Relator da CAOM

#teenager #post #relatable #tumblr #always #do #this #green #im #a #fearless #bastard #calling #your #parents #by #their #first #names #teens #lads #girls photo #hashtag

Sorting through boxes. From around 1993.

This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between 1890-1922.

 

The slide depicts an image of the surface of the moon. Details of a lunar mountain range and craters are visible. A particularly large crater (Plato) is visible in lower left corner.

 

Inscription Details: Handwritten in blue ink on the upper left corner of plate, 'G119'. Printed at bottom of plate, '12. Plato, Pico, and Valley of the Alps' Printed on plate in upper right corner, 'TRADE MARK'.

 

Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.

 

Rights: No known copyright restrictions.

 

Reference: 235978|PH-1984-1-LS78-3-49|119

 

For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033237

This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), dated 8 March 1905.

 

The slide depicts a section of the Milky Way around the star system 61 Cygni. The edges of the plate are hand tinted blue.

 

Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto, top, "55". Cardinal points hand written in black ink on recto, top right. Handwritten in black ink on recto, bottom, "Milky Way around Cygni 1894. Exposure 9h 7m Wolfe Heidelberg". Hand written on top, right and left edges, "V. L." Handwritten on bottom edge "V. L. 55".

 

Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.

 

Rights: No known copyright restrictions.

 

Reference: 235781|PH-1984-1-LS78-2-5|55

 

For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033432

relating to objection to planning application 14/03676/ADV

By Aleksandr Deineka, 1937

 

The Deineka paintings were studies for intended murals in the USSR pavilion at the 1937 World Fair in Paris.

...The paintings are a mix of the imaginary and the real. Some of the people marching are identifiable and include Alexey Stakhanov, leader of the Stakhanovite movement of workers and a man who set astonishing records for the amount of coal he mined; the heroic test pilot Valery Chkalov; and Maria and Evdokia Vinogradova, hailed for their textile output.

In the background is the spectacular and unrealised Palace of the Soviets, a building that was planned to be the tallest in the world, with a statue of Vladimir Lenin on top.

The pavilion was designed to showcase the magnificent success of Stalin’s USSR, and people were fascinated. The USSR pavilion had 2 million visitors, far more than any other pavilion including Spain’s, which was exhibiting Picasso’s Guernica. It also won more prizes than any other country.

[The Guardian]

 

Part of Red Star Over Russia: A Revolution in Visual Culture 1905-55

November 2017 to February 2018.

 

A dramatic visual history of Russia and the Soviet Union from 1905 to the death of Stalin – seen through the eyes of artists, designers and photographers.

2017 marks the centenary of the October Revolution. Rebellion brought hope, chaos, heroism and tragedy as the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union, endured revolutions, civil war, famine, dictatorship and Nazi invasion. A new visual culture arose and transformed the fabric of everyday life.

The core of this exhibition comes from the extraordinary collection of photographer and graphic designer David King (1943–2016). He started his collection of over 250,000 items relating to this period while working for The Sunday Times Magazine in the 1970s. The collection was acquired by Tate in 2016.

This show is an opportunity to see the rare propaganda posters, prints and photographs collected by King – some bearing traces of state censorship. Including work by El Lissitzky, Gustav Klutsis, Dmitri Moor, Aleksandr Deineka, Nina Vatolina and Yevgeny Khaldei, it is a thrilling journey through a momentous period in world history.

[Tate Modern]

(It is my holt, as I am an otter, and it is my den.)

(That tree is my holt, as a holt is the den of an otter, and I am an otter, and he is my den.)

(And it’s a he.)

 

Relator-geral do Orçamento de 2023, senador Marcelo Castro (MDB-PI), concede entrevista.

 

Foto: Roque de Sá/Agência Senado

Part of a set of images relating to the Mass Trespass that took place at Pangdean Bottom in the Sussex downs on 24th July 2021.

 

landscapesoffreedom.com/

www.instagram.com/landscapesoffreedom/

 

Part of a rich english tradition - see: Mass trespass of Kinder Scout

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_trespass_of_Kinder_Scout

 

The linoprint illustrations featured are by Nick Hayes:

 

www.instagram.com/nickhayesillustration/

folioart.co.uk/illustrator/nick-hayes/

 

The police were outnumbered by film crews and Radio 4!

 

#right2roam #righttoroam #freeroamers #masstrespass #access2land #accesstoland #linoprint #redkite #birdofprey #meatismurder #streetart #art #satire #landscapesoffreedom

 

weaving strips of fabric in and out.....

While visiting San Francisco I was invited to attend a panel discussion on a poster series relating to the Summer of Love. The posters were created by artists to commemorate the event and its 50th anniversary. I was actually surprised to find that this discussion was about some of the posters that I had seen while riding the streetcars along Market Street and craning to get a better look at them.

 

During the discussion the artists talked about things like their processes, ideals, history, and collective memory. Two ideas that stood out were those of "collective memory" and feminism. Collective memory is a topic that seems a little bit odd, and controversial at times - as it tends to be about what everyone remembers, and can sometimes be mistaken for groupthink.

 

The second idea was more about feminism. The first in this series of posters was designed and created by Kate Haug who seemed be a bit of a feminist, but in a good way. Typically feminism (from a male point of view) is about destroying all the men, and allowing women to control everything and raise a bunch of ignorant, loveless children. And somehow men and women are supposed to coexist. But I'm not a supporter of "Destroy the Men" feminism, while there are lots of men/fetishists who are. But I did gain a new perspective on feminism from Haug, as maybe there are different...chapters? Instead of "Destroy the Men", she tends to be more of a "Button Your Blouse" feminist, which probably could coexist in a modern society. Although Haug's posters were not so much about feminism, but about the people in a society and how they shape and contribute to it.

 

All-in-all, the discussion was very informative about much of the history of The Summer of Love, as well as the people and personalities back then. And I came away with some new perspective of ideas.

  

110

INTO# #POWER.# #I# #CAN# #RELATE# #PART# #OF# #THIS# #HISTORY# #FROM

PERSONAL# #EXPERIENCE:

MANY# #BILLIONS# #OF# #YEARS# #AGO# #I# #WAS# #A# #MEMBER# #OF# #A# #VERY

LARGE# #BIOLOGICAL# #LABORATORY# #IN# #A# #GALAXY# #FAR# #FROM# #THIS

ONE.# #IT# #WAS# #CALLED# #THE# #"ARCADIA# #REGENERATION# #COMPANY".

193# #(FOOTNOTE)# #I# #WAS# #A# #BIOLOGICAL# #ENGINEER# #WORKING# #WITH# #A

LARGE# #STAFF# #OF# #TECHNICIANS.# #IT# #WAS# #OUR# #BUSINESS# #TO

MANUFACTURE# #AND# #SUPPLY# #NEW# #LIFE# #FORMS# #TO# #UNINHABITED

PLANETS.# #THERE# #WERE# #MILLIONS# #OF# #STAR# #SYSTEMS# #WITH

MILLIONS# #OF# #INHABITABLE# #PLANETS# #IN# #THE# #REGION# #AT# #THAT

TIME.

THERE# #WERE# #MANY# #OTHER# #BIOLOGICAL# #LABORATORY# #COMPANIES# #AT

THAT# #TIME# #ALSO.# #EACH# #OF# #THEM# #SPECIALIZED# #IN# #PRODUCING

DIFFERENT# #KINDS# #OF# #LIFE# #FORMS,# #DEPENDING# #ON# #THE# #"CLASS"

OF# #THE# #PLANET# #BEING# #POPULATED.# #OVER# #A# #LONG# #SPAN# #OF# #TIME

THESE# #LABORATORIES# #DEVELOPED# #A# #VAST# #CATALOGUE# #OF# #SPECIES

THROUGHOUT# #THE# #GALAXIES.# #THE# #MAJORITY# #OF# #BASIC# #GENETIC

MATERIAL# #IS# #COMMON# #TO# #ALL# #SPECIES# #OF# #LIFE.# #194# #(FOOTNOTE)

THEREFORE,# #MOST# #OF# #THEIR# #WORK# #WAS# #CONCERNED# #WITH

MANIPULATING# #ALTERATIONS# #OF# #THE# #BASIC# #GENETIC# #PATTERN# #TO

PRODUCE# #VARIATIONS# #OF# #LIFE# #FORMS# #THAT# #WOULD# #BE# #SUITABLE

INHABITANTS# #FOR# #VARIOUS# #PLANETARY# #CLASSES.

THE# #"ARCADIA# #REGENERATION# #COMPANY"# #SPECIALIZED# #IN

MAMMALS# #FOR# #FORESTED# #AREAS# #AND# #BIRDS# #FOR# #TROPICAL

REGIONS.# #OUR# #MARKETING# #STAFF# #NEGOTIATED# #CONTRACTS# #WITH

VARIOUS# #PLANETARY# #GOVERNMENTS# #AND# #INDEPENDENT# #BUYERS

FROM# #ALL# #OVER# #THE# #UNIVERSE.# #THE# #TECHNICIANS# #CREATED

ANIMALS# #THAT# #WERE# #COMPATIBLE# #WITH# #THE# #VARIATIONS# #IN

CLIMATE,# #ATMOSPHERIC# #AND# #TERRESTRIAL# #DENSITY# #AND

CHEMICAL# #CONTENT.# #IN# #ADDITION# #WE# #WERE# #PAID# #TO# #INTEGRATE

OUR# #SPECIMENS# #WITH# #BIOLOGICAL# #ORGANISMS# #ENGINEERED# #BY

OTHER# #COMPANIES# #ALREADY# #LIVING# #ON# #A# #PLANET.

IN# #ORDER# #TO# #DO# #THIS# #OUR# #STAFF# #WAS# #IN# #COMMUNICATION# #WITH

OTHER# #COMPANIES# #WHO# #CREATED# #LIFE# #FORMS.# #THERE# #WERE

INDUSTRY# #TRADE# #SHOWS,# #PUBLICATIONS# #AND# #A# #VARIETY# #OF

OTHER# #INFORMATION# #SUPPLIED# #THROUGH# #AN# #ASSOCIATION# #THAT

COORDINATED# #RELATED# #PROJECTS.

 

AS# #YOU# #CAN# #IMAGINE,# #OUR# #RESEARCH# #REQUIRED# #A# #GREAT# #DEAL

OF# #INTERSTELLAR# #TRAVEL# #TO# #CONDUCT# #PLANETARY# #SURVEYS.

THIS# #IS# #WHEN# #I# #LEARNED# #MY# #SKILLS# #AS# #A# #PILOT.# #THE# #DATA

GATHERED# #WAS# #ACCUMULATED# #IN# #HUGE# #COMPUTER# #DATABASES# #AND

EVALUATED# #BY# #BIOLOGICAL# #ENGINEERS.# #195# #(FOOTNOTE)# #

This image relates to my research question "Can you tell a person's sexuality by their clothes?" because this is a man dressed for a special occasion, by he would be viewed as gay because he has a lot of bright colored patterns on at the same time and a floral print bow tie. Speaking from personal experience, I have worn a similar outfit to my high school once and I over heard someone say how gay I looked, even though I thought I was just dressed up I someone looked the part of being gay without even knowing it apparently. Something as simple as the pattern on your tie can label you as gay or straight and that does not sit well with me.

Every year, Realtors® Care Day offers a helping hand to homeowners in need by providing exterior home repairs and adaptive safety modifications. Regional Habitat for Humanity chapters, the City of Charlotte, and other housing partners identify homeowners who qualify for the program.

 

Last month, realtors and City of Charlotte Code Enforcement volunteers joined forces to make a meaningful difference in Charlotte neighborhoods. They performed various tasks such as cleaning gutters, landscaping, repairing stairs, and enhancing exterior areas. We express our gratitude for their hard work and dedication.

This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between the 1890s and the 20th Century.

 

The slide shows tropical palms and ferns at Wragge's home 'Capemba' in Taringa, Brisbane. Hand coloured.

 

Inscription Details: Handwritten in ink on recto, top left corner, "'22 Capemba".

 

Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.

 

Rights: No known copyright restrictions.

 

Reference: 235775|PH-1984-1-LS78-1-45

 

For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033438

Gran cobertura mediática

Relates to Leeds Object of Month: Clock

This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between 1890s-1920s.

 

The slide shows Taieri River, photographed from the banks of the river. Dark clouds are in the sky and land can be seen in the background. Hand coloured in pink, green and blue.

 

Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto, top of slide, "TAIERI R. HENLEY. N.Z.". Handwritten in blue ink on recto, bottom of slide, "O92 Clouds after storm, N.Z.".

 

Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.

 

Rights: No known copyright restrictions.

 

Reference: 235877|PH-1984-1-LS78-3-106|O92

 

For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033336

HB 178 Relating to Continuing Education

Requires licensed social workers to complete a minimum of 15 credit hours of continuing education courses for the licensing renewal period beginning July 1, 2013, through June 30, 2016, and 45 credit hours of continuing education courses during each licensing renewal period, for the period beginning July 1, 2016, and thereafter.

 

HB 1207 Relating to Human Services

Requires Department of Human Services to submit to the Legislature interim reports on program integrity prior to 2015 and 2016 Regular Sessions and a final report prior to 2017 Regular Session on its compliance with the federal Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 as it relates to Medicaid. Effective July 1, 2014.

 

Relates to the fix on Firestorm 4.7.4 UNRELEASED with OpenSimulator support.

 

Result:

Posting a snapshot to Flickr at current /but not set in advanced/ window size /in my case 1920x1032/ does not reproduce this bug.

 

VERIFYING: The bug assigned to Ansariel Hiller and testedy by Whirly Fizzle is FIXED

 

Taken: OSGrid, Crown Land estates, Wolflandia sims using Firestom Fizzlefire 4.7.4.47531 to test direct Flickr uploads /fixed issue/ - 1920 x 1032, keeping aspect ratio

 

===============================================

 

SCREENSHOTS 14-15 in this album

 

The screenshots document that the problem described bellow was solved.

 

18) Current (not set in advanced) windows size - 1920 x 1032

17) A snapshot set at any of the preset sizes (here we set 1600 x 1200)

16) Custom, manualy set size 1920 x 1032 for the snapshot, the same setting is for the window size in the menu Advanced

15) Posting a snapshot to Flickr at size 320 x 240

14) Current window was 1920 x 1032 and the window size was set to 2560 x 1440

 

================================================

 

SCREENSHOTS 1-10 in this album (the original post):

 

The screenshots document that the similar settings, when used in Second Life and Opensim generate different results. This behavior persists since the latest beta release and it is present also in the final version. Firestom 64 bit for Second Life and Opensim was used to create these snapshots. First the clean reinstall of beta version was performed and no settings were automatically restored from the previous installation.

 

Uploads taken at the Opensim grid are not being uploaded for me with the best possible quality. To get them online I must save them first to disk. This way the procedure is longer, not so comfortable and the result does not contain data about the place where it was taken.

 

Visit this location at Crown Land in OSGrid

  

That includes kidnapping, few bruises, injuries, sex every night, threesomes, do things she never do, etc. #InspirationalQuotes #GirlQuotes #Quotes #TeenageLife #LifeQuotes #BeautifulQuotes #RelationshipQuotes #SuccessQuotes #DontGiveUp #PositiveQuotes #TeenQuotes #WomenQuotes #Follow4follow #Adult #Love #Forever #LDR #LongDistanceRelationship #S4S #Relateable #Allgirls #Repost #beyonce #nickiminaj #nofuckingchill - _relate.quotess

The Problems Relating to the Management & Excavations of the Archaeological Ruins of Herculaneum / Pompeii as Reported in Foreign Press (1904-2002). "Prof. A. Maiuri, Herculaneum & Pompeii Lost Beauties Restored." The Times, Oct. 30, 1934. p. 13 [1/2].

PM Dr Ngirente presented before Rwanda parliament, Government of Rwanda achievements relating to ICT in the knowledge-based economy | Kigali, 2 December 2019

Implications in the arts

Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.[181] Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.[182]

  

George Frideric Handel

As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.[183]

 

The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.[183] This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.[184] Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment."[184]

 

As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music.[185] Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble.[185] After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.[

Art

The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras.[citation needed] At the same time, the Classical art of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum. People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into neo-classical art. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.

Society and culture

 

A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and Protestants in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom.

In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.

 

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century.[171] Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason.[172] Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.[173]

  

German explorer Alexander von Humboldt showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.[174]

The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters.[175] In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.[176]

 

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century."[177] Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas."[178]

 

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude."[179] Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.[180] Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

  

Masonic lodges

 

Masonic initiation ceremony

Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment.[262] Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope,[263] Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin[264] and George Washington.[265] Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists.[266]

 

During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland c. 1600 and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality."[267] Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.[268] Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.[269] The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the Illuminati, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to "enlightened," chosen to reflect their original intent to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.[270]

 

Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.[271] Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.[272]

 

German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges."[273] Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right."[274] Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.[275] Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought.On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

 

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

 

Dissemination of ideas

The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.

  

French philosopher Pierre Bayle

Republic of Letters

The term "Republic of Letters" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:

 

In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.[186]

 

The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power.[186] It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation."[187] Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened.[188] The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."[189]

  

Front page of The Gentleman's Magazine, January 1731

Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic[190] and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within.[191] While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.[192]

 

In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors."[193] These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.[194]

 

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters[195] and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."[196] Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment.[197] According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.[198]

 

Book industry

 

ESTC data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation

The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation.[199] However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the bibliothèque bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century.[200] Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.[26]

 

Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a reading revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone.[201] This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.[202]

 

The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the bibliothèque bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the bibliothèque bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability.[203] Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city.[204] This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.[205]

  

Denis Diderot is best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie.

It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.[206] Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.[207] The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice.[208] In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.[208]

 

A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie, condemned by both the King and Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law.[209] However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.[186]

 

Natural history

 

Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside Ancien Régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.[210]

 

The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social."[211] The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class.[212] From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.[213]

 

Scientific and literary journals

 

Journal des sçavans was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.

The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.[214]

 

Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture.[215] They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.[216]

 

Encyclopedias and dictionaries

 

First page of the Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1766

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries.[217] The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.

 

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines.[218] Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism.[219] Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply.[217] In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution.[220] Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.[218]

 

The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon Technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

  

"Figurative system of human knowledge," the structure that the Encyclopédie organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.[221]

 

However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work.[222] The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

 

As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.[223]

 

The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour.[224] As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution.[225] The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.[226]

 

Popularization of science

One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education.[227] Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people."[228] As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.[229] More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

  

A portrait of Bernard de Fontenelle

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works.[230] These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables."[231]

 

The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738.[232] Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university.[233] Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class.[234] During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions.[235]

 

Schools and universities

Main article: Education in the Age of Enlightenment

Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

 

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was associationism: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.[236] Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.[237]

 

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology.[210] In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.[238]

 

Learned academies

 

Louis XIV visiting the Académie des sciences in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett[239]

 

Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%).[240] The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.[241]

 

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment.[242] The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.[243] More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning.[244] Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.[245]

 

In England, the Royal Society of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662.[246] The society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange.[247] Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations.[248] However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.[250]

 

Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean.[251] This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters.

 

The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."[252]

 

The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. [253] The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.[254]

 

Debating societies

Main article: London Debating Societies

The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment.[255] Their origins include:

 

Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.

Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.

Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.

John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?"[256]

In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability.[257] The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.[258]

 

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." [259] After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity." [259]

 

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. [260] From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment

HB632 (Relating to Open Data) requires state departments to make electronic data sets available to the public. The bill also requires the chief information officer (CIO) to develop policies and procedures to implement the Open Data Initiative, and appropriates $100,000 each fiscal year of the biennium to Office of Information Practices (OIP).

 

HB635 (Relating to Broadband) requires the state and counties to take action in advancing the Hawaii Broadband Initiative within 60 days (for conservation districts, the state must take action within 145 days). The initiative's goal is to provide ultra high-speed Internet access by 2018, and this clear and decisive timeline will reduce uncertainty for broadband companies and serve as an incentive to invest in increased bandwidth.

 

SB1003 (Relating to Information Technology), another of the administration's bills, authorizes the CIO to conduct security audits and direct remedial actions, as necessary, in the management of the state's cyber security.

This is a Portfolio relate to DC Comic and movie , Restore a role of Batman: Arkaham Asylum.

Harley Quinn/

I created this group of photos in China, an abandoned hospital building, to restore the role of a business works.

The creative process used in the camera, flash, soft umbrella, color film, reflectors, tripods and other props. Thank model Asa, and to help this group of photos I took several support staff.

This group of photos to show the audience a great reduction in the original crazy clown female offenders, if you know cosplay, understand Batman, then this will not be unfamiliar. I think this group of photos into a lot of photography after shooting, restore the role of a work that conveys the role of personality and the whole atmosphere of the original, is a group of the more successful works.

Besides me, there are many creative combinations, of course, I also plan and prepare some of the more impact work. In the future I plan to shoot some surreal landscape and travel photography work

Completed: November 2010

Size: 18 x 36

Medium: Acrylic on Canvas

Description: This is my first exploration in abstract painting. My desire to paint abstractly comes from particular moments that occur during observational painting, in which the particular stroke or color of paint belies the importance of the object it is intending to represent. For example: the white brush stroke representing the highlight of an apple could take on a form of its own, which is more interesting than element of the apple which it represents.

The broad sweeping strokes in this particular painting, which culminate in an aspect of melting, towards the bottom of the page, relate to my perception of the structure of the day, a Tuesday, on which I created this painting.

I began this painting with a series of red strokes, and continued by noticing things about the way that the paint had appeared on the canvas, and then reacted to it with subsequent brush strokes. The narrowness of the canvas ended up helping the painting, by providing boundaries outside of the canvas for the strokes to relate to.

Le Kuiseb en Namibie coule dans la région montagneuse à l'ouest de Windhoek, la capitale, jusqu'à Walvis Bay. Le Kuiseb est une rivière éphémère avec un débit d'environ 20 000 000 m3/an. La longueur de ce fleuve est d'environ 560 km

 

Elle est bordée sur un côté par les plus hautes dunes du monde, et sur l'autre par une barrière de roches. Les dunes de sables rouges au Sud de la rivière atteignent jusqu'à 150 mètres. Les vents prédominants soufflent sur les dunes vers le nord, mais leur mouvements sont bloqués par la rivière. Dans le mécanisme, beaucoup trop de sable et de vase se déposent sur le Kuiseb ce qui permet seulement d'atteindre la mer quand elle est en crue. Le barrage de Friedenau, situé sur la rivière, a été construit en 1972.

 

Le canyon de ce cours d'eau fut notamment exploré par deux géologues allemands qui avaient fui le régime nazi, Henno Martin et Hermann Korn, et ont préféré se cacher dans le désert du Namib durant deux ans et demi plutôt que de risquer d'être internés en Afrique du Sud. Cette expérience est relatée par Martin dans son ouvrage autobiographique : " La guerre venue nous sommes partis dans le désert ". (Source Wikipedia)

This picture relates to development, especially physical development, because by cousin is gaining more gross motor skills as she is growing up. She can now use similar moves that the dancers are doing.

There is some confusion relating to this photograph? Researching for details of this lady kept bringing me back to Betty White, hence the details below but I make no claims the photo is an early shot of Betty White?

 

Betty White, is an American actress, comedian, singer, author, producer and television personality. In 2013, the Guinness World Records awarded White with having the longest television career for a female entertainer. To contemporary audiences, White is best known for her television roles as Sue Ann Niven's on 'The Mary Tyler Moore Show' (1973–77) and Rose Nylund on 'The Golden Girls' (1985–92).

White is regarded as a pioneer of American television for being one of the first women to have creative control in front of and behind the camera, she is also noted for being the first woman to produce a sitcom which contributed to her receiving the honorary title as the Mayor of Hollywood in 1955. In a career that has spanned over 70 years, Betty has gone on to win seven Emmy Awards (six for acting), receiving 21 Emmy nominations over her career, including being the first woman to receive an Emmy for game show hosting (for the short-lived Just Men!) and is the only woman to have won an Emmy in all performing comedic categories.

 

Wikipedia.

Part of a set of images relating to the Mass Trespass that took place at Pangdean Bottom in the Sussex downs on 24th July 2021.

 

landscapesoffreedom.com/

www.instagram.com/landscapesoffreedom/

 

Part of a rich english tradition - see: Mass trespass of Kinder Scout

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_trespass_of_Kinder_Scout

 

The linoprint illustrations featured are by Nick Hayes:

 

www.instagram.com/nickhayesillustration/

folioart.co.uk/illustrator/nick-hayes/

 

The police were outnumbered by film crews and Radio 4!

 

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relating to breakfast

Relator-geral do Orçamento de 2023, senador Marcelo Castro (MDB-PI), concede entrevista.

 

Foto: Roque de Sá/Agência Senado

Reason(s) for Rejection:

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relating to objection to planning application 14/03676/ADV

12 J. Robert Hillier relates the history of the Florence Bell Hillier Award.

The Women's College Club of Princeton-Annual College Scholarship Tea-May 16, 2013-Honoring Scholarship Winners and Their Families

Relates to UNDP-supported GCF-funded project 'Strengthening the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers in the Dry Zone to Climate Variability and Extreme Events' (known locally as CRIWMP)

 

Resident Representative's field visit, Feb 2023. Credit: UNDP Sri Lanka

The Problems Relating to the Management & Excavations of the Archaeological Ruins of Herculaneum / Pompeii as Reported in Foreign Press (1904-2002). "Prof. A. Maiuri, New Light On Pompeii A City Prepared For War...," The Times, Nov 1, 1933. p. 13. [2/2].

Relates to UNDP-supported GCF-funded project 'Strengthening the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers in the Dry Zone to Climate Variability and Extreme Events' (known locally as CRIWMP)

 

Resident Representative's field visit, Feb 2023. Credit: UNDP Sri Lanka

Relates to this post at City of Sound.

Dundalk overwhelm Bangor in All Ireland Final

by Roger Corbett

Bangor’s amazing run in the All Ireland Junior Cup came to an abrupt end when they were comprehensively beaten by Dundalk, eventually losing by 55-5.

Where do you start when trying to relate and absorb the events of Saturday’s final at Chambers Park? Firstly, congratulations to worthy winners Dundalk who nullified the Bangor attack, then went on to produce some stunning plays which racked up no less than 8 tries, each by a different player. For Bangor’s part, they were unable to respond to the intensity of Dundalk’s game, and lacked the cutting edge which their opponents used to great effect.

The day started full of promise, as the strong support from North Down made their way to Chambers Park in Portadown, knowing Bangor would be fielding their best team. Once again, the pundits had Bangor as the underdogs – just as they had done so in the previous three rounds! In confounding the experts earlier, Bangor produced some awesome performances against top quality opposition to get to the final. Dundalk had produced some convincing wins in the early rounds of the competition, but had struggled to get past CIYMS in the semi-final, just managing to squeeze ahead at the second time of asking. However, with a number of key players returning to the side in time for this game, they were now back at full strength and would be a formidable force to contend with.

Having won the toss, captain Jamie Clegg elected to play into the stiff wind in the first half. For the first 5 minutes, Bangor doggedly retained possession and tried to play their way into Dundalk’s half through a series of determined forward moves. However, little ground was made and, when possession was finally lost, the Dundalk back line produced a burst that simply cut through the Bangor defence resulting in an easy touch down under Bangor’s posts for a 7-0 lead.

Bangor stuck to their plan and slowly, but patiently, got their attack moving forward, eventually winning a penalty to the left of Dundalk’s posts, but Mark Widdowson’s kick into the wind drifted just wide of the mark.

The contrast in play between the two teams was becoming clear, with Bangor trying to keep the ball close while Dundalk were throwing it wide. The latter strategy was proving to be the more effective as, with 20 minutes gone, a quick back line move with players looping around resulted in an overlap on the right wing which gave a clear run in to again, score under the posts. A further 9 minutes later, they did it again and, although the Bangor defence had sensed the danger and moved across to cover it, their tackling let them down allowing Dundalk to get over in the right hand corner, taking their lead to 19-0.

By now, Bangor were trying to hang on until half time when they could regroup and come out with the wind at their backs. Dundalk, on the other hand were anxious to press home their advantage and give them a more comfortable lead. To Bangor’s credit, although camped on their own line for lengthy spells, they dug in and managed to hold on until the referee’s half time whistle.

As the teams reappeared from the dressing rooms, it was obvious Bangor were ringing the changes, particularly in the backs. With the wind advantage having lessened considerably, Bangor got the second half underway. It was now Dundalk’s turn to adopt the slow, steady approach, just as Bangor had done earlier. However, their more confident off-loading and support play was, once again, taking play deep into Bangor’s territory. Frustration at not being able to gain possession and take play out of their danger area eventually resulted in a yellow card for Clegg after a succession of penalties. Dundalk kicked the penalty to touch, won their lineout and drove for the line. Although initially held up by the Bangor defence, Dundalk’s repeated drives were eventually rewarded with another converted score, extending their lead to 26-0.

From the touchline, the Bangor faithful had felt that if their players had managed to score first in the second half, they may have been able to mount a fight-back and close the gap to their opponents. As it was, this Dundalk score simply bolstered their confidence and pushed Bangor deeper into trouble. With Bangor still a man down, Dundalk added to the score with a penalty and then another score in the corner. Everything was now working for the Leinster men, as even the difficult touchline conversion into the biting wind successfully split the posts, bringing the score to 36-0.

As the game entered the final quarter, and with Dundalk all but holding the cup, Bangor were now on the ropes. By contrast, the Dundalk players were in almost total control, and were not going to slow down now. In a 10 minute spell, they ran in a further 3 tries, making the scoreline 55-0. By now, any sense of dejection the Bangor supporters may have been feeling was now moved to feelings of sympathy for their players. However, pride was at stake and once again Bangor rallied as the game entered its final minutes. At last, the forwards got within striking distance of the Dundalk line and, although their repeated attacks were repelled, they finally managed to do what their opponents had done so effectively, and quickly passed the ball wide to Davy Charles. Even though they were 55 points ahead, the Dundalk defence made Charles work hard to drive through the tackles and score Bangor’s consolation try, bringing the final score to 55-5.

From Bangor’s point of view, the final score doesn’t tell the whole story of this competition. While the final may have resulted in a sad anti-climax for Bangor, the remarkable journey to get there will be remembered for some time. On the day, Dundalk were by far the better side, and Bangor would have to concede that their game was not up to the usual standard. However, there is no doubt the experience of competing at this level is something to relish and the goal now will be to secure a top four place in the league and try again next year.

Everybody at the club has nothing but the highest respect and praise for what has been achieved this year by not just the 1sts, but all the senior teams, and one poor result isn’t going to change that – the welcome at Upritchard Park for the returning players is testament to that. With that in mind, the players now need to put this disappointment behind them and provide the best possible response against a struggling Portadown side at home in the league next Saturday.

Bangor side: J Leary, A Jackson, P Whyte, F Black, G Irvine, R Latimer, J Clegg, C Stewart, R Armstrong, K Rosson, D Charles, M Aspley, M Weir, M Widdowson, C Morgan

Subs: S Irvine, O McIlmurray, D Kelly, M Rodgers, C Harper, D Fusco, M Thompson

Bangor scores: D Charles (1T)

Dundalk Storm To Title Dundalk 55 v Bangor 5 from KnockOn.ie

Dundalk Scorers: Christopher Scully, Owen McNally, Jonathan Williams, John Smyth, Ultan Murphy, Tiernan Gonnelly, James McConnon and Stephen Murphy 1 try each. Ultan Murphy 6 cons, 1 pen.

Bangor Scorers: David Charles 1 try.

In front of a big crowd at Chambers Park on Saturday afternoon Dundalk delivered a stunning and ruthless display to see off the challenge of Bangor and capture the All Ireland Junior Cup title for the very first time.

Three first half tries had them firmly in control at 19-0 ahead having played with the elements at the Portadown venue during the first half and while the wind dropped somewhat after half time the Dundalk intensity most certainly didn’t as they cut loose scoring five more tries.

Dundalk returned to a heroes welcome at their Mill Road clubhouse on Saturday night after a display of pure brilliance throughout the afternoon.

Precision, pace and skill from the Louth men from start to finish left Bangor playing second fiddle for long periods.

  

Dundalk overwhelm Bangor in All Ireland Final

by Roger Corbett

Bangor’s amazing run in the All Ireland Junior Cup came to an abrupt end when they were comprehensively beaten by Dundalk, eventually losing by 55-5.

Where do you start when trying to relate and absorb the events of Saturday’s final at Chambers Park? Firstly, congratulations to worthy winners Dundalk who nullified the Bangor attack, then went on to produce some stunning plays which racked up no less than 8 tries, each by a different player. For Bangor’s part, they were unable to respond to the intensity of Dundalk’s game, and lacked the cutting edge which their opponents used to great effect.

The day started full of promise, as the strong support from North Down made their way to Chambers Park in Portadown, knowing Bangor would be fielding their best team. Once again, the pundits had Bangor as the underdogs – just as they had done so in the previous three rounds! In confounding the experts earlier, Bangor produced some awesome performances against top quality opposition to get to the final. Dundalk had produced some convincing wins in the early rounds of the competition, but had struggled to get past CIYMS in the semi-final, just managing to squeeze ahead at the second time of asking. However, with a number of key players returning to the side in time for this game, they were now back at full strength and would be a formidable force to contend with.

Having won the toss, captain Jamie Clegg elected to play into the stiff wind in the first half. For the first 5 minutes, Bangor doggedly retained possession and tried to play their way into Dundalk’s half through a series of determined forward moves. However, little ground was made and, when possession was finally lost, the Dundalk back line produced a burst that simply cut through the Bangor defence resulting in an easy touch down under Bangor’s posts for a 7-0 lead.

Bangor stuck to their plan and slowly, but patiently, got their attack moving forward, eventually winning a penalty to the left of Dundalk’s posts, but Mark Widdowson’s kick into the wind drifted just wide of the mark.

The contrast in play between the two teams was becoming clear, with Bangor trying to keep the ball close while Dundalk were throwing it wide. The latter strategy was proving to be the more effective as, with 20 minutes gone, a quick back line move with players looping around resulted in an overlap on the right wing which gave a clear run in to again, score under the posts. A further 9 minutes later, they did it again and, although the Bangor defence had sensed the danger and moved across to cover it, their tackling let them down allowing Dundalk to get over in the right hand corner, taking their lead to 19-0.

By now, Bangor were trying to hang on until half time when they could regroup and come out with the wind at their backs. Dundalk, on the other hand were anxious to press home their advantage and give them a more comfortable lead. To Bangor’s credit, although camped on their own line for lengthy spells, they dug in and managed to hold on until the referee’s half time whistle.

As the teams reappeared from the dressing rooms, it was obvious Bangor were ringing the changes, particularly in the backs. With the wind advantage having lessened considerably, Bangor got the second half underway. It was now Dundalk’s turn to adopt the slow, steady approach, just as Bangor had done earlier. However, their more confident off-loading and support play was, once again, taking play deep into Bangor’s territory. Frustration at not being able to gain possession and take play out of their danger area eventually resulted in a yellow card for Clegg after a succession of penalties. Dundalk kicked the penalty to touch, won their lineout and drove for the line. Although initially held up by the Bangor defence, Dundalk’s repeated drives were eventually rewarded with another converted score, extending their lead to 26-0.

From the touchline, the Bangor faithful had felt that if their players had managed to score first in the second half, they may have been able to mount a fight-back and close the gap to their opponents. As it was, this Dundalk score simply bolstered their confidence and pushed Bangor deeper into trouble. With Bangor still a man down, Dundalk added to the score with a penalty and then another score in the corner. Everything was now working for the Leinster men, as even the difficult touchline conversion into the biting wind successfully split the posts, bringing the score to 36-0.

As the game entered the final quarter, and with Dundalk all but holding the cup, Bangor were now on the ropes. By contrast, the Dundalk players were in almost total control, and were not going to slow down now. In a 10 minute spell, they ran in a further 3 tries, making the scoreline 55-0. By now, any sense of dejection the Bangor supporters may have been feeling was now moved to feelings of sympathy for their players. However, pride was at stake and once again Bangor rallied as the game entered its final minutes. At last, the forwards got within striking distance of the Dundalk line and, although their repeated attacks were repelled, they finally managed to do what their opponents had done so effectively, and quickly passed the ball wide to Davy Charles. Even though they were 55 points ahead, the Dundalk defence made Charles work hard to drive through the tackles and score Bangor’s consolation try, bringing the final score to 55-5.

From Bangor’s point of view, the final score doesn’t tell the whole story of this competition. While the final may have resulted in a sad anti-climax for Bangor, the remarkable journey to get there will be remembered for some time. On the day, Dundalk were by far the better side, and Bangor would have to concede that their game was not up to the usual standard. However, there is no doubt the experience of competing at this level is something to relish and the goal now will be to secure a top four place in the league and try again next year.

Everybody at the club has nothing but the highest respect and praise for what has been achieved this year by not just the 1sts, but all the senior teams, and one poor result isn’t going to change that – the welcome at Upritchard Park for the returning players is testament to that. With that in mind, the players now need to put this disappointment behind them and provide the best possible response against a struggling Portadown side at home in the league next Saturday.

Bangor side: J Leary, A Jackson, P Whyte, F Black, G Irvine, R Latimer, J Clegg, C Stewart, R Armstrong, K Rosson, D Charles, M Aspley, M Weir, M Widdowson, C Morgan

Subs: S Irvine, O McIlmurray, D Kelly, M Rodgers, C Harper, D Fusco, M Thompson

Bangor scores: D Charles (1T)

Dundalk Storm To Title Dundalk 55 v Bangor 5 from KnockOn.ie

Dundalk Scorers: Christopher Scully, Owen McNally, Jonathan Williams, John Smyth, Ultan Murphy, Tiernan Gonnelly, James McConnon and Stephen Murphy 1 try each. Ultan Murphy 6 cons, 1 pen.

Bangor Scorers: David Charles 1 try.

In front of a big crowd at Chambers Park on Saturday afternoon Dundalk delivered a stunning and ruthless display to see off the challenge of Bangor and capture the All Ireland Junior Cup title for the very first time.

Three first half tries had them firmly in control at 19-0 ahead having played with the elements at the Portadown venue during the first half and while the wind dropped somewhat after half time the Dundalk intensity most certainly didn’t as they cut loose scoring five more tries.

Dundalk returned to a heroes welcome at their Mill Road clubhouse on Saturday night after a display of pure brilliance throughout the afternoon.

Precision, pace and skill from the Louth men from start to finish left Bangor playing second fiddle for long periods.

Why won't you just relate to it man? At the Taipei zoo.

PLC – characteristics of each stage as it relates to the 4 P’s and competition.

Debate sobre a MP 651 no Senado Federal cujo o relator é o dep. Newton Lima (PT-SP.

 

Brasília, 02/set/2014

Foto:Gustavo Bezerra