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Edinburgh journal of natural history and of the physical sciences.
Edinburgh [etc.] :Published for the proprietor [etc.],1835-1840.
ChatGPT pointed out that in the first English translation, Chapter 6, Sections 4 through 11 had been translated rather roughly. I therefore retranslated those sections and uploaded the revised version as the Fourth Edition.
最初に翻訳した英語版は、第６章第４節から第１１節が、かなり荒い翻訳になっているとチャットGPTに指摘されたので、再翻訳し、第4版として、アップロードし直しました。
I have announced the publication of my novel. While the English, Spanish, and French versions are already out, the German translation is currently in progress.
My novel, B♭, is now available
I’m an Apple fan, so Apple products appear in the story. :)
.
The Japanese and English editions have already been published.
It can be found in the following Drive folder:
Drive folder for novel publication:
drive.google.com/drive/folders/1EUyKO4locQKzfKfvmlh0-uamF...
B♭
Mitsushiro Nakagawa, with ChatGPT 5.5
North Korea’s cryptocurrency system is hacked, and hundreds of millions of dollars are stolen.
At the end of that hidden flow of money, a group of Palestinian men and women from Gaza secretly infiltrates the United States.
Their purpose is to “restore” their lost homeland, Gaza, on American soil.
A hard-line immigration policy led by the Republican Party.
A smoldering current of xenophobia within the country.
A society breaking further apart.
Using all of it, a plan to collapse America from within begins to move forward in silence.
Republican presidential candidate Justin Bradford is shot during a speech. Almost at the same time, in Los Angeles, former President Owen Reed is also gunned down.
Two gunshots split the nation in two.
Yet Justin miraculously survives.
What keeps him alive is one of the rarest blood types in the world: Bombay blood.
The person able to provide that blood is Anaya Patel, a community art facilitator working in Brooklyn.
The blood of one woman touches the fate of a nation.
That coincidence, as if it had never truly been coincidence, begins to draw her toward the center of an enormous event.
Terrorism, elections, immigration, blood, memory, and prayer.
Those who believe in destruction, and those who have seen the emptiness left beyond it.
A plan that began as revenge gradually blurs the boundary between salvation and nothingness.
The night of Manhattan.
The light of Brooklyn.
Memories left behind by the river.
The city continues to shine as if nothing has happened.
Yet beneath its feet, a low sound no one can hear is still ringing.
What does revenge take away?
Whom does prayer save?
And where do human beings go, carrying what they have lost?
Trailer
Soundtrack
B♭ — My Novel Playlist
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack/pl.u-47...
B♭ — My Novel Playlist for Japanese
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack-for-jap...
© 2026 Mitsushiro Nakagawa. All rights reserved.
The copyright of this work belongs to Mitsushiro Nakagawa.
No part of this work may be reproduced, reprinted, or modified without the author’s permission.
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J’ai publié la version française de mon roman.
Mon roman, B♭ (Si bémol), est désormais disponible.
Les versions japonaise, anglaise et espagnole ont déjà été publiées.
Comme je suis un fan d’Apple, des produits Apple apparaissent dans l’histoire. :)
Il est disponible dans le dossier Drive ci-dessous.
Drive folder for novel publication:
drive.google.com/drive/folders/1EUyKO4locQKzfKfvmlh0-uamF...
B♭
Mitsushiro Nakagawa, avec ChatGPT 5.5
Le système de cryptomonnaie de la Corée du Nord est piraté, et plusieurs centaines de millions de dollars sont dérobés.
Au bout du flux de cet argent, un groupe d’hommes et de femmes palestiniens originaires de Gaza s’infiltre secrètement aux États-Unis.
Leur objectif est de « reconstituer », sur le sol américain, la patrie perdue qu’est Gaza.
Une politique migratoire dure menée par les Républicains.
Un sentiment xénophobe qui couve au sein du pays.
Une société qui se divise peu à peu.
En exploitant tout cela, un plan destiné à faire s’effondrer l’Amérique de l’intérieur avance en silence.
Le candidat républicain à la présidence, Justin Bradford, est abattu en plein discours ; presque au même moment, à Los Angeles, l’ancien président Owen Reed est lui aussi victime d’une fusillade.
Deux coups de feu qui fendent la nation en deux.
Mais Justin survit miraculeusement.
Ce qui lui sauve la vie est un groupe sanguin extrêmement rare dans le monde : le sang Bombay.
La seule personne capable de lui donner ce sang est Anaya Patel, facilitatrice d’art communautaire active à Brooklyn.
Le sang d’une femme touche soudain au destin d’une nation.
Ce hasard, comme s’il n’avait finalement jamais été un hasard, attire peu à peu Anaya elle-même au centre d’un événement immense.
Terrorisme, élections, immigration, sang, mémoire, prière.
Ceux qui croient en la destruction, et ceux qui finissent par voir le vide laissé au-delà de la destruction.
Un plan né comme une vengeance brouille peu à peu la frontière entre salut et néant.
La nuit de Manhattan.
La lumière de Brooklyn.
Les souvenirs laissés au bord du fleuve.
La ville continue de briller comme si rien ne s’était passé.
Mais sous ses pieds, un son grave, que personne n’entend, continue de résonner.
Que prend la vengeance ?
Qui la prière sauve-t-elle ?
Et vers où les êtres humains se dirigent-ils, en portant avec eux ce qu’ils ont perdu ?
Trailer
Soundtrack
B♭ — My Novel Playlist
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack/pl.u-47...
B♭ — My Novel Playlist for Japanese
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack-for-jap...
© 2026 Mitsushiro Nakagawa. Tous droits réservés.
Les droits d’auteur de cette œuvre appartiennent à Mitsushiro Nakagawa. Toute reproduction, republication ou modification, totale ou partielle, du contenu de cette œuvre sans l’autorisation de l’auteur est interdite.
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He publicado la edición en español de mi novela.
Mi novela, B♭, ya está disponible.
Soy fan de Apple, así que en la historia aparecen productos de Apple. :)
Las ediciones en japonés y en inglés ya han sido publicadas.
Puede encontrarse en la siguiente carpeta de Drive:
Carpeta de Drive para la publicación de la novela:
drive.google.com/drive/folders/1EUyKO4locQKzfKfvmlh0-uamF...
B♭
Mitsushiro Nakagawa, with ChatGPT 5.5
El sistema de criptomonedas de Corea del Norte es hackeado, y cientos de millones de dólares son robados.
Al final de ese flujo oculto de dinero, un group de hombres y mujeres palestinos originarios de Gaza se infiltra secretamente en los Estados Unidos.
Su propósito es “restaurar” su patria perdida, Gaza, sobre suelo estadounidense.
Una política migratoria de línea dura impulsada por el Partido Republicano.
Una corriente latente de xenofobia dentro del país.
Una sociedad que se fractura cada vez más.
Aprovechándolo todo, un plan para derrumbar a Estados Unidos desde dentro empieza a avanzar en silencio.
El candidato presidencial republicano Justin Bradford recibe un disparo durante un discurso. Casi al mismo tiempo, en Los Ángeles, el expresidente Owen Reed también es baleado.
Dos disparos dividen a la nación en dos.
Sin embargo, Justin sobrevive milagrosamente.
Lo que mantiene su vida es uno de los tipos de sangre más raros del mundo: la sangre Bombay.
La única persona capaz de donar esa sangre es Anaya Patel, una facilitadora de arte comunitario que trabaja en Brooklyn.
La sangre de una sola mujer toca el destino de una nación.
Aquella coincidencia, como si nunca hubiera sido realmente una coincidencia, comienza a arrastrarla hacia el centro de un acontecimiento inmenso.
Terrorismo, elecciones, inmigración, sangre, memoria y plegaria.
Quienes creen en la destrucción, y quienes han visto el vacío que queda más allá de ella.
Un plan que comenzó como venganza va desdibujando, poco a poco, la frontera entre la salvación y la nada.
La noche de Manhattan.
La luz de Brooklyn.
Los recuerdos abandonados junto al río.
La ciudad sigue brillando como si nada hubiera ocurrido.
Pero bajo sus pies continúa resonando una nota grave que nadie puede oír.
¿Qué arrebata la venganza?
¿A quién salva la plegaria?
¿Y hacia dónde se dirigen los seres humanos, cargando con aquello que han perdido?
Tráiler
Banda sonora
B♭ — My Novel Playlist
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack/pl.u-47...
B♭ — My Novel Playlist for Japanese
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack-for-jap...
© 2026 Mitsushiro Nakagawa. Todos los derechos reservados.
Los derechos de autor de esta obra pertenecen a Mitsushiro Nakagawa.
Ninguna parte de esta obra podrá ser reproducida, reimpresa ni modificada sin la autorización del autor.
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僕は僕の小説を発表しました。英語、スペイン語、フランス語は以下で発表済みです。
現在は、ドイツ語を翻訳中です。
僕の小説、【B♭（ビーフラット）】を公開しました。日本語と英語とスペイン語は公開済みです。
僕はアップルファンなので、アップル製品が登場します。:)
それは以下のドライブにあります。
Drive folder for novel publication: (小説専門の公開用ドライブ)
drive.google.com/drive/folders/1EUyKO4locQKzfKfvmlh0-uamF...
B♭
Mitsushiro Nakagawa, with ChatGPT 5.5
北朝鮮の仮想通貨システムがハッキングされ、数億ドルが奪取された。
その資金の流れの先で、ガザ出身のパレスチナ男女のグループが、密かにアメリカ合衆国へ潜入する。
彼らの目的は、失われた祖国ガザを、アメリカの地に「復元」することだった。
共和党による強硬な移民政策。
国内にくすぶる排外感情。
分断されていく社会。
そのすべてを利用し、アメリカを内側から崩壊させる計画が、静かに進行していく。
共和党大統領候補ジャスティン・ブラッドフォードが演説中に撃たれ、ほぼ同じ時刻、ロサンゼルスでは前大統領オーウェン・リードもまた銃撃される。
国家を二分する、ふたつの銃声。
だが、ジャスティンは奇跡的に生還する。
彼の命をつないだのは、世界でも極めて希少な血液型――ボンベイブラッド。
その血を提供できたのは、ブルックリンで活動するコミュニティアート・ファシリテーター、アナヤ・パテルだった。
ひとりの女性の血が、国家の運命に触れてしまう。
その偶然は、やがて偶然ではなかったかのように、彼女自身を巨大な事件の中心へ引き寄せていく。
テロ、選挙、移民、血、記憶、祈り。
破壊を信じる者と、破壊の果てに残る空虚を見てしまう者。
復讐として始まった計画は、いつしか救済と虚無の境界を曖昧にしていく。
マンハッタンの夜。
ブルックリンの光。
川辺に残された記憶。
都市は何事もなかったかのように輝き続けている。
だがその足元では、誰にも聞こえない低い音が鳴っている。
復讐は、何を奪うのか。
祈りは、誰を救うのか。
そして人は、失われたものを抱えたまま、どこへ向かうのか。
Trailer
Soundtrack
B♭ — My Novel Playlist
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack/pl.u-47...
B♭ — My Novel Playlist for Japanese
music.apple.com/jp/playlist/b-my-novel-soundtrack-for-jap...
© 2026 Mitsushiro Nakagawa. All rights reserved.
本作品の著作権は Mitsushiro Nakagawa に帰属します。内容の全部または一部を、著者の許可なく複製・転載・改変することを禁じます。
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#イギリス #uk #England #London #ロンドン #英語 ##novel #ネットフリックスへの挑戦 #ChallengetoNetflix #Netflix #ネットフリックス #B♭ #小説 #ビーフラット #千葉 #やちまた #八街 #八街市 #yachimata #yachimatacity #cityofyachimata #NewYork #ニューヨーク #マンハッタン #Manhattan #アメリカ #USA #Chiba #apple #アップル #MrLonely #BobbyVinton #oneokrock #thepilot #LUMIX #panasonic #ルミックス #G3 #パナソニック
#UnitedKingdom #UK #England #London #London #English #Novel #ChallengeToNetflix #ChallengeToNetflix #Netflix #Netflix #B♭ #Novel #BFlat #Chiba #Yachimata #Yachimata #YachimataCity #Yachimata #YachimataCity #CityOfYachimata #NewYork #NewYork #Manhattan #Manhattan #America #USA #Chiba #Apple #Apple #MrLonely #BobbyVinton #OneOkRock #ThePilot #LUMIX #Panasonic #Lumix #G3 #Panasonic
Published in "Living the Photo Artistic Life," Issue No. 102, Aug 2023, p. 66. Image Sources: Nucly brushes; Kelvin Designs brushes; Background from Inactive account – ID 6391394 on Pixabay; Particles from Adobe; Feathers from Hans on Pixabay; Model from Victoria_Watercolor on Pixabay;
I posted a few of my Monarch migration photos on a local facebook site and they were spotted by the local newspaper ! Over 350 people liked my photos and I got to meet a few of them at Lakeland Park ! Some days you just get lucky !!
Part of my collaboration with Timoteo Studio, publish by the amazing Gleichlaut Mag.
Models: Ivan Sanchez and Turco Sahin
Makeup and Grooming: Mary Torrs
You can see the hole article here www.flipsnack.com/gleichlaut/gleichlaut-issue-juni-2017.h...
I can’t imagine why I didn’t publish this one back when I took it. Maybe I was saving it. If only I could get them to hold all the rodeos in the sweet light.
From a Georgia High School Rodeo event in Forsyth, GA back in 2018.
Nikon D7000 — Nikon 200-500 F5.6 ED VR
410mm
F5.6@1/500
ISO 5,600
Cropped
DSC_3333.JPG
©Don Brown 2018
I have a photo gallery exhibited at Galerie du Lion, Orleans (1 hour by train from Paris) from 4 April to 25 May 2014.
www.galeriedulion.fr/les-expositions-4.html
Drôles de bestioles : la nature dans tous ses états
6, rue Croix de Malte
45000 Orléans
Sparrowhawk ( Accipiter nisus )
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A young male looking right at me, to watch this wild bird only metres away was a dream come true.
Like all nature photography there is an element of luck needed to get shots of these amazing birds.
He returned late in the day and the light was still in my favour so I quickly attached my teleconvertor to capture this shot of him.
Thanks again Alan for making this possible, what a great day.
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Best seen Large on black - Press L
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( Published as the "Picture Of The Day" in the Glasgow Herald – Apr 9, 2014 )
You can also find me on Instagram: tekapa_pictures
...
#Frankfurt#Germany#City#urban#cityphotography#urbanphotography#cityexplorer#exploringthecity#urbanexplorer#street#streetphotography#streetshot#blackandwhitephotography#blackandwhite#bw#bnw#blacknwhite#blackandwhitephoto#bwlover#bwlovers#tekapapics
Self published my first book a couple months back. Havent posted a pic on here in a bit. The book is a non-profit book and is a completely independent venture. You can read more about it at www.bookofbeards.com You can also buy a copy there.
I'm not one for bragging, but I just can't help it with this one!
I got the front page and also an 8 page article inside the magazine. What a great start to 2014!
Huge thanks to everyone who follows and supports me, and to everyone that's helped and inspired me along the way in the light painting world :)
Press F to 'Fave'
Press L to view Large on 'black'
Twitter | Google+ | Tumblr | 500px | Facebook Page
Published as part of a story map in the 2021 annual report of the Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), University of Berne (www.cde.unibe.ch)
Special economic zone in the former Tathluang marshes, Vientiane, Lao PDR
To view more images, of Chastleton House click
"here"
Please, no group invites; thank you!
From deep in the Achieves, and reprocessed, using Photoshop CC 2021.
Chastleton House is a Jacobean country house situated at Chastleton near Moreton-in-Marsh, Oxfordshire, England. It has been owned by the National Trust since 1991 and is a Grade I listed building. It was built between 1607 and 1612, for Walter Jones, who had made his fortune from the law, although his family were originally Welsh wool merchants. The estate was bought in 1604 from Robert Catesby, although his residence was demolished to make way for the new house and no traces of the original building on this spot remain. The house is built of Cotswold stone, round a small courtyard, called the Dairy Court. The House is different from other houses of its type in several respects. It has never had a park with a long, landscaped approach such as many other houses of its era. Rather it was built within an existing settlement, Chastleton village, which provided many of the services for the house which would otherwise have been attached, such as a laundry, a fishpond and a bakehouse. Secondly, until its acquisition by the Trust in 1991, it was owned by the same family for nearly 400 years. Its treatment by the Trust was similarly unusual, with a policy of conservation rather than restoration, enabling visitors to see the house largely as it was when acquired. As a result of the Trust's approach, a large number of the rooms in the house are open to the public. Of particular note is the Long Gallery, with its barrel vaulted ceiling. No other gallery of such a length 72 feet (22 m) and date survive. Like much of the house, the Long Gallery ceiling has been subject to damage. The neglect of the roof for almost two centuries led to the failing of part of the plaster ceiling in the early 1800s, but it was not repaired until 1904-05, when two local men were engaged to make good the losses. Also of interest is the impressive Great Chamber. Designed for the entertainment of the most important guests and for the playing of music, the design scheme has its roots in Renaissance Italy and is the most impressive in the house. The setting out of the panelling shows some inspiration from the classical, as do the painted roundels around the frieze, depicting the twelve prophets of the Old Testament and the twelve Sybils or Prophetesses of Antiquity. Also in the Great Chamber are a set of Jacobite Fiat glasses engraved with the Jacobite emblems of roses, oakleaves, and a compass rose, which betray the families eighteenth-century sympathies. These probably belonged to Henry Jones IV, who was the president of the Gloucestershire Cycle Club, one of the oldest established Jacobite clubs. Other items of interest in the house include the Juxon Bible, which is said to have been used by the chaplain, Bishop Juxon, at the execution of Charles I. Juxon’s family lived locally in Long Compton until his family died out in the eighteenth century, when it is thought to have been given to John Jones II because the Jones’ were another family with Jacobite sympathies. In 1919 a number of significant tapestries were discovered at the house, and were interpreted as evidence for the establishment of a tapestry-weaving venture at the manor house of William Sheldon (d 1570) at Barcheston, near Shipston on Stour, Warwickshire. One of these tapestries is currently on display in the Middle Chamber, and another is in the permanent collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum. The Grade II listed garden at Chastleton has undergone a number of revisions since the completion of the house in 1612. There is no archaeological evidence of a garden on this site before this date: indeed, the North Garden is split by an old field boundary. There is no map or written evidence to suggest how the garden was laid out by Walter Jones in 1612, but the walls that enclose the garden are 17th century and archaeological evidence that suggests that the garden has been laid out the same way for the last 400 years. It is laid out according to the recommendation proposed by Gervase Markham in The English Husbandman (1613) – a fore court to the front of the house, with the base (or bass) court on one side, which included the stables and other farm buildings. The other two sides of the house should be composed of gardens, divided into an orchard, a kitchen garden and a best (or pleasure) garden, planted with more ornamental plants. At the time, the Forecourt at Chastleton described the entrance area below the House court (the area directly in front of the house). The House court was raised slightly above the forecourt by a small retaining wall, probably with a balustrade on top. There were likely to be few plants in the front of the house in the early 17th century, with the House Court possibly being paved or having two grass plats on each side of the central path like the Forecourt. To the east of this was the Pleasaunce or Pleasure Garden. This was the Best Garden, which was levelled, but with a viewing terrace along one side which also gave entrance to the church at the opposite end. The design of this garden is not known, but it was almost certainly surrounded by high walls with fruit trees trained against it. The Best Garden was laid out in the circular pattern we see today by Dorothy Whitmore Jones in 1833, although it is suggested that there were already box plants there. Beds were added within the circular hedge in the 1890s or 1900s and then grassed over again by 1972. During the periods of time when money came into the family the planting in this garden was always renewed. To the north are terraces, levelled from the sloping ground. There is evidence of a medieval cultivation terrace and the remnants of the old boundary wall of the garden. There was a Bowling Green on the Middle terrace and the third terrace may also have been the site of the original kitchen garden. Today, the middle terraces are the site of two croquet lawns, originally laid out by Walter Whitmore-Jones in the 1860s. His version of the rules of croquet published in The Field in 1865 became definitive, and Chastleton is considered the birthplace of croquet as a competitive sport. The Kitchen Garden as it is now was enclosed in 1847 and was formed of the existent garden and from part of the adjoining field. It was laid out as four plots on one side of a broad path and two on the other side, and the kitchen garden today has been recently rejuvenated to form this pattern as well.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The 1918–20 "Spanish flu" influenza pandemic resulted in dramatic mortality worldwide.
A pandemic (from Greek πᾶν, pan, 'all' and δῆμος, demos, 'people') is an epidemic of disease that has spread across a large region, for instance multiple continents, or worldwide. A widespread endemic disease with a stable number of infected people is not a pandemic. Further, flu pandemics generally exclude recurrences of seasonal flu.
Throughout history, there have been a number of pandemics of diseases such as smallpox and tuberculosis. One of the most devastating pandemics was the Black Death (also known as The Plague), which killed an estimated 75–200 million people in the 14th century. Other notable pandemics include the 1918 influenza pandemic (Spanish flu) and the 2009 flu pandemic (H1N1). Current pandemics include HIV/AIDS and the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic.
Contents
1Definition and stages
2Management
3Current pandemics
3.1HIV/AIDS
3.2Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
4Notable outbreaks
4.1Cholera
4.2Influenza
4.3Typhus
4.4Smallpox
4.5Measles
4.6Tuberculosis
4.7Leprosy
4.8Malaria
4.9Yellow fever
5Concerns about future pandemics
5.1Antibiotic resistance
5.2Viral hemorrhagic fevers
5.3Coronaviruses
5.4Influenza
5.5Zika virus
6Economic consequences
7Biological warfare
8In popular culture
9See also
10Notes
11References
12Further reading
13External links
Definition and stages[edit]
The World Health Organization's former influenza pandemic alert phases—WHO no longer uses this old system of six phases
A pandemic is an epidemic occurring on a scale that crosses international boundaries, usually affecting people on a worldwide scale.[1] Pandemics can also occur in important agricultural organisms (livestock, crop plants, fish, tree species) or in other organisms.[citation needed] A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. For instance, cancer is responsible for many deaths but is not considered a pandemic because the disease is neither infectious nor contagious.[2]
The World Health Organization (WHO) previously applied a six-stage classification to describe the process by which a novel influenza virus moves from the first few infections in humans through to a pandemic. This starts with the virus mostly infecting animals, with a few cases where animals infect people, then moves through the stage where the virus begins to spread directly between people and ends with a pandemic when infections from the new virus have spread worldwide. In February 2020, a WHO spokesperson clarified that "there is no official category [for a pandemic]".[a][3]
In a virtual press conference in May 2009 on the influenza pandemic, Dr. Keiji Fukuda, Assistant Director-General ad interim for Health Security and Environment, WHO said "An easy way to think about pandemic ... is to say: a pandemic is a global outbreak. Then you might ask yourself: 'What is a global outbreak'? Global outbreak means that we see both spread of the agent ... and then we see disease activities in addition to the spread of the virus."[4]
In planning for a possible influenza pandemic, the WHO published a document on pandemic preparedness guidance in 1999, revised in 2005 and in February 2009, defining phases and appropriate actions for each phase in an aide-mémoire titled WHO pandemic phase descriptions and main actions by phase. The 2009 revision, including definitions of a pandemic and the phases leading to its declaration, were finalized in February 2009. The pandemic H1N1 2009 virus was neither on the horizon at that time nor mentioned in the document.[5][6] All versions of this document refer to influenza. The phases are defined by the spread of the disease; virulence and mortality are not mentioned in the current WHO definition, although these factors have previously been included.[7]
Management[edit]
See also: Mathematical modelling of infectious disease
The goals of community mitigation: (1) delay outbreak peak; (2) reduce peak burden on healthcare, known as flattening the curve; and (3) diminish overall cases and health impact.[8][9]
The basic strategies in the control of an outbreak are containment and mitigation. Containment may be undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak, including contact tracing and isolating infected individuals to stop the disease from spreading to the rest of the population, other public health interventions on infection control, and therapeutic countermeasures such as vaccinations which may be effective if available.[10] When it becomes apparent that it is no longer possible to contain the spread of the disease, it will then move on to the mitigation stage, when measures are taken to slow the spread of disease and mitigate its effects on the health care system and society. In reality, a combination of both containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken at the same time to control an outbreak.[11]
A key part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to decrease the epidemic peak, known as flattening the epidemic curve.[8] This helps decrease the risk of health services being overwhelmed and providing more time for a vaccine and treatment to be developed.[8] Non-pharmaceutical interventions may be taken to manage the outbreak; for example in a flu pandemic, these actions may include personal preventive measures such as hand hygiene, wearing face-masks and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at social distancing such as closing schools and cancelling mass gathering events; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such as cleaning of surfaces.[9]
Another strategy, suppression, requires more extreme long-term non-pharmaceutical interventions so as to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than 1. The suppression strategy, which include stringent population-wide social distancing, home isolation of cases and household quarantine, was undertaken by China during the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic where entire cities were placed under lockdown, but such strategy carries with it considerable social and economic costs.[12]
Current pandemics[edit]
HIV/AIDS[edit]
Main article: AIDS pandemic
Estimated HIV/AIDS prevalence among young adults (15-49) by country as of 2008
HIV originated in Africa, and spread to the United States via Haiti between 1966 and 1972.[13] AIDS is currently a pandemic, with infection rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. In 2006, the HIV prevalence rate among pregnant women in South Africa was 29%.[14] Effective education about safer sexual practices and bloodborne infection precautions training have helped to slow down infection rates in several African countries sponsoring national education programs.[citation needed]
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)[edit]
Main article: 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic
People queueing outside a Wuhan pharmacy to buy face masks and medical supplies
A new coronavirus was first identified in Wuhan, Hubei province, China, in late December 2019,[15] as causing a cluster of cases of an acute respiratory disease, referred to as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). According to media reports, more than 200 countries and territories have been affected, with major outbreaks in the United States, central China, Italy, Spain, and Iran.[16][17] On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization characterized the spread of COVID-19 as a pandemic.[18][19] As of 3 April 2020, the number of SARS-CoV-2 infected persons reached one million, the death toll was 55,132 and the number of patients recovered was 225,335.[20]
Notable outbreaks[edit]
See also: List of epidemics, Columbian Exchange, and Globalization and disease
There have been a number of significant epidemics and pandemics recorded in human history, generally zoonoses such as influenza and tuberculosis, which came about with domestication of animals. There have been a number of particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention above the "mere" destruction of cities:
Plague of Athens, from 430 to 426 BCE. During the Peloponnesian War, typhoid fever killed a quarter of the Athenian troops, and a quarter of the population over four years. This disease fatally weakened the dominance of Athens, but the sheer virulence of the disease prevented its wider spread; i.e. it killed off its hosts at a rate faster than they could spread it. The exact cause of the plague was unknown for many years. In January 2006, researchers from the University of Athens analyzed teeth recovered from a mass grave underneath the city, and confirmed the presence of bacteria responsible for typhoid.[21]
Contemporary engraving of Marseille during the Great Plague of Marseille in 1720–1721
Antonine Plague, from 165 to 180 AD. Possibly smallpox brought to the Italian peninsula by soldiers returning from the Near East; it killed a quarter of those infected, and up to five million in all.[22] At the height of a second outbreak, the Plague of Cyprian (251–266), which may have been the same disease, 5,000 people a day were said to be dying in Rome.
Plague of Justinian, from 541 to 750, was the first recorded outbreak of the bubonic plague. It started in Egypt, and reached Constantinople the following spring, killing (according to the Byzantine chronicler Procopius) 10,000 a day at its height, and perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants. The plague went on to eliminate a quarter to half the human population of the known world.[23][24] It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 550 AD and 700 AD.[25]
Black Death, from 1331 to 1353. The total number of deaths worldwide is estimated at 75 to 200 million people.Black Death#cite ref-ABC/Reuters 1-1 Eight hundred years after the last outbreak, the plague returned to Europe. Starting in Asia, the disease reached Mediterranean and western Europe in 1348 (possibly from Italian merchants fleeing fighting in Crimea), and killed an estimated 20 to 30 million Europeans in six years;[26] a third of the total population,[27] and up to a half in the worst-affected urban areas.[28] It was the first of a cycle of European plague epidemics that continued until the 18th century.[29] There were more than 100 plague epidemics in Europe in this period.[30] The disease recurred in England every two to five years from 1361 to 1480.[31] By the 1370s, England's population was reduced by 50%.[32] The Great Plague of London of 1665–66 was the last major outbreak of the plague in England. The disease killed approximately 100,000 people, 20% of London's population.[33]
The third plague pandemic started in China in 1855, and spread to India, where 10 million people died.[34] During this pandemic, the United States saw its first outbreak: the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904.[35] Today, isolated cases of plague are still found in the western United States.[36]
Spanish flu, from 1918 to 1920. It infected 500 million people around the world,[37] including people on remote Pacific islands and in the Arctic, and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million people.[37][38] Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill the very young and the very old, with higher survival rate for those in between, but the Spanish flu had an unusually high mortality rate for young adults.[39] Spanish flu killed more people than World War I did and it killed more people in 25 weeks than AIDS did in its first 25 years.[40][41] Mass troop movements and close quarters during World War I caused it to spread and mutate faster; the susceptibility of soldiers to Spanish flu might have been increased due to stress, malnourishment and chemical attacks.[42] Improved transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors, and civilian travelers to spread the disease.[43]
Aztecs dying of smallpox, Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585)
Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Disease killed part of the native population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century (Guanches). Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors.[44] Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[45] During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Pacific Northwest Native Americans.[46] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[47] Some believe the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles, and influenza.[48] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.[49]
Smallpox devastated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of Indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[50] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[51] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[52] Measles killed more than 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population, in 1875,[53] and in the early 21st century devastated the Andamanese population.[54] The Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[55]
Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus' voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[56] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[57] Between 1602 and 1796, the Dutch East India Company sent almost a million Europeans to work in Asia. Ultimately, fewer than a third made their way back to Europe. The majority died of diseases.[58] Disease killed more British soldiers in India and South Africa than war.[59]
As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[60] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[61] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[62] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[63] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[64] The world population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.8 billion in 2011.[65]
Cholera[edit]
Main article: Cholera outbreaks and pandemics
Since it became widespread in the 19th century, cholera has killed tens of millions of people.[66]
1817–1824 cholera pandemic. Previously restricted to the Indian subcontinent, the pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless Indians died during this pandemic.[67] It extended as far as China, Indonesia (where more than 100,000 people succumbed on the island of Java alone) and the Caspian Sea before receding. Deaths in the Indian subcontinent between 1817 and 1860 are estimated to have exceeded 15 million persons. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917. Russian deaths during a similar period exceeded 2 million.[68]
1826–1837 cholera pandemic. Reached Russia (see Cholera Riots), Hungary (about 100,000 deaths) and Germany in 1831, London in 1832 (more than 55,000 persons died in the United Kingdom),[69] France, Canada (Ontario), and United States (New York City) in the same year,[70] and the Pacific coast of North America by 1834. It is believed that more than 150,000 Americans died of cholera between 1832 and 1849.[71]
1846–1860 cholera pandemic. Deeply affected Russia, with more than a million deaths. A two-year outbreak began in England and Wales in 1848 and claimed 52,000 lives.[72] Throughout Spain, cholera caused more than 236,000 deaths in 1854–55.[73] It claimed 200,000 lives in Mexico.[74]
1863–75 cholera pandemic. Spread mostly in Europe and Africa. At least 30,000 of the 90,000 Mecca pilgrims fell victim to the disease. Cholera claimed 90,000 lives in Russia in 1866.[75]
In 1866, there was an outbreak in North America. It killed some 50,000 Americans.[71]
1881–96 cholera pandemic. The 1883–1887 epidemic cost 250,000 lives in Europe and at least 50,000 in the Americas. Cholera claimed 267,890 lives in Russia (1892);[76] 120,000 in Spain;[77] 90,000 in Japan and 60,000 in Persia.
In 1892, cholera contaminated the water supply of Hamburg, and caused 8,606 deaths.[78]
1899–1923 cholera pandemic. Had little effect in Europe because of advances in public health, but Russia was badly affected again (more than 500,000 people dying of cholera during the first quarter of the 20th century).[79] The sixth pandemic killed more than 800,000 in India. The 1902–1904 cholera epidemic claimed more than 200,000 lives in the Philippines.[80]
1961–75 cholera pandemic. Began in Indonesia, called El Tor after the new biotype responsible for the pandemic, and reached Bangladesh in 1963, India in 1964, and the Soviet Union in 1966. Since then the pandemic has reached Africa, South America, and Central America.
Influenza[edit]
Main article: Influenza pandemic
Advice for travelers (in French and English) on the risks of epidemics abroad; posters from the Charles De Gaulle airport, Paris
The Greek physician Hippocrates, the "Father of Medicine", first described influenza in 412 BC.[81]
The first influenza pandemic was recorded in 1580, and since then, influenza pandemics occurred every 10 to 30 years.[82][83][84]
The 1889–1890 flu pandemic, also known as Russian Flu, was first reported in May 1889 in Bukhara, Uzbekistan. By October, it had reached Tomsk and the Caucasus. It rapidly spread west and hit North America in December 1889, South America in February–April 1890, India in February–March 1890, and Australia in March–April 1890. The H3N8 and H2N2 subtypes of the Influenza A virus have each been identified as possible causes. It had a very high attack and mortality rate, causing around a million fatalities.[85]
The "Spanish flu", 1918–1919. First identified early in March 1918 in U.S. troops training at Camp Funston, Kansas. By October 1918, it had spread to become a worldwide pandemic on all continents, and eventually infected about one-third of the world's population (or ≈500 million persons).[37] Unusually deadly and virulent, it ended almost as quickly as it began, vanishing completely within 18 months. Within six months, some 50 million people were dead;[37] some estimates put the total number of fatalities worldwide at over twice that number.[86] About 17 million died in India, 675,000 in the United States,[87] and 200,000 in the United Kingdom. The virus that caused Spanish flu was also implicated as a cause of encephalitis lethargica in children.[88] The virus was recently reconstructed by scientists at the CDC studying remains preserved by the Alaskan permafrost. The H1N1 virus has a small but crucial structure that is similar to the Spanish flu.[89]
The "Asian Flu", 1957–58. A H2N2 virus first identified in China in late February 1957. It caused about two million deaths globally.[90] The Asian flu spread to the United States by June 1957 and caused about 70,000 deaths in the U.S.
The "Hong Kong Flu", 1968–69. A H3N2 virus first detected in Hong Kong in early 1968, and spread to the United States later that year. This pandemic of 1968 and 1969 killed approximately one million people worldwide.[91] It caused about 34,000 deaths in the United States.
The "Swine Flu", 2009–10. An H1N1 virus first detected in Mexico in early 2009, and spread to the United States later that year. This pandemic was estimated to have killed around 284,000 people worldwide.[92][failed verification] It was estimated to have caused about 12,000 deaths in the United States alone.
Typhus[edit]
Typhus is sometimes called "camp fever" because of its pattern of flaring up in times of strife. (It is also known as "gaol fever" and "ship fever", for its habits of spreading wildly in cramped quarters, such as jails and ships.) Emerging during the Crusades, it had its first impact in Europe in 1489, in Spain. During fighting between the Christian Spaniards and the Muslims in Granada, the Spanish lost 3,000 to war casualties, and 20,000 to typhus. In 1528, the French lost 18,000 troops in Italy, and lost supremacy in Italy to the Spanish. In 1542, 30,000 soldiers died of typhus while fighting the Ottomans in the Balkans.
During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), about eight million Germans were killed by bubonic plague and typhus.[93] The disease also played a major role in the destruction of Napoleon's Grande Armée in Russia in 1812. During the retreat from Moscow, more French military personnel died of typhus than were killed by the Russians.[94] Of the 450,000 soldiers who crossed the Neman on 25 June 1812, fewer than 40,000 returned. More military personnel were killed from 1500–1914 by typhus than from military action.[95] In early 1813, Napoleon raised a new army of 500,000 to replace his Russian losses. In the campaign of that year, more than 219,000 of Napoleon's soldiers died of typhus.[96] Typhus played a major factor in the Irish Potato Famine. During World War I, typhus epidemics killed more than 150,000 in Serbia. There were about 25 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus in Russia from 1918 to 1922.[96] Typhus also killed numerous prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps and Soviet prisoner of war camps during World War II. More than 3.5 million Soviet POWs died out of the 5.7 million in Nazi custody.[97]
Smallpox[edit]
A child with smallpox infection, c. 1908
Smallpox was a contagious disease caused by the variola virus. The disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans per year during the closing years of the 18th century.[98] During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths.[99][100] As recently as the early 1950s, an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year.[101] After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the eradication of smallpox in December 1979. To this day, smallpox is the only human infectious disease to have been completely eradicated,[102] and one of two infectious viruses ever to be eradicated along with rinderpest.[103]
Measles[edit]
Historically, measles was prevalent throughout the world, as it is highly contagious. According to the U.S. National Immunization Program, 90% of people were infected with measles by age 15. Before the vaccine was introduced in 1963, there were an estimated three to four million cases in the U.S. each year.[104] Measles killed around 200 million people worldwide over the last 150 years.[105] In 2000 alone, measles killed some 777,000 worldwide out of 40 million cases globally.[106]
Measles is an endemic disease, meaning it has been continually present in a community, and many people develop resistance. In populations that have not been exposed to measles, exposure to a new disease can be devastating. In 1529, a measles outbreak in Cuba killed two-thirds of the natives who had previously survived smallpox.[107] The disease had ravaged Mexico, Central America, and the Inca civilization.[108]
Tuberculosis[edit]
In 2007, the prevalence of TB per 100,000 people was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa, and was also relatively high in Asian countries like India.
One-quarter of the world's current population has been infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and new infections occur at a rate of one per second.[109] About 5–10% of these latent infections will eventually progress to active disease, which, if left untreated, kills more than half its victims. Annually, eight million people become ill with tuberculosis, and two million die from the disease worldwide.[110] In the 19th century, tuberculosis killed an estimated one-quarter of the adult population of Europe;[111] by 1918, one in six deaths in France were still caused by tuberculosis. During the 20th century, tuberculosis killed approximately 100 million people.[105] TB is still one of the most important health problems in the developing world.[112]
Leprosy[edit]
Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease, is caused by a bacillus, Mycobacterium leprae. It is a chronic disease with an incubation period of up to five years. Since 1985, 15 million people worldwide have been cured of leprosy.[113]
Historically, leprosy has affected people since at least 600 BC.[114] Leprosy outbreaks began to occur in Western Europe around 1000 AD.[115][116] Numerous leprosoria, or leper hospitals, sprang up in the Middle Ages; Matthew Paris estimated that in the early 13th century, there were 19,000 of them across Europe.[117]
Malaria[edit]
Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009
Malaria is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, there are approximately 350–500 million cases of malaria.[118] Drug resistance poses a growing problem in the treatment of malaria in the 21st century, since resistance is now common against all classes of antimalarial drugs, except for the artemisinins.[119]
Malaria was once common in most of Europe and North America, where it is now for all purposes non-existent.[120] Malaria may have contributed to the decline of the Roman Empire.[121] The disease became known as "Roman fever".[122] Plasmodium falciparum became a real threat to colonists and indigenous people alike when it was introduced into the Americas along with the slave trade. Malaria devastated the Jamestown colony and regularly ravaged the South and Midwest of the United States. By 1830, it had reached the Pacific Northwest.[123] During the American Civil War, there were more than 1.2 million cases of malaria among soldiers of both sides.[124] The southern U.S. continued to be afflicted with millions of cases of malaria into the 1930s.[125]
Yellow fever[edit]
Yellow fever has been a source of several devastating epidemics.[126] Cities as far north as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston were hit with epidemics. In 1793, one of the largest yellow fever epidemics in U.S. history killed as many as 5,000 people in Philadelphia—roughly 10% of the population. About half of the residents had fled the city, including President George Washington.[127] In colonial times, West Africa became known as "the white man's grave" because of malaria and yellow fever.[128]
Concerns about future pandemics[edit]
See also: Pandemic prevention
Antibiotic resistance[edit]
Main article: Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", may contribute to the re-emergence of diseases which are currently well controlled.[129] For example, cases of tuberculosis that are resistant to traditionally effective treatments remain a cause of great concern to health professionals. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.[130] China and India have the highest rate of multidrug-resistant TB.[131] The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 50 million people worldwide are infected with MDR TB, with 79 percent of those cases resistant to three or more antibiotics. In 2005, 124 cases of MDR TB were reported in the United States. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) was identified in Africa in 2006, and subsequently discovered to exist in 49 countries, including the United States. There are about 40,000 new cases of XDR-TB per year, the WHO estimates.[132]
In the past 20 years, common bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens and Enterococcus, have developed resistance to various antibiotics such as vancomycin, as well as whole classes of antibiotics, such as the aminoglycosides and cephalosporins. Antibiotic-resistant organisms have become an important cause of healthcare-associated (nosocomial) infections (HAI). In addition, infections caused by community-acquired strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in otherwise healthy individuals have become more frequent in recent years.
Viral hemorrhagic fevers[edit]
Viral hemorrhagic fevers such as Ebola virus disease, Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus disease and Bolivian hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics.[133] Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector, and the vector has only a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly quarantine vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.[citation needed]
Coronaviruses[edit]
Coronaviruses (CoV) are a large family of viruses that cause illness ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV). A new strain of coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) causes Coronavirus disease 2019, or COVID-19.[134]
COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by the WHO on 11 March 2020.
Some coronaviruses are zoonotic, meaning they are transmitted between animals and people. Detailed investigations found that SARS-CoV was transmitted from civet cats to humans, and MERS-CoV from dromedary camels to humans. Several known coronaviruses are circulating in animals that have not yet infected humans. Common signs of infection include respiratory symptoms, fever, cough, shortness of breath, and breathing difficulties. In more severe cases, infection can cause pneumonia, severe acute respiratory syndrome, kidney failure and even death. Standard recommendations to prevent the spread of infection include regular hand washing, covering mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, thoroughly cooking meat and eggs, and avoiding close contact with anyone showing symptoms of respiratory illness such as coughing and sneezing. The recommended distance from other people is 6 feet, a practice more commonly called social distancing.
Severe acute respiratory syndrome[edit]
In 2003 the Italian physician Carlo Urbani (1956–2003) was the first to identify severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) as a new and dangerously contagious disease, although he became infected and died. It is caused by a coronavirus dubbed SARS-CoV. Rapid action by national and international health authorities such as the World Health Organization helped to slow transmission and eventually broke the chain of transmission, which ended the localized epidemics before they could become a pandemic. However, the disease has not been eradicated and could re-emerge. This warrants monitoring and reporting of suspicious cases of atypical pneumonia.[135]
Influenza[edit]
Main article: Influenza pandemic
President Barack Obama is briefed in the Situation Room about the 2009 flu pandemic, which killed as many as 17,000 Americans.[136]
Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a range of influenza A viruses. Occasionally, viruses are transmitted from these species to other species, and may then cause outbreaks in domestic poultry or, rarely, in humans.[137][138]
H5N1 (Avian flu)[edit]
Main article: Influenza A virus subtype H5N1
In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans. Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the Spanish flu or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian Flu and the Hong Kong Flu.
From October 2004 to February 2005, some 3,700 test kits of the 1957 Asian Flu virus were accidentally spread around the world from a lab in the U.S.[139]
In May 2005, scientists urgently called upon nations to prepare for a global influenza pandemic that could strike as much as 20% of the world's population.[140]
In October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly strain H5N1) were identified in Turkey. EU Health Commissioner Markos Kyprianou said: "We have received now confirmation that the virus found in Turkey is an avian flu H5N1 virus. There is a direct relationship with viruses found in Russia, Mongolia and China." Cases of bird flu were also identified shortly thereafter in Romania, and then Greece. Possible cases of the virus have also been found in Croatia, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom.[141]
By November 2007, numerous confirmed cases of the H5N1 strain had been identified across Europe.[142] However, by the end of October, only 59 people had died as a result of H5N1, which was atypical of previous influenza pandemics.
Avian flu cannot be categorized as a "pandemic" because the virus cannot yet cause sustained and efficient human-to-human transmission. Cases so far are recognized to have been transmitted from bird to human, but as of December 2006 there had been few (if any) cases of proven human-to-human transmission.[143] Regular influenza viruses establish infection by attaching to receptors in the throat and lungs, but the avian influenza virus can attach only to receptors located deep in the lungs of humans, requiring close, prolonged contact with infected patients, and thus limiting person-to-person transmission.
Zika virus[edit]
Main articles: 2015–16 Zika virus epidemic, Zika virus, and Zika fever
An outbreak of Zika virus began in 2015 and strongly intensified throughout the start of 2016, with more than 1.5 million cases across more than a dozen countries in the Americas. The World Health Organization warned that Zika had the potential to become an explosive global pandemic if the outbreak was not controlled.[144]
Economic consequences[edit]
In 2016, the Commission on a Global Health Risk Framework for the Future estimated that pandemic disease events would cost the global economy over $6 trillion in the 21st century—over $60 billion per year.[145] The same report recommended spending $4.5 billion annually on global prevention and response capabilities to reduce the threat posed by pandemic events.
Biological warfare[edit]
Further information: Biological warfare
In 1346, according to secondhand and uncorroborated accounts by Mussi, the bodies of Mongol warriors who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the arrival of the Black Death in Europe. However, historians believe it would have taken far too long for the bodies to become contagious.[146]
The Native American population was devastated after contact with the Old World by introduction of many fatal diseases.[147][148][149] In a well documented case of germ warfare involving British commander Jeffery Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, their correspondence included a proposal and agreement to give smallpox-infected blankets to Indians in order to "Extirpate this Execrable Race". During the siege of Fort Pitt late in the French and Indian War, as recorded in his journal by sundries trader and militia Captain, William Trent, on 24 June 1763, dignitaries from the Delaware tribe met with Fort Pitt officials, warned them of "great numbers of Indians" coming to attack the fort, and pleaded with them to leave the fort while there was still time. The commander of the fort refused to abandon the fort. Instead, the British gave as gifts two blankets, one silk handkerchief and one linen from the smallpox hospital to two Delaware Indian dignitaries.[150] The dignitaries were met again later and they seemingly hadn't contracted smallpox.[151] A relatively small outbreak of smallpox had begun spreading earlier that spring, with a hundred dying from it among Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes area through 1763 and 1764.[151] The effectiveness of the biological warfare itself remains unknown, and the method used is inefficient compared to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are difficult to differentiate from epidemics occurring from previous contacts with colonists,[152] as smallpox outbreaks happened every dozen or so years.[153] However historian Francis Jennings believes that the attempt at biological warfare was "unquestionably effective at Fort Pitt".[154]
During the Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), Unit 731 of the Imperial Japanese Army conducted human experimentation on thousands, mostly Chinese. In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting cholera, anthrax, and plague were estimated to have killed around 400,000 Chinese civilians.
Diseases considered for or known to be used as a weapon include anthrax, ebola, Marburg virus, plague, cholera, typhus, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, tularemia, brucellosis, Q fever, machupo, Coccidioides mycosis, Glanders, Melioidosis, Shigella, Psittacosis, Japanese B encephalitis, Rift Valley fever, yellow fever, and smallpox.[155]
Spores of weaponized anthrax were accidentally released from a military facility near the Soviet closed city of Sverdlovsk in 1979. The Sverdlovsk anthrax leak is sometimes called "biological Chernobyl".[155] In January 2009, an Al-Qaeda training camp in Algeria was reportedly wiped out by the plague, killing approximately 40 Islamic extremists. Some experts said the group was developing biological weapons,[156] however, a couple of days later the Algerian Health Ministry flatly denied this rumour stating "No case of plague of any type has been recorded in any region of Algeria since 2003".[157]
In popular culture[edit]
This section contains a list of miscellaneous information. Please relocate any relevant information into other sections or articles. (March 2020)
Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague that devastated medieval Europe.
Pandemics appear in multiple fiction works. A common use is in disaster films, where the protagonists must avoid the effects of the plague, for example zombies.[clarification needed]
Literature
The Decameron, a 14th-century writing by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, circa 1353
The Last Man, an 1826 novel by Mary Shelley
The Betrothed, an 1842 historical novel by Alessandro Manzoni describing the plague that struck Milan around 1630.
Pale Horse, Pale Rider, a 1939 short novel by Katherine Anne Porter
The Plague, a 1947 novel by Albert Camus
Earth Abides, a 1949 novel by George R. Stewart
I Am Legend, a 1954 science fiction/horror novel by American writer Richard Matheson
The Andromeda Strain, a 1969 science fiction novel by Michael Crichton
The Last Canadian, a 1974 novel by William C. Heine
The Black Death, a 1977 novel by Gwyneth Cravens describing an outbreak of the Pneumonic plague in New York[158]
The Stand, a 1978 novel by Stephen King
And the Band Played On, a 1987 non-fiction account by Randy Shilts about the emergence and discovery of the HIV / AIDS pandemic
Doomsday Book, a 1992 time-travel novel by Connie Willis
The Last Town on Earth, a 2006 novel by Thomas Mullen
World War Z, a 2006 novel by Max Brooks
Company of Liars (2008), by Karen Maitland
The Passage trilogy by Justin Cronin with The Passage (2010), The Twelve (2012), and The City of Mirrors (2016)
Station Eleven, a 2014 novel by Emily St. John Mandel
Film
The Seventh Seal (1957), set during the Black Death
The Last Man on Earth (1964), a horror/science fiction film based on the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend
Andromeda Strain (1971), a U.S. science fiction film based on the 1969 science fiction novel by Michael Crichton.
The Omega Man (1971), an English science fiction film, based on the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend
And the Band Played On (film) (1993), a HBO movie about the emergence of the HIV / AIDS pandemic; based on the 1987 non-fiction book by journalistRandy Shilts
The Stand (1994), based on the eponymous novel by Stephen King about a worldwide pandemic of biblical proportions
The Horseman on the Roof (Le Hussard sur le Toit) (1995), a French film dealing with an 1832 cholera outbreak
Twelve Monkeys (1995), set in a future world devastated by a man-made virus
Outbreak (1995), fiction film focusing on an outbreak of an Ebola-like virus in Zaire and later in a small town in California.
Smallpox 2002 (2002), a fictional BBC docudrama
28 Days Later (2002), a fictional horror film following the outbreak of an infectious 'Rage' virus that destroys all of mainland Britain
Yesterday (2004), a movie about the social aspects of the AIDS crisis in Africa.
End Day (2005), a fictional BBC docudrama
I Am Legend (2007), a post-apocalyptic action thriller film film starring Will Smith based on the Richard Matheson novel I Am Legend
28 Weeks Later (2007), the sequel film to 28 Days Later, ending with the evident spread of infection to mainland Europe
The Happening (2008), a fictional suspense film about an epidemic caused by an unknown neurotoxin that induces human suicides to reduce population and restore ecological balance
Doomsday (2008), in which Scotland is quarantined following an epidemic
Black Death (2010) action horror film set during the time of the first outbreak of bubonic plague in England
After Armageddon (2010), fictional History Channel docudrama
Contagion (2011), American thriller centering on the threat posed by a deadly disease and an international team of doctors contracted by the CDC to deal with the outbreak
How to Survive a Plague (2012), a documentary film about the early years of the AIDS epidemic
World War Z (2013) American apocalyptic action horror film based on the novel by Max Brooks
The Normal Heart (2014), film depicts the rise of the HIV-AIDS crisis in New York City between 1981 and 1984
Television
Spanish Flu: The Forgotten Fallen (2009), a television drama
Helix (2014–2015), a television series that depicts a team of scientists from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) who are tasked to prevent pandemics from occurring.
The Last Man on Earth (2015–2018), a television series about a group of survivors after a pandemic has wiped out most life (humans and animals) on Earth
12 Monkeys (2015–2018), a television series that depicts James Cole, a time traveler, who travels from the year 2043 to the present day to stop the release of a deadly virus.
Survivors (1975–1977), classic BBC series created by Terry Nation. The series follows a group of people as they come to terms with the aftermath of a world pandemic.
Survivors (2008), BBC series, loosely based on the Terry Nation book which came after the series, instead of a retelling of the original TV series.
The Last Train 1999 written by Matthew Graham
World Without End (2012), chronicles the experiences of the medieval English town of Kingsbridge during the outbreak of the Black Death, based on Ken Follett's 2007 novel of the same name.
The Hot Zone (2019), a television series based on the 1994 non-fiction book of the same name by Richard Preston.
Pandemic: How to Prevent an Outbreak (2020), Netflix's docuseries
The Walking Dead (2010–), a virus appears that kills people and then revives them by turning them into zombies. An Atlanta group will try to survive in this new, post-apocalyptic world
Games
Resident Evil series (1996-2020), video game series focusing on T-virus pandemic and eventual zombie apocalypse as part of a bioterrorism act. The video games later evolved to be focusing on parasites and bioweapons.
Deus Ex, A World Wide Plague known as grey death infects the world created by Majestic 12 to bring about population reduction and New World order.
Pandemic (2008), a cooperative board game in which the players have to discover the cures for four diseases that break out at the same time.
Plague Inc. (2012), a smartphone game from Ndemic Creations, where the goal is to kill off the human race with a plague.
The Last of Us (2013), a post-apocalyptic survival game centred around an outbreak of a Cordyceps-like fungal infection.
Tom Clancy's The Division (2015) A video game about a bioterrorist attack that has devastated the United States and thrown New York into anarchy.
See also[edit]
Pandemic portal
iconViruses portal
List of epidemics
Biological hazard
Bushmeat
Compartmental models in epidemiology
Crowdmapping
Disease X
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC)
Mathematical modelling of infectious disease
Medieval demography
Mortality from infectious diseases
Pandemic severity index
Public health emergency of international concern
Super-spreader
Syndemic
Tropical disease
Timeline of global health
WHO pandemic phases
Notes[edit]
^ For clarification, WHO does not use the old system of six phases—ranging from phase 1 (no reports of animal influenza causing human infections) to phase 6 (a pandemic)—that some people may be familiar with from H1N1 in 2009.
References[edit]
^ Porta, Miquel, ed. (2008). Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-19-531449-6. Retrieved 14 September 2012.
^ A. M., Dumar (2009). Swine Flu: What You Need to Know. Wildside Press LLC. p. 7. ISBN 978-1434458322.
^ "WHO says it no longer uses 'pandemic' category, but virus still emergency". Reuters. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
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^ Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis, New York Times, 15 January 2008
^ Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe, LiveScience
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^ Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Health History Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
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^ Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health?, Gresham College | Lectures and Events
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^ cholera :: Seven pandemics, Britannica Online Encyclopedia
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^ CIDRAP article Pandemic Influenza Last updated 16 June 2011
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Bears, illustrated is a free downloadable calendar for 2010 featuring twelve artists from around the world homaging the men they love and admire: Charlie Hunter, Álvaro Barruylle Ayala, Tabo Ayala, Kenzie LaMar-Rubens, LÚ, Rodrigo Muñoz Ballester, Fuzzbelly, AP Bear, Harry Soup, José Manuel Hortelano-Pi, Christian Trippe and me, Christian Fernández Mirón. This is my illustration for October. Visit the website to see them all and download the calendar!
Bears, illustrated es un calendario descargable y gratuito para 2010 con doce artistas internacionales homenajeando a los hombres que aman y admiran: Charlie Hunter, Álvaro Barruylle Ayala, Tabo Ayala, Kenzie LaMar-Rubens, LÚ, Rodrigo Muñoz Ballester, Fuzzbelly, AP Bear, Harry Soup, José Manuel Hortelano-Pi, Christian Trippe y Christian Fernández Mirón. Ésta es mi ilustración para el mes de Octubre. ¡Visita el enlace para verlas todas y bajarte el calendario!
REF: doi.org/10.1007/s10530-024-03500-5
Published in Biological Invasions, a peer-reviewed journal focusing on the patterns and processes of biological invasions in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine (including brackish) ecosystems.
Article: Exploitation of a marine subsidy by a terrestrial invader
Authors: C. Winters · G. Jurgela · D. Holway
Department of Ecology, Behavior & Evolution,
School of Biological Sciences,
University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA
Published by Hutchinson, undated
Everyone agreed the Peeky and Boo were the two naughtiest elves in the whole of Elfland. Ond on this particular week, they'd been even naughtier than usual...
This woman had just gotten out of a taxi, on Broadway between 73rd and 74th Street, and was waiting for the traffic light to change so that she could walk across the street.
Note: this photo was published in an Aug 6, 2009 blog titled " Enjoying Pregnancy." It was also published as an illustration in an undated (Nov 2009) blog titled "Women and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome."
Moving into 2010, it was published as an illustration in an undated (Jan 2010) Squidoo blog titled "Difficulty in ovulation." And it was published as an illustration in an undated (Jan 2010) blog titled "Seventieth Street Playground in New York County, NY." It was also published in a Jan 26, 2010 blog titled "How to Get Pregnant Faster – Top Ten Tips." It was also published in an undated (Feb 2010) The Pregnancy Health blog, with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page. And it was published in a Mar 1, 2010 "Order the Pill" blog with the same title as the caption that I used on this Flickr page. It was also published in an Apr 8, 2010 blog titled "Cómo lidiar con las citas médicas si trabajas y estás embarazada." And it was published in a May 16, 2010 blog titled "Hospital Closure Turns NYC Home Birth Midwives Into Outlaws." It was also published in a May 29, 2010 Italian blog titled "Avere un bambino: meglio tardi che mai." And it was published in an undated (Jun 2010) blog titled "Sancionadas 10 empresas murcianas por no proteger a sus embarazadas." It was also published in a Sep 2, 2010 blog titled "Lastest (sic) How To Get Pregnant Faster News." And it was published in an Oct 22, 2010 blog titled "Pregnant - and Dating?" It was also published in a Dec 20, 2010 blog titled "Q&A: Can I take a my birth control pills out of order?"
Moving into 2011, the photo was published in a Jan 10, 2011 blog titled "Top 4 Healthy Pregnancy Tips." And it was published in a Feb 1, 2011 blog titled " Season Of Conception Tied To Birth Defect Risk." It was also published in a Mar 9, 2011 blog titled "Pregnant – I just want to get fat."
Moving into 2012, the photo was published in an undated (mid-Feb 2012) blog titled "はじめ ." It was also published in an Apr 6, 2012 blog titled "Here's Why Employers Can Get Away With Firing Pregnant Women." And it was published in a Sep 4, 2012 blog titled "While pregnant, traffic pollution near home raises risk for preeclampsia."
Moving into 2013, the photo was published in a Sep 9, 2013 blog titled "Breathing the 405: Serious Health Risks from LA Traffic."
Moving into 2014, the photo was published in an Aug 11, 2014 blog titled "It Happens Every Day: Pregnant Woman Fired for Being Pregnant."
Moving into 2015, the photo was published in a Jun 12, 2015 blog titled "Jak się puściłaś no to teraz stój!"
***************************
This is the continuation of a photo-project that I began in the summer of 2008: a random collection of "interesting" people in a broad stretch of the Upper West Side of Manhattan -- between 72nd Street and 104th Street, especially along Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue.
As I indicated when I started this project in 2008, I don't like to intrude on people's privacy, so I normally use a telephoto lens in order to photograph them while they're still 50-100 feet away from me; but that means I have to continue focusing my attention on the people and activities half a block away, rather than on what's right in front of me.
I've also learned that, in many cases, the opportunities for an interesting picture are very fleeting -- literally a matter of a couple of seconds, before the person(s) in question move on, turn away, or stop doing whatever was interesting. So I've learned to keep the camera switched on (which contradicts my traditional urge to conserve battery power), and not worry so much about zooming in for a perfectly-framed picture ... after all, once the digital image is uploaded to my computer, it's pretty trivial to crop out the parts unrelated to the main subject.
Thus far, I've generally avoided photographing bums, drunks, crazies, and homeless people. There are a few of them around, and they would certainly create some dramatic pictures; but they generally don't want to be photographed, and I don't want to feel like I'm taking advantage of them. I'm still looking for opportunities to take some "sympathetic" pictures of such people, which might inspire others to reach out and help them. We'll see how it goes ...
The only other thing I've noticed, thus far, is that while there are lots of interesting people to photograph, there are far, far, far more people who are not so interesting. They're probably fine people, and they might even be more interesting than the ones I've photographed ... but there was just nothing memorable about them.
©ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. My pictures may not be downloaded, copied, published, reproduced, uploaded, edited or used in any way without my written permission.
Hello everyone,
Again, I'm sorry I'm not around much, things haven't gone too well lately.
I had to move house again, and Joe and I have gone our seperate ways for now, and along with unemployment, I just haven't really felt able to do anything creative.
However, a lovely friend of mine, Ultrasparky on flickr, produces a lovely little queer zine called Pink Mince, and included me in the 'starkers' issue.
You can pick yours up from www.pinkmince.com from anywhere in the world. Isn't that handy?
I hope you're all well, and I hope I'm back properly soon.
x
Published together with many others in my portfolio in The C-41 Photographic Magazine, beautiful italian photography magazine ♥
Una de muchas fotos publicadas en mi portfolio en The C-41 Photographic Magazine, bella revista italiana de fotografía ♥
Published in Metro Records 82,000 More Rail Trips This Morning Than Trump's Inauguration Day : DCist
Published in The Other Signs Part One | PoPville
Published in Why we can’t just March Today. | elephant journal
Published in What Will It Take For The Women's March To Become A Movement? | Fast Company | Business + Innovation
Published 1969. An old scan from the archives. Still waiting for a replacement scanner to be shipped to me.
Photograph published on November 11, 2020 in the Italian website "Antimafia" ( link below)
www.antimafiaduemila.com/home/rassegna-stampa-sp-20870845...
Photograph also published on September 14, 2022 { link below}
guardianlv.com/2022/09/calling-yourself-a-conservative-do...
The Postcard
A postally unused postcard published by the Photographic Greeting Card Co. Ltd. of London. The photography was by London Transport.
On the back of the card the publishers have printed:
'Tube train entering Piccadilly
Circus Station, London.
More than half a million
passengers begin or end
journeys at Piccadilly every
week'.
Benedict Peas
Note the ad for Benedict Peas which are no more.
Capstan Cigarettes
The ad for Wills's Capstan (and indeed any other brand of cigarette) would not be allowed in the UK today.
Capstan is a British brand of unfiltered cigarettes, currently owned and manufactured by Imperial Brands. The brand dwindled in popularity when the health effects of tobacco became more widely known. Few shops sell them today.
In 1973, the UK Government published a table of the tar and nicotine content of cigarettes available on the UK market, and Capstan Full Strength contained, by a margin of 0.21 mg/cigarette, the highest nicotine content (3.39 mg/cigarette) of any brand, and the second-highest tar content.
Start-rite
Start-rite is a brand of children's shoes. The shoemaker, purportedly Britain's oldest, was established in 1792 in Norwich, England, by James Smith.
His grandson, James Southall, gave the firm its current name; it rose in prominence during the 20th. century thanks in part to an iconic poster, reading 'Children's Shoes Have Far to Go, which was displayed on the London Underground for 20 years from 1947.
In 1955 Start-rite was granted a royal warrant by Queen Elizabeth II to supply footwear for the young Prince Charles, Princess Anne, Prince Andrew and Prince Edward.
The company was granted a second royal warrant in 1989 by the Prince of Wales to supply children's footwear for Prince William and Prince Harry. This royal warrant was withdrawn in 2003 on production being moved from the UK to India and Portugal.
The cost-cutting move came amid a £600,000 annual loss, which the company reversed the following year to turn into a £1.5 million profit. Sales had increased by a further 20% by 2007.
In 2016 Prince George was pictured wearing Start-rite shoes in an official portrait taken to commemorate the 90th. birthday of the Queen.
The company focuses on correctly fitting shoes to children's feet, and was the first to introduce variable width fittings for children's shoes.
Piccadilly Circus
Piccadilly Circus is a road junction and public space in London's West End. It was built in order to connect Regent Street with Piccadilly. In this context, a circus, from the Latin word meaning "circle", is a round open space at a street junction.
The Circus now connects Piccadilly, Regent Street, Shaftesbury Avenue, the Haymarket, Coventry Street (onwards to Leicester Square) and Glasshouse Street.
Piccadilly Circus is close to major shopping and entertainment areas, and its status as a major traffic junction has made the Circus a busy meeting place and a tourist attraction in its own right.
Piccadilly Circus is particularly known for its video display and neon signs mounted on the corner building on the northern side, as well as the Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain and statue of Anteros (which is popularly, though mistakenly, believed to represent Eros).
Piccadilly Circus is surrounded by several notable buildings, including the London Pavilion and Criterion Theatre. Underneath the plaza is Piccadilly Circus Underground Station, part of the London Underground system.
History of Piccadilly Circus
Piccadilly Circus connects to Piccadilly, a thoroughfare whose name first appeared in 1626 as Piccadilly Hall, named after a house belonging to one Robert Baker, a tailor famous for selling piccadills, a term used for various kinds of collars.
The street was named Portugal Street in 1692 in honour of Catherine of Braganza, the queen consort of King Charles II, but by 1743 it was being referred to as Piccadilly.
Piccadilly Circus was created in 1819, at the junction with Regent Street, which was then being built under the planning of John Nash on the site of a house and garden belonging to a Lady Hutton. The intersection was then known as Regent Circus South (just as Oxford Circus was known as Regent Circus North), and it did not begin to be known as Piccadilly Circus until the mid 1880's, with the construction of Shaftesbury Avenue. In the same period, the Circus lost its circular form.
The junction has been a very busy traffic interchange since construction, as it lies at the centre of Theatreland, and handles exit traffic from Piccadilly, which Charles Dickens Jr. described as follows in 1879:
"Piccadilly, the great thoroughfare leading
from the Haymarket and Regent Street
westward to Hyde Park Corner, is the nearest
approach to the Parisian boulevard of which
London can boast."
Piccadilly Circus tube station was opened on the 10th. March 1906, on the Bakerloo line, and on the Piccadilly line in December of that year. In 1928, the station was extensively rebuilt to handle an increase in traffic.
Piccadilly Circus's first electric advertisements appeared in 1908, and, from 1923, electric billboards were set up on the façade of the London Pavilion. Electric street lamps, however, did not replace the gas ones until 1932.
The circus became a one-way roundabout on the 19th. July 1926, and traffic lights were first installed on the 3rd. August 1926.
During World War II many servicemen's clubs in the West End served American soldiers based in Britain. So many prostitutes roamed the area approaching the soldiers that they received the nickname "Piccadilly Commandos", and both Scotland Yard and the Foreign Office discussed possible damage to Anglo-American relations.
The Holford Plan for the Circus
At the start of the 1960's, it was determined that the Circus needed to be redeveloped to allow for greater traffic flow. In 1962, Lord Holford presented a plan which would have created a "double-decker" Piccadilly Circus; the upper deck would have been an elevated pedestrian concourse linking the buildings around the perimeter of the Circus, with the lower deck being solely for traffic, most of the ground-level pedestrian areas having been removed to allow for greater vehicle flow.
This concept was kept alive throughout the rest of the 1960's. A final scheme in 1972 proposed three octagonal towers (the highest 240 feet (73 m) tall) to replace the Trocadero, the Criterion and the "Monico" buildings.
Fortunately the plans were permanently rejected by Sir Keith Joseph and Ernest Marples; the key reason given was that Holford's scheme only allowed for a 20% increase in traffic, and the Government required 50%.
The Holford plan is referenced in the documentary film "Goodbye, Piccadilly", produced by the Rank Organisation in 1967 as part of their Look at Life series when it was still seriously expected that Holford's recommendations would be acted upon. Piccadilly Circus has since escaped major redevelopment, apart from extensive ground-level pedestrianisation around its south side in the 1980's.
Terrorist Bombs
Piccadilly Circus has been targeted by Irish republican terrorists multiple times. On the 24th. June 1939 an explosion occurred, although no injuries were caused, and on the 25th. November 1974 a bomb injured 16 people. A 2lb bomb also exploded on the 6th. October 1992, injuring five people.
The Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain
The Shaftesbury Memorial Fountain in Piccadilly Circus was erected in 1893 to commemorate Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th. Earl of Shaftesbury. Lord Shaftesbury was a Victorian politician, philanthropist and social reformer.
It was removed from the Circus twice and moved from the centre once.
The first time was in 1922, so that Charles Holden's new tube station could be built directly below it. The fountain returned in 1931. During the Second World War, the fountain was removed for the second time and replaced by advertising hoardings. It was returned again in 1948.
When the Circus underwent reconstruction work in the late 1980's, the entire fountain was moved from the centre of the junction at the beginning of Shaftesbury Avenue to its present position at the southwestern corner.
The subject of the Memorial is the Greek god Anteros, and was officially given the name The Angel of Christian Charity, but it is generally mistakenly believed to be his brother Eros.
Location and Sights
Piccadilly Circus is surrounded by tourist attractions, including the Criterion Theatre, London Pavilion and retail stores. Nightclubs, restaurants and bars are located in the area and neighbouring Soho, including the former Chinawhite Club.
Illuminated Signs
Piccadilly Circus was surrounded by illuminated advertising hoardings on buildings, starting in 1908 with a Perrier sign, but only one building now carries them, the one in the northwestern corner between Shaftesbury Avenue and Glasshouse Street. The site is unnamed (usually referred to as "Monico" after the Café Monico, which used to be on the site); it has been owned by property investor Land Securities Group since the 1970's.
The earliest signs used incandescent light bulbs; these were replaced with neon lights and with moving signs (there was a large Guinness clock at one time). The first Neon sign was for the British meat extract Bovril.
From December 1998, digital projectors were used for the Coke sign, the square's first digital billboard, while in the 2000's there was a gradual move to LED displays, which by 2011 had completely replaced neon lamps.
The number of signs has reduced over the years as the rental costs have increased, and in January 2017 the six remaining advertising screens were switched off as part of their combination into one large ultra-high definition curved Daktronics display, turning the signs off during renovation for the longest time since the 1940's. On the 26th. October 2017, the new screen was switched on for the first time.
Until the 2017 refurbishment, the site had six LED advertising screens above three large retail units facing Piccadilly Circus on the north side, occupied by Boots, Gap and a mix of smaller retail, restaurant and office premises fronting the other streets.
A Burger King located under the Samsung advert, which had been a Wimpy Bar until 1989, closed in 2008, and was converted into a Barclays Bank.
Coca-Cola has had a sign at Piccadilly Circus since 1954. In September 2003, the previous digital projector board and the site that had been occupied by Nescafé was replaced with a state-of-the-art LED video display that curves round with the building.
From 1978 to 1987 the spot had been used by Philips Electronics, and a neon advertisement for Foster's used the location from 1987 until 1999.
For several months in 2002, the Nescafé sign was replaced by a sign featuring the quote "Imagine all the people living life in peace" by Beatle John Lennon. This was paid for by his widow Yoko Ono, who spent an estimated £150,000 to display an advert at this location. Coca-Cola, Diet Coke, Coca-Cola Zero, Fanta, Sprite and Vitamin Water have all been advertised in the space.
The Hyundai Motors sign launched on the 29th. September 2011. It replaced a sign for Sanyo which had occupied the space since 1988, the last to be run using neon lights rather than Hyundai's computerised LED screen.
Earlier Sanyo signs with older logos had occupied the position since 1978, although these were only half the size of the later space.
McDonald's added its sign in 1987, replacing one for BASF. The sign was changed from neon to LED in 2001. A bigger, brighter screen was installed by Daktronics in 2008.
Samsung added its sign in November 1994, the space having been previously occupied by Canon Inc. (1978–84) and Panasonic (1984–94). The sign was changed from neon to LED in summer 2005, and the screen was upgraded and improved in autumn 2011.
L'Oreal, Hunter Original and eBay had signs in the Piccadilly Circus billboards since October 2017. One Piccadilly, the highest resolution of all the LED displays was installed by Daktronics in late 2013, underneath the Samsung and McDonald's signs. It allowed other companies to advertise for both short- and long-term leases, increasing the amount of advertising space but using the same screen for multiple brands.
The Curve, a similar space to One Piccadilly, was added in 2015, replacing a space previously occupied by Schweppes (1920–61), BP (1961–67), Cinzano (1967–78), Fujifilm (1978–86), Kodak (1986–90) and TDK (1990–2015).
On special occasions the lights are switched off, such as the deaths of Winston Churchill in 1965 and Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997. On the 21st. June 2007, they were switched off for one hour as part of the Lights Out London campaign.
Other companies and brands that have had signs on the site include Bovril, Volkswagen, Max Factor, Wrigley's Spearmint, Skol, Air India and Will's Gold Flake Cigarettes.
By way of a summary, and to aid the dating of other photographs of Piccadilly Circus, major brands and dates are as follows:
-- BASF up to 1987
-- Bovril from 1923
-- BP 1961 to 1967
-- Canon 1978 to 1984
-- Cinzano 1967 to 1978
-- Coca Cola from 1954
-- eBay from 2017
-- Fosters 1987 to 1999
-- Guinness from 1930 - see below
-- Fujifilm 1978 to 1986
-- Hyundai from 2011
-- Kodak 1986 to 1990
-- l'Oréal from 2017
-- McDonald's from 1987
-- Nescafé from 1999
-- Panasonic 1984 to 1994
-- Perrier from 1908
-- Philips 1978 to 1987
-- Samsung from 1994
-- Sanyo 1978 to 2011
-- Schweppes 1920 to 1961
-- TDK 1990 to 2015
Guinness
-- From 1930 to 1932, a Guinness ad showed a pint of Guinness and stated that 'Guinness is Good For You.'
-- From 1932 to 1953 the Guinness ad featured a clock and stated 'Guinness Time' as well as 'Guinness is Good For You.'
-- From 1954 to 1959 the Guinness clock had two sealions under it.
-- From 1959 to 1972 the Guinness ad featured a cuckoo clock with a swinging pendulum featuring two back-to-back toucans.
The Criterion Theatre
The Criterion Theatre, which is a Grade II* listed building, stands on the south side of Piccadilly Circus. Apart from the box office area, the entire theatre, with nearly 600 seats, is underground, and is reached by descending a tiled stairway. Columns are used to support both the dress circle and the upper circle, restricting the views of many of the seats inside.
The theatre was designed by Thomas Verity, and opened as a theatre on the 21st. March 1874, although original plans were for it to become a concert hall.
In 1883, the Criterion was forced to close in order to improve ventilation and to replace gaslights with electric lights, and was re-opened the following year. The theatre closed in 1989 and was extensively renovated, re-opening in October 1992.
The London Pavilion
On the northeastern side of Piccadilly Circus is the London Pavilion. The first building bearing the name was built in 1859, and was a music hall. In 1885, Shaftesbury Avenue was built through the former site of the Pavilion, and a new London Pavilion was constructed, which also served as a music hall. In 1924 electric billboards were erected on the side of the building.
In 1934, the building underwent significant structural alteration and was converted into a cinema. In 1986, the building was rebuilt, preserving the 1885 façade, and converted into a shopping arcade.
In 2000, the building was connected to the neighbouring Trocadero Centre, and signage on the building was altered in 2003 to read "London Trocadero". The basement of the building connects with the Underground station.
Major Shops
The former Swan & Edgar department store on the west side of the Circus was built in 1928–29 to a design by Reginald Blomfield. Since the closure of the department store in the early 1980's, the building has been successively the flagship London store of music chains Tower Records, Virgin Megastore and Zavvi. The current occupier is clothing brand The Sting.
Lillywhites is a major retailer of sporting goods located on the corner of the circus and Lower Regent Street, next to the Shaftesbury fountain. It moved to its present site in 1925. Lillywhites is popular with tourists, and they regularly offer sale items, including international football jerseys at up to 90% off.
Nearby Fortnum & Mason is often considered to be part of the Piccadilly Circus shopping area, and is known for its expansive food hall.
The County Fire Office
Dominating the north side of the Circus, on the corner of Glasshouse Street, is the County Fire Office building, with a statue of Britannia on the roof. The original building was designed by John Nash as the extreme southern end of his Regent Street Quadrant.
Its dramatic façade was clearly influenced by Inigo Jones's old Somerset House. Although Robert Abraham was the County Fire Insurance Company's architect, it was probably Nash who was instrumental in choosing the design.
In 1924 the old County Fire Office was demolished and replaced with a similar but much coarser building designed by Reginald Blomfield, but retaining the statue of Britannia. During the London Blitz it was the only building in the Circus to be damaged, although only a few window panes were blown out. The building is Grade II listed.
Piccadilly Circus Underground Station
Piccadilly Circus station on the London Underground is located directly beneath Piccadilly Circus itself, with entrances at every corner. It is one of the few stations to have no associated buildings above ground, and is fully underground. The below-ground concourse and subway entrances are Grade II listed.
The station is on the Piccadilly line between Green Park and Leicester Square, and the Bakerloo line between Charing Cross and Oxford Circus.
Demonstrations at Piccadilly Circus
The Circus' status as a high-profile public space has made it the location for numerous political demonstrations, including the 15th. February 2003 anti-war protest and the "Carnival Against Capitalism" protest against the 39th. G8 summit in 2013.
Piccadilly Circus in Popular Culture
The phrase 'It's like Piccadilly Circus' is commonly used in the UK to refer to a place or situation which is extremely busy with people. It has been said that a person who stays long enough at Piccadilly Circus will eventually bump into everyone they know.
Probably because of this connection, during World War II, "Piccadilly Circus" was the code name given to the Allies' D-Day invasion fleet's assembly location in the English Channel.
Piccadilly Circus has inspired both artists and musicians. Piccadilly Circus (1912) is the name and subject of a painting by British artist Charles Ginner, part of the Tate Britain collection.
Sculptor Paul McCarthy produced a 320-page two-volume edition of video stills by the name of Piccadilly Circus.
In the lyrics of their song "Mother Goose", on the Aqualung album from 1971, the band Jethro Tull tells:
"And a foreign student said to me:
'Was it really true there were
elephants, lions too, in Piccadilly
Circus?'".
Bob Marley mentioned Piccadilly Circus in his song "Kinky Reggae", on the Catch a Fire album in 1973.
L. S. Lowry's painting Piccadilly Circus, London (1960), part of Lord Charles Forte's collection for almost three decades, sold for £5,641,250 when auctioned for the first time at Christie's on the 16th. November 2011.
Contemporary British painter Carl Randall's painting 'Piccadilly Circus' (2017) is a large monochrome canvas depicting the area at night with crowds, the making of which involved painting over 70 portraits from life.
In Call of Duty: Modern Warfare (2019), the second campaign mission takes place at Piccadilly Circus, where the game has the player intervene during a terrorist attack by the fictional terrorist group Al-Qatala. There is also a multi-player map called Piccadilly, which appears to take place in the aftermath of the terrorist attack.
Circa
Circa is an art platform based at London's Piccadilly Circus. They commission and stream a monthly programme of art and culture, every evening at 20:21, across a global network of billboards in London, Tokyo and Seoul.
Established in October 2020 by British-Irish artist Josef O'Connor, the daily and free public art programme pauses the world famous advertisements in Piccadilly Circus and across a global network of screens for three minutes every evening.
They commission new work to fill the space that considers the world in response to the present year. It is the largest digital art exhibition in Europe. O'Connor recalls:
‘I first had the idea when I was 19, but it was only
about three years ago that I acted on it and reached
out to the screen owner, Landsec, via Twitter.
I was inspired by Piccadilly’s kinetic architecture -
how it morphed and changed with time to reflect
the world - from neon lights in 1908 to the iconic
red and white Sanyo sign in the 1990's, etc.
You could accurately guess the decade by just
looking at a photo or postcard of the landmark.
This inspired the concept for Circa, to pause time
and commission artists to create new work that
considers the world around them, circa 2020/21, etc.’
The first artist to fill the three-minute daily slot was Ai Weiwei, who is quoted as saying in an interview with The Art Newspaper that:
"Circa 2020 offers a very important platform
for artists to exercise their practice and to
reach out to a greater public”.
Other notable artists and curators whose works have been exhibited as part of the Circa programme include Cauleen Smith, Eddie Peake, Patti Smith, James Barnor curated by Hans Ulrich Obrist, Vivienne Westwood, David Hockney, Alvaro Barrington and Anne Imhof.
Each commission for the project is approved by an independent council chaired by the British independent curator and ex-director of The Royal Academy, Norman Rosenthal.
On the 1st. January 2021, Circa commissioned two live performances from Patti Smith to help put an end to 2020 and beckon in the New Year. The New Year's Eve screening in Piccadilly Circus was eventually cancelled due to Covid restrictions, but the performance was still broadcast for free via the Circa YouTube Channel on the 31st. December to an audience of over 1.5million people around the world.
Circa and Serpentine Galleries' collaborative presentation of James Barnor’s work in April 2021 completed a journey that began more than half a century ago, when Barnor photographed BBC Africa Service presenter Mike Eghan against the backdrop of Piccadilly Circus’s neon signs in 1967.
The iconic image is held within the Tate collection, and was the inspiration behind Ferdinando Verderi’s Italian Vogue cover, with Barnor remote-shooting model Adwoa Aboah standing in the exact same location to create a present reflection on the past.
To celebrate her 80th. Birthday, British fashion designer Vivienne Westwood was commissioned by Circa to present a new video work in Piccadilly Circus created with her brother entitled 'Don't Buy a Bomb,' an anti-war message presented for ten minutes on the Piccadilly Lights screen.
In the ten-minute film, the punk icon performed a re-written rendition of ‘Without You’ from My Fair Lady to offer a stark warning of societal indifference to looming environmental catastrophes, a cry against the arms trade, and its link to climate change.
In May 2021, British artist David Hockney's 2.5 minute iPad drawing of a sunrise entitled “Remember you cannot look at the sun or death for very long,” was broadcast by Circa across digital billboard screens in London's Piccadilly Circus, New York's Times Square and prominent locations in Los Angeles, Tokyo and the largest outdoor screen in Seoul.
I created a series of flower characters for a book titled Blossom Buddies, published by teNeues in 2009. The book includes 100 blossom buddies.
Gorgeous CB Official 'law enforcement officer' Miss Sinead Foley raises temperatures in her cop uniform before the launch of the Cannonball in the Point Depot, Dublin, Ireland 12/09/14. Nikon D-800, Nikkor 28-300mm f/3.5-5.6 IF-ED-VR-2 (FX), 50mm, F4.2, 1/80. Nikon SB910 Speedlite and battery pack.
Please note:
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Photography by JOB/MSI Ireland
© MSI Ireland 2015
All Rights Reserved
published on: MINT Magazine - Issue 10 - Cover story
model: Chiara Losh (Chiara Lo Sciuto)
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Across the clearfall of Stromlo opposite the depot to Black Mountain and the Telstra Tower.
Scanned from 35mm slide Box6
アサガオ ‘北京天壇’
ヒルガオ科 / サツマイモ属
Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth, 1797 ‘Tendan’
First published in Catal. Bot. 1: 36 (1797)
This species is accepted.
Confirmation Date: 08/25, 2023.
------------------------------------
Family: Convolvulaceae (APG IV)
------------------------------------
Authors:
Carl von Linnaeus (1707-1778)
Albrecht Wilhelm Roth (1757-1834)
-------------------------------------
Published In:
Catalecta Botanica 1: 36. 1797. (Catal. Bot.) Name publication detail
-------------------------------------
Annotation:as "Nil"
-------------------------------------
Distribution:Trop. & Subtrop. America
(13) grc (22) gha gui ivo nga sen sie (23) caf cmn con eqg ggi zai (24) cha eri eth soc sud (25) tan uga (26) zam zim (27) cpp nam nat (29) com mau mdg reu rod? sey (35) oma sau yem (36) chc chh chi chn chs cht (38) kor nns (40) ban ehm ind nep pak srl whm (41) cbd lao mya scs tha vie (42) jaw lsi mly mol phi sul sum xms (43) nwg (50) nta qld wau (60) nwc (76) cal (77) tex (78) ala fla lou nca 79 MXC MXE MXG MXN MXS MXT 80 BLZ COS ELS GUA HON NIC PAN 81 ARU BAH ber CUB DOM HAI JAM LEE NLA PUE TRT WIN 82 FRG GUY SUR VEN 83 BOL CLM ECU GAL PER 84 BZC BZE BZL BZN BZS 85 AGE AGW PAR URU
Lifeform:Cl. ther.
Original Compiler:George Staples
-------------------------------------
Homotypic Names:
Convolvulus nil L., Sp. Pl. ed. 2: 219 (1762).
Convolvuloides triloba Moench, Methodus: 452 (1794), nom. superfl.
Pharbitis nil (L.) Choisy, Mém. Soc. Phys. Genève 6: 439 (1833 publ. 1834)[Conv. Or.: 57]
-------------------------------------
Basionym/Replaced Synonym:
Convolvulus nil L., Sp. Pl. ed. 2: 219 (1762).
-------------------------------------
Heterotypic Synonyms:
Ipomoea hederacea Anon. in ?, non Jacq.
Convolvulus hederaceus L., Sp. Pl.: 154 (1753).
Ipomoea scabra Forssk., Fl. Aegypt.-Arab.: 44 (1775).
Convolvulus coelestis G.Forst., Fl. Ins. Austr.: 14 (1786).
Ipomoea scabra J.F.Gmel., Syst. Nat.: 345 (1791), nom. illeg.
Convolvulus dillenii Desr. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck, Encycl. 3: 544 (1792).
Ipomoea bicolor Lam., Tabl. Encycl. 1: 465 (1793).
Convolvulus hederifolius Salisb., Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 123 (1796), nom. superfl.
Ipomoea cuspidata Ruiz & Pav., Fl. Peruv. 2: 11 (1799).
Ipomoea caerulea Roxb. ex Ker-Gawl., Bot. Reg. 4: t. 276 (1818).
Ipomoea dillenii (Desr.) Roem. & Schult., Syst. Veg., ed. 15 bis 4: 227 (1819).
Convolvulus caeruleus (Roxb. ex Ker-Gawl.) Spreng., Syst. Veg., 1: 593 (1824).
Convolvulus peruvianus Spreng., Syst. Veg., 1: 593 (1824).
Ipomoea caerulea J.König ex Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 91 (1824), nom. illeg.
Ipomoea caerulescens Roxb., Fl. Ind. 2: 90 (1824).
Ipomoea setosa Blume, Bijdr.: 714 (1826), nom. illeg.
Convolvulus tomentosus Vell., Fl. Flumin.: 74 (1829), sensu auct.
Convolvulus scaber Colla, Herb. Pedem. 4: 204 (1835).
Pharbitis cuspidata (Ruiz & Pav.) G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4: 263 (1837).
Pharbitis dillenii (Desr.) G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4: 263 (1837).
Pharbitis forsskaolii G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4: 263 (1837).
Pharbitis purshii G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4: 163 (1837).
Pharbitis scabra (Colla) G.Don, Gen. Hist. 4: 263 (1837).
Pharbitis caerulea (Roxb. ex Ker-Gawl.) G.Don ex Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 3: 482 (1839).
Pharbitis caerulescens (Roxb.) Sweet, Hort. Brit., ed. 3: 482 (1839).
Convolvulus lindleyi Steud., Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 1: 409 (1840).
Convolvulus variifolius Steud., Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 1: 412 (1840).
Ipomoea trichocalyx Steud., Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 1: 819 (1840).
Pharbitis nil var. abbreviata Choisy in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 9: 343 (1845).
Pharbitis nil var. integrifolia Choisy in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 9: 343 (1845).
Pharbitis speciosa Choisy in A.P.de Candolle, Prodr. 9: 343 (1845).
Ipomoea githaginea Hochst. ex A.Rich., Tent. Fl. Abyss. 2: 65 (1850).
Pharbitis limbata Lindl., J. Hort. Soc. London 5: 33 (1850).
Ipomoea hederacea var. limbata (Lindl.) Benth., Fl. Austral. 4: 417 (1868).
Pharbitis albomarginata Lindl. ex Hook.f., Bot. Mag. 94: t. 5720 (1868), not validly publ.
Pharbitis nil var. limbata (Lindl.) Hook., Bot. Mag. 94: t. 5720 (1868).
Ipomoea longicuspis Meisn. in C.F.P.von Martius & auct. suc. (eds.), Fl. Bras. 7: 227 (1869), nom. superfl.
Ipomoea longicuspis var. brevipes Meisn. in C.F.P.von Martius & auct. suc. (eds.), Fl. Bras. 7: 227 (1869).
Ipomoea nil var. limbata (Lindl.) Meisn. in C.F.P.von Martius & auct. suc. (eds.), Fl. Bras. 7: 228 (1869).
Pharbitis albomarginata Lindl. ex Meisn. in C.F.P.von Martius & auct. suc. (eds.), Fl. Bras. 7: 228 (1869).
Ipomoea hederacea var. himalaica C.B.Clarke in J.D.Hooker, Fl. Brit. India 4: 200 (1883).
Ipomoea hederacea var. integrifolia (Choisy) C.B.Clarke in J.D.Hooker, Fl. Brit. India 4: 200 (1883).
Ipomoea githaginea var. inaequalis Beck in P.V.Paulitschke, Harrar Leipzig, App.: 458 (1888).
Ipomoea nil var. japonica Hallier f., Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 18: 137 (1893).
Ipomoea limbata (Lindl.) Voss, Vilm. Blumengärtn. ed. 3, 1: 710 (1895).
Ipomoea speciosa (Choisy) Voss, Vilm. Blumengärtn. ed. 3, 1: 711 (1895), nom. illeg.
Convolvulus setosus Hallier f., Bull. Herb. Boissier 5: 1048 (1897), nom. illeg.
Ipomoea nil var. setosa Boerl., Handl. Fl. Ned. Ind. 2: 511 (1899).
Ipomoea hederacea var. inaequalis Baker & Rendle in D.Oliver & auct. suc. (eds.), Fl. Trop. Afr. 4(2): 160 (1905).
Ipomoea vaniotiana H.Lév., Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 9: 453 (1911).
Pharbitis nil var. japonica (Hallier f.) H.Hara, Enum. Spermatophytarum Japon. 1: 167 (1949).
Ipomoea nil var. inaequalis (Beck) Cufod., Bull. Jard. Bot. Natl. Belg. 39(Suppl.): XXX (1969).
Ipomoea hederacea var. paichou J.R.Wu, J. Guiyang Tradit. Chin. Med. Coll. 1979(1): 97 (1979).
Ipomoea nil var. himalaica (C.B.Clarke) S.C.Johri, J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 5: 432 (1984).
Pharbitis nil var. paichou (J.R.Wu) J.R.Wu, Fl. Guizhouensis 6: 348 (1989), without basionym page.
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Accepted By:
AFPD. 2008. African Flowering Plants Database - Base de Donnees des Plantes a Fleurs D'Afrique.
Austin, D. F., G. W. Staples & R. Simão-Bianchini. 2015. A synopsis of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the Americas: Further corrections, changes, and additions. Taxon 64(3): 625–633.
Baksh-Comeau, Y. S., Maharaj, C. D. Adams, S. A. Harris, D. Filer & W. Hawthorne. 2016. An annotated checklist of the vascular plants of Trinidad and Tobago with analysis of vegetation types and botanical ‘hotspots’. Phytotaxa 250: 1–431.
CONABIO. 2009. Catálogo taxonómico de especies de México. 1. In Capital Nat. México. CONABIO, Mexico City.
Carnevali, G., J. L. Tapia-Muñoz, R. Duno de Stefano & I. M. Ramírez-Morillo. 2010. Fl. Ilustr. Peníns. Yucatán 1–326. Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Mérida.
Correa A., M. D., C. Galdames & M. Stapf. 2004. Cat. Pl. Vasc. Panamá 1–599. Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panamá.
Davidse, G., M. Sousa Sánchez, S. Knapp & F. Chiang Cabrera. 2012. Rubiaceae a Verbenaceae. 4(2): i–xvi, 1–533. In G. Davidse, M. Sousa Sánchez, S. Knapp & F. Chiang Cabrera (eds.) Fl. Mesoamer.. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Flora of China Editorial Committee. 1995. Flora of China (Gentianaceae through Boraginaceae). 16: 1–479. In C. Y. Wu, P. H. Raven & D. Y. Hong (eds.) Fl. China. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis.
Forzza, R. C. 2010. Lista de espécies Flora do Brasil floradobrasil.jbrj.gov.br/2010. Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro.
Funk, V. A., T. H. Hollowell, P. E. Berry, C. L. Kelloff & S. Alexander. 2007. Checklist of the plants of the Guiana Shield (Venezuela: Amazonas, Bolivar, Delta Amacuro; Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana). Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 55: 1–584. View in Biodiversity Heritage Library
Hammel, B. E. 2010. Convolvulaceae. En: Manual de Plantas de Costa Rica. Vol. V. B.E. Hammel, M.H. Grayum, C. Herrera & N. Zamora (eds.). Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 119: 72–126.
Hokche, O., P. E. Berry & O. Huber. (eds.) 2008. Nuevo Cat. Fl. Vasc. Venez. 1–859. Fundación Instituto Botánico de Venezuela, Caracas.
Idárraga-Piedrahita, A., R. D. C. Ortiz, R. Callejas Posada & M. Merello. (eds.) 2011. Fl. Antioquia: Cat. 2: 9–939. Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín.
Jørgensen, P. M., M. H. Nee & S. G. Beck. (eds.) 2014. Cat. Pl. Vasc. Bolivia, Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 127(1–2): i–viii, 1–1744. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis.
Jørgensen, P. M., M. H. Nee, S. G. Beck & A. F. Fuentes Claros. 2015 en adelante. Catalogo de las plantas vasculares de Bolivia (adiciones).
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Pérez J., L. A., M. Sousa Sánchez, A. M. Hanan-Alipi, F. Chiang Cabrera & P. Tenorio L. 2005. Vegetación terrestre. Cap. 4: 65–110. In J. Bueno, F Álvarez & S. Santiago (eds.) Biodivers. Tabasco. CONABIO-UNAM, México.
Schatz, G. E., S. Andriambololonera, P.P. Lowry II, P.B. Phillipson, M. Rabarimanarivo, J. I. Raharilala, F. A. Rajaonary, N. Rakotonirina, R. H. Ramananjanahary, B. Ramandimbisoa, A. Randrianasolo, N. Ravololomanana, C. M. Taylor & J. C. Brinda. 2020. Catalogue of the Plants of Madagascar.
Standley, P. C. & L. O. Williams. 1970. Convolvulaceae. In Standley, P. C. & L. O. Williams (eds.), Flora of Guatemala - Part IX. Fieldiana, Bot. 24(9): 4–85. View in Biodiversity Heritage Library
Stevens, W. D., C. Ulloa Ulloa, A. Pool & O. M. Montiel Jarquín. 2001. Flora de Nicaragua. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 85: i–xlii,.
Ulloa Ulloa, C., P. Acevedo-Rodríguez, S. G. Beck, M. J. Belgrano, R. Bernal González, P. E. Berry, L. Brako, M. Celis, G. Davidse, S. R. Gradstein, O. Hokche, B. León, S. León-Yánez, R. E. Magill, D.A. Neill, M. H. Nee, P. H. Raven, H. Stimmel, M. T. Strong, J. L. Villaseñor Ríos, J. L. Zarucchi, F. O. Zuloaga & P. M. Jørgensen. 2017. An integrated assessment of vascular plants species of the Americas. Science 358: 1614–1617 [Online Suppl. Materials: 1–23 + 1–2497], f. 1–4 [f. S1–5].
Ulloa Ulloa, C., P. Acevedo-Rodríguez, S. G. Beck, M. J. Belgrano, R. Bernal González, P. E. Berry, L. Brako, M. Celis, G. Davidse, S. R. Gradstein, O. Hokche, B. León, S. León-Yánez, R. E. Magill, D.A. Neill, M. H. Nee, P. H. Raven, H. Stimmel, M. T. Strong, J. L. Villaseñor Ríos, J. L. Zarucchi, F. O. Zuloaga & P. M. Jørgensen. 2018 [Onwards]. An integrated Assessment of Vascular Plants Species of the Americas (Online Updates).
Villaseñor Ríos, J. L. 2016. Checklist of the native vascular plants of Mexico. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares nativas de México. Revista Mex. Biodivers. 87(3): 559–902. epublication
Wood, J. R. I., P. Muñoz Rodríguez, B. R. M. B.R.M. Williams & R. W. Scotland. 2020. A foundation monograph of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the New World. PhytoKeys 143: 1–823.
Zuloaga, F. O., O. Morrone, M. J. Belgrano, C. Marticorena & E. Marchesi. (eds.) 2008. Catálogo de las plantas vasculares del Cono Sur. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Bot. Gard. 107(1–3): i–xcvi, 1–3348.
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Adams, C.D. (1972). Flowering Plants of Jamaica: 601-614. University of the West Indies, Mona.
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Verdcourt, B. (1978). Corrections and additions to the 'Flora of Tropical East Africa: Convolvulaceae': IV. Kew Bulletin 33: 159-168.
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Powell, Dulcie A. (1979). The Convolvulaceae of the Lesser Antilles. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 60: 219-271.
Austin, D.F. (1980). Rev. Handb. Fl. Ceylon Convolvulaceae. A Revised Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon 1: 288-363. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. PVT. LTD., New Delhi, Calcutta.
Wiggins, I.L. (1980). Convolvulaceae. Flora of Baja California: 373-385. Stanford Univ. Press.
Austin, D. F. (1982). Flora of Ecuador 15: 3-99. Botanical Institute, University of Göteborg, Riksmuseum, Stockholm.
Austin, D.F. (1982). Convolvulaceae. Flora de Venezuela 8(3): 15-226. Fundación Educación Ambiental.
Austin, D.F. & Cavalcante, P.B. (1982). Convolvuláceas da Amazônia. Publicações Avulsas do Museo Goeldi 36: 1-134.
Austin, D.F. (1982). Convolvulaceae. Flora of the Bahama Archipelago: 1161-1190. J.Cramer, Vaduz.
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Khan, M.S. (1985). Fl. Bangladesh Convolvulaceae. Flora of Bangladesh 30: 1-59. Bangladesh National Herbarium, Dhaka.
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Austin, D.F. (1990). Comments on southwestern United States Evolvulus and Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae). Madrono 37: 124-132.
Lejoly, J. & S. Lisowski (1992). Les genres Merremia et Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) dans la Flore d'Afrique Centrale (Zaire, Rwanda, Burundi). Fragmenta Floristica et Geobotanica 37: 21-125.
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Barker, R.M. & Telford, I.R.H. (1993). Fl. Australia Oceanic Islds. Convolvs. Flora of Australia 50: 342-353. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
McPherson, G. [w/ D.F. Austin] (1993). Convolvulaceae. Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru: 365-374. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Friedmann, F. (1994). Convolvulaceae. Flore des Seychelles Dicotylédones: 491-503. ORSTOM éditions.
Liogier, A.H. (1994). Convolvulaceae. La flora de la Española 6: 49-114. Universidad Central del Este.
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McDonald, Andrew (1994). Convolvulaceae. Flora de Veracruz 77: 1-133. Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bióticos, Xalapa, Veracruz.
Fang, R.-Z. & Staples, G. (1995). Convolvulaceae. Flora of China 16: 271-325. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis.
Austin, D.F. & Huáman, Z. (1996). A synopsis of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the Americas. Taxon 45: 3-38.
Austin, D.F. (1997). Convolvulaceae. Checklist of the Plants of the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam, Franch Guiana): 87-88. University of Guyana, Georgetown.
Wood, J.R.I. (1997). Handb. Yemen Fl. Convolvulaceae. A Handbook of the Yemen Flora: 230-236. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Austin, D.F. (1998). Convolvulaceae. Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana 4: 377-424. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.
Mill, R.R. (1999). Fl. Bhutan Convolvulaceae. Flora of Bhutan 2(2): 834-862. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
Balick, M.J., Nee, M.H. & Atha, D.E. (2000). Checklist of the Vascular Plants of Belize with Common Names an Uses: i-x, 1-246. New York Botanic Garden Press, New York.
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Bosser, J. & H. Heine (2000). Fl. Mascar. Convolvulaceae. Flore des Mascareignes 127: 1-63. IRD Éditions, MSIRI, RBG-Kew, Paris.
Liogier, H.A. & L.F. Martorell (2000). Convolvulaceae. Flora of Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands: a Systematic Synopsis: 162-167. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan.
Deroin, T. (2001). Convolvulaceae. Flore de Madagascar et des Comores (Plantes Vasculaires) 171: 11-287. Typographie Firmin-Didot et Cie., Paris.
Alfarhan, A. & Thomas, J. (2001). Saudi Arabian CNV + CUS. Flora of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2(2): 156-222. Ministry of Agriculture & Water, Riyadh.
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Subba Rao, G.V. & G.R. Rao (2002). Convolvulaceae. Flora of Visakhapatnam District, Andhra Pradesh 1: 549-574. Botanical Survey of India.
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Wood, J.R.I., Muñoz-Rodríguez P., Williams, B.R.M., Scotland, R.W. (2020). A foundation monograph of Ipomoea (Convolvulaceae) in the New World. PhytoKeys 143: 1-823.
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The diameter of the flower is about φ4 cm and it is a very cute flower.
花の直径はφ4cm ほどの大変可愛らしい花です。
SONY α7 ILCE-7
Minolta AF MACRO 100mm F2.8