brief history behind the event and is available to answer questions you might have concerning the event. Amazing ...

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a 42-year-old African American woman who worked as a seamstress, boarded this Montgomery City bus to go home from work. On this bus on that day, Rosa Parks initiated a new era in the American quest for freedom and equality. Mrs. Parks, who was an active member of the local NAACP, quietly refused to give up her seat. Her action was spontaneous and not pre-meditated, although her previous civil rights involvement and strong sense of justice were obvious influences. "When I made that decision," she said later, “I knew that I had the strength of my ancestors with me.”

She was arrested and convicted of violating the laws of segregation, known as “Jim Crow laws.” Mrs. Parks appealed her conviction and thus formally challenged the legality of segregation.

- I Found this article on the Henry Ford Museum.

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The History of the Event - article found in Wikipedia.

After a day at work at Montgomery Fair department store, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus at around 6 p.m., Thursday, December 1, 1955, in downtown Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat in the first row of back seats reserved for blacks in the "colored" section, which was near the middle of the bus and directly behind the ten seats reserved for white passengers. Initially, she had not noticed that the bus driver was the same man, James F. Blake, who had left her in the rain in 1943. As the bus traveled along its regular route, all of the white-only seats in the bus filled up. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire Theater, and several white passengers boarded.

In 1900, Montgomery had passed a city ordinance for the purpose of segregating passengers by race. Conductors were given the power to assign seats to accomplish that purpose; however, no passengers would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. Over time and by custom, however, Montgomery bus drivers had adopted the practice of requiring black riders to move whenever there were no white only seats left.

So, following standard practice, bus driver Blake noted that the front of the bus was filled with white passengers and there were two or three men standing, and thus moved the "colored" section sign behind Parks and demanded that four black people give up their seats in the middle section so that the white passengers could sit. Years later, in recalling the events of the day, Parks said, "When that white driver stepped back toward us, when he waved his hand and ordered us up and out of our seats, I felt a determination cover my body like a quilt on a winter night."

By Parks' account, Blake said, "Y'all better make it light on yourselves and let me have those seats." Three of them complied. Parks said, "The driver wanted us to stand up, the four of us. We didn't move at the beginning, but he says, 'Let me have these seats.' And the other three people moved, but I didn't." The black man sitting next to her gave up his seat. Parks moved, but toward the window seat; she did not get up to move to the newly repositioned colored section. Blake then said, "Why don't you stand up?" Parks responded, "I don't think I should have to stand up." Blake called the police to arrest Parks. When recalling the incident for Eyes on the Prize, a 1987 public television series on the Civil Rights Movement, Parks said, "When he saw me still sitting, he asked if I was going to stand up, and I said, 'No, I'm not.' And he said, 'Well, if you don't stand up, I'm going to have to call the police and have you arrested.' I said, 'You may do that.'"

During a 1956 radio interview with Sydney Rogers in West Oakland several months after her arrest, when asked why she had decided not to vacate her bus seat, Parks said, "I would have to know for once and for all what rights I had as a human being and a citizen."

She also detailed her motivation in her autobiography, My Story:

“ People always say that I didn't give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn't true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in. ”

When Parks refused to give up her seat, a police officer arrested her. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, "Why do you push us around?" The officer's response as she remembered it was, "I don't know, but the law's the law, and you're under arrest." She later said, "I only knew that, as I was being arrested, that it was the very last time that I would ever ride in humiliation of this kind."

Parks was charged with a violation of Chapter 6, Section 11 segregation law of the Montgomery City code, even though she technically had not taken up a white-only seat—she had been in a colored section. E.D. Nixon and Clifford Durr bailed Parks out of jail the evening of December 2.

That evening, Nixon conferred with Alabama State College professor Jo Ann Robinson about Parks' case. Robinson, a member of the Women's Political Council (WPC), stayed up all night mimeographing over 35,000 handbills announcing a bus boycott. The Women's Political Council was the first group to officially endorse the boycott.

On Sunday, December 4, 1955, plans for the Montgomery Bus Boycott were announced at black churches in the area, and a front-page article in The Montgomery Advertiser helped spread the word. At a church rally that night, attendees unanimously agreed to continue the boycott until they were treated with the level of courtesy they expected, until black drivers were hired, and until seating in the middle of the bus was handled on a first-come basis.

Four days later, Parks was tried on charges of disorderly conduct and violating a local ordinance. The trial lasted 30 minutes. Parks was found guilty and fined $10, plus $4 in court costs. Parks appealed her conviction and formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. In a 1992 interview with National Public Radio's Lynn Neary, Parks recalled : “ I did not want to be mistreated, I did not want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid for. It was just time... there was opportunity for me to take a stand to express the way I felt about being treated in that manner. I had not planned to get arrested. I had plenty to do without having to end up in jail. But when I had to face that decision, I didn't hesitate to do so because I felt that we had endured that too long. The more we gave in, the more we complied with that kind of treatment, the more oppressive it became."

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Finding the Rosa Parks Bus

Because of Rosa Parks and many of the unknown Montgomery residents that were involved in the bus boycott and a lot more, Montgomery is a better place but we need to be better. The Rosa Parks bus, the real one, is in Detroit at the Henry Ford Museum. It used to be here in Montgomery, but not anymore.

The owners wanted the bus scrapped after it quit running because it was THE bus. They lived in Chicago and owned most of the bus stations in the south in the 1950s.

Roy Hubert Summerford (my father-in-law) was a friend with the station manager and the dispatcher; they told him the Rosa Parks bus was about to forever be gone.

At the bus station, after 3 times being turned down to buy the bus, the owner finally agreed to sell the bus to Hubert. They said the bus would not ever run again without a new motor, but Hubert was very good with cars and trucks and I guess with buses too. After he paid for the bus he worked on it for about 30 minutes and cranked it up and droved it to his 10 acres of land outside the city limits of Montgomery. The bus went dead 3 times on the way to Hubert's land but it cranked back up and kept going. It was in the winter and Vivian and I were waiting on him to bring the bus to the land. We couldn't wait to see The Rosa Parks Bus; we couldn't believe they let that bus go.

Hubert said that the time for America to know about the bus was far from now (1970). The KKK was still very much active in Montgomery. He took on the job of taking care of the bus. He concealed the bus and kept its identity quiet. He feared that they would bomb it. Notice the Cleveland Ave. at the top of the bus. That is the name of the street route that the bus took everyday. As this driver got to a certain place he could roll a bar inside the bus over his head and change the street marker. In 1971 Hubert took it out of the bus and wrapped it in a blanket, then placed it in the closet to keep it safe. We only took it out when we took pictures of the bus. He also said that we would know when the time was right to tell about the bus.

Right away without telling anyone what was on his mind Hubert knew that bus was as important as the Liberty Bell. Hubert knew its proper place was in a museum.

The owner [of the bus station] was still upset with Rosa Parks and did not want that bus in a museum in Montgomery or anywhere. In 1970 the owner was still mad about the bus boycott of 1955 and 56. The boycott had cost the company $3,000 a day.

In 1985 Hubert passed away leaving the bus to his only child, my wife, Vivian Summerford Williams. I began to take care of the bus.

In the 1990s the Montgomery Advertiser newspaper found out about the bus and called me to do a story on the bus, but the time was not right and I said no. They sent a reporter out to the land; I don't know how they found out where the bus was, but they did. The reporter went to the bus without my permission and took pictures of the bus and put it on the front page of the paper and told America what the bus was and where it was. After that I had to check the bus everyday and had to run people away from it a lot. The KKK tried to catch it afire and shot holes in it. After that I had to rent a warehouse and store it inside under lock and key. This time they couldn't find it.

In 2000, the decision was made to sell the bus, so that the world could enjoy it. However selling was difficult because of proper identification. Everyone in Montgomery knew it was "The Bus." At the time Hubert purchased "The Bus," the employees informally passed on the information about the bus.

News clipping annotated with bus numberRobert Lifson, President of Mastronet, Inc., an Internet auction house, decided he wanted to auction the bus for Vivian and me. He began a search for documents authenticating the bus. And he found them.

Mr. Lifson contacted retired employees of the bus company, including Mrs. Margaret Cummings, widow of the former bus station manager, Charles Homer Cummings. Mrs. Cummings provided a scrapbook of newspaper clippings that her husband had kept during and after the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-56.

National City Lines (which was the parent company of the Montgomery City Bus Lines) had employed a clipping service to clip and save any newspaper articles about the company’s bus service. Charles Cummings had kept the scrapbook of newspaper articles from the 1955-56 Montgomery bus boycott. Next to articles describing the arrest of Rosa Parks, he wrote "#2857" and "Blake/#2857." James Blake was the bus driver who had Rosa Parks arrested. Mr. Cummings’ relatives confirm that he jotted down the bus number because he felt the events were so important.

In September 2001, an article in the Wall Street Journal announced that the Rosa Parks bus would be available in an Internet auction in October.

News clippin annotated with bus number and name of driverMuseum staff began researching this opportunity. They spoke to people involved in the original 1955 events, to those who planned other museum exhibits, and to historians. A forensic document examiner was hired to see if the scrapbook was authentic. A museum conservator went to Montgomery to personally examine the bus. Convinced that this was the Rosa Parks bus, the Museum's leadership decided to bid on the bus in the Internet auction.

The Henry Ford museum entered the auction of October 25, 2001, and was the high bidder at $427,919. The other final bidders for the bus, both of whom were convinced of its authenticity, were the Smithsonian Institution and the city of Denver, Colorado.

At the same time, the Museum successfully bid on the Montgomery City Bus Lines scrapbook of newspaper articles with the Rosa Parks bus identified in two places. With additional grants the Henry Ford Museum has completely restored "The Bus."

My mother, Louise Williams had to ride the buses to and from work in the 1950s and knew other women who rode the bus and witnessed how the Blacks were treated and she chose to boycott the buses during the boycott also. She walked or rode a cab, but mostly walked.

I can't explain the feeling that I got everytime I got on that bus. It made me feel great; sometimes I even cried. Now everyone who gets to see and touch the bus at the museum can get to feel that too.

I wrote about the bus and the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The book is The Thunder of Angels. I did this for the people who were involved in the boycott and never got their story told. I believe God put this on me to do because of the bus and my mother’s bad experiences on the buses in the 50s. I got to meet a lot of the boycott soldiers who became my friends and they told their stories to me to tell.

- Article written by Donnie Williams

St John's Hospital - Gary Indiana. In Gary's early history it was as segregated as the deep south. This hospital in Gary Indiana was built by Blacks in 1929 to service the Black community because white hospitals did not service Blacks. It closed in the 1950s and is on the Indiana historical Endangered places list.

A 1929 hospital built to treat blacks in Gary’s Midtown neighborhood is again on a list of Indiana’s 10 most endangered buildings.

The Indiana Landmarks included St. John’s Hospital, 22nd Avenue and Massachusetts Street, for the second straight year. It warned that the old hospital has fallen into disrepair and it may soon be unrecoverable.

The brick building was constructed during an era when most public hospitals in Indiana did not admit black patients or allow black doctors to practice. Constructed privately to serve the segregated population, St. John’s was designed by black architect William Wilson Cooke in a Prairie-influenced style.

The hospital provided previously unavailable medical services and operated with a staff of black surgeons and nurses. It continued in service functioning as a hospital until it closed in 1950.

The vacant and vandalized landmark suffers broken windows, crumbling brick, water damage and an owner unable to invest in repairs.

In the past year, an African American Heritage Grant from Indiana Landmarks funded a professional conditions assessment and the Gary, East Chicago, Hammond Empowerment Zone is negotiating with the owner and the city to plan a future for the building.

www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/10/18/son-former-slav...

www.nwitimes.com/business/local/historic-st-john-hospital...

www.insideindianabusiness.com/story/41079270/historic-hos...

sites.google.com/site/stjohnshospitaldpg/

blackchristiannews.com/2019/09/gary-indiana-to-demolish-h...

Columbia, SC. Built 1911.

From SC Archives & History: "Wesley Methodist Church, built in 1910-11, illustrates the impact of segregation in the lives of African Americans during the Jim Crow era in Columbia. Because it is a historically African-American church, Wesley Methodist Church helps explain religious segregation, particularly within the Methodist denomination. The church is also significant as a good example of Late Gothic Revival church architecture in Columbia in the early twentieth century, and as an excellent example of the work of Columbia architect Arthur W. Hamby. Wesley Methodist Church was founded in 1869 as the Columbia Mission. Their first chapel was built between 1870 and 1873 and was later sold when the Columbia Mission purchased property at the corner of Gervais and Barnwell Streets. In 1910, the Columbia Mission was renamed Wesley Methodist Episcopal Church. Set on a partially subterranean basement that is capped with a stone or cast stone water table, Wesley Methodist Church features a solid brick wall foundation and exterior walls. The primary facade has asymmetrical twin towers, with the taller tower on the east side. The façade is crenellated with stone and brick battlements along the top and at the tops of the towers. Between the two towers is a triple, pointed arch window with tracery, stained glass panels, and a cream-colored limestone drip mold. Each side facade has eight, pointed-arch stained-glass windows with cream-colored sandstone drip molds. A cross-gabled bay transept projects from the building and features a gabled parapet and a large pointed-arch stained-glass window identical to the primary facade. Listed in the National Register January 29, 2009."

Church website:

wesleychurchsc.com/history/

Well we think it's Needle Ice, awaiting confirmation. It's another first for us which also means another tick off the lifetime bucket list. Found on the South Downs in West Sussex near a small stream which had overflowed and flooded the area, then it froze overnight, possibly over two nights or more given they all seem to look of being two tiered. This phenomena is known as Ice Segregation, when we found Frost Flowers back in 2017 in Decatur Alabama we made contact with Dr. Carter and he sent us this article which he had published a few years prior, it's probably the best explanation we've found for all the forms of Ice Segregation.

link to Dr. Carter's article

www.jrcarter.net/ice/segregation/?fbclid=IwAR2Xy8AShWF9Pc...

on the South Downs, South Downs National Park, West Sussex England

Shot on iPhone 5.

So, today I came across a rare ritual - a school dance for wheelie bins. It was sweet really. Everyone was shy. No one was talking. The girl bins were keeping to one side and the boy bins were keeping to the right. If only I could have stayed longer because the word is one of the boys was hiding a cartoon of beer and by the end of the night, everyone was trashed.

(What? I'm just trash talking to distract you from my picture of bins? What a load of rubbish)

Taken using Kodak Double X movie film, shot at 200asa using a Canon EOS 600 plus 335-70mm lens. Developed in 510 Pyro

I finally got an unobstructed shot at this very neat mural at 1401 Main Street in Columbia, South Carolina. The building, constructed in 1976, houses office space. Many historic and iconic buildings have stood at this pot through the years. None of the architectural details common to the earlier buildings here were included in the current skyscraper, which was designed by the architectural firm Lyles, Bissett, Carlisle & Wolff of South Carolina.

The first building at this location was Columbia's first City Hall as well as a market. It was burned during Union occupation during the Civil War in 1865. A second City Hall was built at the same location. It included office space on the first floor as well as an opera hall. Some called the building grand in its architecture. Others thought it symbolized political corruption during Reconstruction. It, too, was lost in a fire, this one in 1899. In 1900, the South Carolina National Bank built a three story building at this location.

The mural was painted in 2021 by Ija Charles. Her website touts her as a self-taught artist and entrepreneur from Columbia, South Carolina. This is one of five murals she has painted in Columbia. In an interview that aired on WLTX News, she said the mural depicts long gone businesses in an African-American community on nearby Washington Street during the segregation era.

Another one revisited, a still from the video/ machinima Falling Between Worlds.

The love that dare not speak its name.

During the course the men were separated from the women in hopes to minimize the mental distraction caused by interacting with the opposite sex. Needless to say, it didn't work for me.

Local call number: RC11500

Title: Civil rights demonstration in front of a segregated theater: Tallahassee, Florida

Date: 1963

General note: Included in the photograph is Patricia Stephens (later Mrs. John Due).

Physical descrip: 1 photoprint - b&w - 8 x 10 in.

Series Title: Reference collection

Repository: State Library and Archives of Florida, 500 S. Bronough St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250 USA. Contact: 850.245.6700. Archives@dos.state.fl.us

Persistent URL: www.floridamemory.com/items/show/34010

Patricia Stephens Due, a leader in the Tallahassee Civil Rights movement, passed away on February 7, 2012, at the age of 72. Read the Florida Memory blog post about Due and her involvement in the struggle for civil rights.

Visit Florida Memory to find resources for Black History Month and to learn about the contributions of African-Americans in Florida history.

Old Absinthe House bar in New Orleans.

Some geography of New Orleans. The location and geography of New Orleans is unique in America. Most of the city is well below sea level, except for the French Quarter which was built on a natural levee of the river in the 1700s. As the city has expanded special levees, pumps and flood gates have been erected around the city. When Hurricane Katrina struck in 2005 the storm itself did damage to New Orleans but the major devastation came from the levees failing and water flooding at least 80% of the city area. It is useful to remember that 50% of New Orleans city is water and not land! Its location on the banks of the mighty Mississippi River, near the delta bayous and swamps was the raison d’être for the city. It was to control all navigation and commercial activity on the river and to provide a safe harbour as close as possible to the Gulf of Mexico. Because of its strategic location it has always been the prize for invaders during wars. The city has a tropical climate and the regions north of the city along the banks of the Mississippi were and are major sugar plantation areas, not cotton plantation areas. You have to travel upstate in Louisiana to find the cotton growing areas. This tropical climate along one of the world’s major water courses meant until recently that the area was plagued with Yellow Fever, malaria and other deadly illnesses. To the north and east of the city is Lake Pontchartrain, a huge body of water; in fact the city is bordered by water on three sides. By road the mouth of the Mississippi is over 100 miles away but this is because the river follows a circuitous route to the mouth of its delta. The city metropolitan area has a population of 1.1 million, exactly the same as the population of Adelaide. Although the population fell after Hurricane Katrina the population is now 90% of what is was before the hurricane. There is little evidence of flood damage in the areas that we will see as tourists. The French Quarter was not flooded because the founding French settlers sensibly chose a high site for their city.

Some early history of New Orleans. The city was founded in 1718 by the French Mississippi Company, a major trader in furs bought from the Indians up river. They got the local Indians, the Chitimacha to cede land to them. The Company named the city after the Duke of Orleans who was the Regent of France at that time. After the French Wars between the Indians, British, French and Spanish in America from 1756-63 the French ceded New Orleans to the Spanish. The Spanish held New Orleans from 1763 to 1801 when Napoleon defeated the Spanish and New Orleans and its territories to the west were returned to France. As Napoleon needed more funds to continue his Napoleonic Wars with Britain and others he soon (in 1803) sold New Orleans and all territories west of the Mississippi to President Jefferson for the small sum of $15 million. West Florida, New Orleans and the west comprised over 800,000 square miles! The Louisiana Purchase covered - Arkansas, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Nth & Sth Dakota, Oklahoma & parts of Texas and Wyoming.

When the French settled New Orleans they built a trading port city of wooden buildings on the high ground along the banks of the Mississippi. The streets were named after the royal houses of France and Catholic saints, hence Bourbon Street after the Dukes of Bourbon, not the whisky. Local pine was the timber used for building the houses, often on brick pylons to raise the houses above any possible flood threat. The compact town was destroyed by two major fires during the Spanish ownership of Louisiana in 1788 and again in 1794. The city was rebuilt in brick, with wrought iron balconies in the Spanish style usually with central courtyards. So most of what we see today in the French Quarter or Vieux Carré is actually of Spanish design and from the era of Spanish building in the late 1790s. So the French Quarter is really the Spanish Quarter and the Spanish buildings include the three major public buildings of this era- the Cathedral of St. Louis, and the adjoining Cabildo and Presbytere. The first St. Louis Cathedral was built in 1781; the second in 1725; and the third in 1789. That third structure in Spanish style was almost totally rebuilt in 1850 in the style of the previous cathedral.

The Strategic Importance of New Orleans. Not long after the Americans bought New Orleans a major war broke out between England and her former American colonies. War raged from 1812-14 when the British, amongst other achievements, sailed up the Potomac River in Washington and burnt down the White House and attacked the national capital. As the port that controlled the Mississippi and the river system that went up to the British colonies in Canada the British wanted to retake New Orleans. A young American officer, Andrew Jackson (later President Andrew Jackson) led the American forces in a battle with the British. The battle of New Orleans (remember the hit song about it in 1959?) took place in January 1815. It was the final battle of the War of 1812 and despite bad odds Andrew Jackson and the Americans prevailed and won the battle. Hence the main square in New Orleans is Jackson Square with a fine statue of the later President on horseback is in the centre of the square. And again during the Civil War both the Confederates and Unionists wanted to control New Orleans. During the Antebellum period New Orleans had been a major port for the slave trade and the major slave auction centre of the American South. Louisiana declared their secession from the Union in January 1861 and the Confederates bolstered their occupation of the area. It was the link to the South’s cotton plantations up the Mississippi River Valley and its link across the Mississippi to the wealthy states of Texas, Arkansas and some secessionist counties of Missouri. The first shots were fired at Fort Sumter in April 1861. New Orleans was blockaded by the North in May 1861 showing what an important prize the city was to the Union. After two short battles in April 1862 the Union forces occupied New Orleans and split the Confederacy into two parts as it then controlled the Mississippi River too.

The Creole Culture of New Orleans. Creole culture in Louisiana is still strong. Creoles are primarily the people descended from the early French and Spanish settlers mixed with later German immigrants and African slaves. Creoles were originally white Europeans but the term later included mixed race people. When the Haitian Revolution led by slaves erupted in 1804 many French residents fled from Haiti to New Orleans with their African slaves. They reinforced the French culture of New Orleans and established their three tiered society of white Creoles, mixed race Creoles and black slaves. The mixed race Creoles were mainly fee black people and added to the free black population of New Orleans. French speakers dominated in New Orleans until 1830. But as late as 1900, 25% of residents spoke French and 75% could understand it. (250,000 Louisianans still speak French at home today.) Half the schools in New Orleans taught in French until the Civil War. In 1862 the Union occupier of the city General Butler abolished French instruction and enforced English teaching. The War made New Orleans an American city. But the Creoles did not disappear. They continued to dominate society for some time. The Creole planters along the Mississippi lived on their plantations during the hot malaria filled summers but moved to their French Quarter town houses for the cool winters. (It was the reverse in Charleston where the planters lived in Charleston in the hot summers and spent winters on their plantations.) The New Orleans winter was the time for balls and parties and the celebrations around Lent and the Mardi Gras activities, which still persist as a reminder of the French heritage of the city. The white French Creoles also often took black slave women as mistresses but unlike the white Americans they tended to give freedom to the children born from these unions. Thus New Orleans ended up with the largest number of free blacks of any Southern city in the Antebellum days. Mixed race Creoles had their own society balls and functions. Many had property and were quite wealthy in their own rights because of grants from their white Creole fathers. But their access to political and legal rights disappeared during the Jim Crow era as white Americans applied their white-black caste system on all parts of America including Louisiana. Free persons of colour were discriminated against by the Jim Crow regulations and segregation in New Orleans too. Change came with of the Civil Rights era.

Local call number: V-157

Title: [St. Augustine Civil Rights Demonstrations]

Date of film: 1964.

Physical descrip: B&W; sound; original length: 26:00

General note: Excerpt of original. This film provides extensive footage of the St. Augustine race riots. In this clip, black demonstrators are attacked on Butler Beach and groups of blacks and whites occupy the streets at night. The complete film shows demonstrations by blacks on Butler Beach in St. Augustine, counter demonstrations by whites, speeches made by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Governor Farris Bryant, and speeches by segregationists such as Reverend Connie Lynch, Richard "Hoss" Manucy, and Klansman J.B. Stoner. It also includes scenes of the highway patrol sent in to assist local law enforcement officials.

To see full-length versions of this and other videos from the State Archives of Florida, visit www.floridamemory.com/video/.

Repository: State Library and Archives of Florida, 500 S. Bronough St., Tallahassee, FL 32399-0250 USA. Contact: 850.245.6700. Archives@dos.state.fl.us

Persistent URL: www.floridamemory.com/items/show/232403

Creator: photographer unknown. Alvin D. McCurdy fonds

Date: [ca. 1900]

Reference Code: F 2076-16-5-2

Archives of Ontario, I00024783

École pour enfant de race noire du village de Marble [Comté d’Essex]

Date : [vers 1900]

Créé par : photographe inconnu. Fonds Alvin D. McCurdy

Code de référence : F 2076-16-5-2

Archives publiques de l'Ontario, I00024783

A photo of my uncle Orlando by marriage sitting in his office (about 1963). He was a technical writer for IBM & Texas Instruments and some other companies. Married to my aunt Jari my dad's big sister. When my aunt passed away about 4 years ago a fantastic photo of him during WW2 had been lost or misplaced by the family when they were moving Aunt Jari’s belongings from her apartment. I have never forgotten about that photo. I REGRET I didn’t at least take a picture of it with my camera when I had the chance. If I remember correctly uncle Orlando was standing in front of a back drop that was a forest like setting and he’s standing there looking regal wearing a US Cavalry uniform with his riding breeches, knee high riding boots , riders gloves , while holding a riding crop. I could be wrong but I believe because of segregation in the military that Black soldiers that were in the Cavalry were in the 2nd Cavalry Div. He learned how to ride a horse without holding on to the rein while firing at a moving target with a .45

Well, That didn’t last long, none of the U.S. Cavalry was used over seas, he ended up in the Quartermasters as a truck driver delivering supplies and ammo over in North Africa & Italy & Sicily. Like so many friends and family where their dad or brother or uncle served during WW2 they didn’t say much about their time over seas. My uncle didn’t talk about it and didn’t display any commendations or photos out in the open. He especially did not like to watch war movies. He would not give an explanation he would just say,” I don’t watch that stuff “.

Something happened over in Sicily though during the war years and when I finally heard the story it kind of explained some of his actions through the years of knowing him. I was 15 at the time and I was camping out in my dads new Dodge Jamboree 18 footer motorhome sleeping in the top bunk parked on my uncles property not far from Sacramento, Calif. So he and my dad wanted to get away from the wives for a little bit, drink some wine and check out the new box on wheels. They sat at the table started talking. The curtain was pulled closed where I was supposed to be asleep in the bunk over the cab of the truck. My dad said, don't worry about him he’s sound asleep.

My uncle didn’t mean no disrespect but he said to my dad, "Man you cheatin’ this aint what camping is all about, all you did was buy a house on wheels. When you go camping you leave the comforts of home at home. They laughed, my dad said, "I did enough of that in the boy scouts and the air force. No this is how you do it". On the table at the rear of the motor home where they were sitting my uncle saw a couple of books I had left sitting out on the table, about German Tanks and fighting vehicles of WW2. He said, “ what’s your boy got here?” I could hear him flipping through the pages and then he stopped and i could hear him tapping with his finger on a page in the book pointing at a tank which I could not see, D’OH. He said to my dad,excitedly YOU SEE THAT? Look-a-here, LOOK-a-here…. SEE this tank right here? That thing scared the SHIT out of me ! We were in a wooded area off the main road and spotted this Kraut tank. We were waiting for the crew to come out after we saw some movement with the hatch opening and closing thinking maybe we could pick off the crew after they all climbed out of the tank. Man up until this time all the Kraut tanks I ever saw had a fixed gun that went up and down and a few short degrees left and right, this damn thing had a turret and we saw that turret start turning and got a glimpse of the gun on that thing and we got our asses OUT of there !! Our carbines were bb guns compared to that thing. He said I ‘ve been shot at while unloading supplies, but at least we could return fire and drop some Kraut a-holes, but you feel pretty helpless in a damn convoy when some Muther in a plane is gunning for ya. One time we got strafed by a German fighter…. My dad asked , “could you see what kind of plane it was ? was it a Stuka or a ME-109?” …. He said to my dad, “Louis I wasn’t trying to ID the Damn thing I was trying not to get my fool head blown off.” He said there was a convoy of trucks, jeeps and half tracks going the opposite direction and the guys on the half tracks had machine guns, they opened up those babies…. tat-tat-tat-tat-tat-tat.... tracers flying through the air , but this wasn’t like in the movies man, not one of them brought that plane down. Here we are even though we got weapons but that KRAUT in the air has the upper hand and all we can do is jump outa of the vehicles & duck for cover.

So I ‘m laying there listening to this stuff he never really shared before that I know of, and I said to myself maybe that’s why he is always tense and a bundle of nerves behind the wheel of a car. He loved his Buick Rivieras but he drives them like grand pa behind the wheel. He was always super overly cautious when driving, only drove the freeway if he had too.

Imagine that. I leave a couple of books out on the table and he spills his guts to my dad about his experience in WW2. He said a whole lot more even though I was laying down pretending to be asleep up in the bunk bed, but in my head I was sitting on the edge of my seat hanging on every word. A lot of stuff he did talk about I rather not share out of respect to him and his family. All I can say now as I reflect on the things he shared with my dad as I ease dropped. There’s no way you can make this SHIT UP, I MEAN the stuff he shared is stuff you would like to turn off and not remember any more if you lived it. As I grew into manhood I could see just how that war erased who he use to be before the war. (Maybe for the better? who knows?) I will say this, I understand why he did not have close friends and did not trust most people and felt happiest with only family, a love of smoking pipes and drinking wine & eating gourmet cheeses, staying up late at night tinkering with old clocks and model trains. I don't mean any old clocks, he had all types of antique mantel clocks, wall clocks, cuckoo clocks, a grandfather clock and a Grandmother Clock. They all chimed on the hour and some on the half hour and usually they chimed 1 to 2 minutes of each other. 12 midnight was insane, when they all started sounding off. The only rooms with out clocks was his kids and the bath rooms. He died of natural causes in Oct. 2000

I DID think these 2 things he mentioned were very ironic during war time.

1. My uncle Orlando shared these comments made to him by one of the German POWs, I believe they were unloading off his truck at a temporary POW site. I can’t remember exactly what my uncles response to him was but I recall it was sarcastic and he said it to the POW in the few German words my uncle knew. (NOW mind you)This German soldier possibly an officer who is in the CUSTODY of American forces. He said to my uncle, “You Americans aren’t good fighters, you’re lazy, you’re undisciplined, you dress in a slovenly manner and we have far superior equipment & weapons. You won’t win this war”. Now maybe he said this because my uncle was Black and Hitler believed Germans were the Super race. But oddly enough he did not make any derogatory reference to my uncles ethnicity.

2. Even though my uncle was not a front line soldier he still saw more action then he cared to see. He said, the one thing that nearly killed him besides being shot at, was a Bee sting. He had no idea a person could have a sever allergic reaction to a Bee sting. Had to be taken to a field hospital coz his air way was restricted, he could barely breathe, tightness in his chest & felt extremely weak.

Just a couple of funny things I remember about him.

My dad had made mention about buying a few acres of land in Pahrump, Nevada and plopping down a double wide mobile home on it. Uncle Orlando said while cleaning out his pipe and sipping down his Ernest and Julio Gallo Wine, Oooh Louis, a Mobile-home?.... That's where people go to die!

When uncle Orlando and his Family lived in San Diego in the late 50s & early 60s he and my dad would drive down to Mexico and go to the bull fights. That was the only sport he liked. One time a co-worker was rattling off some names of Foot Ball players and their stats and was surprised my uncle had no clue to what he was talking about. So my uncle rattled off names of Bull Fighters like Carlos Arruza and many other's and their stats. And the co-worker was clueless as to what he was talking about.... my uncle shot back . For the love of God man I'm talking about Bull Fighters, What? you never been to a bull fight? So the co-worker was telling my uncle what he was missing by not following foot ball, golf and baseball. Orlando said , Good Grief man I rather watch grass grow!

The Hagia Sophia, whose name means “holy wisdom,” is a domed monument originally built as a cathedral in Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey) in the sixth century A.D.

It contains two floors centered on a giant nave that has a great dome ceiling, along with smaller domes, towering above.

“Hagia Sophia’s dimensions are formidable for any structure not built of steel,” writes Helen Gardner and Fred Kleiner in their book "Gardner’s Art Through the Ages: A Global History." “In plan it is about 270 feet [82 meters] long and 240 feet [73 meters] wide. The dome is 108 feet [33 meters] in diameter and its crown rises some 180 feet [55 meters] above the pavement.”

Building the Hagia Sophia

To build his cathedral, Justinian turned to two men named Anthemius and Isidore the Elder.

“Contemporary writers do not refer to Anthemius and Isidore as architects, though the term was common in the sixth century, but as mechanikoi or mechanopoioi,” writes Indiana University professor W. Eugene Kleinbauer in a section of the book "Hagia Sophia" (Scala Publishers, 2004). “These terms denote a very small number of practitioners of the arts of design, whether of buildings or of machines or other works ...”

They built the Hagia Sophia in great haste, finishing it in less than six years. To put this in comparison it took nearly a century for medieval builders to construct the Notre Dame cathedral in Paris.

This short construction period appears to have led to problems. Ancient sources, such as the writer Procopios, write that the builders had problems with the dome roof, the structure almost collapsing during construction. The dome used a system of piers to channel its weight.

“The piers on top of which the structure was being built, unable to bear the mass that was pressing down on them, somehow or other suddenly started to break away and seemed to be on the point of collapsing...” writes Procopios (translation republished on Columbia University’s website).

Eventually Anthemius and Isidore did get the domed roof to stand and it was a magnificent sight indeed. “It seems not to be founded on solid masonry, but to be suspended from heaven by that golden chain and so cover the space,” wrote Procopios.

Unfortunately this roof did not stand. It collapsed about two decades later and it fell to a man named Isidore the Younger to build a new domed roof. It has lasted, with some repairs, nearly 1,400 years, down to the present day.

“The dome rests not on a drum but on pendentives, spherical triangles that arise from four huge piers that carry the weight of the cupola. The pendentives made it possible to place the dome over a square compartment,” writes researcher Victoria Hammond, who describes the structure of the surviving Hagia Sophia dome, in a chapter of the book "Visions of Heaven: The Dome in European Architecture" (Springer, 2005).

Hagia SophiaSunlight coming in through the windows of the Hagia Sophia "seemed to dissolve the solidity of the walls and created an ambience of ineffable mystery," wrote one author.

Credit: Yulia Gursoy | ShutterstockView full size image

Beneath the dome are 40 windows with sunlight coming through. “The sunlight emanating from the windows surrounding its lofty cupola, suffusing the interior and irradiating its gold mosaics, seemed to dissolve the solidity of the walls and created an ambience of ineffable mystery,” she writes. “On the completion of Hagia Sophia, Justinian is said to have remarked, ‘Solomon, I have outdone thee’.”

Imperial seating

Modern-day visitors will note that the Hagia Sophia has two levels, the ground floor and a gallery above. The presence of the two levels may mean that people were organized according to gender and class when services were held at the cathedral.

In Byzantine churches “galleries seem to have been used as a means of segregation of genders and of social classes,” writes Vasileios Marinis in a chapter of the book "The Byzantine World" (Routledge, 2010). “In Hagia Sophia a part of the gallery was used as an imperial lodge, from which the empress and occasionally the emperor attended the services.”

This lodge wasn’t the only benefit the emperor got. Antony White writes in another chapter of the 2004 "Hagia Sophia" book that to enter the cathedral’s nave from the narthex there are nine doorways. “The central or Imperial Door was reserved for the use of the emperor and his attendants, and provides the most perfect approach to the interior of the church.”

Decorations and iconoclasm

The decorations within the Hagia Sophia at the time of construction were probably very simple, images of crosses for instances. Over time this changed to include a variety of ornate mosaics.

“There are a number of mosaics that have been added over the centuries, imperial portraits, images of the imperial family, images of Christ and different emperors, those have been added since Justinian’s day,” said Goodson in the documentary.

During the eighth and ninth centuries A.D., there was a period of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire that resulted in some of the mosaics being destroyed.

“The controversy spanned roughly a century, during the years 726–87 and 815–43. In these decades, imperial legislation barred the production and use of figural images; simultaneously, the cross was promoted as the most acceptable decorative form for Byzantine churches,” writes Sarah Brooks, of James Madison University, in a Metropolitan Museum of Art article.

Hagia Sophia mosaicPin It The Apse Mosaic in the Hagia Sophia shows the Virgin Mary holding baby Jesus. It is 13 feet tall.

Credit: Artur Bogacki | ShutterstockView full size image

“Fear that the viewer misdirected his/her veneration toward the image rather than to the holy person represented in the image lay at the heart of this controversy.”

At the end of this period decoration of the interior of Hagia Sophia resumed, each emperor adding their own images. One of the most well-known mosaics is located on the apse of the church showing a 13-foot-tall (4 meters) Virgin Mary with Jesus as a child. Dedicated on March 29, 867, it is located 30 meters (almost 100 feet) above the church floor, notes University of Sussex professor Liz James in a 2004 article published in the journal Art History.

Conversion to mosque

Another chapter in the Hagia Sophia’s life began in 1453. In that year the Byzantine Empire ended, with Constantinople falling to the armies of Mehmed II, sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

The Byzantine Empire had been in decline for centuries and by 1453 the Hagia Sophia had fallen into disrepair, notes researcher Elisabeth Piltz in a 2005 British Archaeological Reports series book. Nevertheless, the Christian cathedral made a strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers and they decided to convert it into a mosque.

“What a dome, that vies in rank with the nine spheres of heaven! In this work a perfect master has displayed the whole of the architectural science,” wrote Ottoman historian Tursun Beg during the 15th century (translation from Piltz’s book).

Outside the church, four minarets would eventually be added, Kleiner writes (in a 2010 edition of his book) that these “four slender pencil-shaped minarets” are more than 200 feet (60 meters) tall and are “among the tallest ever constructed.”

Changes occurred on the inside as well. Piltz writes that “after the Ottoman conquest the mosaics were hidden under yellow paint with the exception of the Theotokos [Virgin Mary with child] in the apse.” In addition “Monograms of the four caliphs were put on the pillars flanking the apse and the entrance of the nave.”

The style of the Hagia Sophia, in particular its dome, would go on to influence Ottoman architecture, most notably in the development of the Blue Mosque, built in Istanbul during the 17th century. [Related Video: Enormous Roman Mosaic Unearthed in Turkey]

Present-day museum

In 1934, the government of Turkey secularized the Hagia Sophia and turned it into a museum. The Turkish Council of Ministers stated that due “to its historical significance, the conversion of the (Hagia Sophia) mosque, a unique architectural monument of art located in Istanbul, into a museum will please the entire Eastern world and its conversion to a museum will cause humanity to gain a new institution of knowledge.” [From Robert Nelson, "Hagia Sophia: 1850-1950: Holy Wisdom Modern Monument," University of Chicago Press, 2004)

Research, repair and restoration work continues to this day and the Hagia Sophia is now an important site for tourism in Istanbul. It is a place that has been part of the cultural fabric of the city in both ancient and modern times. dulides

(2/3) #Turkey’s escalating, flagrant violation of its international obligations is manifested in its decision to alter the designation of #HagiaSophia, a world heritage site that is a universal symbol of the Orthodox faith.

The Israeli West Bank barrier, comprising the West Bank Wall and the West Bank fence, is a separation barrier built by Israel along the Green Line and inside parts of the West Bank. Israel describes the wall as a necessary security barrier against Palestinian political violence; whereas Palestinians describe it as an element of racial segregation and a representation of Israeli apartheid, who often call it "Wall of Apartheid". At a total length of 708 kilometres (440 mi) upon completion, the route traced by the barrier is more than double the length of the Green Line, with 15% of its length running along the Green Line or inside Israel, and the remaining 85% running as much as 18 kilometres (11 mi) inside the West Bank, effectively isolating about 9% of the land and approximately 25,000 Palestinians from the rest of the Palestinian territory.

The barrier was built by Israel following a wave of Palestinian political violence and incidents of terrorism inside Israel during the Second Intifada, which began in September 2000 and ended in February 2005. The Israeli government cites a decreased number of suicide bombings carried out from the West Bank as evidence of its efficacy, after such attacks fell from 73 between 2000 and July 2003 (the completion of the first continuous segment) to 12 between August 2003 and the end of 2006. While the barrier was initially presented as a temporary security measure at a time of heightened tensions, it has since been associated with a future political border between Israel and the State of Palestine.

The barrier has drawn criticism from Palestinians, human rights groups, and members of the international community, who have all argued that it serves as evidence of Israel's intent to annex Palestinian land under the guise of security. It has also been alleged that the construction of the wall aims to undermine the Israeli–Palestinian peace process by unilaterally establishing new de facto borders. Key points of dispute are that it substantially deviates eastward from the Green Line, severely restricts the travel of many Palestinians, and impairs their ability to commute to work within the West Bank or to Israel. The International Court of Justice issued an advisory opinion finding that the barrier qualifies as a violation of international law. In 2003, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that charged Israel's building of the barrier to be a violation of international law and demanded its removal by a vote of 144–4 with 12 abstentions.

The walled sections of the barrier have become a canvas for graffiti art, with its Palestinian side illustrating opposition to the barrier, Palestinian resistance, their right to return, as well as human rights in general.

The barrier is described by the Israeli Defense Forces as a "multi-layered composite obstacle", with parts of it being consisting of a 9 metres (30 ft) high concrete wall, while others stretches consist of a multi-layered fence system, with three fences with pyramid-shaped stacks of barbed wire on the two outer fences and a lighter-weight fence with intrusion detection equipment in the middle; an anti-vehicle ditch; patrol roads on both sides; and a smooth strip of sand for "intrusion tracking".

Where the multi-layered fence system is employed, it contains an exclusion area of 60-metre (200 ft) in width on average,[33] with some sections having an exclusion area that reaches up to 100 metres (330 ft). The concrete wall has a width of 3 metres (9.8 ft), and the wall is 9 metres (30 ft) high.

The barrier runs partly along or near the 1949 Jordanian–Israeli armistice line ("Green Line") and partly through the Israeli-occupied West Bank diverging eastward from the armistice line by up to 20 km (12 mi) to include on the western side several of the areas with concentrations of highly populated Israeli settlements, such as East Jerusalem, the Ariel Bloc (Ariel, Karnei Shomron, Kedumim, Immanuel etc.), Gush Etzion, Givat Ze'ev, Oranit, and Maale Adumim.

The barrier nearly encircles some Palestinian towns, about 20% follows the armistice line, and a projected 77,000 ha (191,000 acres) or about 13.5% of the West Bank area is on the west side of the wall. According to a study of the April 2006 route by the Israeli human rights organization B'Tselem, 8.5% of the West Bank area will be on the Israeli side of the barrier after completion, and 3.4% partly or completely surrounded on the eastern side. Some 27,520 to 31,000 Palestinians will be captured on the Israeli side. Another 124,000, on the other hand, will effectively be controlled and isolated. Some 230,000 Palestinians in Jerusalem will be placed on the West Bank side. Most of the barrier[vague] was built at the northern and western edges of the West Bank, mostly beyond the Green Line and created 9 enclaves, which enclosed 15,783 ha (39,000 acres). An additional barrier, circa 10 km long, run south of Ramallah.

Israel states that the topography does not permit putting the barrier along the Green Line in some places because hills or tall buildings on the Palestinian side would make the barrier ineffective against terrorism. The International Court of Justice states that in such cases it is only legal to build the barrier inside Israel.

The barrier route has been challenged in court and changed several times. Argument presented to the court has reiterated that the cease-fire line of 1949 was negotiated "without prejudice to future territorial settlements or boundary lines" (Art. VI.9).

In 1992, the idea of creating a physical barrier between the Israeli and Palestinian populations was proposed by then-prime minister Yitzhak Rabin, following the murder of an Israeli teenage girl in Jerusalem. Rabin said that Israel must "take Gaza out of Tel Aviv" in order to minimize friction between the peoples.

Following an outbreak of violent incidents in Gaza in October 1994, Rabin said: "We have to decide on separation as a philosophy. There has to be a clear border. Without demarcating the lines, whoever wants to swallow 1.8 million Arabs will just bring greater support for Hamas." Following an attack on HaSharon Junction, near the city of Netanya, Rabin made his goals more specific: "This path must lead to a separation, though not according to the borders prior to 1967. We want to reach a separation between us and them. We do not want a majority of the Jewish residents of the state of Israel, 98% of whom live within the borders of sovereign Israel, including a united Jerusalem, to be subject to terrorism."

In 1994, the first section of a barrier (slabs of concrete contiguous for miles) was constructed. The section follows the border between Bat Hefer and Tulkarm communities.

In 1995, the Shahal commission was established by Yitzhak Rabin to discuss how to implement a barrier separating Israelis and Palestinians. Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, prior to the Camp David 2000 Summit with Yasser Arafat, vowed to build a separation barrier, stating that it is "essential to the Palestinian nation in order to foster its national identity and independence without being dependent on the State of Israel".

In November 2000, during Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations in Washington, Prime Minister Ehud Barak approved financing of a 74 km (46 mi) fence between the Wadi Ara region and Latrun. Not until 14 April 2002, the Cabinet of Prime Minister Ariel Sharon decided to implement the plan and establish a permanent barrier in the Seam Area. On 23 June 2002, the Ariel Sharon Government definitely approved the plan in principle and work at the barrier began.

At the end of 2002, due to government inaction, several localities who suffered the most from lack of a border barrier had already started to build the barrier using their own funds directly on the green-line.

By 2003, 180 km (112 mi) had been completed and in 2004, Israel started the southern part of the barrier.

The barrier and behind it Beit Surik. "The Beit Surik Case (HCJ 2056/04)" [HE] of the Supreme Court of Israel in 30 June 2004 set the standards of proportionality between Israeli security and the injury to the Palestinian residents and resulted in a change in the route of the barrier.

In February 2004, the Israeli government said it would review the route of the barrier in response to US and Palestinian concerns. In particular, Israeli cabinet members said modifications would be made to reduce the number of checkpoints Palestinians had to cross, and especially to reduce Palestinian hardship in areas such as the city of Qalqilyah which the barrier completely surrounds. On February 20, 2005, the Israeli cabinet approved the barrier's route on the same day it approved the execution of the Gaza disengagement plan. The length of the route was increased to 670 km (416 mi) (about twice the length of the Green Line) and would leave about 10% of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and nearly 50,000 Palestinians on the Israeli side. It also put the large settlement Maale Adumim and the Gush Etzion bloc on the Israeli side of the barrier, effectively annexing them. The final route, when realized, closes the Wall separating East Jerusalem, including Maale Adumim, from the West Bank. Before, the exact route of the barrier had not been determined, and it had been alleged by opponents that the barrier route would encircle the Samarian highlands of the West Bank, separating them from the Jordan valley. In June 2004, in exchange for Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's support Israel's planned withdrawal from Gaza, Prime Minister Sharon pledged to build an extension of the barrier to the east of the settlement Ariel to be completed before the finish of the withdrawal from the Gaza Strip. Despite the ICJ ruling that the wall beyond the Green Line is illegal, Ariel Sharon reiterated on September 8, 2004, that the large settlement blocs of Ariel, Ma'aleh Adumim and Gush Etzion will be on the Israeli side of the Barrier. He also decided that the Barrier would run east of Ariel, but its connection with the main fence be postponed. Israel appropriated Palestinian private land to build the fence upon and started preparations for constructing the wall to the farthest point ever inside the West Bank, 22 km (14 mi) beyond the Green Line, 3.5 km (2.2 mi) long, and 100 m (330 ft) wide.

In 2005, the Israeli Supreme Court made reference to the conditions and history that led to the building of the barrier. The Court described the history of violence against Israeli citizens since the breakout of the Second Intifada and the loss of life that ensued on the Israeli side. The court ruling also cited the attempts Israel had made to defend its citizens, including "military operations" carried out against "terrorist acts", and stated that these actions "did not provide a sufficient answer to the immediate need to stop the severe acts of terrorism. ... Despite all these measures, the terror did not come to an end. The attacks did not cease. Innocent people paid with both life and limb. This is the background behind the decision to construct the separation fence (Id., at p. 815)."

In 2006, 362 km (224.9 mi) of the barrier had been completed, 88 km (54.7 mi) was under construction and 253 km (157.2 mi) had not yet been started. On April 30, 2006, the route was revised by a cabinet decision, following a suicide bombing in Tel Aviv. In the Ariel area, the new route corrects an anomaly of the previous route that would have left thousands of Palestinians on the Israeli side. The Alfei Menashe settlement bloc was reduced in size, and the new plan leaves three groups of Palestinian houses on the Palestinian side of the fence. The barrier's route in the Jerusalem area will leave Beit Iksa on the Palestinian side; and Jaba on the Israeli side, but with a crossing to the Palestinian side at Tzurif. Further changes were made to the route around Eshkolot and Metzadot Yehuda, and the route from Metzadot to Har Choled was approved.

In 2012, 440 km (273.4 mi) (62%) of the barrier had been completed.

In September 2014, eight years after approving the 45 km stretch of barrier enclosing Gush Etzion, no progress had been made on it, and Israel reopened the debate. The fence is scheduled to go through the national park, the Nahal Rafaim valley, and the Palestinian village of Battir. The Israeli land appropriated in Gva'ot would be on the Palestinian side of the barrier. On 21 September 2014, the government voted to not reauthorize the barrier in the Gush Etzion area.

In 2022, 45 km (28.0 mi) of the barrier that had been built as a multi-layered fence were replaced by new sections of the 9-meter high concrete wall.

Bethlehem (/ˈbɛθlɪhɛm/; Arabic: بيت لحم, Bayt Laḥm, pronunciation; Hebrew: בֵּית לֶחֶם Bēṯ Leḥem) is a city in the Israeli-occupied West Bank of the State of Palestine, located about ten kilometres (six miles) south of Jerusalem. It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate, and has a population of approximately 25,000 people. The city's economy is largely tourist-driven; international tourism peaks around and during Christmas, when Christians embark on a pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity, revered as the location of the Nativity of Jesus.

The earliest-known mention of Bethlehem is in the Amarna correspondence of ancient Egypt, dated to 1350–1330 BCE, when the town was inhabited by the Canaanites. In the Hebrew Bible, the period of the Israelites is described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of David. In the New Testament, the city is identified as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the Roman Empire, the city of Bethlehem was destroyed by Hadrian, but later rebuilt by Helena, and her son, Constantine the Great, who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529, the Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged by Samaritans involved in the Samaritan revolts; following the victory of the Byzantine Empire, it was rebuilt by Justinian I.

Amidst the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin in 637. Muslims continued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by the Crusaders, who replaced the local Christian Greek Orthodox clergy with Catholic ones. In the mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by the Mamluk Sultanate. However, they were rebuilt by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, following the Ottoman–Mamluk War.[8] After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, it became part of Mandatory Palestine until 1948, when it was annexed by Jordan during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the 1967 Six Day War, Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinian National Authority, Bethlehem has been designated as part of Area A of the West Bank, nominally rendering it as being under Palestinian control. Movement around the city is limited due to the Israeli West Bank barrier.

While it was historically a city of Arab Christians, Bethlehem now has a majority of Arab Muslims; it is still home to a significant community of Palestinian Christians, however it has dwindled significantly, mostly due to difficulties resulting from living under the Israeli occupation. Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens of Israeli settlements, which significantly hinder the ability of Palestinians in the city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians.

The West Bank (Arabic: الضفة الغربية, romanized: aḍ-Ḍiffah al-Ġarbiyyah; Hebrew: הַגָּדָה הַמַּעֲרָבִית, romanized: HaGadáh HaMaʽarávit), so called due to its relation to the Jordan River, is the larger of the two Palestinian territories (the other being the Gaza Strip). A landlocked territory near the coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the Levant region of West Asia, it is bordered by Jordan and the Dead Sea to the east and by Israel (via the Green Line) to the south, west, and north. The territory has been under Israeli occupation since 1967.

The territory first emerged in the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War as a region occupied and subsequently annexed by Jordan. Jordan ruled the territory until the 1967 Six-Day War, when it was occupied by Israel. Since then, Israel has administered the West Bank as the Judea and Samaria Area, expanding its claim into East Jerusalem in 1980. The mid-1990s Oslo Accords split the West Bank into three regional levels of Palestinian sovereignty, via the Palestinian National Authority (PNA): Area A (PNA), Area B (PNA and Israel), and Area C (Israel, comprising 60% of the West Bank). The PNA exercises total or partial civil administration over 165 Palestinian enclaves across the three areas.

The West Bank remains central to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. The Palestinians consider it the heart of their envisioned state, along with the Gaza Strip. Right-wing and religious Israelis see it as their ancestral homeland, with numerous biblical sites. There is a push among some Israelis for partial or complete annexation of this land. Additionally, it is home to a rising number of Israeli settlers. Area C contains 230 Israeli settlements into which Israeli law is applied and under the Oslo Accords was supposed to be mostly transferred to the PNA by 1997, but this did not occur. The international community considers Israeli settlements in the West Bank to be illegal under international law. Citing the 1980 law in which Israel claimed Jerusalem as its capital, the 1994 Israel–Jordan peace treaty, and the Oslo Accords, a 2004 advisory ruling by the International Court of Justice concluded that the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, remain Israeli-occupied territory.

Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين, romanized: Filasṭīn), officially the State of Palestine (دولة فلسطين, Dawlat Filasṭīn), is a state in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Founded on 15 November 1988 and officially governed by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), it claims the West Bank (including East Jerusalem) and the Gaza Strip as its territory, all of which have been Israeli-occupied territories since the 1967 Six-Day War. The West Bank contains 165 Palestinian enclaves that are under partial Palestinian rule, but the remainder, including 200 Israeli settlements, is under full Israeli control. The Gaza Strip was governed by Egypt but conquered by Israel in 1967. Israel governed the region until it withdrew in 2005. The United Nations, the International Committee of the Red Cross, and various human-rights organizations still consider Gaza to be held under Israeli military occupation, due to what they regard as Israel's effective military control over the territory; Israel disputes this. Hamas seized power after winning the 2006 Palestinian legislative election. This has since been ensued by a blockade of the Gaza Strip by Israel and Egypt.

After World War II, in 1947, the United Nations (UN) adopted a Partition Plan for Mandatory Palestine, which recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish states and an internationalized Jerusalem. Immediately after the United Nations General Assembly adopted the plan as Resolution 181, a civil war broke out in Palestine, and the plan was not implemented. The day after the establishment of the State of Israel on 14 May 1948, neighboring Arab countries invaded the former British Mandate and engaged Israeli forces in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Later, the All-Palestine Government was established by the Arab League on 22 September 1948 to govern the All-Palestine Protectorate in the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. It was soon recognized by all Arab League members except Transjordan, which had occupied and later annexed the West Bank, including East Jerusalem. Palestine is currently recognized by 138 of the 193 United Nations (UN) member states. Though jurisdiction of the All-Palestine Government was declared to cover the whole of the former Mandatory Palestine, its effective jurisdiction was limited to the Gaza Strip. During the Six-Day War in June 1967, Israel captured the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.

On 15 November 1988 in Algiers, Yasser Arafat, as Chairman of the PLO, issued the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, which established the State of Palestine. A year after the signing of the Oslo Accords in 1993, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was formed to govern (in varying degrees) areas A and B in the West Bank, comprising 165 enclaves, and the Gaza Strip. After Hamas became the PNA parliament's leading party in the most recent elections (2006), a conflict broke out between it and the Fatah party, leading to the Gaza Strip being taken over by Hamas in 2007 (two years after the Israeli disengagement).

The State of Palestine's mid-year population in 2021 was 5,227,193. Although Palestine claims Jerusalem as its capital, the city is under the control of Israel; both Palestinian and Israeli claims to the city are mostly unrecognized by the international community. Palestine is a member of the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the G77, the International Olympic Committee, as well as UNESCO, UNCTAD and the International Criminal Court. Following a failed attempt in 2011 to secure full United Nations member state status, the United Nations General Assembly voted in 2012 to recognize Palestine as a non-member observer state. On 26 February 2024, the Palestinian government collapsed, with the entire Palestinian government resigning, including the prime minister.

Com’è possibile, mi domando a volte camminare sui prati verdi e avere l’animo triste? Essere immersi nel caldo del sole mentre tutto d’intorno sorride e avere l’angoscia nel cuore? Lasciate a noi le vostre tristezze! A noi che non possiamo andare nei prati e non vediamo mai il sole.

Persistent URL: www.floridamemory.com/items/show/252948

Title:</ Paradise Park

The American Roots of Nazi Eugenics -> hnn.us/articles/1796.html edwinblack.com/

<- By Edwin Black. An excerpt of the article below:

Mr. Black is the author of IBM and the Holocaust and the just released War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race, from which the following article is drawn.

Hitler and his henchmen victimized an entire continent and exterminated millions in his quest for a co-called "Master Race."

But the concept of a white, blond-haired, blue-eyed master Nordic race didn't originate with Hitler. The idea was created in the United States, and cultivated in California, decades before Hitler came to power. California eugenicists played an important, although little known, role in the American eugenics movement's campaign for ethnic cleansing.

Eugenics was the racist pseudoscience determined to wipe away all human beings deemed "unfit," preserving only those who conformed to a Nordic stereotype. Elements of the philosophy were enshrined as national policy by forced sterilization and segregation laws, as well as marriage restrictions, enacted in twenty-seven states. In 1909, California became the third state to adopt such laws. Ultimately, eugenics practitioners coercively sterilized some 60,000 Americans, barred the marriage of thousands, forcibly segregated thousands in "colonies," and persecuted untold numbers in ways we are just learning. Before World War II, nearly half of coercive sterilizations were done in California, and even after the war, the state accounted for a third of all such surgeries.

California was considered an epicenter of the American eugenics movement. During the Twentieth Century's first decades, California's eugenicists included potent but little known race scientists, such as Army venereal disease specialist Dr. Paul Popenoe, citrus magnate and Polytechnic benefactor Paul Gosney, Sacramento banker Charles M. Goethe, as well as members of the California State Board of Charities and Corrections and the University of California Board of Regents.

Eugenics would have been so much bizarre parlor talk had it not been for extensive financing by corporate philanthropies, specifically the Carnegie Institution, the Rockefeller Foundation and the Harriman railroad fortune. They were all in league with some of America's most respected scientists hailing from such prestigious universities as Stamford, Yale, Harvard, and Princeton. These academicians espoused race theory and race science, and then faked and twisted data to serve eugenics' racist aims.

Stanford president David Starr Jordan originated the notion of "race and blood" in his 1902 racial epistle "Blood of a Nation," in which the university scholar declared that human qualities and conditions such as talent and poverty were passed through the blood.

In 1904, the Carnegie Institution established a laboratory complex at Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island that stockpiled millions of index cards on ordinary Americans, as researchers carefully plotted the removal of families, bloodlines and whole peoples. From Cold Spring Harbor, eugenics advocates agitated in the legislatures of America, as well as the nation's social service agencies and associations.

The Harriman railroad fortune paid local charities, such as the New York Bureau of Industries and Immigration, to seek out Jewish, Italian and other immigrants in New York and other crowded cities and subject them to deportation, trumped up confinement or forced sterilization.

The Rockefeller Foundation helped found the German eugenics program and even funded the program that Josef Mengele worked in before he went to Auschwitz.

Much of the spiritual guidance and political agitation for the American eugenics movement came from California's quasi-autonomous eugenic societies, such as the Pasadena-based Human Betterment Foundation and the California branch of the American Eugenics Society, which coordinated much of their activity with the Eugenics Research Society in Long Island. These organizations--which functioned as part of a closely-knit network--published racist eugenic newsletters and pseudoscientific journals, such as Eugenical News and Eugenics, and propagandized for the Nazis.

Eugenics was born as a scientific curiosity in the Victorian age. In 1863, Sir Francis Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, theorized that if talented people only married other talented people, the result would be measurably better offspring. At the turn of the last century, Galton's ideas were imported into the United States just as Gregor Mendel's principles of heredity were rediscovered. American eugenic advocates believed with religious fervor that the same Mendelian concepts determining the color and size of peas, corn and cattle also governed the social and intellectual character of man.

In an America demographically reeling from immigration upheaval and torn by post-Reconstruction chaos, race conflict was everywhere in the early twentieth century. Elitists, utopians and so-called "progressives" fused their smoldering race fears and class bias with their desire to make a better world. They reinvented Galton's eugenics into a repressive and racist ideology. The intent: populate the earth with vastly more of their own socio-economic and biological kind--and less or none of everyone else.

The superior species the eugenics movement sought was populated not merely by tall, strong, talented people. Eugenicists craved blond, blue-eyed Nordic types. This group alone, they believed, was fit to inherit the earth. In the process, the movement intended to subtract emancipated Negroes, immigrant Asian laborers, Indians, Hispanics, East Europeans, Jews, dark-haired hill folk, poor people, the infirm and really anyone classified outside the gentrified genetic lines drawn up by American raceologists.

How? By identifying so-called "defective" family trees and subjecting them to lifelong segregation and sterilization programs to kill their bloodlines. The grand plan was to literally wipe away the reproductive capability of those deemed weak and inferior--the so-called "unfit." The eugenicists hoped to neutralize the viability of 10 percent of the population at a sweep, until none were left except themselves.

Eighteen solutions were explored in a Carnegie-supported 1911 "Preliminary Report of the Committee of the Eugenic Section of the American Breeder's Association to Study and to Report on the Best Practical Means for Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasm in the Human Population." Point eight was euthanasia.

The most commonly suggested method of eugenicide in America was a "lethal chamber" or public locally operated gas chambers. In 1918, Popenoe, the Army venereal disease specialist during World War I, co-wrote the widely used textbook, Applied Eugenics, which argued, "From an historical point of view, the first method which presents itself is execution… Its value in keeping up the standard of the race should not be underestimated." Applied Eugenics also devoted a chapter to "Lethal Selection," which operated "through the destruction of the individual by some adverse feature of the environment, such as excessive cold, or bacteria, or by bodily deficiency."

Eugenic breeders believed American society was not ready to implement an organized lethal solution. But many mental institutions and doctors practiced improvised medical lethality and passive euthanasia on their own. One institution in Lincoln, Illinois fed its incoming patients milk from tubercular cows believing a eugenically strong individual would be immune. Thirty to forty percent annual death rates resulted at Lincoln. Some doctors practiced passive eugenicide one newborn infant at a time. Others doctors at mental institutions engaged in lethal neglect.

Nonetheless, with eugenicide marginalized, the main solution for eugenicists was the rapid expansion of forced segregation and sterilization, as well as more marriage restrictions. California led the nation, performing nearly all sterilization procedures with little or no due process. In its first twenty-five years of eugenic legislation, California sterilized 9,782 individuals, mostly women. Many were classified as "bad girls," diagnosed as "passionate," "oversexed" or "sexually wayward." At Sonoma, some women were sterilized because of what was deemed an abnormally large clitoris or labia.

In 1933 alone, at least 1,278 coercive sterilizations were performed, 700 of which were on women. The state's two leading sterilization mills in 1933 were Sonoma State Home with 388 operations and Patton State Hospital with 363 operations. Other sterilization centers included Agnews, Mendocino, Napa, Norwalk, Stockton and Pacific Colony state hospitals.

Even the United States Supreme Court endorsed aspects of eugenics. In its infamous 1927 decision, Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote, "It is better for all the world, if instead of waiting to execute degenerate offspring for crime, or to let them starve for their imbecility, society can prevent those who are manifestly unfit from continuing their kind…. Three generations of imbeciles are enough." This decision opened the floodgates for thousands to be coercively sterilized or otherwise persecuted as subhuman. Years later, the Nazis at the Nuremberg trials quoted Holmes's words in their own defense.

Only after eugenics became entrenched in the United States was the campaign transplanted into Germany, in no small measure through the efforts of California eugenicists, who published booklets idealizing sterilization and circulated them to German official and scientists.

Hitler studied American eugenics laws. He tried to legitimize his anti-Semitism by medicalizing it, and wrapping it in the more palatable pseudoscientific facade of eugenics. Hitler was able to recruit more followers among reasonable Germans by claiming that science was on his side. While Hitler's race hatred sprung from his own mind, the intellectual outlines of the eugenics Hitler adopted in 1924 were made in America.

During the '20s, Carnegie Institution eugenic scientists cultivated deep personal and professional relationships with Germany's fascist eugenicists. In Mein Kampf, published in 1924, Hitler quoted American eugenic ideology and openly displayed a thorough knowledge of American eugenics. "There is today one state," wrote Hitler, "in which at least weak beginnings toward a better conception [of immigration] are noticeable. Of course, it is not our model German Republic, but the United States."

Hitler proudly told his comrades just how closely he followed the progress of the American eugenics movement. "I have studied with great interest," he told a fellow Nazi, "the laws of several American states concerning prevention of reproduction by people whose progeny would, in all probability, be of no value or be injurious to the racial stock."

Hitler even wrote a fan letter to American eugenic leader Madison Grant calling his race-based eugenics book, The Passing of the Great Race his "bible."

Hitler's struggle for a superior race would be a mad crusade for a Master Race. Now, the American term "Nordic" was freely exchanged with "Germanic" or "Aryan." Race science, racial purity and racial dominance became the driving force behind Hitler's Nazism. Nazi eugenics would ultimately dictate who would be persecuted in a Reich-dominated Europe, how people would live, and how they would die. Nazi doctors would become the unseen generals in Hitler's war against the Jews and other Europeans deemed inferior. Doctors would create the science, devise the eugenic formulas, and even hand-select the victims for sterilization, euthanasia and mass extermination."

For more reading:

www.bankingonbaghdad.com/archive/hnn20041122/7774.html

www.waragainsttheweak.com/offSiteArchive/HitlerDebtToAmer...

secure.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/wiki/Edwin_Black