View allAll Photos Tagged Relatable
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between 1890s-1920s.
The slide shows text inscribed on black background, "The Sun - Its influence on the Earth and the Seasons". The slide is hand coloured with red and yellow.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in blue ink on recto, bottom left of slide, "U57" (number crossed out in black ink). Text below reads, "subtitle". Handwritten in pencil on recto, bottom of slide, "Te Kuiti 6-8-".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235929|PH-1984-1-LS78-4-74
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033285
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between 1890-1922.
The slide shows image of the surface of the moon with details of Theophilus, Cyrillus, and Catharina craters near Mare Nectaris at sunset. Stamped in black ink on top ridge of plate, " 79. Moon (Theophilus, andc). Yerkes Observatory". Stamped in black ink on white paper at top of plate, "79. Moon (Theophilus, andc). Yerkes Observatory".
Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on white tape on the right side of the plate 'Deepest crater; 64m [m] dia Ring 14000 to 18000 ft above chasm central peak 5200 ft. F 106'. Handwritten in black ink on white tape at bottom of plate, 'Sunset on Sea of Nectar'. Handwritten in black ink on white tape on left side of plate, 'S W E N Sunset Catharina 70m. long Cyrrillus wrecked walls Theophilus 64m in diameter.'.
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235717|PH-1984-1-LS78-2-43|106
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033495
Relates to UNDP-supported GCF-funded project 'Strengthening the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers in the Dry Zone to Climate Variability and Extreme Events' (known locally as CRIWMP)
Resident Representative's field visit, Feb 2023. Credit: UNDP Sri Lanka
Every aging home has a relatable past, that old familiar face of history we all found ourselves in. Some kind of happy holidays for someone, sometime – if not the last generation to live here, then some other through the years. It's hard for most folks to value now over then, when looking back seems so warm and sheltering. I think of memories like hiding from the wind chill, the break is our skull and body heat keeps us safe from storms of the moment. Why embrace our very modern senses when recollection is such a comforting place? Nostalgia over presence is a familiar choice, one that worries more how we're perceived than what we've done to be seen that way. In her later years, my grandmother described warzone memories of Holland with more fondness than a peacetime present. But those were years of starvation, and crippling worries when her father was sent off in shackles, interned by the Nazis – and still, she felt better looking back. What's the explanation? It's not times that change, it's us. So with bright eyes trained to an ever-shifting passage, I believe this Christmas is as happy as any other already good and gone. Hold fast.
December 16, 2021
Annapolis County, Nova Scotia
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立法會研究公眾街市事宜小組委員會參觀公眾街市
立法会研究公众街市事宜小组委员会参观公众街市
LegCo Subcommittee on Issues Relating to Public Markets visits public markets (2018.07.03)
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between the 1890s and the 20th Century.
The slide shows a photograph of a painting or drawing depicting the full face of the moon. Craters and maria are visible in the image. 3/4 of plate is damaged.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto, top, "Moon as seen in N. Hemisphere". Handwritten in grey ink on recto, bottom, "From Proctor".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235784|PH-1984-1-LS78-2-8
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033429
Part of a set of images relating to the Mass Trespass that took place at Pangdean Bottom in the Sussex downs on 24th July 2021.
www.instagram.com/landscapesoffreedom/
Part of a rich english tradition - see: Mass trespass of Kinder Scout
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_trespass_of_Kinder_Scout
The linoprint illustrations featured are by Nick Hayes:
www.instagram.com/nickhayesillustration/
folioart.co.uk/illustrator/nick-hayes/
The police were outnumbered by film crews and Radio 4!
#right2roam #righttoroam #freeroamers #masstrespass #access2land #accesstoland #linoprint #redkite #birdofprey #meatismurder #streetart #art #satire #landscapesoffreedom
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
PLEASE NOTE: -
“MUDA” is a singular word relating to one of the mercantile convoys sailing out of Venice each year.
“MUDE” is a plural word relating to several, or all, of the mercantile convoys sailing out of Venice each year.
27 leaves, leaf size 249mm x172mm (9 3/4ins. X 6 8/10ins.) with a text block of 172mm x 98mm (6 8/10ins. x 3 17/20ins.).
Single column, 29 lines in a superb, elegant, humanistic cursive minuscule script in black, probably all written by the same scribe. Many ascenders on the top line, and descenders on the bottom line, have been embellished.
This manuscript include two texts, the first being the Regulations of the Muda of Venice to Alexandria, and the second being the Journal of the Muda to Alexandria that set sail from Venice on 21st. May, 1504. The manuscript was probably written in that city in that year.
A FULL DESCRIPTION IS ATTACHED TO THE OVERVIEW.
A TRANSCRIPT AND TRANSLATION WILL BE ADDED AS AND WHEN TIME ALLOWS.
#teenager #post #relatable #tumblr #always #do #this #green #im #a #fearless #bastard #calling #your #parents #by #their #first #names #teens #lads #girls photo #hashtag
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), dated 8 March 1905.
The slide depicts a section of the Milky Way around the star system 61 Cygni. The edges of the plate are hand tinted blue.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto, top, "55". Cardinal points hand written in black ink on recto, top right. Handwritten in black ink on recto, bottom, "Milky Way around Cygni 1894. Exposure 9h 7m Wolfe Heidelberg". Hand written on top, right and left edges, "V. L." Handwritten on bottom edge "V. L. 55".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235781|PH-1984-1-LS78-2-5|55
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033432
Relator Especial para la Libertad de Expresión, Edison Lanza, durante una audiencia. 156 Período de Sesiones de la CIDH. Sede en Washington, DC, Octubre de 2015.
Relator-geral do Orçamento de 2023, senador Marcelo Castro (MDB-PI), concede entrevista.
Foto: Roque de Sá/Agência Senado
While visiting San Francisco I was invited to attend a panel discussion on a poster series relating to the Summer of Love. The posters were created by artists to commemorate the event and its 50th anniversary. I was actually surprised to find that this discussion was about some of the posters that I had seen while riding the streetcars along Market Street and craning to get a better look at them.
During the discussion the artists talked about things like their processes, ideals, history, and collective memory. Two ideas that stood out were those of "collective memory" and feminism. Collective memory is a topic that seems a little bit odd, and controversial at times - as it tends to be about what everyone remembers, and can sometimes be mistaken for groupthink.
The second idea was more about feminism. The first in this series of posters was designed and created by Kate Haug who seemed be a bit of a feminist, but in a good way. Typically feminism (from a male point of view) is about destroying all the men, and allowing women to control everything and raise a bunch of ignorant, loveless children. And somehow men and women are supposed to coexist. But I'm not a supporter of "Destroy the Men" feminism, while there are lots of men/fetishists who are. But I did gain a new perspective on feminism from Haug, as maybe there are different...chapters? Instead of "Destroy the Men", she tends to be more of a "Button Your Blouse" feminist, which probably could coexist in a modern society. Although Haug's posters were not so much about feminism, but about the people in a society and how they shape and contribute to it.
All-in-all, the discussion was very informative about much of the history of The Summer of Love, as well as the people and personalities back then. And I came away with some new perspective of ideas.
The Reward Card
An Edwardian School reward card. On the back is printed and hand-written:
'Norfolk Education Committee.
Wymondham Infants' School.
This card is awarded to:
William Woods
For punctual and regular
attendance during the school
quarter ended:
June 30th. 1905.
C. Smith, Head Teacher.'
Information relating to John Constable is also printed on the back of the card:
'The son of a well-to-do landowner and miller, John
Constable was born at East Bergholt, Suffolk in 1776.
Contrary to the practice at that time, he resolved
"...to adopt a pure and unaffected manner of
representing the scenes that may employ me;"
As a result he was nearly forty before he sold a
single landscape beyond the circle of his friends,
though now his paintings are most valuable.
In 1821 his "Hay-Wain," now in the National Gallery,
was exhibited in the Paris Salon, and won him the
best artistic triumph of his life.
The "White Horse" and "Salisbury Cathedral From
The Meadows," now in South Kensington Museum,
are other notable examples of his skill.
In 1829 he was elected an R.A., and died in 1837.'
The Cornfield
Although it doesn't say so, the painting on the front of the card is the The Cornfield, painted in 1826.
The Cornfield is a fine example of John Constable’s landscape paintings. In exquisite detail, it portrays a boy and his dog herding sheep down a rustic country road, as the boy stops to drink from a stream.
Constable said “I should paint my own places best”, and it was a statement that certainly influenced his art throughout his life. He painted many landscapes over his career such as The Hay Wain, Hadleigh Castle, and Salisbury Cathedral.
Constable’s landscapes are considered some of the first from the Romantic period which drew inspiration directly from nature, rather than an idealized, emotional portrayal.
His attention to detail was so specific, and so scientific, that he would spend hours studying the clouds in the sky in order to ensure that he could paint them with the greatest accuracy.
Although he shared some ideals with Impressionists – namely, evoking emotion through an artwork and painting en plein air – his works recalled more nostalgic memories, and he took certain artistic liberties in order to portray the scenes as he recalled them from his youth.
At a time when brushstrokes were ideally small and refined, Constable rebelled against this line of thought with canvases that were textured with a range of surfaces and marks. He believed that this was one way he could reflect the different textures he saw in nature.
Not just confining himself to a paintbrush, he also used palette knives to create different textures in his paintings. He was also known for using a technique that became known as “Constable’s snow”, described by art historian Sarah Cove as:
"The finishing technique Constable
developed to depict fleeting effects
of light, movement and texture.”
Constable stated that he used the technique in an attempt to portray the “dewy freshness” he wanted to show in his landscapes.
Constable hoped that The Cornfield would sell quickly, remarking in a letter to a friend that:
“It has certainly got a little more
eye-salve than I usually condescend
to give them.”
It was indeed well-received when it was first exhibited, though it failed to find a buyer. The painting depicts a tranquil trail leading to a cornfield, with a dog herding sheep along the road. To the left of the painting we can see a young boy drinking from the stream – Constable had originally called the artwork The Drinking Boy.
The colours in The Cornfield are similar to the natural, calming palette used by Constable in the majority of his work, with the exception being the splash of bright red used for the boy’s coat that draws the viewer’s eye to the left of the piece.
Green is the dominant color used in the painting, creating a serene, lush landscape.
It is generally believed that The Cornfield portrays a field on the Essex-Suffolk border, Fen Lane being the most likely setting. As a boy, Constable often walked along the lane from his home in East Bergholt to his school in Dedham.
However it is suggested that Constable also took inspiration from a number of different landscape for the painting..
The church in the background, for example, did not exist in this spot, but was added to the painting by Constable in order to enhance the sedate, peaceful feelings provoked by the piece.
Although he may have taken certain artistic licence with the piece, Constable still used his renowned attention to detail, consulting with naturalist Henry Philips to ensure that the plants he painted in The Cornfield were all accurate for the setting and time period.
The painting was displayed alongside these lines from 'Summer' by James Thomson:
“A fresher gale begins to wave the
woods and stir the streams
Sweeping with shadowy gusts the
fields of corn”.
The Cornfield is now displayed in London’s National Gallery.
In the summer of 2023, John Constable's 'The Cornfield' went on tour, popping up in unexpected places on high streets across England.
Surprising and delighting visitors in shopping centres and community spaces, the painting visited the Isle of Wight, Essex, Tyne and Wear, the West Midlands and Croydon.
Visitors were able to see this much-loved painting up-close in their hometowns and enjoy performances and activities, including street art, songs, dances, poems, and special sensory experiences, which were delivered in partnership with local organisations.
John Constable
John Constable RA, who was born on the 11th. June 1776, was an English landscape painter in the Romantic tradition. Born in Suffolk, he is known principally for revolutionising the genre of landscape painting with his pictures of Dedham Vale, the area surrounding his home – now known as "Constable Country" – which he invested with an intensity of affection.
In 1821 he wrote to his friend John Fisher:
"I should paint my own places best.
Painting is but another word for feeling".
Constable's most famous paintings include Wivenhoe Park (1816), Dedham Vale (1828) and The Hay Wain (1821).
Although John's paintings are now among the most popular and valuable in British art, he was never financially successful. He was elected to the Royal Academy of Arts at the age of 52.
His work was embraced in France, where he sold more than in his native England, and where he inspired the Barbizon school.
-- John Constable - The Early Years
John Constable was born in East Bergholt, a village on the River Stour in Suffolk, to Golding and Ann (Watts) Constable. His father was a wealthy corn merchant, owner of Flatford Mill in East Bergholt and, later, Dedham Mill in Essex.
Golding Constable owned a small ship, The Telegraph, which he moored at Mistley on the Stour estuary, and used to transport corn to London.
Although Constable was his parents' second son, his older brother was intellectually disabled, and John was expected to succeed his father in the business. After a brief period at a boarding school in Lavenham, he was enrolled in a day school in Dedham, Essex.
John worked in the corn business after leaving school, but his younger brother Abram eventually took over the running of the mills.
In his youth, Constable embarked on amateur sketching trips in the surrounding Suffolk and Essex countryside, which was to become the subject of a large proportion of his art. He recalled:
"These scenes made me a painter,
and I am grateful. The sound of water
escaping from mill dams etc., willows,
old rotten planks, slimy posts, and
brickwork, I love such things."
He was introduced to George Beaumont, a collector, who showed him his prized Hagar and the Angel by Claude Lorrain, which inspired Constable. Later, while visiting relatives in Middlesex, he was introduced to the professional artist John Thomas Smith, who advised him on painting, but also urged him to remain in his father's business rather than take up art professionally.
In 1799, Constable persuaded his father to let him pursue a career in art, and Golding granted him a small allowance. Entering the Royal Academy Schools as a probationer, he attended life classes and anatomical dissections, and studied and copied old masters.
Among works that particularly inspired him during this period were paintings by Thomas Gainsborough, Claude Lorrain, Peter Paul Rubens, Annibale Carracci and Jacob van Ruisdael.
John also read widely among poetry and sermons, and later proved a notably articulate artist.
In 1802 he refused the position of drawing master at Great Marlow Military College (now Sandhurst), a move which Benjamin West (then master of the RA) counselled would mean the end of his career. In that year, Constable wrote a letter to John Dunthorne in which he spelled out his determination to become a professional landscape painter:
"For the last two years I have been running after
pictures, and seeking the truth at second hand...
I have not endeavoured to represent nature with
the same elevation of mind with which I set out,
but have rather tried to make my performances
look like the work of other men.
There is room enough for a natural painter. The
great vice of the present day is bravura, an
attempt to do something beyond the truth."
John's early style has many qualities associated with his mature work, including a freshness of light, colour and touch, and reveals the compositional influence of the old masters he had studied, notably of Claude Lorrain.
Constable's usual subjects, scenes of ordinary daily life, were unfashionable in an age that looked for more romantic visions of wild landscapes and ruins.
By 1803, he was exhibiting paintings at the Royal Academy. In April he spent almost a month aboard the East Indiaman Coutts as it visited south-east ports while sailing from London to Deal before leaving for China.
In 1806 Constable undertook a two-month tour of the Lake District. He told his friend and biographer, Charles Leslie, that the solitude of the mountains oppressed his spirits, and Leslie wrote:
"His nature was peculiarly social, and could not
feel satisfied with scenery, however grand in
itself, that did not abound in human associations.
He required villages, churches, farmhouses and
cottages."
Constable adopted a routine of spending winter in London and painting at East Bergholt in the summer. In 1811 he first visited John Fisher and his family in Salisbury, a city whose cathedral and surrounding landscape were to inspire some of his greatest paintings.
To make ends meet, Constable took up portraiture, which he found dull, though he executed many fine portraits. He also painted occasional religious pictures but, according to John Walker:
"Constable's incapacity as a religious
painter cannot be overstated."
Another source of income was country house painting. In 1816, he was commissioned by Major-General Francis Slater Rebow to paint his country home, Wivenhoe Park, in Essex. The Major-General also commissioned a smaller painting of the fishing lodge in the grounds of Alresford Hall, which is now in the National Gallery of Victoria.
Constable used the money from these commissions to help pay for his wedding to Maria Bicknell. This period of Constable's painting is heavily populated with idyllic country scenes with heavy detail, notably his 1816 work The Wheat Field.
-- John Constable's Marriage
From 1809, his childhood friendship with Maria Elizabeth Bicknell developed into a deep, mutual love. Their marriage in 1816 when Constable was 40 was opposed by Maria's grandfather, Dr. Rhudde, rector of East Bergholt.
He considered the Constables his social inferiors, and threatened Maria with disinheritance. Maria's father, Charles Bicknell, solicitor to George IV and the Admiralty, was reluctant to see Maria throw away her inheritance.
Maria selflessly pointed out to John that a penniless marriage would detract from any chances he had of making a career in painting. Golding and Ann Constable, while approving the match, held out no prospect of supporting the marriage until Constable was financially secure.
However after his parents died in quick succession, Constable inherited a fifth share in the family business. This enabled John and Maria to wed in October 1816 at St. Martin-in-the-Fields (with Fisher officiating).
The ceremony was followed by time at Fisher's vicarage and a honeymoon tour of the south coast. The sea at Weymouth and Brighton stimulated Constable to develop new techniques of brilliant colour and vivacious brushwork. At the same time, a greater emotional range began to be expressed in his art.
While on honeymoon, Constable began to experiment with works exploring nature's grandeur, characterized by dominating skies, such as Osmington Bay.
-- Flatford Mill
Three weeks before their marriage, Constable revealed that he had started work on his most ambitious project to date. In a letter to Maria Bicknell he wrote:
’I am now in the midst of a large picture
here which I had contemplated for the
next exhibition."
The picture was Flatford Mill (Scene on a Navigable River). It was the largest canvas of a working scene on the River Stour that John had worked on to date, and the largest he would ever complete largely outdoors.
Constable was determined to paint on a larger scale, his objective not only to attract more attention at the Royal Academy exhibitions, but also to project his ideas about landscape on a scale more in keeping with the achievements of the classical landscape painters he so admired.
Although Flatford Mill failed to find a buyer when it was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1817, its fine and intricate execution drew much praise, encouraging Constable to move on to the even larger canvases that were to follow.
-- The ‘Six-Footers’
Although he managed to scrape an income from painting, it was not until 1819 that Constable sold his first important canvas, The White Horse, described by Charles Robert Leslie as:
"On many accounts the most
important picture Constable
ever painted."
The painting (without the frame) sold for the substantial price of 100 guineas to his friend John Fisher, finally providing Constable with a level of financial freedom he had never before known.
The White Horse marked an important turning point in Constable’s career; its success saw him elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and it led to a series of six monumental landscapes depicting narratives on the River Stour known as the ‘six-footers’ (named for their scale).
The extraordinary size of the works helped Constable attract attention in the competitive space of the Academy's exhibitions. Viewed as "the knottiest and most forceful landscapes produced in 19th.-century Europe", for many they are the defining works of the artist's career.
The series also includes Stratford Mill, 1820 (National Gallery, London); The Hay Wain, 1821 (National Gallery, London); View on the Stour near Dedham, 1822 (Huntington Library and Art Gallery); The Lock, 1824 (Private Collection); and The Leaping Horse, 1825 (Royal Academy of Arts, London).
The following year, his second six-footer Stratford Mill was exhibited. The Examiner described it as having:
"... a more exact look of nature than
any picture we have ever seen by an
Englishman."
The painting was a success, acquiring a buyer in the loyal John Fisher, who purchased it for 100 guineas, a price he himself thought too low. Fisher bought the painting for his solicitor and friend, John Pern Tinney.
Tinney loved the painting so much, he offered Constable another 100 guineas to paint a companion picture, an offer the artist didn’t take up.
Constable's growing popularity in turn led to more lucrative commissions, such as Malvern Hall (1821, Clark Art Institute).
In 1821, John's most famous painting The Hay Wain was shown at the Royal Academy's exhibition. Although it failed to find a buyer, it was viewed by some important people of the time, including two Frenchmen, the artist Théodore Géricault and writer Charles Nodier.
According to the painter Eugène Delacroix, Géricault returned to France ’quite stunned‘ by Constable’s painting, while Nodier suggested French artists should also look to nature rather than relying on trips to Rome for inspiration.
The Hay Wain was eventually purchased, along with View on the Stour near Dedham, by the Anglo-French dealer John Arrowsmith, in 1824. A small painting of Yarmouth Jetty was added to the bargain by Constable, with the sale totalling £250.
Both paintings were exhibited at the Paris Salon that year, where they caused a sensation, with the Hay Wain being awarded a gold medal by Charles X. The Hay Wain was later acquired by the collector Henry Vaughan who donated it to the National Gallery in 1886.
Of Constable's colour, Delacroix wrote in his journal:
"What he says here about the
green of his meadows can be
applied to every tone".
Delacroix repainted the background of his 1824 Massacre de Scio after seeing the Constables at Arrowsmith's Gallery, which he said had done him a great deal of good.
A number of distractions meant that The Lock (1824) wasn't finished in time for the 1823 exhibition, leaving the much smaller Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Grounds as the artist's main entry. This may have occurred after Fisher forwarded Constable the money for the painting.
This both helped John out of a financial difficulty and nudged him along to get the painting done. The Lock was therefore exhibited the following year to more fanfare and sold for 150 guineas on the first day of the exhibition, the only Constable ever to do so.
The Lock is the only upright landscape of the Stour series, and the only six-footer that Constable painted more than one version of. A second version, now known as the ‘Foster version,’ was painted in 1825, and kept by the artist to send to exhibitions.
A third, landscape version, known as ‘A Boat Passing a Lock’ (1826) is now in the collection of the Royal Academy of Arts. Constable’s final attempt, The Leaping Horse, was the only six-footer from the Stour series that didn’t sell in Constable’s lifetime.
-- John Constable - The Later Years
Constable’s pleasure at his own success was dampened after his wife started displaying symptoms of tuberculosis. Her growing illness meant that Constable took lodgings for his family in Brighton from 1824 until 1828, hoping that the sea air would restore her health.
During this period Constable split his time between Charlotte Street in London and Brighton. This change saw Constable move away from large scale Stour scenes in favour of coastal scenes. He continued painting six-foot canvases, although he was initially unsure of the suitability of Brighton as a subject for painting. In a letter to Fisher in 1824 he wrote:
"The magnificence of the sea, and its (to use
your own beautiful expression) everlasting
voice, is drowned in the din & lost in the
tumult of stage coaches - gigs - “flys” etc.,
and the beach is only Piccadilly (that part of it
where we dined) by the sea-side."
In his lifetime, Constable sold only 20 paintings in England, but in France he sold more than 20 in just a few years. Despite this, he refused all invitations to travel internationally to promote his work, writing to Francis Darby:
"I would rather be a poor man in
England than a rich man abroad."
In 1825, perhaps due partly to the worry of his wife's ill-health, the uncongeniality of living in Brighton ("Piccadilly by the seaside"), and the pressure of numerous outstanding commissions, he quarreled with Arrowsmith and lost his French outlet.
Chain Pier, Brighton was his only ambitious six-foot painting of a Brighton subject; it was exhibited in 1827. The Constables persevered in Brighton for five years to aid Maria’s health, but to no avail.
After the birth of their seventh child in January 1828, they returned to Hampstead where Maria died on the 23rd. November at the age of 41. Intensely saddened, Constable wrote to his brother Golding:
"Hourly do I feel the loss of my departed
Angel — God only knows how my children
will be brought up ... the face of the World
is totally changed to me".
Thereafter, he dressed in black and was, according to Leslie:
"A prey to melancholy and anxious thoughts".
He cared for his seven children alone for the rest of his life. The children were John Charles, Maria Louisa, Charles Golding, Isobel, Emma, Alfred, and Lionel.
Only Charles Golding Constable produced offspring.
Several of Constable's children also painted, notably his son Lionel. While Lionel eventually gave up painting for photography, several of his works are within the collection of the Clark Art Institute.
Shortly before Maria died, her father had also died, leaving her £20,000. Constable speculated disastrously with the money, paying for the engraving of several mezzotints of some of his landscapes in preparation for a publication.
He was hesitant and indecisive, nearly fell out with his engraver, and when the folios were published, could not interest enough subscribers. Constable collaborated closely with mezzotinter David Lucas on 40 prints after his landscapes, one of which went through 13 proof stages, corrected by Constable in pencil and paint. Constable said:
"Lucas showed me to the public
without my faults."
However the venture was not a financial success.
This period saw John's art move from the serenity of its earlier phase to a more broken and accented style. The turmoil and distress of his mind is clearly seen in his later six-foot masterpieces Hadleigh Castle (1829) and Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows (1831), which are amongst his most expressive pieces.
John was elected to the Royal Academy in February 1829, at the age of 52. In 1831 he was appointed Visitor at the Royal Academy, where he seems to have been popular with the students.
He began to deliver public lectures on the history of landscape painting, which were attended by distinguished audiences. In a series of lectures at the Royal Institution, Constable proposed a three-fold thesis: firstly, landscape painting is scientific as well as poetic; secondly, the imagination cannot alone produce art to bear comparison with reality; and thirdly, no great painter was ever self-taught.
John also spoke against the new Gothic Revival movement, which he considered mere "imitation".
In 1835, his last lecture to students of the Royal Academy, in which he praised Raphael and called the Academy the "cradle of British art", was "cheered most heartily".
John died at the age of 60 on the night of the 31st. March 1837, apparently from heart failure, and was buried with Maria in the graveyard of St John-at-Hampstead Church in London. (His children John Charles Constable and Charles Golding Constable are also buried in this family tomb.)
-- John Constable's Art
Constable quietly rebelled against the artistic culture that taught artists to use their imagination to compose their pictures rather than nature itself. He told Leslie:
"When I sit down to make a sketch from
nature, the first thing I try to do is to forget
that I have ever seen a picture".
Constable attributed his gift "to all that lay on the Stour river", however, biographer Anthony Bailey attributed his artistic development to the influence of his well-to-do relative, Thomas Allen and the London contacts to whom he introduced Constable.
Although Constable produced paintings throughout his life for the "finished" picture market of patrons and R.A. exhibitions, constant refreshment in the form of on-the-spot studies was essential to his working method. He was never satisfied with following a formula.
John wrote:
"The world is wide, no two days are alike,
nor even two hours; neither were there
ever two leaves of a tree alike since the
creation of all the world; and the genuine
productions of art, like those of nature,
are all distinct from each other."
Constable painted many full-scale preliminary sketches of his landscapes in order to test the composition in advance of finished pictures. These large sketches, with their free and vigorous brushwork, were revolutionary at the time, and they continue to interest artists, scholars and the general public.
The oil sketches of The Leaping Horse and The Hay Wain convey a vigour and expressiveness missing from Constable's finished paintings of the same subjects. Possibly more than any other aspect of Constable's work, the oil sketches reveal him in retrospect to have been an avant-garde painter, one who demonstrated that landscape painting could be taken in a totally new direction.
Constable's watercolours were also remarkably free for their time: the almost mystical Stonehenge, 1835, with its double rainbow, is often considered to be one of the greatest watercolours ever painted.
When he exhibited it in 1836, Constable appended a text to the title:
"The mysterious monument of Stonehenge, standing
remote on a bare and boundless heath, as much
unconnected with the events of past ages as it is
with the uses of the present, carries you back
beyond all historical records into the obscurity of a
totally unknown period."
In addition to the full-scale oil sketches, Constable completed numerous observational studies of landscapes and clouds, determined to become more scientific in his recording of atmospheric conditions.
The power of his physical effects was sometimes apparent even in the full-scale paintings which he exhibited in London; The Chain Pier, 1827, for example, prompted a critic to write:
"The atmosphere possesses a characteristic
humidity about it, that almost imparts the wish
for an umbrella".
The sketches themselves were the first ever done in oils directly from the subject in the open air, with the notable exception of the oil sketches Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes made in Rome around 1780.
To convey the effects of light and movement, Constable used broken brushstrokes, often in small touches, which he scumbled over lighter passages, creating an impression of sparkling light enveloping the entire landscape.
One of the most expressionistic and powerful of all his studies is Seascape Study with Rain Cloud, painted about 1824 at Brighton, which captures with slashing dark brushstrokes the immediacy of an exploding cumulus shower at sea.
Constable also became interested in painting rainbow effects, for example in Salisbury Cathedral from the Meadows, 1831, and in Cottage at East Bergholt, 1833.
To the sky studies he added notes, often on the back of the sketches, of the prevailing weather conditions, direction of light, and time of day, believing that:
"The sky is the key note, the standard of
scale, and the chief organ of sentiment in
a landscape painting."
In this habit he is known to have been influenced by the pioneering work of the meteorologist Luke Howard on the classification of clouds; Constable's annotations of his own copy of Researches About Atmospheric Phaenomena by Thomas Forster show him to have been fully abreast of meteorological terminology.
Constable wrote to Fisher on the 23rd. October 1821:
"I have done a good deal of skying.
I am determined to conquer all
difficulties, and that most arduous
one among the rest".
Constable once wrote in a letter to Leslie:
"My limited and abstracted art is to be
found under every hedge, and in every
lane, and therefore nobody thinks it
worth picking up".
He could never have imagined how influential his honest techniques would turn out to be. Constable's art inspired not only contemporaries like Géricault and Delacroix, but the Barbizon School, and the French impressionists of the late nineteenth century.
In 2019 two drawings by Constable were found among the possessions of the late playwright and poet, Christopher Fry; the drawings later sold for £60,000 and £32,000 at auction.
Albert Einstein
So what else happened on the day that the reward card was written?
Well, on Friday the 30th. June 1905, Albert Einstein submitted for publication his paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", establishing his theory of special relativity.
His paper was published on the 26th. September 1905.
John Van Ryn
The day also marked the birth, in Newport News, Virginia, of the American tennis champion John Van Ryn.
John was Grand Slam doubles champion at Wimbledon (1929-1931), the French Open (1931) and the U.S. Open (1931, 1935).
John died in Palm Beach, Florida at the age of 94 on the 7th. August 1999.
John died in 1999.
Nestor Paiva
Also born on the 30th. June 1905, in Fresno, California, was the American TV and film actor Nestor Paiva.
Nestor Paiva was an American stage, radio, film and television actor of Portuguese descent. He performed in over 400 motion pictures either as an extra, a bit player, or as a significant supporting character.
He also appeared in such roles in a variety of television series produced during the 1950's and early 1960's.
Among his notable screen appearances is his recurring role as the innkeeper Teo Gonzales in Walt Disney's late 1950's televised Spanish Western series Zorro, as well as in its adapted theatrical release The Sign of Zorro (1958).
Paiva also appears as the boat captain Lucas in the Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) and in that horror film's sequel Revenge of the Creature (1955).
Paiva married Maxine Yvette Kurtzman in Clark, Nevada in January 1941. The couple had two children, Joseph and Caetana, both of whom performed with their father in the 1956 film Comanche starring Dana Andrews.
A decade later, on the 9th. September 1966 at a hospital in Sherman Oaks, Nestor died of cancer. He was 61 years of age when he died.
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Dundalk overwhelm Bangor in All Ireland Final
by Roger Corbett
Bangor’s amazing run in the All Ireland Junior Cup came to an abrupt end when they were comprehensively beaten by Dundalk, eventually losing by 55-5.
Where do you start when trying to relate and absorb the events of Saturday’s final at Chambers Park? Firstly, congratulations to worthy winners Dundalk who nullified the Bangor attack, then went on to produce some stunning plays which racked up no less than 8 tries, each by a different player. For Bangor’s part, they were unable to respond to the intensity of Dundalk’s game, and lacked the cutting edge which their opponents used to great effect.
The day started full of promise, as the strong support from North Down made their way to Chambers Park in Portadown, knowing Bangor would be fielding their best team. Once again, the pundits had Bangor as the underdogs – just as they had done so in the previous three rounds! In confounding the experts earlier, Bangor produced some awesome performances against top quality opposition to get to the final. Dundalk had produced some convincing wins in the early rounds of the competition, but had struggled to get past CIYMS in the semi-final, just managing to squeeze ahead at the second time of asking. However, with a number of key players returning to the side in time for this game, they were now back at full strength and would be a formidable force to contend with.
Having won the toss, captain Jamie Clegg elected to play into the stiff wind in the first half. For the first 5 minutes, Bangor doggedly retained possession and tried to play their way into Dundalk’s half through a series of determined forward moves. However, little ground was made and, when possession was finally lost, the Dundalk back line produced a burst that simply cut through the Bangor defence resulting in an easy touch down under Bangor’s posts for a 7-0 lead.
Bangor stuck to their plan and slowly, but patiently, got their attack moving forward, eventually winning a penalty to the left of Dundalk’s posts, but Mark Widdowson’s kick into the wind drifted just wide of the mark.
The contrast in play between the two teams was becoming clear, with Bangor trying to keep the ball close while Dundalk were throwing it wide. The latter strategy was proving to be the more effective as, with 20 minutes gone, a quick back line move with players looping around resulted in an overlap on the right wing which gave a clear run in to again, score under the posts. A further 9 minutes later, they did it again and, although the Bangor defence had sensed the danger and moved across to cover it, their tackling let them down allowing Dundalk to get over in the right hand corner, taking their lead to 19-0.
By now, Bangor were trying to hang on until half time when they could regroup and come out with the wind at their backs. Dundalk, on the other hand were anxious to press home their advantage and give them a more comfortable lead. To Bangor’s credit, although camped on their own line for lengthy spells, they dug in and managed to hold on until the referee’s half time whistle.
As the teams reappeared from the dressing rooms, it was obvious Bangor were ringing the changes, particularly in the backs. With the wind advantage having lessened considerably, Bangor got the second half underway. It was now Dundalk’s turn to adopt the slow, steady approach, just as Bangor had done earlier. However, their more confident off-loading and support play was, once again, taking play deep into Bangor’s territory. Frustration at not being able to gain possession and take play out of their danger area eventually resulted in a yellow card for Clegg after a succession of penalties. Dundalk kicked the penalty to touch, won their lineout and drove for the line. Although initially held up by the Bangor defence, Dundalk’s repeated drives were eventually rewarded with another converted score, extending their lead to 26-0.
From the touchline, the Bangor faithful had felt that if their players had managed to score first in the second half, they may have been able to mount a fight-back and close the gap to their opponents. As it was, this Dundalk score simply bolstered their confidence and pushed Bangor deeper into trouble. With Bangor still a man down, Dundalk added to the score with a penalty and then another score in the corner. Everything was now working for the Leinster men, as even the difficult touchline conversion into the biting wind successfully split the posts, bringing the score to 36-0.
As the game entered the final quarter, and with Dundalk all but holding the cup, Bangor were now on the ropes. By contrast, the Dundalk players were in almost total control, and were not going to slow down now. In a 10 minute spell, they ran in a further 3 tries, making the scoreline 55-0. By now, any sense of dejection the Bangor supporters may have been feeling was now moved to feelings of sympathy for their players. However, pride was at stake and once again Bangor rallied as the game entered its final minutes. At last, the forwards got within striking distance of the Dundalk line and, although their repeated attacks were repelled, they finally managed to do what their opponents had done so effectively, and quickly passed the ball wide to Davy Charles. Even though they were 55 points ahead, the Dundalk defence made Charles work hard to drive through the tackles and score Bangor’s consolation try, bringing the final score to 55-5.
From Bangor’s point of view, the final score doesn’t tell the whole story of this competition. While the final may have resulted in a sad anti-climax for Bangor, the remarkable journey to get there will be remembered for some time. On the day, Dundalk were by far the better side, and Bangor would have to concede that their game was not up to the usual standard. However, there is no doubt the experience of competing at this level is something to relish and the goal now will be to secure a top four place in the league and try again next year.
Everybody at the club has nothing but the highest respect and praise for what has been achieved this year by not just the 1sts, but all the senior teams, and one poor result isn’t going to change that – the welcome at Upritchard Park for the returning players is testament to that. With that in mind, the players now need to put this disappointment behind them and provide the best possible response against a struggling Portadown side at home in the league next Saturday.
Bangor side: J Leary, A Jackson, P Whyte, F Black, G Irvine, R Latimer, J Clegg, C Stewart, R Armstrong, K Rosson, D Charles, M Aspley, M Weir, M Widdowson, C Morgan
Subs: S Irvine, O McIlmurray, D Kelly, M Rodgers, C Harper, D Fusco, M Thompson
Bangor scores: D Charles (1T)
Dundalk Storm To Title Dundalk 55 v Bangor 5 from KnockOn.ie
Dundalk Scorers: Christopher Scully, Owen McNally, Jonathan Williams, John Smyth, Ultan Murphy, Tiernan Gonnelly, James McConnon and Stephen Murphy 1 try each. Ultan Murphy 6 cons, 1 pen.
Bangor Scorers: David Charles 1 try.
In front of a big crowd at Chambers Park on Saturday afternoon Dundalk delivered a stunning and ruthless display to see off the challenge of Bangor and capture the All Ireland Junior Cup title for the very first time.
Three first half tries had them firmly in control at 19-0 ahead having played with the elements at the Portadown venue during the first half and while the wind dropped somewhat after half time the Dundalk intensity most certainly didn’t as they cut loose scoring five more tries.
Dundalk returned to a heroes welcome at their Mill Road clubhouse on Saturday night after a display of pure brilliance throughout the afternoon.
Precision, pace and skill from the Louth men from start to finish left Bangor playing second fiddle for long periods.
This image relates to my research question "Can you tell a person's sexuality by their clothes?" because this is a man dressed for a special occasion, by he would be viewed as gay because he has a lot of bright colored patterns on at the same time and a floral print bow tie. Speaking from personal experience, I have worn a similar outfit to my high school once and I over heard someone say how gay I looked, even though I thought I was just dressed up I someone looked the part of being gay without even knowing it apparently. Something as simple as the pattern on your tie can label you as gay or straight and that does not sit well with me.
Been dying to get this photo scrapped. Even though it doesn't directly relate to the prompt this photo of my younger brother when he was 3 reminds me of a saying that we used to throw at my Dad a lot when he tried to discipline us. "Shakin' in my boots," was my way of saying that the punishment he was threatening didn't scare me. Of course it was all said in fun and it usually made everyone crack up.
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between the 1890s and the 20th Century.
The slide shows tropical palms and ferns at Wragge's home 'Capemba' in Taringa, Brisbane. Hand coloured.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in ink on recto, top left corner, "'22 Capemba".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235775|PH-1984-1-LS78-1-45
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033438
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), likely dating between 1890s-1920s.
The slide shows Taieri River, photographed from the banks of the river. Dark clouds are in the sky and land can be seen in the background. Hand coloured in pink, green and blue.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto, top of slide, "TAIERI R. HENLEY. N.Z.". Handwritten in blue ink on recto, bottom of slide, "O92 Clouds after storm, N.Z.".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235877|PH-1984-1-LS78-3-106|O92
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033336
This is a Portfolio relate to DC Comic and movie , Restore a role of Batman: Arkaham Asylum.
Harley Quinn/
I created this group of photos in China, an abandoned hospital building, to restore the role of a business works.
The creative process used in the camera, flash, soft umbrella, color film, reflectors, tripods and other props. Thank model Asa, and to help this group of photos I took several support staff.
This group of photos to show the audience a great reduction in the original crazy clown female offenders, if you know cosplay, understand Batman, then this will not be unfamiliar. I think this group of photos into a lot of photography after shooting, restore the role of a work that conveys the role of personality and the whole atmosphere of the original, is a group of the more successful works.
That includes kidnapping, few bruises, injuries, sex every night, threesomes, do things she never do, etc. #InspirationalQuotes #GirlQuotes #Quotes #TeenageLife #LifeQuotes #BeautifulQuotes #RelationshipQuotes #SuccessQuotes #DontGiveUp #PositiveQuotes #TeenQuotes #WomenQuotes #Follow4follow #Adult #Love #Forever #LDR #LongDistanceRelationship #S4S #Relateable #Allgirls #Repost #beyonce #nickiminaj #nofuckingchill - _relate.quotess
10 Things Only Girls With Big Boobs Can Relate To www.avabuzz.com/2018/03/08/10-things-only-girls-with-big-...
This lantern slide relates to a photograph taken by Clement Lindley Wragge (b.1852, d.1922), dated 24 March 1905.
The slide shows the upper half of the Moon showing a crescent shape with the lower part obscured by shadow. Image tinted with blue and yellow.
Inscription Details: Handwritten in black ink on recto right side, "Moon abt 7 days". Handwritten in black ink on recto, bottom, "Per Adam Ballaarat", "Retouch? 4 mt? [CLW] Hamilton V. July '10".
Credit: Shared by Auckland War Memorial Museum, Tāmaki Paenga Hira, as part of the Clement Lindley Wragge collection.
Rights: No known copyright restrictions.
Reference: 235783|PH-1984-1-LS78-2-7
For more details, please visit: www.aucklandmuseum.com/discover/collections/record/1033430
The Problems Relating to the Management & Excavations of the Archaeological Ruins of Herculaneum / Pompeii as Reported in Foreign Press (1904-2002). "Prof. A. Maiuri, Herculaneum & Pompeii Lost Beauties Restored." The Times, Oct. 30, 1934. p. 13 [2/2].
Implications in the arts
Because of the focus on reason over superstition, the Enlightenment cultivated the arts.[181] Emphasis on learning, art, and music became more widespread, especially with the growing middle class. Areas of study such as literature, philosophy, science, and the fine arts increasingly explored subject matter to which the general public, in addition to the previously more segregated professionals and patrons, could relate.[182]
George Frideric Handel
As musicians depended more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.[183]
The desire to explore, record, and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century.[183] This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time.[184] Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment."[184]
As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music.[185] Music publishers began to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble.[185] After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.[
Art
The art produced during the Enlightenment focused on a search for morality that was absent from the art in previous eras.[citation needed] At the same time, the Classical art of Greece and Rome became interesting to people again, since archaeological teams discovered Pompeii and Herculaneum. People took inspiration from it and revived classical art into neo-classical art. This can especially be seen in early American art and architecture, which featured arches, goddesses, and other classical architectural designs.
Society and culture
A medal minted during the reign of Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, commemorating his grant of religious liberty to Jews and Protestants in Hungary—another important reform of Joseph II was the abolition of serfdom.
In contrast to the intellectual historiographical approach of the Enlightenment, which examines the various currents or discourses of intellectual thought within the European context during the 17th and 18th centuries, the cultural (or social) approach examines the changes that occurred in European society and culture. This approach studies the process of changing sociabilities and cultural practices during the Enlightenment.
One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century.[171] Elements of the public sphere included that it was egalitarian, that it discussed the domain of "common concern," and that argument was founded on reason.[172] Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.[173]
German explorer Alexander von Humboldt showed his disgust for slavery and often criticized the colonial policies—he always acted out of a deeply humanistic conviction, borne by the ideas of the Enlightenment.[174]
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state in its consolidation of public power created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, as well as an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions, and the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters.[175] In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the king's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.[176]
The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "Economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century."[177] Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas."[178]
The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity—the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude."[179] Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.[180] Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.
Masonic lodges
Masonic initiation ceremony
Historians have debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment.[262] Leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Lessing, Pope,[263] Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin[264] and George Washington.[265] Norman Davies said Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of liberalism in Europe from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded during the Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists, and political activists.[266]
During the Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. They promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment and helped diffuse these values across Britain, France, and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values, and rituals originated in Scotland c. 1600 and spread to England and then across the Continent in the 18th century. They fostered new codes of conduct—including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability—"liberty, fraternity, and equality."[267] Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity, which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs, but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism.[268] Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France—by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations.[269] The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden, and Russia. One example was the Illuminati, founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons, but was never part of the movement. The name itself translates to "enlightened," chosen to reflect their original intent to promote the values of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.[270]
Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections, and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles.[271] Furthermore, freemasons across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. For example, in French lodges the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened." This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.[272]
German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed: "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges."[273] Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right."[274] Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs.[275] Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought.On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism and he argues the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.
The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Catholic Church so in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.
Dissemination of ideas
The philosophes spent a great deal of energy disseminating their ideas among educated men and women in cosmopolitan cities. They used many venues, some of them quite new.
French philosopher Pierre Bayle
Republic of Letters
The term "Republic of Letters" was coined in 1664 by Pierre Bayle in his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres. Towards the end of the 18th century, the editor of Histoire de la République des Lettres en France, a literary survey, described the Republic of Letters as being:
In the midst of all the governments that decide the fate of men; in the bosom of so many states, the majority of them despotic ... there exists a certain realm which holds sway only over the mind ... that we honor with the name Republic, because it preserves a measure of independence, and because it is almost its essence to be free. It is the realm of talent and of thought.[186]
The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power.[186] It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation."[187] Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public," then society could be said to be enlightened.[188] The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic."[189]
Front page of The Gentleman's Magazine, January 1731
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment because of the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic[190] and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within.[191] While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Old Regime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.[192]
In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors."[193] These men came to London to become authors only to discover that the literary market could not support large numbers of writers, who in any case were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.[194]
The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters[195] and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."[196] Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment.[197] According to Darnton, more importantly the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral, and religious authority in France.[198]
Book industry
ESTC data 1477–1799 by decade given with a regional differentiation
The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers, and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes." Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation.[199] However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the bibliothèque bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century.[200] Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.[26]
Reading underwent serious changes in the 18th century. In particular, Rolf Engelsing has argued for the existence of a reading revolution. Until 1750, reading was done intensively: people tended to own a small number of books and read them repeatedly, often to small audience. After 1750, people began to read "extensively," finding as many books as they could, increasingly reading them alone.[201] This is supported by increasing literacy rates, particularly among women.[202]
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the bibliothèque bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the bibliothèque bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability.[203] Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals, and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city.[204] This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed, and even produced on the premises.[205]
Denis Diderot is best known as the editor of the Encyclopédie.
It is difficult to determine what people actually read during the Enlightenment. For example, examining the catalogs of private libraries gives an image skewed in favor of the classes wealthy enough to afford libraries and also ignores censored works unlikely to be publicly acknowledged. For this reason, a study of publishing would be much more fruitful for discerning reading habits.[206] Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. For example, the Encyclopédie narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censor. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers.[207] The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice.[208] In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority"), demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon and are largely forgotten today as a result.[208]
A healthy, legal publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. For example, the Encyclopédie, condemned by both the King and Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law.[209] However, many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany, and North America indicate that more than 70% of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1% of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.[186]
Natural history
Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.
A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside Ancien Régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology, and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.[210]
The target audience of natural history was French upper class, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to upper class desire for erudition: many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As Emma Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social."[211] The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of the upper class. In this way, natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class.[212] From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.[213]
Scientific and literary journals
Journal des sçavans was the earliest academic journal published in Europe.
The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market—such as Danish, Spanish, and Portuguese—found journal success more difficult, and a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.[214]
Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture.[215] They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and instead promoted the Enlightened ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian Enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.[216]
Encyclopedias and dictionaries
First page of the Encyclopédie, published between 1751 and 1766
Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries.[217] The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.
Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines.[218] Commenting on alphabetization, the historian Charles Porset has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism.[219] Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Enlightenment as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply.[217] In the latter half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution.[220] Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.[218]
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoids theological and biographical entries and instead concentrates on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon Technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions and is a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.
"Figurative system of human knowledge," the structure that the Encyclopédie organised knowledge into – it had three main branches: memory, reason, and imagination.
In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerk- und Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.[221]
However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the Age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work.[222] The most well-known of these works is Diderot and d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:
As an Encyclopédie, it is to set forth as well as possible the order and connection of the parts of human knowledge. As a Reasoned Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Trades, it is to contain the general principles that form the basis of each science and each art, liberal or mechanical, and the most essential facts that make up the body and substance of each.[223]
The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour.[224] As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25,000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution.[225] The extensive yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.[226]
Popularization of science
One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was precipitated by a high rise in the availability of food; this enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education.[227] Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people."[228] As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies.[229] More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.
A portrait of Bernard de Fontenelle
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works.[230] These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables."[231]
The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738.[232] Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university.[233] Writing for a growing female audience, Francesco Algarotti published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pemberton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class.[234] During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years in eleven editions.[235]
Schools and universities
Main article: Education in the Age of Enlightenment
Most work on the Enlightenment emphasizes the ideals discussed by intellectuals, rather than the actual state of education at the time. Leading educational theorists like England's John Locke and Switzerland's Jean Jacques Rousseau both emphasized the importance of shaping young minds early. By the late Enlightenment, there was a rising demand for a more universal approach to education, particularly after the American Revolution and the French Revolution.
The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries, was associationism: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination, and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society.[236] Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.[237]
Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala, and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and later the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical school also led the way in chemistry, anatomy, and pharmacology.[210] In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.[238]
Learned academies
Louis XIV visiting the Académie des sciences in 1671: "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century, introducing a new understanding of the natural world"—Peter Barrett[239]
Antoine Lavoisier conducting an experiment related to combustion generated by amplified sun light
The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens." Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13%).[240] The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership, as although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people." For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.[241]
The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as "academic contests") they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment.[242] The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. However, by roughly 1725 this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.[243] More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays and even winning.[244] Similarly, a significant number of women participated—and won—the competitions. Of a total of 2,300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49—perhaps a small number by modern standards but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.[245]
In England, the Royal Society of London played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662.[246] The society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange.[247] Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate" and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act" and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations.[248] However, not just any witness was considered to be credible: "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area and a witness's "moral constitution." In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If the different classes joined together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and because of the numbers of their members might be able to successfully revolt. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially matters of foreign affairs. Rulers thought political affairs were their business only, a result of their divine right to rule.[250]
Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, from philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, many were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including the educated wealthy and bourgeois as well as the lower classes. Patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, represented almost all classes, so the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who wanted to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse said that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean and unclean.[251] This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism, when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, to both entertain and provoke discussion on serious philosophical matters.
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities," offering a locus of learning that was less formal than at structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the virtuosi, who conducted their research on some of the premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."[252]
The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686, and by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. [253] The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.[254]
Debating societies
Main article: London Debating Societies
The debating societies are an example of the public sphere during the Enlightenment.[255] Their origins include:
Clubs of fifty or more men who, at the beginning of the 18th century, met in pubs to discuss religious issues and affairs of state.
Mooting clubs, set up by law students to practice rhetoric.
Spouting clubs, established to help actors train for theatrical roles.
John Henley's Oratory, which mixed outrageous sermons with even more absurd questions, like "Whether Scotland be anywhere in the world?"[256]
In the late 1770s, popular debating societies began to move into more "genteel" rooms, a change which helped establish a new standard of sociability.[257] The backdrop to these developments was "an explosion of interest in the theory and practice of public elocution." The debating societies were commercial enterprises that responded to this demand, sometimes very successfully. Some societies welcomed from 800 to 1,200 spectators per night.[258]
The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional"—that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist) or Anglican issues, debated primarily to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority." [259] After Enlightenment, everything that previously had been rooted in tradition was questioned, and often replaced by new concepts. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in" and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity." [259]
In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. However, the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government; the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. [260] From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public, as women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.
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Harley Quinn/
I created this group of photos in China, an abandoned hospital building, to restore the role of a business works.
The creative process used in the camera, flash, soft umbrella, color film, reflectors, tripods and other props. Thank model Asa, and to help this group of photos I took several support staff.
This group of photos to show the audience a great reduction in the original crazy clown female offenders, if you know cosplay, understand Batman, then this will not be unfamiliar. I think this group of photos into a lot of photography after shooting, restore the role of a work that conveys the role of personality and the whole atmosphere of the original, is a group of the more successful works.
Besides me, there are many creative combinations, of course, I also plan and prepare some of the more impact work. In the future I plan to shoot some surreal landscape and travel photography work
The Pacific golden plover (Pluvialis fulva) is a medium-sized plover. The genus name is Latin and means relating to rain, from pluvia, "rain". It was believed that golden plovers flocked when rain was imminent. The species name fulva is Latin and refers to a tawny colour.[2]
The 23–26 cm long breeding adult is spotted gold and black on the crown, and back on the wings. Its face and neck are black with a white border, and it has a black breast and a dark rump. The legs are black. In winter, the black is lost and the plover then has a yellowish face and breast, and white underparts.
It is similar to two other golden plovers: the Eurasian and American plovers. The Pacific golden plover is smaller, slimmer and relatively longer-legged than the European golden plover, Pluvialis apricaria, which also has white axillary (armpit) feathers. Overall, the Pacific golden plover is found to be more similar to the American golden plover, Pluvialis dominica, with which it was once considered conspecific as "lesser golden plover".[3] The Pacific golden plover is slimmer than the American species, has a shorter primary projection, longer legs, and is usually found to have more yellow on the back.
This wader forages for food on tundra, fields, beaches and tidal flats, usually by sight. It eats insects and crustaceans and some berries.
The breeding habitat of Pacific golden plover is the Arctic tundra from northernmost Eurosiberia into western Alaska. It nests on the ground in a dry open area.
It is migratory and winters in south Asia and Australasia. A few winter in California and Hawaii, USA. In Hawaii, the bird is known as the kōlea, and in New Zealand it is known to Māori as kuriri. It is very rare vagrant to western Europe. They return to the same wintering territory each year, which allowed scientists in Hawaii to attach tiny light level geolocator devices to the birds and then retrieve them the following year in the same location. This research revealed that these birds make the 4800 km non-stop flight between Alaska and Hawaii in 3–4 days.[4]
ムナグロ（胸黒、英名Pacific Golden Plover、学名：Pluvialis fulva）は、チドリ目チドリ科に分類される鳥類の一種である。
分布
シベリアとアラスカ西部のツンドラで繁殖し、冬季は東南アジアやオーストラリア、インド、アフリカ東部などへの渡りをおこない越冬する[3]。
日本へは旅鳥として春と秋の渡りの時期に全国に飛来する。本州の中部以南の地域では、越冬する個体もある。南西諸島や小笠原諸島では、普通に越冬している。
形態
全長は約24 cm[3]、翼開長は約60 cm[4]。雌雄同色[4]。成鳥夏羽は、顔から腹までの下部分が黒く、その上部に白い縁取りがある。背面は黄褐色と黒褐色の斑模様になっている。成鳥冬羽は、体下面が淡黄褐色で腹部が褐色がかった白色である。嘴は黒色。足は灰色みをおびた黒色である。
幼鳥は成鳥の冬羽と似ているが、全体に黄褐色みが強く翼の下面が白っぽい。
生態
繁殖期は極地のツンドラに生息し、6-8月に繁殖する。つがいで生活し、縄張りを持つ。巣は地上に作り、産卵数は普通4卵である。
食性は主に動物食で、昆虫類や甲殻類などを捕食する。草原や田圃で植物の種子をついばむこともある。
渡りの時期や越冬時には、水田や草原、干潟や河原、河口などに生息する[3]。体型の似ているダイゼンと比べると、やや乾いた環境を好む傾向がある。特に、越冬地では干潟や河原よりも、畑や公園の芝生などの方でよく観察されている。
飛翔しながら「ピョピョー」「キビョー」などの声で鳴く。
(From Wikipedia)
Part of a set of images relating to the Mass Trespass that took place at Pangdean Bottom in the Sussex downs on 24th July 2021.
www.instagram.com/landscapesoffreedom/
Part of a rich english tradition - see: Mass trespass of Kinder Scout
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_trespass_of_Kinder_Scout
The linoprint illustrations featured are by Nick Hayes:
www.instagram.com/nickhayesillustration/
folioart.co.uk/illustrator/nick-hayes/
The police were outnumbered by film crews and Radio 4!
#right2roam #righttoroam #freeroamers #masstrespass #access2land #accesstoland #linoprint #redkite #birdofprey #meatismurder #streetart #art #satire #landscapesoffreedom
PM Dr Ngirente presented before Rwanda parliament, Government of Rwanda achievements relating to ICT in the knowledge-based economy | Kigali, 2 December 2019
21 October 2014 - President Kutesa addresses the opening of the general debate of the Assembly’s Special Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee) on questions relating to information. Mr. Kutesa is flanked by Maher Nasser (left), Acting Head of the Department of Public Information; and Durga Prasad Bhattarai, Permanent Representative of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal to the UN and Chairperson of the Fourth Committee.
UN Photo/Eskinder Debebe
HB811 (Relating to Energy Information Reporting) simplifies the registration and reporting process for fuel distributors. Part of the Governor's legislative package, the bill also amends Public Utilities Commission (PUC) responsibilities and powers in relation to energy industry information reporting and allows the state Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism to receive energy industry information.
HB1405 (Relating to the Public Utilities Commission) requires the PUC to include a summary of the power purchase agreements in effect during the fiscal year in its annual report to the Governor. It also expands the use of the public benefits fee to support clean energy technology, demand response technology, energy use reduction, and demand-side management infrastructure.
SB19 (Relating to Renewable Energy) removes barriers for landlords to invest in renewable energy and allows renters/tenants to benefit from lower energy costs. The bill also exempts landlords and lessors who install renewable energy systems on their property and provide, sell or transmit electricity generated from those systems to tenants or lessees.
HB1149 (Relating to Wind Energy Facilities) requires a wind energy facility owner to be responsible for facility decommissioning and provide evidence of financial security unless the owner has an existing lease or other agreement that provides for decommissioning. It also establishes standards and assurances of adequate financial resources to avoid abandoned or neglected wind energy facilities.
Image from 'A Lytell Geste of Robin Hode, with other ancient & modern ballads and songs relating to this celebrated yeoman. To which is prefixed his history and character, grounded upon other documents than those made use of by ... “Mister Ritson.” Edited by J. M. Gutch', 001726444
Author: HOOD, Robin.
Volume: 01
Page: 327
Year: 1847
Place: London
Publisher: Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans
Following the link above will take you to the British Library's integrated catalogue. You will be able to download a PDF of the book this image is taken from, as well as view the pages up close with the 'itemViewer'. Click on the 'related items' to search for the electronic version of this work.
Relator-geral do Orçamento de 2023, senador Marcelo Castro (MDB-PI), concede entrevista.
Foto: Roque de Sá/Agência Senado
12 J. Robert Hillier relates the history of the Florence Bell Hillier Award.
The Women's College Club of Princeton-Annual College Scholarship Tea-May 16, 2013-Honoring Scholarship Winners and Their Families
Relates to UNDP-supported GCF-funded project 'Strengthening the Resilience of Smallholder Farmers in the Dry Zone to Climate Variability and Extreme Events' (known locally as CRIWMP)
Resident Representative's field visit, Feb 2023. Credit: UNDP Sri Lanka
The Problems Relating to the Management & Excavations of the Archaeological Ruins of Herculaneum / Pompeii as Reported in Foreign Press (1904-2002). "Prof. A. Maiuri, New Light On Pompeii A City Prepared For War...," The Times, Nov 1, 1933. p. 13. [2/2].
Counter-protest against Westboro Baptist Church/Phelps clan protest relating to the recent death of three sailors from HM15 Blackhawks, a mine countermeasures unit.. Their Sea Dragon helicopter crashed near Corpus Christi a couple of weeks ago. Are you in this photo? I'd love it if you left a comment to let me know.