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Île-de-France
vers 1530
La "Mort Saint-Innocent"
Provenant du cimetière des Innocents à Paris
Albâtre
H. : 1,20 m. ; L. : 0,55 m. ; Pr. : 0,27 m.
L'image décharnée de la Mort se dressait au centre du cimetière des Innocents. Sur son bouclier, un quatrain rappelle :
"Il n'est vivant tant soit plein d'art
Ne de force pour resistance
Que je ne frappe de mon dard
Pour bailler aux vers leur pitance
Priez Dieu pour les trepasses."
À la suppression du cimetière, en 1786, le squelette a été porté à Saint-Gervais, puis à Notre-Dame, où le bras a été refait par le sculpteur Deseine, ensuite au musée des Monuments français.
Entré au Louvre en 1866
Département des Sculptures
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
SEA FLYER
Platform supply vessel of the large and proven PX105 design. The loading deck area is in excess of 1,000 square metres and the vessel has a load capacity of 4,700 tonnes.
VESSEL TYPE : PLATFORM SUPPLY
DESIGNED BY: Ulstein Design & Solutions AS
Year : 2013
OWNED BY : Solstad Farstad
DESIGN : PX105
BUILT BY : Zhejiang Shipbuilding Co. Ltd
Featured Solutions - X Bow
PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS
Length: 88.9 m
Beam: 19 m
Dead weight: 4500 tonnes
Draught (max): 6.6 m
Speed (max): 15.5 kn
Accommodation: 23 POB
Deck area: 985 sqm
CAPACITIES
Fuel oil: 870 cbm
Fresh water: 1260 cbm
Ballast/ Drill water: 1520 cbm
SHIP HISTORY
The Zhejiang yard, a part of the Sinopacific Group, delivered twelve ULSTEIN designed vessels to Deep Sea Supply during 2013 and 2014.
The vessels are constructed for operations all over the world. “We are very pleased with the vessels - and so are our clients”, stated Finn Amund Norbye, CEO in Deep Sea Supply. “ULSTEIN participated in the vessels' construction and was also responsible for the electrical installations. Communication and quality of work have been good. We have taken delivery of twelve large state-of-the-art platform supply vessels in approx. 18 months, which must be considered to be very satisfactory.” The X-BOW® hull line design eliminates slamming from head sea, increases comfort and safety and reduces fuel consumption.
In addition to the basic design, ULSTEIN delivered a comprehensive package of systems and equipment as well as on-site support. ULSTEIN’s equipment deliveries include diesel electric propulsion and engines, and the system deliveries include power distribution and propulsion, automation, internal communication and entertainment, navigation and radio. The vessels were among the first in which ULSTEIN had the switchboards produced at their own company in Ningbo, reducing delivery time due to shipment.
En provenance de Bourg St Maurice, la BB 26012 redescend un train en W à destination de la capitale. Il passe ici devant le charmant petit village de St Vital le 21 février 2009.
Vitrail provenant du monastère Saint Jérôme de Grenade.
Arnao de Vergara est l'un des plus grands maîtres-verriers de la Renaissance espagnole, il a été actif à Burgos, Séville et Grenade. Fils de Arnao de Flandes, son oeuvre montre le goût du détail propre à la tradition flamande.
Le Furon, torrent en provenance du plateau de Lans-en-Vercors, traverse Sassenage de part en part avant de se jeter dans l’Isère au niveau de la Rollandière. Ce torrent, qui vite peut devenir furieux, attire les touristes et contribua à l’énergie hydraulique de la petite industrie sassenageoise.
Vitrail provenant du monastère Saint Jérôme de Grenade.
Arnao de Vergara est l'un des plus grands maîtres-verriers de la Renaissance espagnole, il a été actif à Burgos, Séville et Grenade. Fils de Arnao de Flandes, son oeuvre montre le goût du détail propre à la tradition flamande.
Provenance : Megara Hyplaea, nécropole ouest.
Megara Hyblaea est une colonie grecque située sur la côte est de la Sicile, à 22 km au nord de Syracuse, près de l’actuelle ville d’Augusta,. C’est une des plus anciennes colonies grecques de Sicile, fondée dans la seconde moitié du VIIIe siècle av. J.-C. Elle a connu deux grandes phases d’occupation, à l’époque archaïque (VIIIe-Ve siècle av. J.-C.) et à l’époque hellénistique (IVe-IIIe siècle av. J.-C.).
Wikipedia
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
Provenendo da Ischia Porto, dopo aver attraversato Casamicciola si arriva a Lacco Ameno in Piazza Capitello.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
Grès en provenance de El-Deir-El-Bahari (près de Thèbes), hauteur : 138 cm, -2 060-2 010 av. JC (IIème dynastie), musée égyptien, Le Caire.
La statue représente le roi coiffé de la couronne rouge de la Basse-Egypte, le corps engainé dans le manteau jubilaire blanc heb-sed, s'arrêtant au dessus des genoux comme pour célébrer aussi le jubilé sans l'au-delà. La couleur noire de sa chaire, la barbe postiche, les bras croisés sur la poitrine, les poings serrés pour tenir le fléau et la crosse, l'identifient à Osiris.
Le corps vigoureux, les jambes et les pieds massifs montrent que l'intention était de représenter la puissance du souverain plutôt que d'attirer l'attention sur une difformité corporelle ou sur une diporportion de la part de l'artiste (cf. musée égyptien).
While not as popular as its Scandinavian counterparts, Helsinki has proven to withstand the test of time better than most European capitals, with its art-nouveau architecture and history nurturing at every glance. So why would someone go all the way to Finland to visit such a remote city when there are others, much closer and more popular?
Helsinki – one of the world’s most eco-friendly cities
For starters, you’ll be happy to hear that Helsinki is one of the greenest cities in the world, with cars and bikes being used less and less each year and instead, promoting public transport that provides an eco-friendly environment. Already 50% of the city has gone green and the number keeps rising with each day, due to the nature of its culture. Finland is a country in which people care about their environment and history as their most precious treasure in the world. The fact that the large majority of its buildings and architecture is the same now as it was 80 years ago tells us about the way these people treat their national treasure, with outmost care and respect.
Even the cuisine is going green and healthy, with restaurants and bars opting for more vegan and diet meals instead of the usual friend and greasy that most of us are used to in the 21st century. Each bite and every taste is carefully planned and given attention, because even if the city is green, the residents and tourists need to consume healthy sustenance as well.
A city of sheer natural beauty and open-minded people
One of the reasons that young and open-minded people looking for an inspiration might consider Helsinki is its art scene: it’s the powerhouse of modern and classic design. Whatever style you are looking for, Helsinki is surely ready to provide; from centerpiece showrooms with classical Finish and European artists’ works being preserved and guarded with outmost care, to hipster and experimental arts ready to be born, Helsinki houses all of them.
One such example of historic powerhouse is the Ateneum which is Finland’s most important art gallery and houses Finish and European works from the 19th century and onwards; sculptural, painted or otherwise. The building itself was founded in 1887 which goes to show how much the Finish culture is at play when maintaining their historic treasures while giving them a modern touch. The base level of the Ateneum serves multiple purposes, from a coffee shop and a book-store, to a gift shop and a start to what you might consider the centerpiece of Finish art and history.
Come meet the people
While quirky in their nature of loving everything avant-garde and despising all that is popular and considered modern fast-food, the Finish are a kind and welcoming community that will surely put a smile on your face. Their hospitality and way of thinking knows no bounds, given that they’ve committed to turning their state, starting with their capital of Helsinki to a green and eco-friendly environment that nurtures nature and history. While you may be put off by some of the quirkiness and ways of thinking, approach the idea of visiting Helsinki with an open mind; a little quirk is sometimes exactly what we need in the modern society that we live in, where everything is consumed fast and given no second thought; you might just like what you see there.
If you’re looking for a different type of travel experience for this year, head over to Finland. There are plenty of bespoke holidays in Finland from where you can choose from. Decide on the most peculiar and thrilling type, and get ready for a memorable travel experience.
by New Hotel Travel in ift.tt/20uS9bB
SEA SPRINGER
Platform supply vessel of the large and proven PX105 design. The loading deck area is in excess of 1,000 square metres and the vessel has a load capacity of 4,700 tonnes.
VESSEL TYPE
PLATFORM SUPPLY
DESIGNPX105
BUILT BY
Zhejiang Shipbuilding Co. Ltd.
YEAR 2014
OWNED BY. Solstad Offshore
DESIGNED BY. Ulstein Design & Solutions AS
ORDERED BY. Deep Sea Supply
IMO NUMBER. 9656656
PRINCIPAL DIMENSIONS
Length: 88.9 m
Beam:19 m
Dead weight: 4700 tonnes
Speed (max): 15.5 kn
Deck area: 1000 sqm
Note: Subject to selected variant configuration
CAPACITIES
Fuel oil: 870 cbm
Fresh water: 1260 cbm
Ballast/Drill water: 1520 cbm
FEATURED SOLUTIONS. X-BOW®
SHIP HISTORY
The Zhejiang yard, a part of the Sinopacific Group, delivered twelve ULSTEIN designed vessels to Deep Sea Supply during 2013 and 2014.
The vessels are constructed for operations all over the world. “We are very pleased with the vessels - and so are our clients”, stated Finn Amund Norbye, CEO in Deep Sea Supply. “ULSTEIN participated in the vessels' construction and was also responsible for the electrical installations. Communication and quality of work have been good. We have taken delivery of twelve large state-of-the-art platform supply vessels in approx. 18 months, which must be considered to be very satisfactory.” The X-BOW® hull line design eliminates slamming from head sea, increases comfort and safety and reduces fuel consumption.
In addition to the basic design, ULSTEIN delivered a comprehensive package of systems and equipment as well as on-site support. ULSTEIN’s equipment deliveries include diesel electric propulsion and engines, and the system deliveries include power distribution and propulsion, automation, internal communication and entertainment, navigation and radio. The vessels were among the first in which ULSTEIN had the switchboards produced at their own company in Ningbo, reducing delivery time due to shipment.
Finding British Airways Boeing 777 fleet at London Heathrow has been somewhat easy, the examples based at London Gatwick have proven trickier to find since they hardly ever transfer over to London Heathrow (apart from a very few number of examples), normally only for maintenance.
As British Airways continue to ramp up long-haul flights from London Gatwick, the company transferred 2 of the late batch of Boeing 777-200ER's to be permanently based at London Gatwick in 2013. These are G-YMMR/S which was part of a batch of 4 Boeing 777-200ER's that were delivered to British Airways in 2009. Two more Rolls-Royce Boeing 777's transferred in 2016 as British Airways continued to ramp up long-haul flying from London Gatwick as they can fly further unlike the General Electric examples which are range restricted.
One long-haul flight from London Gatwick which utilises the Rolls-Royce Boeing 777-200ER's is from Lima, Peru. BA2238/2239 operates thrice weekly on Wednesday, Friday and Sunday only. The service was supposed to operate during the Winter however that has been cancelled to now operate only the Summer only. The previous plan was between 29th October 2017 to 24th March 2018, BA2238/2239 was supposed to operate twice weekly from Wednesday and Sunday only but has since been cancelled. Flights between London Gatwick and Peru should restart on 28th March 2018.
Currently, British Airways operates 58 Boeing 777's, which includes 3 Boeing 777-200's, 43 Boeing 777-200ER's and 12 Boeing 777-300ER's.
Yankee Mike Mike Romeo is one of 43 Boeing 777-200ER's in service with British Airways, delivered new to the flag-carrier in March 2009 and she is powered by 2 Rolls-Royce Trent 895 engines.
Boeing 777-236/ER G-YMMR on final approach into Runway 26L at London Gatwick (LGW) on BA2238 from Lima-Jorge Chávez (LIM).
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
Le visage de Martine semble d'effacer, la fresque a été peinte il y a seulement un an ! Les intempéries en haut du mur de 150m2.
"Martine in the Forest", Telmo Miel : Duo muraliste et créateur d’images provenant des Pays-Bas, ils exécutent souvent leurs pièces d’une échelle monumentale, créant d’immenses tableaux de peinture d’une taille architecturale sur les façades de bâtiments.
app.eiffage.com/content/9-fresques-monumentales-d-coreron...
Grès en provenance de El-Deir-El-Bahari (près de Thèbes), hauteur : 138 cm, -2 060-2 010 av. JC (IIème dynastie), musée égyptien, Le Caire.
La statue représente le roi coiffé de la couronne rouge de la Basse-Egypte, le corps engainé dans le manteau jubilaire blanc heb-sed, s'arrêtant au dessus des genoux comme pour célébrer aussi le jubilé sans l'au-delà. La couleur noire de sa chaire, la barbe postiche, les bras croisés sur la poitrine, les poings serrés pour tenir le fléau et la crosse, l'identifient à Osiris.
Le corps vigoureux, les jambes et les pieds massifs montrent que l'intention était de représenter la puissance du souverain plutôt que d'attirer l'attention sur une difformité corporelle ou sur une diporportion de la part de l'artiste (cf. musée égyptien).
BREAKING NEWS - MYSTERY SOLVED - Clipped from
The Victoria Daily Times newspaper - Victoria, British Columbia, Canada - 15 December 1914 - Willows Post Office. As the branch Post Office at the Willows, established for the benefit of the soldiers at the crimp, has proven to be such a convenience, It has been decided to add a money order branch from January 1, 1915 - The office is in charge of H. W. Adams, from the city (Victoria Postal Clerk) office, and is known as Victoria Sub Office X, but mail addressed to the Willows camp will reach its destination safely.
Herbert William Adams
(b. 21 February 1884 in London, England - d. 28 April 1959 at age 75 in Victoria, British Columbia) - Victoria Postal Clerk abt 1913 to 1947. Postmaster at Victoria Sub Office X. He never married.
HUBERT WILLIAM ADAMS - At the Royal Jubilee Hospital, on April 28, 1959. Hubert William Adams of 90 Linden Avenue; born in London, England, Feb. 21, 1884; came to Victoria in May 1906 and worked for Wilson Bros grocers, later was a member of the staff of Victoria Post Office, until his retirement 12 years ago. He was a member of Columbia Lodge No. 2. I.O.O.F. and was treasurer of that lodge for 33 years; a member of Britannia Lodge No. 73, A.F. and A.M. and Court Vancouver, A.O.F.; also a Past Patron of Victoria Chapter No. 17. O.E.S.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This postcard was mailed September 15, 1915, to Vancouver, B.C. and bears the 23 mm full-circle cancel SUB.OFFICE X / VICTORIA, B.C. with an eight-bar circular killer.
- from - BRITISH COLUMBIA P0STAL HISTORY RESEARCH GR0UP / Volume 16 - Number 3 - Whole number 63 - September 2007 - VICTORIA SUB-OFFICE X - The study of the use of the Victoria Sub "X" hammer has produced much confusion. As noted in the last News Letter the Vancouver Sub P.O. "X" appears to have been produced, in 1911, for use at the Post Office counter at the Vancouver Exhibition and remained in use until the 1950's. On the other hand the Victoria Sub.Office X hammer was not proofed until November 14, 1914 and speculation is that it may have been produced for use at the Victoria Fall Fair that had been held annually at the Wiliowpark Exhibition Grounds for many years. Colin Campbell in the November / December issue of Post West examines the available information that has been used here.
The Willowpark Exhibition Grounds was a 60 acre tract of land purchased by the City of Victoria from the Bowker Park Company in 1907 for use as a Fair Grounds. It was situated on Cadboro Bay Road outside the city limits in the opulent Oak Bay district. During the World War 1 the fairground was leased to the army and was known as Willows Camp. The 30th and 260th Infantry Battalions as well as the 48th, 88th and 50th Gordon Highlanders and others were stationed there.
The Post Office Transactions for April 1918 show "Victoria Sub-Office X" post office as re-opening April 1st 1918 again with no details as to location or postmaster and the Post Office Transactions for February 1919 show the office as a Field Post Office and list the office as closing on January 15th 1919. No postal marking have been reported for this later period.
LINK to the complete article - www.bnaps.org/hhl/newsletters/bcr/bcr-2007-09-v016n03-w06...
- from - BRITISH COLUMBIA P0STAL HISTORY RESEARCH GR0UP / Volume 16 - Number 4 - Whole number 64 - January 2008 - Part Two - At the height of the First World War there appear to have been three military camps on southern Vancouver Island in addition to Esquimalt Naval Base; namely Willows Camp, Victoria; Nanaimo Internment Camp; and a military training camp at Sidney. The Canada Official Postal Guide and the Canada Gazette do little to clarify the postal system serving these three camps. The SUB.OFFICE X dater appears to have been used at the Willows Camp off and on from December 1914 until January 1919. The Postal Guide for August 1916 lists Victoria Sub. office X as closing July 16 and the location as "Military Camp Nanaimo." The September 1916 Canada Gazette lists a military training camp at Sidney but does not indicate if a post office was there or not. The cover below would indicate that the mail from this camp was processed at Sidney, but could the Victoria Sub.office X hammer have been used briefly at one or the other of these camps when the Willows Camp (Victoria Sub.office X) post office was closed? LINK to the complete article - www.bnaps.org/hhl/newsletters/bcr/bcr-2008-01-v016n04-w06...
sent from - / SUB.OFFICE X / AM / SP 15 / 15 / VICTORIA • B.C. / - cds cancel - this cds hammer was proofed - 14 November 1914.
Message on postcard reads: Arrived here all safe. Like it all right - we have got our outfit but no underwear or socks yet. Remember me to Mr. Boyles - when you write. Pte. J. Skinner / #2 Company / 67 Battery / Victoria - (67th Battery C.E.F. Western Scots)
Addressed to - Mrs. Boyles / 4850 Elgin Street / Vancouver, B.C. (South Vancouver)
Isabella "Bello" (nee Dodds) Boyles
(b. 18 March 1878 in Ireland - d. 14 March 1963 at age 84 in Vancouver, B.C.) - LINK to her newspaper obituary - www.newspapers.com/clip/109100706/obituary-for-isabella-b... - LINK to her death certificate - search-collections.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/Image/Genealogy/5d...
Her husband - George Boyles
(b. 10 November 1875 in Belfast, Ireland - d. 24 December 1956 at age 81 in Vancouver, B.C.) - occupation - dock worker - LINK to his newspaper obituary - www.newspapers.com/clip/109100599/the-vancouver-sun/ - LINK to his death certificate - search-collections.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/Image/Genealogy/2f...
Her daughter - Sadie Margaret Boyles (b. in Belfast, Ireland - d. 11 June 2005 in Vancouver, B.C.) - occupation - school teacher / college professor - she never married - LINK to her newspaper obituary - www.newspapers.com/clip/109100836/obituary-for-sadie-boyl... She wrote several articles on "French in British Columbia".
Clipped from - The Province newspaper - Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada - 24 July 1919 - LED PROVINCE IN EXAMINATIONS - Miss SADIE BOYLES, aged 13, a pupil of McBride School, South Vancouver, who led the province in the high school entrance examination, is a native of Belfast, Ireland, who came to Canada as a babe in arms. After three years in Calgary her parents, Mr. and Mrs. George Boyles, came to reside in South Vancouver at 862 Twenty-eighth avenue east. She commenced her school career in 1912 at McBride School, and each year since has been awarded an honor roll, five for proficiency, one for regularity In attendance and one for deportment. When the news arrived on Wednesday evening that she had won the premier position schoolmates flocked to her home to offer congratulations, but the young scholar was enjoying the breezes at English Bay and she was both astonished and incredulous on arriving at 862 Twenty-eighth avenue later In the evening to learn of her success. Not so Mrs. Boyles, however. She told The Province representative that it was due to hard work on the part of her daughter and the excellent teaching staff at McBride School, which she considers the best school in South Vancouver.
LINK to a newspaper article - Wins Honors - Sadie M. Boyles - www.newspapers.com/clip/109102019/the-vancouver-sun/
Clipped from - The Vancouver Sun newspaper - Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada - 26 August 1926 - Miss Bernice Barton, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. H. B. Barton, who will accompany Miss Sadie Boyles and will take the same course at the Sorbonne in Paris. They will sail on September 22 from New York, and en route they will visit in Winnipeg, Montreal and Toronto. LINK to Bernice Barton postcard - www.flickr.com/photos/allmycollections/51954780781/in/pho...
The Most Proven. And Still Proving It.
There is no aircraft in aviation history — either developed or under development — that can match the flexibility, versatility and relevance of the C-130 Hercules. In continuous production longer than any other military aircraft, the C-130 has earned a reputation as a workhorse ready for any mission, anywhere, anytime.
The C-130J Super Hercules offers superior performance and new capabilities, with the range and flexibility for every theater of operations and evolving requirements. This rugged aircraft is regularly sent on missions in the harshest environments, and is often seen as the first aircraft “in,” touching down on austere landing strips before any other transport to provide humanitarian relief after natural disasters.
With more than 1 million hours of flying combat, humanitarian, special operations, aerial refueling, firefighting, and search and rescue missions around the world, the C-130J stands ready for its next mission and for whatever the future holds.
Fort Boyard
Coordonnées45° 59′ 59″ nord, 1° 12′ 50″ ouest
Pays : France
Région :Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Département :Charente-Maritime
Commune (France)Île-d'Aix
Premiers travaux des assises du fort (1801-1809)
La construction du fort (1841 - 1857)
Le fort est construit sur un banc de sable nommé « longe de Boyard », située à l'origine à 4,50 m de profondeur sous les Plus Basses Eaux, qui a donné son nom au fort. Dans un premier temps, la désignation sur des cartes hollandaises du xviie siècle de ce banc de sable sous l'appellation Banjaert Hollandis a laissé penser à une origine néerlandaise de ce nom. Ce terme, prononcé banyard, aurait pu se transformer pour devenir le Boyard connu aujourd'hui. Cette origine a été réfutée par des études ultérieures qui ont conclu que l'emprunt s'est certainement fait dans l'autre sens et que l'appellation originale viendrait du nom commun boyart qui désigne une partie de charpente dans une écluse de salines. La saunerie étant une activité historiquement installée sur l'île d'Oléron proche viendrait expliquer cette étymologie.
De forme oblongue, le positionnement du fort est situé à 2 900 m de l'île d'Aix et à 2 400 m de l'île d'Oléron. Il mesure 68 mètres de long dans l'axe sur 31 mètres de large, pour une superficie au sol de 2 065 m2 et totale de 2 689 m2. La cour intérieure mesure 43 m de long dans l'axe, 12 m de large et sa surface est de 565 m2. Les murs d'enceinte culminent à 20 mètres depuis les fondations. Il est visible depuis Fouras, depuis l'île d'Oléron, depuis le pont qui relie le sud de l'île au continent, depuis le phare de Chassiron par beau temps, à l'extrême nord de l'île ainsi que d'une bonne partie de la côte est de celle-ci, notamment depuis Boyardville, mais aussi depuis la ville de La Rochelle et bien sûr de la côte ouest de l'île d'Aix, où de nombreux touristes et enfants viennent en été voir le fort de plus près.
Informations en provenance du site:
fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Boyard_(monument)#La_construction_du_fort_(1841_-_1857)
Je vous remercie mes amis de m'avoir accordé un peu de votre temps pour visualiser mes photos, vos commentaries et mise en favoris.
Thank you my friends for giving me a bit of your time to view my photos, comments and favorites.
Birdoswald Roman Fort was known as Banna ("horn" in Celtic) in Roman times, reflecting the geography of the site on a triangular spur of land bounded by cliffs to the south and east commanding a broad meander of the River Irthing in Cumbria below.
It lies towards the western end of Hadrian's Wall and is one of the best preserved of the 16 forts along the wall. It is also attached to the longest surviving stretch of Hadrian's Wall.
Cumbria County Council were responsible for the management of Birdoswald fort from 1984 until the end of 2004, when English Heritage assumed responsibility.
This western part of Hadrian's Wall was originally built using turf starting from 122 AD. The stone fort was built some time after the wall, in the usual playing card shape, with gates to the east, west and south.
The fort was occupied by Cohors I Aelia Dacorum and by other Roman auxiliaries from approximately AD 126 to AD 400.
The two-mile sector of Hadrian's Wall either side of Birdoswald is also of major interest. It is currently the only known sector of Hadrian's Wall in which the original turf wall was replaced, probably in the 130s, by a stone wall approximately 50 metres further north, to line up with the fort's north wall, instead of at its east and west gates. The reasons for this change are unclear, although David Woolliscroft (Woolliscroft, 2001) has plausibly suggested that it was the result of changing signalling requirements, whilst Stewart Ainsworth of Time Team suggested it was a response to a cliff collapse into the river. At any rate, this remains the only area in which both the walls can be directly compared.
As of 2005, it is the only site[citation needed] on Hadrian's Wall at which significant occupation in the post-Roman period has been proven. Excavations between 1987 and 1992 showed an unbroken sequence of occupation on the site of the fort granaries, running from the late Roman period until possibly 500AD. The granaries were replaced by two successive large timber halls, reminiscent of others found in many parts of Britain dating to the fifth and sixth centuries. Tony Wilmott (co-director of the excavations) has suggested that, after the end of Roman rule in Britain, the fort served as the power-base for a local warband descended from the late Roman garrison, possibly deriving legitimacy from their ancestors for several generations.
Inside were built the usual stone buildings, a central headquarters building (principia), granaries (horrea), and barracks. Unusually for an auxiliary fort, it also included an exercise building (basilica exercitatoria), perhaps reflecting the difficulties of training soldiers in the exposed site in the north of England.
Geophysical surveys detected vici (civilian settlements) of different characters on the eastern, western and northern sides of the fort. A bathhouse was also located in the valley of the River Irthing.
Approximately 600 metres east of Birdoswald, at the foot of an escarpment, lie the remains of Willowford bridge which carried Hadrian's Wall across the River Irthing. The westward movement of the river course over the centuries has left the east abutment of the bridge high and dry, while the west abutment has probably been destroyed by erosion. Nevertheless, the much-modified visible remains are highly impressive. Until 1996, these remains were not directly accessible from the fort, but they can now be reached by a footbridge.
The fort at Birdoswald was linked by a Roman road, sometimes referred to as the Maiden Way, to the outpost fort of Bewcastle, seven miles to the north. Signals could be relayed between the two forts by means of two signalling towers.
The fort has been extensively excavated for over a century, with twentieth century excavations starting in 1911 by F.G. Simpson and continuing with Ian Richmond from 1927 to 1933 .[6] The gateways and walls were then re-excavated under the supervision of Brenda Swinbank and J P Gillam from 1949 to 1950.
Extensive geophysical surveys, both magnetometry and earth resistance survey, were conducted by TimeScape Surveys (Alan Biggins & David Taylor, 1999 & 2004) between 1997 -2001. These surveys established that the sub-surface remains in the fort were well preserved.
An area between the fort and the escarpment was excavated by Channel 4's archaeological television programme Time Team in January 2000. The excavation detected signs of an extramural settlement (vicus), but the area is liable to erosion and the majority of the vicus could have fallen over the cliffs.
In 2021 Newcastle University, Historic England, and English Heritage launched a major new archaeological excavation at the site.
Today the fort's site is operated by English Heritage as Birdoswald Roman Fort. The visitor centre features displays and reconstructions of the fort, exhibits about life in Roman Britain, the site's history through the ages, and archaeological discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries. Visitors can walk outside along the excavated remains of the fort.
Roman Britain was the territory that became the Roman province of Britannia after the Roman conquest of Britain, consisting of a large part of the island of Great Britain. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410.
Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 and 54 BC as part of his Gallic Wars. According to Caesar, the Britons had been overrun or culturally assimilated by the Belgae during the British Iron Age and had been aiding Caesar's enemies. The Belgae were the only Celtic tribe to cross the sea into Britain, for to all other Celtic tribes this land was unknown. He received tribute, installed the friendly king Mandubracius over the Trinovantes, and returned to Gaul. Planned invasions under Augustus were called off in 34, 27, and 25 BC. In 40 AD, Caligula assembled 200,000 men at the Channel on the continent, only to have them gather seashells (musculi) according to Suetonius, perhaps as a symbolic gesture to proclaim Caligula's victory over the sea. Three years later, Claudius directed four legions to invade Britain and restore the exiled king Verica over the Atrebates. The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni, and then organized their conquests as the province of Britain. By 47 AD, the Romans held the lands southeast of the Fosse Way. Control over Wales was delayed by reverses and the effects of Boudica's uprising, but the Romans expanded steadily northward.
The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola (77–84), who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia. In mid-84 AD, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be upwards of 10,000 on the Caledonian side and about 360 on the Roman side. The bloodbath at Mons Graupius concluded the forty-year conquest of Britain, a period that possibly saw between 100,000 and 250,000 Britons killed. In the context of pre-industrial warfare and of a total population of Britain of c. 2 million, these are very high figures.
Under the 2nd-century emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, two walls were built to defend the Roman province from the Caledonians, whose realms in the Scottish Highlands were never controlled. Around 197 AD, the Severan Reforms divided Britain into two provinces: Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. During the Diocletian Reforms, at the end of the 3rd century, Britannia was divided into four provinces under the direction of a vicarius, who administered the Diocese of the Britains. A fifth province, Valentia, is attested in the later 4th century. For much of the later period of the Roman occupation, Britannia was subject to barbarian invasions and often came under the control of imperial usurpers and imperial pretenders. The final Roman withdrawal from Britain occurred around 410; the native kingdoms are considered to have formed Sub-Roman Britain after that.
Following the conquest of the Britons, a distinctive Romano-British culture emerged as the Romans introduced improved agriculture, urban planning, industrial production, and architecture. The Roman goddess Britannia became the female personification of Britain. After the initial invasions, Roman historians generally only mention Britain in passing. Thus, most present knowledge derives from archaeological investigations and occasional epigraphic evidence lauding the Britannic achievements of an emperor. Roman citizens settled in Britain from many parts of the Empire.
History
Britain was known to the Classical world. The Greeks, the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for Cornish tin in the 4th century BC. The Greeks referred to the Cassiterides, or "tin islands", and placed them near the west coast of Europe. The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 6th or 5th century BC and the Greek explorer Pytheas in the 4th. It was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers refusing to believe it existed.
The first direct Roman contact was when Julius Caesar undertook two expeditions in 55 and 54 BC, as part of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons were helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition was more a reconnaissance than a full invasion and gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but was unable to advance further because of storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry. Despite the military failure, it was a political success, with the Roman Senate declaring a 20-day public holiday in Rome to honour the unprecedented achievement of obtaining hostages from Britain and defeating Belgic tribes on returning to the continent.
The second invasion involved a substantially larger force and Caesar coerced or invited many of the native Celtic tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether any tribute was paid after Caesar returned to Gaul.
Caesar conquered no territory and left no troops behind, but he established clients and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable, and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claimed that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could. Archaeology shows that there was an increase in imported luxury goods in southeastern Britain. Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus's own Res Gestae refers to two British kings he received as refugees. When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in 16 AD, they came back with tales of monsters.
Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius. This policy was followed until 39 or 40 AD, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and planned an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul. When Claudius successfully invaded in 43 AD, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, Verica of the Atrebates.
Roman invasion
The invasion force in 43 AD was led by Aulus Plautius,[26] but it is unclear how many legions were sent. The Legio II Augusta, commanded by future emperor Vespasian, was the only one directly attested to have taken part. The Legio IX Hispana, the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix) are known to have served during the Boudican Revolt of 60/61, and were probably there since the initial invasion. This is not certain because the Roman army was flexible, with units being moved around whenever necessary. The IX Hispana may have been permanently stationed, with records showing it at Eboracum (York) in 71 and on a building inscription there dated 108, before being destroyed in the east of the Empire, possibly during the Bar Kokhba revolt.
The invasion was delayed by a troop mutiny until an imperial freedman persuaded them to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent; at least part of the force may have landed near Fishbourne, West Sussex.
The Catuvellauni and their allies were defeated in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the river Thames. One of their leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). Vespasian subdued the southwest, Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories, and treaties were made with tribes outside direct Roman control.
Establishment of Roman rule
After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. The Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius replaced Caratacus as the most prominent leader of British resistance.
On Nero's accession, Roman Britain extended as far north as Lindum. Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of Mauretania (modern day Algeria and Morocco), then became governor of Britain, and in 60 and 61 he moved against Mona (Anglesey) to settle accounts with Druidism once and for all. Paulinus led his army across the Menai Strait and massacred the Druids and burnt their sacred groves.
While Paulinus was campaigning in Mona, the southeast of Britain rose in revolt under the leadership of Boudica. She was the widow of the recently deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus. The Roman historian Tacitus reports that Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the remainder would be left untouched. He was wrong. When his will was enforced, Rome[clarification needed] responded by violently seizing the tribe's lands in full. Boudica protested. In consequence, Rome[clarification needed] punished her and her daughters by flogging and rape. In response, the Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum (Colchester) and routed the part of the IXth Legion that was sent to relieve it. Paulinus rode to London (then called Londinium), the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St. Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Paulinus regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being outnumbered by more than twenty to one, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness. During this time, the Emperor Nero considered withdrawing Roman forces from Britain altogether.
There was further turmoil in 69, the "Year of the Four Emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to do so. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.[38] Frontinus extended Roman rule to all of South Wales, and initiated exploitation of the mineral resources, such as the gold mines at Dolaucothi.
In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. Governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With the XX Valeria Victrix legion, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in north-east Scotland. This was the high-water mark of Roman territory in Britain: shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans initially retired to a more defensible line along the Forth–Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.
For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a result, many future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I.
Roman military organisation in the north
In 84 AD
In 84 AD
In 155 AD
In 155 AD
Hadrian's Wall, and Antonine Wall
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth–Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged; others appear to have been abandoned. By 87 the frontier had been consolidated on the Stanegate. Roman coins and pottery have been found circulating at native settlement sites in the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. Some of the most important sources for this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to 90–110. These tablets provide evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of the Roman Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied.
Around 105 there appears to have been a serious setback at the hands of the tribes of the Picts: several Roman forts were destroyed by fire, with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (at modern Newstead, in SE Scotland) indicating hostilities at least at that site.[citation needed] There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany, and an unnamed British war of the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune of Cyrene. Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the Picts rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway–Tyne isthmus around this time.
A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign): a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought the Legio VI Victrix legion with him from Germania Inferior. This replaced the famous Legio IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable political instability in Scotland during the first half of the 2nd century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.
In the reign of Antoninus Pius (138–161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth–Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military reoccupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus.
The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155–157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south, and this rising was suppressed by Governor Gnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was recaptured, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antoninus's undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire, since the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time: the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least 180.
During the twenty-year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall in 163/4, Rome was concerned with continental issues, primarily problems in the Danubian provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver has been found in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade, and it is likely that the Romans were reinforcing treaty agreements by paying tribute to their implacable enemies, the Picts.
In 175, a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. In 180, Hadrian's Wall was breached by the Picts and the commanding officer or governor was killed there in what Cassius Dio described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace, only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus's strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper governor; he refused, but Marcellus was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination: they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perennis, a Praetorian prefect who they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perennis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.
The future emperor Pertinax (lived 126–193) was sent to Britannia to quell the mutiny and was initially successful in regaining control, but a riot broke out among the troops. Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and asked to be recalled to Rome, where he briefly succeeded Commodus as emperor in 192.
3rd century
The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the emperorship emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britannia, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus's support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised, Severus turned on his ally in Britannia; it is likely that Albinus saw he would be the next target and was already preparing for war.
Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195, where the provinces were also sympathetic to him, and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196, and the ensuing battle was decisive. Albinus came close to victory, but Severus's reinforcements won the day, and the British governor committed suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus's sympathisers and perhaps confiscated large tracts of land in Britain as punishment. Albinus had demonstrated the major problem posed by Roman Britain. In order to maintain security, the province required the presence of three legions, but command of these forces provided an ideal power base for ambitious rivals. Deploying those legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, leaving the province defenceless against uprisings by the native Celtic tribes and against invasion by the Picts and Scots.
The traditional view is that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus's absence. Cassius Dio records that the new Governor, Virius Lupus, was obliged to buy peace from a fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae. The succession of militarily distinguished governors who were subsequently appointed suggests that enemies of Rome were posing a difficult challenge, and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report to Rome in 207 describes barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". In order to rebel, of course, one must be a subject – the Maeatae clearly did not consider themselves such. Senecio requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition, and Severus chose the latter, despite being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Senecio had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it, and Severus's arrival in Britain prompted the enemy tribes to sue for peace immediately. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory, and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first-hand experience of controlling a hostile barbarian land.
Northern campaigns, 208–211
An invasion of Caledonia led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the Wall and passing through eastern Scotland on a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by punishing guerrilla raids by the northern tribes and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The emperor's forces pushed north as far as the River Tay, but little appears to have been achieved by the invasion, as peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians. By 210 Severus had returned to York, and the frontier had once again become Hadrian's Wall. He assumed the title Britannicus but the title meant little with regard to the unconquered north, which clearly remained outside the authority of the Empire. Almost immediately, another northern tribe, the Maeatae, went to war. Caracalla left with a punitive expedition, but by the following year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim to the throne.
As one of his last acts, Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the province into Britannia Superior and Britannia Inferior. This kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period known as the Long Peace. Even so, the number of buried hoards found from this period rises, suggesting continuing unrest. A string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy; and over the following hundred years they increased in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts.
During the middle of the 3rd century, the Roman Empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, but increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259 a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire.
Around the year 280, a half-British officer named Bonosus was in command of the Roman's Rhenish fleet when the Germans managed to burn it at anchor. To avoid punishment, he proclaimed himself emperor at Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) but was crushed by Marcus Aurelius Probus. Soon afterwards, an unnamed governor of one of the British provinces also attempted an uprising. Probus put it down by sending irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians across the Channel.
The Carausian Revolt led to a short-lived Britannic Empire from 286 to 296. Carausius was a Menapian naval commander of the Britannic fleet; he revolted upon learning of a death sentence ordered by the emperor Maximian on charges of having abetted Frankish and Saxon pirates and having embezzled recovered treasure. He consolidated control over all the provinces of Britain and some of northern Gaul while Maximian dealt with other uprisings. An invasion in 288 failed to unseat him and an uneasy peace ensued, with Carausius issuing coins and inviting official recognition. In 293, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel port of Gesoriacum (Boulogne-sur-Mer) by land and sea. After it fell, Constantius attacked Carausius's other Gallic holdings and Frankish allies and Carausius was usurped by his treasurer, Allectus. Julius Asclepiodotus landed an invasion fleet near Southampton and defeated Allectus in a land battle.
Diocletian's reforms
As part of Diocletian's reforms, the provinces of Roman Britain were organized as a diocese governed by a vicarius under a praetorian prefect who, from 318 to 331, was Junius Bassus who was based at Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
The vicarius was based at Londinium as the principal city of the diocese. Londinium and Eboracum continued as provincial capitals and the territory was divided up into smaller provinces for administrative efficiency.
Civilian and military authority of a province was no longer exercised by one official and the governor was stripped of military command which was handed over to the Dux Britanniarum by 314. The governor of a province assumed more financial duties (the procurators of the Treasury ministry were slowly phased out in the first three decades of the 4th century). The Dux was commander of the troops of the Northern Region, primarily along Hadrian's Wall and his responsibilities included protection of the frontier. He had significant autonomy due in part to the distance from his superiors.
The tasks of the vicarius were to control and coordinate the activities of governors; monitor but not interfere with the daily functioning of the Treasury and Crown Estates, which had their own administrative infrastructure; and act as the regional quartermaster-general of the armed forces. In short, as the sole civilian official with superior authority, he had general oversight of the administration, as well as direct control, while not absolute, over governors who were part of the prefecture; the other two fiscal departments were not.
The early-4th-century Verona List, the late-4th-century work of Sextus Rufus, and the early-5th-century List of Offices and work of Polemius Silvius all list four provinces by some variation of the names Britannia I, Britannia II, Maxima Caesariensis, and Flavia Caesariensis; all of these seem to have initially been directed by a governor (praeses) of equestrian rank. The 5th-century sources list a fifth province named Valentia and give its governor and Maxima's a consular rank. Ammianus mentions Valentia as well, describing its creation by Count Theodosius in 369 after the quelling of the Great Conspiracy. Ammianus considered it a re-creation of a formerly lost province, leading some to think there had been an earlier fifth province under another name (may be the enigmatic "Vespasiana"), and leading others to place Valentia beyond Hadrian's Wall, in the territory abandoned south of the Antonine Wall.
Reconstructions of the provinces and provincial capitals during this period partially rely on ecclesiastical records. On the assumption that the early bishoprics mimicked the imperial hierarchy, scholars use the list of bishops for the 314 Council of Arles. The list is patently corrupt: the British delegation is given as including a Bishop "Eborius" of Eboracum and two bishops "from Londinium" (one de civitate Londinensi and the other de civitate colonia Londinensium). The error is variously emended: Bishop Ussher proposed Colonia, Selden Col. or Colon. Camalodun., and Spelman Colonia Cameloduni (all various names of Colchester); Gale and Bingham offered colonia Lindi and Henry Colonia Lindum (both Lincoln); and Bishop Stillingfleet and Francis Thackeray read it as a scribal error of Civ. Col. Londin. for an original Civ. Col. Leg. II (Caerleon). On the basis of the Verona List, the priest and deacon who accompanied the bishops in some manuscripts are ascribed to the fourth province.
In the 12th century, Gerald of Wales described the supposedly metropolitan sees of the early British church established by the legendary SS Fagan and "Duvian". He placed Britannia Prima in Wales and western England with its capital at "Urbs Legionum" (Caerleon); Britannia Secunda in Kent and southern England with its capital at "Dorobernia" (Canterbury); Flavia in Mercia and central England with its capital at "Lundonia" (London); "Maximia" in northern England with its capital at Eboracum (York); and Valentia in "Albania which is now Scotland" with its capital at St Andrews. Modern scholars generally dispute the last: some place Valentia at or beyond Hadrian's Wall but St Andrews is beyond even the Antonine Wall and Gerald seems to have simply been supporting the antiquity of its church for political reasons.
A common modern reconstruction places the consular province of Maxima at Londinium, on the basis of its status as the seat of the diocesan vicarius; places Prima in the west according to Gerald's traditional account but moves its capital to Corinium of the Dobunni (Cirencester) on the basis of an artifact recovered there referring to Lucius Septimius, a provincial rector; places Flavia north of Maxima, with its capital placed at Lindum Colonia (Lincoln) to match one emendation of the bishops list from Arles;[d] and places Secunda in the north with its capital at Eboracum (York). Valentia is placed variously in northern Wales around Deva (Chester); beside Hadrian's Wall around Luguvalium (Carlisle); and between the walls along Dere Street.
4th century
Emperor Constantius returned to Britain in 306, despite his poor health, with an army aiming to invade northern Britain, the provincial defences having been rebuilt in the preceding years. Little is known of his campaigns with scant archaeological evidence, but fragmentary historical sources suggest he reached the far north of Britain and won a major battle in early summer before returning south. His son Constantine (later Constantine the Great) spent a year in northern Britain at his father's side, campaigning against the Picts beyond Hadrian's Wall in the summer and autumn. Constantius died in York in July 306 with his son at his side. Constantine then successfully used Britain as the starting point of his march to the imperial throne, unlike the earlier usurper, Albinus.
In the middle of the century, the province was loyal for a few years to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following the latter's death. After the defeat and death of Magnentius in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paulus Catena to Britain to hunt down Magnentius's supporters. The investigation deteriorated into a witch-hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paulus retaliated by accusing Martinus of treason, the vicarius attacked Paulus with a sword, with the aim of assassinating him, but in the end he committed suicide.
As the 4th century progressed, there were increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east and the Scoti (Irish) in the west. A series of forts had been built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when, in 367, a general assault of Saxons, Picts, Scoti and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate. The invaders overwhelmed the entire western and northern regions of Britannia and the cities were sacked. This crisis, sometimes called the Barbarian Conspiracy or the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius from 368 with a string of military and civil reforms. Theodosius crossed from Bononia (Boulogne-sur-Mer) and marched on Londinium where he began to deal with the invaders and made his base.[ An amnesty was promised to deserters which enabled Theodosius to regarrison abandoned forts. By the end of the year Hadrian's Wall was retaken and order returned. Considerable reorganization was undertaken in Britain, including the creation of a new province named Valentia, probably to better address the state of the far north. A new Dux Britanniarum was appointed, Dulcitius, with Civilis to head a new civilian administration.
Another imperial usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt at Segontium (Caernarfon) in north Wales in 383, and crossed the English Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned in this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were stretched to the limit along the Rhine and Danube. Around 396 there were more barbarian incursions into Britain. Stilicho led a punitive expedition. It seems peace was restored by 399, and it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered; by 401 more troops were withdrawn, to assist in the war against Alaric I.
End of Roman rule
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at the beginning of the 5th century. Consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. Some features are agreed: more opulent but fewer urban houses, an end to new public building and some abandonment of existing ones, with the exception of defensive structures, and the widespread formation of "dark earth" deposits indicating increased horticulture within urban precincts. Turning over the basilica at Silchester to industrial uses in the late 3rd century, doubtless officially condoned, marks an early stage in the de-urbanisation of Roman Britain.
The abandonment of some sites is now believed to be later than had been thought. Many buildings changed use but were not destroyed. There was a growing number of barbarian attacks, but these targeted vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Chedworth, Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy. Many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the 5th century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. Exceptionally, new buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the 5th and 6th centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.
Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the 4th century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, problems with the payment of soldiers and officials or with unstable conditions during the usurpation of Magnus Maximus 383–87. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, but never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, though minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were very few new Roman coins going into circulation, and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Mass-produced wheel thrown pottery ended at approximately the same time; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor made do with humble "grey ware" or resorted to leather or wooden containers.
Sub-Roman Britain
Towards the end of the 4th century Roman rule in Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attacks. Apparently, there were not enough troops to mount an effective defence. After elevating two disappointing usurpers, the army chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become emperor in 407. He crossed to Gaul but was defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, or whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai. A letter from Emperor Honorius in 410 has traditionally been seen as rejecting a British appeal for help, but it may have been addressed to Bruttium or Bologna. With the imperial layers of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and local warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still utilizing Romano-British ideals and conventions. Historian Stuart Laycock has investigated this process and emphasised elements of continuity from the British tribes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods, through to the native post-Roman kingdoms.
In British tradition, pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts, Scoti, and Déisi. (Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may have begun much earlier. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries supporting the legions in Britain in the 1st and 2nd centuries.) The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time, many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name), Galicia and probably Ireland. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aetius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446. Another is the Battle of Deorham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea.
Historians generally reject the historicity of King Arthur, who is supposed to have resisted the Anglo-Saxon conquest according to later medieval legends.
Trade
During the Roman period Britain's continental trade was principally directed across the Southern North Sea and Eastern Channel, focusing on the narrow Strait of Dover, with more limited links via the Atlantic seaways. The most important British ports were London and Richborough, whilst the continental ports most heavily engaged in trade with Britain were Boulogne and the sites of Domburg and Colijnsplaat at the mouth of the river Scheldt. During the Late Roman period it is likely that the shore forts played some role in continental trade alongside their defensive functions.
Exports to Britain included: coin; pottery, particularly red-gloss terra sigillata (samian ware) from southern, central and eastern Gaul, as well as various other wares from Gaul and the Rhine provinces; olive oil from southern Spain in amphorae; wine from Gaul in amphorae and barrels; salted fish products from the western Mediterranean and Brittany in barrels and amphorae; preserved olives from southern Spain in amphorae; lava quern-stones from Mayen on the middle Rhine; glass; and some agricultural products. Britain's exports are harder to detect archaeologically, but will have included metals, such as silver and gold and some lead, iron and copper. Other exports probably included agricultural products, oysters and salt, whilst large quantities of coin would have been re-exported back to the continent as well.
These products moved as a result of private trade and also through payments and contracts established by the Roman state to support its military forces and officials on the island, as well as through state taxation and extraction of resources. Up until the mid-3rd century, the Roman state's payments appear to have been unbalanced, with far more products sent to Britain, to support its large military force (which had reached c. 53,000 by the mid-2nd century), than were extracted from the island.
It has been argued that Roman Britain's continental trade peaked in the late 1st century AD and thereafter declined as a result of an increasing reliance on local products by the population of Britain, caused by economic development on the island and by the Roman state's desire to save money by shifting away from expensive long-distance imports. Evidence has been outlined that suggests that the principal decline in Roman Britain's continental trade may have occurred in the late 2nd century AD, from c. 165 AD onwards. This has been linked to the economic impact of contemporary Empire-wide crises: the Antonine Plague and the Marcomannic Wars.
From the mid-3rd century onwards, Britain no longer received such a wide range and extensive quantity of foreign imports as it did during the earlier part of the Roman period; vast quantities of coin from continental mints reached the island, whilst there is historical evidence for the export of large amounts of British grain to the continent during the mid-4th century. During the latter part of the Roman period British agricultural products, paid for by both the Roman state and by private consumers, clearly played an important role in supporting the military garrisons and urban centres of the northwestern continental Empire. This came about as a result of the rapid decline in the size of the British garrison from the mid-3rd century onwards (thus freeing up more goods for export), and because of 'Germanic' incursions across the Rhine, which appear to have reduced rural settlement and agricultural output in northern Gaul.
Economy
Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine were probably first worked by the Roman army from c. 75, and at some later stage passed to civilian operators. The mine developed as a series of opencast workings, mainly by the use of hydraulic mining methods. They are described by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History in great detail. Essentially, water supplied by aqueducts was used to prospect for ore veins by stripping away soil to reveal the bedrock. If veins were present, they were attacked using fire-setting and the ore removed for comminution. The dust was washed in a small stream of water and the heavy gold dust and gold nuggets collected in riffles. The diagram at right shows how Dolaucothi developed from c. 75 through to the 1st century. When opencast work was no longer feasible, tunnels were driven to follow the veins. The evidence from the site shows advanced technology probably under the control of army engineers.
The Wealden ironworking zone, the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills and the tin mines of Cornwall seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Mining had long been practised in Britain (see Grimes Graves), but the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. It included hydraulic mining to prospect for ore by removing overburden as well as work alluvial deposits. The water needed for such large-scale operations was supplied by one or more aqueducts, those surviving at Dolaucothi being especially impressive. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.
By the 3rd and 4th centuries, small towns could often be found near villas. In these towns, villa owners and small-scale farmers could obtain specialist tools. Lowland Britain in the 4th century was agriculturally prosperous enough to export grain to the continent. This prosperity lay behind the blossoming of villa building and decoration that occurred between AD 300 and 350.
Britain's cities also consumed Roman-style pottery and other goods, and were centres through which goods could be distributed elsewhere. At Wroxeter in Shropshire, stock smashed into a gutter during a 2nd-century fire reveals that Gaulish samian ware was being sold alongside mixing bowls from the Mancetter-Hartshill industry of the West Midlands. Roman designs were most popular, but rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Britain was home to much gold, which attracted Roman invaders. By the 3rd century, Britain's economy was diverse and well established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north.
Government
Further information: Governors of Roman Britain, Roman client kingdoms in Britain, and Roman auxiliaries in Britain
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate, but those, like Britain, that required permanent garrisons, were placed under the Emperor's control. In practice imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were members of the Senate and had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected, often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military, but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility, such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning, he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.
To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus juridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and, in time of war, probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.
Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain, but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections. The different forms of municipal organisation in Britannia were known as civitas (which were subdivided, amongst other forms, into colonies such as York, Colchester, Gloucester and Lincoln and municipalities such as Verulamium), and were each governed by a senate of local landowners, whether Brythonic or Roman, who elected magistrates concerning judicial and civic affairs. The various civitates sent representatives to a yearly provincial council in order to profess loyalty to the Roman state, to send direct petitions to the Emperor in times of extraordinary need, and to worship the imperial cult.
Demographics
Roman Britain had an estimated population between 2.8 million and 3 million people at the end of the second century. At the end of the fourth century, it had an estimated population of 3.6 million people, of whom 125,000 consisted of the Roman army and their families and dependents.[80] The urban population of Roman Britain was about 240,000 people at the end of the fourth century. The capital city of Londinium is estimated to have had a population of about 60,000 people. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city with inhabitants from the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. There was also cultural diversity in other Roman-British towns, which were sustained by considerable migration, from Britannia and other Roman territories, including continental Europe, Roman Syria, the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In a study conducted in 2012, around 45 percent of sites investigated dating from the Roman period had at least one individual of North African origin.
Town and country
During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which survive. The towns suffered attrition in the later 4th century, when public building ceased and some were abandoned to private uses. Place names survived the deurbanised Sub-Roman and early Anglo-Saxon periods, and historiography has been at pains to signal the expected survivals, but archaeology shows that a bare handful of Roman towns were continuously occupied. According to S.T. Loseby, the very idea of a town as a centre of power and administration was reintroduced to England by the Roman Christianising mission to Canterbury, and its urban revival was delayed to the 10th century.
Roman towns can be broadly grouped in two categories. Civitates, "public towns" were formally laid out on a grid plan, and their role in imperial administration occasioned the construction of public buildings. The much more numerous category of vici, "small towns" grew on informal plans, often round a camp or at a ford or crossroads; some were not small, others were scarcely urban, some not even defended by a wall, the characteristic feature of a place of any importance.
Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them are listed with their Latin names in brackets; civitates are marked C
Alcester (Alauna)
Alchester
Aldborough, North Yorkshire (Isurium Brigantum) C
Bath (Aquae Sulis) C
Brough (Petuaria) C
Buxton (Aquae Arnemetiae)
Caerleon (Isca Augusta) C
Caernarfon (Segontium) C
Caerwent (Venta Silurum) C
Caister-on-Sea C
Canterbury (Durovernum Cantiacorum) C
Carlisle (Luguvalium) C
Carmarthen (Moridunum) C
Chelmsford (Caesaromagus)
Chester (Deva Victrix) C
Chester-le-Street (Concangis)
Chichester (Noviomagus Reginorum) C
Cirencester (Corinium) C
Colchester (Camulodunum) C
Corbridge (Coria) C
Dorchester (Durnovaria) C
Dover (Portus Dubris)
Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) C
Gloucester (Glevum) C
Great Chesterford (the name of this vicus is unknown)
Ilchester (Lindinis) C
Leicester (Ratae Corieltauvorum) C
Lincoln (Lindum Colonia) C
London (Londinium) C
Manchester (Mamucium) C
Newcastle upon Tyne (Pons Aelius)
Northwich (Condate)
St Albans (Verulamium) C
Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum) C
Towcester (Lactodurum)
Whitchurch (Mediolanum) C
Winchester (Venta Belgarum) C
Wroxeter (Viroconium Cornoviorum) C
York (Eboracum) C
Religion
The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain, were outlawed by Claudius, and in 61 they vainly defended their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey). Under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham.
The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record, but the differences in the votive offerings made at the baths at Bath, Somerset, before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the Roman emperor is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a Roman temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. By the 3rd century, Pagans Hill Roman Temple in Somerset was able to exist peaceably and it did so into the 5th century.
Pagan religious practices were supported by priests, represented in Britain by votive deposits of priestly regalia such as chain crowns from West Stow and Willingham Fen.
Eastern cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The London Mithraeum is one example of the popularity of mystery religions among the soldiery. Temples to Mithras also exist in military contexts at Vindobala on Hadrian's Wall (the Rudchester Mithraeum) and at Segontium in Roman Wales (the Caernarfon Mithraeum).
Christianity
It is not clear when or how Christianity came to Britain. A 2nd-century "word square" has been discovered in Mamucium, the Roman settlement of Manchester. It consists of an anagram of PATER NOSTER carved on a piece of amphora. There has been discussion by academics whether the "word square" is a Christian artefact, but if it is, it is one of the earliest examples of early Christianity in Britain. The earliest confirmed written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, c. 200 AD, in which he described "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ". Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and baptismal fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Icklingham font is made of lead, and visible in the British Museum. A Roman Christian graveyard exists at the same site in Icklingham. A possible Roman 4th-century church and associated burial ground was also discovered at Butt Road on the south-west outskirts of Colchester during the construction of the new police station there, overlying an earlier pagan cemetery. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th-century cemetery at Poundbury with its east–west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.
The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system, as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314: represented at the council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain, Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius, possibly a bishop of Lincoln. No other early sees are documented, and the material remains of early church structures are far to seek. The existence of a church in the forum courtyard of Lincoln and the martyrium of Saint Alban on the outskirts of Roman Verulamium are exceptional. Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (some date him in the middle 3rd century), followed by Saints Julius and Aaron of Isca Augusta. Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well established. One belief labelled a heresy by the church authorities — Pelagianism — was originated by a British monk teaching in Rome: Pelagius lived c. 354 to c. 420/440.
A letter found on a lead tablet in Bath, Somerset, datable to c. 363, had been widely publicised as documentary evidence regarding the state of Christianity in Britain during Roman times. According to its first translator, it was written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius to a Christian woman called Nigra, and was claimed as the first epigraphic record of Christianity in Britain. This translation of the letter was apparently based on grave paleographical errors, and the text has nothing to do with Christianity, and in fact relates to pagan rituals.
Environmental changes
The Romans introduced a number of species to Britain, including possibly the now-rare Roman nettle (Urtica pilulifera), said to have been used by soldiers to warm their arms and legs, and the edible snail Helix pomatia. There is also some evidence they may have introduced rabbits, but of the smaller southern mediterranean type. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) prevalent in modern Britain is assumed to have been introduced from the continent after the Norman invasion of 1066. Box (Buxus sempervirens) is rarely recorded before the Roman period, but becomes a common find in towns and villas
Legacy
During their occupation of Britain the Romans built an extensive network of roads which continued to be used in later centuries and many are still followed today. The Romans also built water supply, sanitation and wastewater systems. Many of Britain's major cities, such as London (Londinium), Manchester (Mamucium) and York (Eboracum), were founded by the Romans, but the original Roman settlements were abandoned not long after the Romans left.
Unlike many other areas of the Western Roman Empire, the current majority language is not a Romance language, or a language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants. The British language at the time of the invasion was Common Brittonic, and remained so after the Romans withdrew. It later split into regional languages, notably Cumbric, Cornish, Breton and Welsh. Examination of these languages suggests some 800 Latin words were incorporated into Common Brittonic (see Brittonic languages). The current majority language, English, is based on the languages of the Germanic tribes who migrated to the island from continental Europe
Grès, provenance exacte inconnue, style de Pre Rup, troisième quart du Xe siècle.
Au centre, Indra brandissant la foudre ("vajra") sur l'éléphant tricéphale Airavata.
Musée Guimet, Paris.
The design team was carrying on its work on new versions. Problems with the setup of the 5TDF engine occurred as the local production capacity was proven to be insufficient against a production done in three factories (Malyshev in Kharkiv, Kirov in Leningrad and Uralvagonzavod).
From 1961, an alternative to the obyekt 432 was studied, with 12 V-cylinder V-45 engine: the obyekt 436. Three prototypes were tested in 1966 in the Chelyabinsk factory. The order to develop a model derived from the 434 with the same engine gave the obyekt 438, later renamed as obyekt 439. Four tanks of this type were built and tested in 1969, which showed the same mobility as the production version, but mass production was not started. They served however as a basis for the design of the T-72 engine compartment.
At the beginning of the 1970s, the design team was trying to improve the tank further. The T-64A-2M study in 1973, with its more powerful engine and its reinforced turret, served as a basis for two projects:
Obyekt 476 with a 6TD 1000 hp (735 kW) engine which served as a model for the T-80 combat compartment.
Obyekt 447 which featured a new fire control with a laser telemeter, and which was able to fire missiles through the gun.
For the latter, the order was given to start its production under the name T-64B, as well as a derived version (which shared 95% of its components), the obyekt 437, without the missile guidance system for cost reasons. The latter was almost twice as much produced under the designation T-64B1. On 3 September 1976, the T-64B and the T-64B1 were declared good for the service, featuring the improved D-81Tm gun (2A46-2) with a 2E26M stabiliser, a 6ETs40 loader and a 1A33 fire control, including:
a 1V517 ballistic calculator
a 1G21 sight with laser telemetry
a 1B11 cross-wind sensor.
Its ford capacity reaches 1.8 m without equipment. The T-64B had the ability to fire the new 9M112 "Kobra" radio-guided missile (NATO code "AT-8 Songster"). The vehicle then carries 8 missiles and 28 shells. The missile control system is mounted in front of the tank leader small turret and has many changes. The T-64B1 carries only 37 shells and has 2,000 7.62 mm rounds, against 1,250 for the T-64B.
They were modernised in 1981 by the replacement of the gun by a 2A46M1, the stabiliser by a 2E42, and the mounting of a 902A "Tucha-1" smoke grenade launcher in two groups of four, on each side of the gun. Two command versions are realised, very similar to the T-64AK: the T-64BK and the T-64B1K.
The decision, in October 1979, to start production of the 6TD engine, and its great similarity with the 5TDF engine, allowed after some study to fit it in versions B and B1, but also A and AK, yielding the new models T-64AM, T-64AKM, T-64BM and T-64BAM, entering service in 1983.
The production ended in 1987 for all versions. The total production has reached almost 13,000.
AGC en provenance de Reims et à destination d'Epernay. Il marque l'arrêt en gare de Maison Blanche.
La région Grand Est possède 51 Z27500 donc 13 en livrée Champagne-Ardenne.
Quant à leur rénovation, l’intégralité du parc d’AGC et de TER 2NNG de la Région Grand Est va passer en Opération Mi-Vie (OPMV) prochainement. Cette rénovation permettra de prolonger de 15 à 20 ans 70 % du parc actuel régional Grand Est. 125 AGC et 41 Z24500 sont concernés.
Chaque rame sera entièrement démontée pour pouvoir réparer, nettoyer, et repeindre toutes ses pièces. Les sièges seront changés, des prises électriques et des équipements pour les personnes à mobilité réduite installés. Un système d’éclairage à led et une climatisation régulée par le taux de CO2 se substitueront aux équipements d’origine. Le technicentre industriel de Bischheim réalisera ces travaux de modernisation et de rénovation, qui s’étaleront pour les 125 AGC de juin 2022 à janvier 2031 et pour les 41 TER 2NNG de mai 2023 à janvier 2030.
------------------------------------------------------------
📆 Juillet 2022
📍Reims, Grand Est, France
🚆Z27707/08
MES : 21 novembre 2007
Famille : Aizoaceae
Provenance : Jean-André Audissou, le 06/10/2012
N° de collection personnel : L0001
Initialement publié comme cultivar par le professeur Desmond Cole dans "Some Lithops Cultivars, Aloe 22(3): 58-62. 1985", et apparu ultérieurement dans "Lithops - Flowering Stones: 178-179. 1988", en provenance de Hindrik de Boer des Pays-Bas. Une aberration au corps rouge et à la floraison blanche. NB. : cette épithète de forme latine a été retenue parce qu'elle est basée sur L. optica var. rubra (A. Tischer; 1926) qui fut par la suite largement connu et accepté comme cultivar.
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )
Polyptyque provenant de l'église Sant'Elena, acquis en 1812 après le décret de suppression de quinze monastères en 1806.
Vierge à l'Enfant avec les Stes Lucie, Hélène, Marie-Madeleine et Catherine d'Alexandrie.
Scènes de la vie de Ste Hélène.
An artist who was among the primary figures in the Realist movement, Gustave Courbet has proven himself as one of the most remarkable artists during his time.
Gustave Courbet, born as Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet, was a renowned French artist during the 19th century Realist movement. He was dedicated to presenting his independent style in art as he steered clear of the traditional art techniques during his time. In fact, his unique styles became a source of inspiration among the cubists and impressionists.
It was his paintings during the 1840s that made him quite popular. His masterpieces attempted to challenge the conventions during that time. Most of his paintings also featured less political subjects such as nudes, still lifes, hunting scenes and landscapes.
Gustave Courbet was born in Ornans, in 1819. His parents were Regis and Sylvie, and they had a thriving farming business. The young boy was drawn to art much to the inspiration of his sisters named Juliette, Zelie and Zoe.
In 1839, he decided to move to Paris to undergo training at the Steuben and Hesse studio. Even when he was in Paris, he would often go back to his hometown to find more inspiration for his artworks. Soon, he left the studio as he was more interested in perfect his individual style. He also became fascinated with the paintings of some of the French, Flemish and Spanish art masters in the Louvre.
Initial Works
One of Courbet's first masterpieces was an Odalisque, which was largely inspired by the works of a Lelia and Victor Hugo. However, he lost interest in artworks with subjects that featured literary influences. Instead, he became more inspired to create paintings based on realistic themes. Thus, most of his artworks during the early 1840s featured himself while performing various roles. He created a number of self portrats including the Desperate Man, The Sculptor, The Wounded Man, Self Portrait with Black Dog, The Cellist, and The Man with a Pipe, among a few others.
By 1846, he began touring Belgium and the Netherlands, and his adventures made him realize the value of portraying images that happen from day to day. He was specifically inspired by the works of Hals and Rembrandt, including a few other Dutch artists who presented their artworks with images of daily life activities. In the latter part of the 1840s, he began to inspire younger art critics and enthusiasts, particulary the Realists and Neo-Romantics.
Early Accomplishments
It was in 1849 when Courbet obtained his initial success at the Salon with his masterpiece entitled "After Dinner at Ornans". This painting earned him a gold medal, which meant he was exempted from jury approval until 1857.
Another great painting by Courbet was the Stone-Breakers, which he created in 1849. Art critics considered this fine piece of art as a model of peasant life. It depicted a scene that the artist observed during one of his travels on the roadside. In addition, his works were not specifically taken from the Neoclassical or Romantic schools of art. He claimed to have his own unique style, and these paintings sprung from his personal experiences.
Eventually, Courbet started introducing social issues and imageries in his artworks including peasants and rural bourgeoisie. Soon, his work was labeled as realism, along with the artwork themes of other artists including Jean-Francois Millet and Honore Daumier. For Courbet, he believed that realism is more focused on rough handling of pigments, and that it should present the reality and harshness occuring in day to day situations.
The Artist's Studio
One of Courbet's most sensational works was The Artist's Studio, and it was considered as a masterpiece by several artists including Baudelaire and Eugene Delacroix. According to the artist, this masterpiece presented his life and the world around him. He explained that there were various elements in the society where he lived including wealth, poverty, misery and sufferings. Thus, there were several figures included in the painting such as a grave digger, prostitute and priest among a few others.
Exile and Later Life
After serving a prison sentence in 1872, Courbet experienced additional problems despite the end of the Vendome Column. A year after his sentence was over, President Patrice Mac-Mahon decided to have the column rebuilt, and the cost of reconstruction was to be settled by Courbet. Unfortunately, the artist did not have enough means to pay for the expenses, which made him decide to go on a self-imposed exile. He settled in Switzerland, and he became active in national and regional exhibitions in this foreign land. Soon, he became the head of a Swiss realist school, which inspired a number of artists including Ferdinand Hodler and Auguste Baud-Bovy.
During his life in exile, he was able to create magnificent works of art such as various paintings of a trout, which he claimed to symbolize his own life. In addition to painting, he became fascinated with sculpting. In fact, one of his finest sculptures was called The Fisherman of Chavots, which he completed in the 1860s. He donated this sculpture to Ornans, yet it was later removed after the arrest of the artist.
In 1877, Courbet died in La Tour-de-Peilz, in Switzerland while on exile. He suffered from a liver disease, which was caused by the artist's heavy drinking.
The Artist's Legacy
During his lifetime, Courbet has influenced a number of artists in the younger generation. In fact, Claude Monet featured a portrait of the artist in a painting entitled Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe. Courbet implemented an independent style of realism, which inspired several artists such as the Liebl Circle of German artists. His unique style was also evident in the works of other artists such as Vincent van Gogh, Paul Cezanne, James McNeil Whistler and Henri Fantin-Latour.
Indeed, Courbet has managed to remain as an inspiration to many despite his personal trials and challenges during his time. His ingenuity and craftsmanship made him one of the most revered artists in history, and his legacies continue to live on years after his death.
Tintagel Castle (Cornish: Dintagel) is a medieval fortification located on the peninsula of Tintagel Island adjacent to the village of Tintagel, North Cornwall in the United Kingdom. The site was possibly occupied in the Romano-British period, as an array of artefacts dating to this period have been found on the peninsula, but as yet no Roman era structure has been proven to have existed there. It was settled during the early medieval period, when it was probably one of the seasonal residences of the regional king of Dumnonia. A castle was built on the site by Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall in the 13th century, during the later medieval period. It later fell into disrepair and ruin.
Archaeological investigation into the site began in the 19th century as it became a tourist attraction, with visitors coming to see the ruins of Richard's castle. In the 1930s, excavations revealed significant traces of a much earlier high status settlement, which had trading links with the Mediterranean during the Late Roman period.
The castle has a long association with legends related to King Arthur. This began in the 12th century when Geoffrey of Monmouth described Tintagel as the place of Arthur's conception in his fictionalized account of British history, the Historia Regum Britanniae. Geoffrey told the story that Arthur's father, King Uther Pendragon, was disguised by Merlin's sorcery to look like Gorlois, Duke of Cornwall, the husband of Igraine, Arthur's mother.
Tintagel Castle has been a tourist destination since the mid-19th century. Owned by Charles, Prince of Wales as part of the landholdings of the Duchy of Cornwall, the site is managed by English Heritage.
In the 1st century AD, southern Britain was invaded and occupied by the Roman Empire. The territory of modern Cornwall was assigned to the Roman administrative region of civitas Dumnoniorum, named after the local British tribal group whom the Romans called the Dumnonii. At the time, this south-westerly point of Britain was "remote, under-populated... and therefore also unimportant [to the Roman authorities] until, during the 3rd century AD, the local tin-streaming industry attracted attention." Archaeologists know of five milestones or route-markers in Cornwall erected in the Romano-British period. Two of these are in the vicinity of Tintagel, indicating that a road passed through the locality.
Cornish historian and archaeologist Charles Thomas noted in 1993: "So far, no structure excavated on [Tintagel] Island... can be put forward as a Roman-period settlement, native-peasant or otherwise." Despite this, a quantity of apparently Romano-British pottery has been unearthed on the site, as has a Roman-style drawstring leather purse containing ten low denomination Roman coins dating between the reigns of Tetricus I (270–272) and Constantius II (337–361). This suggests that "at face-value... either the Island or the landward area of the later Castle (or both...) formed the scene of third-fourth century habitation" even if no evidence has been found of any buildings dating from this period.
Roman control collapsed in southern Britain following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the early 5th century and it split into various different kingdoms, each with its own respective chief or king. The former Roman district of civitas Dumnoniorum apparently became the Kingdom of Dumnonia, which would have been ruled over by its own monarchy during this early medieval period between the 5th and 8th centuries. It was in this regional background that settlement continued at Tintagel Castle, with the creation of what is known by archaeologists as Period II of the site. However, there has been some dispute amongst archaeologists as to what the site of Tintagel Island was used for in this period. In the mid-20th century, it was typically thought that there was an early Christian monastery on the site, but "since about 1980... [this] thesis... has... had to be abandoned", with archaeologists now believing that it was instead an elite settlement inhabited by a powerful local warlord or even Dumnonian royalty.
Devon archaeologist Ralegh Radford excavated at the site from 1933 through to 1938, and he pioneered the hypothesis that Tintagel Castle had been a monastery during Period II. He came to this conclusion based upon some similarities in the structures of the early medieval elements of Tintagel Castle and the 7th-century monastery at the site of Whitby Abbey in Yorkshire.
Archaeologists no longer accept this viewpoint, however. Instead, they now believe that this was an elite settlement in the early medieval period that was inhabited by Dumnonian royalty and their entourage. Archaeologist and historian Charles Thomas believed that they did not stay at Tintagel year-round but that they moved around: "A typical king with his family, relatives, dependants, resident hostages, officials and court-followers, and a private militia or war-band—in all, probably between a hundred and three hundred souls at least—moved around with his cumbersome entourage; at least, when not busy with inter-tribal campaigning or in repelling invaders and raiders." The site was also made more defensible during this period with a large ditch at the entrance to the peninsula, leaving only a narrow trackway that had to be traversed by anyone approaching the peninsula.
Various luxury items dating from this period have been found at the site, namely African and Phocaean red slip, which had been traded all the way from the Mediterranean. Examining this pottery, Charles Thomas remarked that "the quantity of imported pottery from Tintagel [was]... dramatically greater than that from any other single site dated to about 450–600 in either Britain or Ireland". Carrying on from this, he noted that the quantity of imported pottery from Tintagel was "larger than the combined total of all such pottery from all known sites [of this period in Britain and Ireland]; and, given that only about 5 per cent of the Island's accessible surface has been excavated or examined, the original total of imports may well have been on a scale of one or more complete shiploads, with individual ships perhaps carrying a cargo of six or seven hundred amphorae." This evidence led him to believe that Tintagel was a site where ships docked to deposit their cargo from southern Europe in the early medieval period.
In 1225, Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall traded with Gervase de Tintagel, swapping the land of Merthen (originally part of the manor of Winnianton) for Tintagel Castle. A castle was built on the site by Earl Richard in 1233 to establish a connection with the Arthurian legends that were associated by Geoffrey of Monmouth with the area and because it was seen as the traditional place for Cornish kings. The castle was built in a more old-fashioned style for the time to make it appear more ancient. However, the dating to the period of Earl Richard has superseded Ralegh Radford's interpretation which attributed the earliest elements of the castle to Earl Reginald de Dunstanville and later elements to Earl Richard. Sidney Toy suggests an earlier period of construction in Castles: a short history of fortifications from 1600 B.C. to A. D. 1600 (London: Heinemann, 1939).
John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter was appointed constable of Tintagel Castle in 1389. After Richard, the following Earls of Cornwall were not interested in the castle, and it was left to the High Sheriff of Cornwall. Parts of the accommodation were used as a prison and the land was let as pasture. The castle became more dilapidated, and the roof was removed from the Great Hall in the 1330s. Thereafter, the castle became more and more ruinous and there was progressive damage from the erosion of the isthmus that joined the castle to the mainland. John Leland visited in the early 1540s and found that a makeshift bridge of tree trunks gave access to the Island. England was threatened with invasion from Spain in the 1580s, and the defences were strengthened at the Iron Gate. The manor of Tintagel was among those seized by the Commonwealth government of the 1650s as Duchy of Cornwall property, returning to the Duchy in 1660. The letting for sheep pasture continued until the 19th century.
There was a fascination with the Arthurian legends during the Victorian era, and the ruins of the castle became a tourist destination. The modern day village of Tintagel was known as Trevena until the 1850s when it was found convenient by the Post Office to use the name of the parish rather than the name of the village. Tintagel is only the name of the headland; Tintagel Head itself is the extreme southwest point of Castle Island and the castle ruins are partly on the 'island' and partly on the adjoining mainland. The head of the island pointing out to sea is Pen Diu (Cornish: Penn Du "Black Head").
The Rev. R. B. Kinsman (d. 1894) was honorary constable and built the courtyard wall and a guide was employed to conduct visitors into the castle. Until his time, the steps were unsafe on either side of the isthmus, though the plateau could be reached by those who grazed sheep there. From 1870, a lead mine was worked for a short time near Merlin's Cave. In the 20th century, the site was maintained by the Office of Works and its successors (from 1929 onwards). In 1975, the access across the isthmus was improved by the installation of a wooden bridge.
In the late 19th and early 20th century, nothing had been excavated except the chapel, and so ideas were given currency such as the garden being a cemetery and King Arthur's Footprint being a place for King Arthur to leap to the mainland. "King Arthur's Footprint" is a hollow in the rock at the highest point of Tintagel Island's southern side. It is not entirely natural, having been shaped by human hands at some stage.[20] It may have been used for the inauguration of kings or chieftains, as the site has a long history stretching back to the Dark Ages.
In 1999 there was some controversy regarding Tintagel Castle and other sites in Cornwall under the management of English Heritage. Members of the pressure group Revived Cornish Stannary Parliament removed several signs because they objected to the use of the name "English Heritage", stating that Cornwall is rightfully a nation on its own. Three men involved in removing the signs were bound over for a year for £500 each and to pay English Heritage £4,500 compensation.
Over three months in 2015–16, artist Peter Graham carved a foot-high bearded face representing Merlin into a rock near a cave known as "Merlin's cave" (after its mention in Tennyson's Idylls of the King). This was done as part of a project by English Heritage to "reimagine Tintagel's history and legends across the island site". The project also includes a larger-than-life statue of King Arthur (by Rubin Eynon) and a compass sculpture referencing the Round Table. A local councillor accused English Heritage of degrading the site's archaeology and landscape, although many local people are content with the image. Plans for a cantilevered steel footbridge to link Tintagel Island and the mainland, designed (by Ney & Partners and William Matthews Associates) to evoke Arthur's sword, were approved in 2017 and the bridge is due to open in spring 2019.
Tintagel is one of English Heritage's top five attractions, with around 200,000 visitors a year and up to 3,000 a day in the peak summer season. According to figures released by the Association of Leading Visitor Attractions, 246,039 people visited Tintagel Castle in 2017.
The castle has a long association with the Arthurian legends, being first associated with King Arthur by Welshman Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book the Historia Regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain'"), written circa 1135–38, which includes a detailed account of the legend. According to Geoffrey and the legend, Arthur's father was Uther Pendragon, the king of all Britain. He goes to war against Gorlois, the Duke of Cornwall, to capture Gorlois' wife Igraine, with whom Uther has fallen in love. Gorlois defends himself against Uther's armies at his fort of Dimilioc, but he sends Igraine to stay safely within Tintagel Castle which is his most secure refuge, according to the legend and the Historia Regum Britanniae. Uther besieges Dimilioc, telling his friend Ulfin how he loves Igraine, but Ulfin replies that it would be impossible to take Tintagel, for "it is right by the sea, and surrounded by the sea on all sides; and there is no other way into it, except that provided by a narrow rocky passage—and there, three armed warriors could forbid all entry, even if you took up your stand with the whole of Britain behind you." Geoffrey of Monmouth's story goes on to explain how the wizard Merlin is summoned and magically changes Uther's appearance to that of Gorlois to help get them into Tintagel Castle, while also changing his own and Ulfin's appearances to those of two of Gorlois's companions. Disguised thus, they are able to enter Tintagel where Uther goes to Igraine, and "in that night was the most famous of men, Arthur, conceived."
Geoffrey's History mentions Tintagel Castle as the site of Arthur's conception, but "it nowhere claims that Arthur was born at Tintagel, or that he ever visited the place in later life, or that in any sense the stronghold became his property when he was king." However, the legend and the book continued to become hugely popular, spreading across Britain in the Late Medieval period, when more Arthurian texts were produced, many of them continuing to propagate the idea that Arthur himself was actually born at Tintagel. There is now a footpath from the site to Cadbury Castle in Somerset called Arthur's Way.
However, many continue to argue against these legends. For example, archaeologist C.A. Ralegh Radford refused to believe in the legend and all of the associations, declaring in 1935 that "no concrete evidence whatsoever has yet been found to support the legendary connection of the Castle with King Arthur". Charles Thomas, a specialist in Cornish history, was unable to find solid links, mainly due to the fact that legends and stories would have been handed down only verbally during this period. Thomas stated in 1993 that "there simply is no independently attested connection in early Cornish folklore locating Arthur, at any age or in any capacity, at Tintagel."[35] Many others disagree,[who?] maintaining that the legendary figure would essentially have been an Early Medieval British leader, involved in fighting the migrating Anglo-Saxons who were settling in Britain at that time. A stone was found at Tintagel bearing the inscription PATERN[--] COLI AVI FICIT ARTOGNOU , and it has been claimed by some to provide evidence for a historical Arthur, but most historians reject this view.
Tintagel is used as a locus for the Arthurian mythos by the poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson in the poem Idylls of the King. Letitia Elizabeth Landon's poem A Legend of Tintagel Castle (1832) is another variation on the story of Lancelot and Elaine. Algernon Charles Swinburne's Tristram of Lyonesse is a literary version of the Tristan and Iseult legend in which some events are set at Tintagel. Thomas Hardy's The Famous Tragedy of the Queen of Cornwall at Tintagel in Lyonnesse, a one-act play which was published in 1923, is another version of the same legend with events set at Tintagel (the book includes an imaginary drawing of Tintagel Castle at the period).
In the 1930s, it was decided to begin a major archaeological excavation at the site, and so HM Office of Works employed Devon archaeologist Courtenay Arthur Ralegh Radford (1900–1999) to work as site director. He had been employed as the Inspector of Ancient Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire from 1929 and 1934, and from 1936 was Director of the British School at Rome. Excavation began in 1933, and in 1935 Ralegh Radford wrote an interim report and a guidebook entitled Tintagel Castle, published by H. M. Stationery Office. The excavators employed former quarry workers (the last Tintagel cliff quarry was closed in 1937) who worked under a trained foreman. They were instructed to clear the land on the Island, following and exposing any walling that they came across and keeping any finds. Excavation was forced to cease in 1939 due to the outbreak of the Second World War. Radford was required to take part in the war effort abroad, and many of the original site reports were destroyed when his house in Exeter was bombed by the Luftwaffe during the conflict.
In the mid-1980s, a fire on Tintagel Island led to considerable erosion of the topsoil, and many more building foundations could be seen than those recorded by Ralegh Radford.[40] In 1998, the "Artognou stone", a slate stone bearing an incised inscription in Latin, was discovered on the island, demonstrating that Latin literacy survived in this region after the collapse of Roman Britain.
Excavations during the summer of 2016 found the remains of various Dark Ages structures including well-constructed buildings of relatively large size dated to the 5th and 6th centuries, with pottery and glass finds indicating that the people who lived at Tintagel were of an elite status, drinking wine imported from the eastern Mediterranean and using food vessels from North Africa and Gaul. In 2017, archaeologists discovered at the castle a 7th century slate window ledge inscribed with a mix of Latin, Greek and Celtic words, names and symbols.
(Wikipedia)
Die Burg Tintagel [tɪnˈtædʒəɫ] (englisch: Tintagel Castle, Kornisch: Kastell Dintagell = Festung des schmalen Zugangs) liegt auf einer Halbinsel an der Westküste Cornwalls, nicht weit vom Dorf Tintagel entfernt. Zu ihr führen steile Zu- und Abgänge, sie ist nur durch eine schmale Landzunge mit dem Festland verbunden. In der Sage wird sie mit der Zeugung des mythischen König Artus (englisch: Arthur) verbunden.
Nach der Artussage, die im Wesentlichen von Geoffrey von Monmouth in den 1130er Jahren verfasst wurde, fand in Tintagel die Zeugung von König Artus statt. In den Tagen von Uther Pendragon gehörte die Burg Tintagel demnach einem gewissen Gorlois, dem Herzog von Cornwall. Hier versteckte Gorlois seine Frau, Igraine, die Uther für sich selbst begehrte. Um sich unbemerkt Igraine nähern zu können, verlieh Merlin ihm das Aussehen des Herzogs. Der Plan ging auf, und Igraine empfing den späteren König Artus.
In der Tristan-Sage ist Tintagel die Burg König Markes und ein wichtiger Handlungsschauplatz.
In Tintagel finden sich kaum Hinweise auf vorrömische und römerzeitliche Besiedlung. Möglicherweise existierte in römischer Zeit eine an Tintagel vorbeiführende Handelsroute, worauf zwei römische Meilensteine aus der Umgebung hinweisen könnten.
Erste ältere Grabungen fanden unter C. A. Ralegh Radford (Ministry of Works) in den 1930er Jahren statt. Lagen die Schwerpunkte zuerst auf der "Suche nach König Artus", fand schließlich durch Radford eine Neuinterpretation des Ortes als einer "frühchristlichen keltischen Klosteranlage" des 5. – 8. Jahrhunderts statt.
Neuere Grabungen zwischen 1990 und 1999 lassen aufgrund der großen Fülle und hohen Qualität des gefundenen Importmaterials (z. T. aus dem östlichen Mittelmeerraum und Spanien) und der angetroffenen Gebäudestrukturen inzwischen eher auf einen bedeutenden "Fürstensitz" mit zentralörtlicher Funktion schließen, der vermutlich ab der Mitte des 5. Jahrhunderts bis Anfang des 7. Jahrhunderts bestand und in dem man sich bemühte, an römisch-antiken Traditionen sowie an Kontakten zum Mittelmeerraum festzuhalten.
Ein 1998 ausgegrabenes Bruchstück eines Schiefergesteins mit spätantiker lateinischer Inschrift ("PATER … COLIAVIFICIT … ARTOgNOV … COLI FICIT") weist dabei wohl weniger auf die Anwesenheit des mythischen Königs Artus hin, als vielmehr auf den Fortbestand lateinischer Schrift und spätantiker Kultur in Südengland.
Im Mai 1233 erwarb Richard von Cornwall, ein jüngerer Bruder des englischen Königs Heinrich III., die Burgstelle im Tausch gegen drei seiner Landgüter. Wohl inspiriert durch die im 12. Jahrhundert verfasste Artus-Legende ließ er eine neue Burg errichten. Richard von Cornwall war 1227 zum Earl of Cornwall ernannt worden und wollte wohl seine Herrschaft in Südwestengland festigen, indem er sich auf die Tradition des durch die Legende damals populären Artus berief. Die kleine und nur relativ schwach befestigte Anlage lag abseits der mittelalterlichen Handelswege und Schifffahrtsverbindungen, wodurch sie nur geringen militärischen und strategischen Wert besaß. Richard von Cornwall nutzte die Burg auch nur selten. 1242 empfing er den walisischen Fürsten Dafydd ap Llywelyn in der Burg. Schon bald nach ihrer Erbauung galten die Mauern der exponiert gelegenen Burg jedoch als instabil, und 1337 wurde sie als verfallen bezeichnet. Der Thronfolger Edward of Woodstock, der 1337 zum Duke of Cornwall erhoben worden war, ließ die Burg wiederherstellen und die hochmittelalterliche Wohnhalle durch kleinere Gebäude ersetzen. Ende des 14. Jahrhunderts wurde die Anlage als Gefängnis für hochrangige Gefangene genutzt. 1583 wurde empfohlen, die Halbinsel gegen Angriffe von See her zu befestigen, doch bereits vor 1600 war die Burg endgültig verlassen und verfiel.
Von der frühmittelalterlichen Anlage sind kaum Reste erhalten, da die Anlage durch die hochmittelalterliche Burg überbaut wurde. Vor der Burg befinden sich noch weitere Erdwälle, deren Entstehungszeitraum nicht genau bekannt ist. Die hochmittelalterliche Burg bestand aus einer Vorburg auf dem Festland und der auf der vorgelagerten Halbinsel gelegenen Hauptburg, die durch eine schmale Landbrücke mit dem Festland verbunden ist. Die Vorburg war wiederum in einen unteren und in einen oberen, auf einer Klippe gelegenen Hof unterteilt. Der untere Hof diente als Zugang zur Burg, während der obere Burghof verschiedene kleinere Gebäude enthielt. Von dem unteren Burghof aus führte auch der Zugang zur Hauptburg. Dieser Zugang war durch einen Graben, der bereits im Frühmittelalter angelegt worden war, und wahrscheinlich durch ein hochmittelalterliches Torhaus befestigt, von dem jedoch wegen der Küstenerosion keine Reste mehr erhalten sind. Heute sind von der Burg nur noch wenige Mauerreste erhalten. Aufgrund ihrer Lage war die Anlage nur klein, dazu waren die Mauern im Vergleich zu anderen mittelalterlichen Anlagen schmal. Die Hauptburg enthielt eine Wohnhalle, die auf einer künstlich angelegten Terrasse angelegt wurde, sowie weitere Wohnräume. Am nördlichen Ende der Halbinsel befanden sich im Hochmittelalter weitere Gebäude, darunter ein rundes, wohl als Kornspeicher genutztes Bauwerk. Dieses belegt, dass die kleine Halbinsel im Hochmittelalter vermutlich zeitweilig landwirtschaftlich genutzt wurde. Auf dem höchsten Punkt der Halbinsel befand sich eine Kapelle, die St Juliot, einem lokalen Heiligen geweiht war. Die vorhandenen Mauerreste wurden offensichtlich zusammen mit der hochmittelalterlichen Burg errichtet, doch die separate Lage sowie mehrere in den Felsgrund gehauene Gräber deuten darauf hin, dass der Ursprung der Kapelle wesentlich älter ist. Um die Kapelle befinden sich die Reste von mehreren Gebäuden, die offensichtlich zu verschiedenen Zeiten errichtet wurden. Nördlich der Hauptburg befindet sich die einzige Anlegemöglichkeit der Halbinsel, die durch eine Mauer mit einem Tor, dem sogenannten Iron Gate gesichert war.
Sowohl auf dem Gelände der Vorburg wie vor allem auf dem Gelände der Hauptburg wurden bei Ausgrabungen Scherben von frühmittelalterlichen Tongefäßen gefunden, die ursprünglich aus dem Mittelmeerraum stammten. Das Zentrum der frühmittelalterlichen Anlage befand sich wahrscheinlich auf dem Gelände der hochmittelalterlichen Hauptburg, da dort besonders viele Tonscherben gefunden wurden. Auf dem weiteren Gelände der Halbinsel befinden sich jedoch Überreste von frühmittelalterlichen, rechteckigen Hütten, von denen die meisten anscheinend nur als vorübergehende Wohnungen dienten. Einige Mauern dieser Hütten wurden nach Ausgrabungen in den 1930er Jahren wiederhergestellt, die meisten Überreste wurden jedoch durch einen Waldbrand 1983 freigelegt.
(Wikipedia)
Having proven herself to Count Dooku and Darth Sidious, Asajj Ventress was tasked to assassinate Anakin Skywalker. She lured him into a trap on the moon Yavin 4 where they engaged in an intense duel throughout the jungle ruins. Eventually, Anakin gave in to his anger and was able to defeat her, fueled by his rage against the Jedi Council. Ventress was assumed to be dead, but she survived and continued to serve her masters.
City trip In Amsterdam - July 2021 - Moco Museum
We Are Moco
The Moco Museum focuses on proven artists with a unique vision.
The Moco Museum in Amsterdam is a boutique museum with a wide range of inspiring modern and contemporary art. With artists like Banksy, Jean-Michel Basquiat, JR, KAWS, Keith Haring, Jeff Koons, Yayoi Kusama, Andy Warhol, and more, we offer visitors an unparalleled collection of subversive art in which irony and humor are used to reflect on modern society. A one-of-a-kind experience aimed at a wide audience, a visit to Moco is a true eye-opener.
Studio Irma. Reflecting Forward expresses endless connections to reveal what the future can look like. Studio Irma x Moco introduces Connectivism as a new art movement. Through compassion and empathy, we arrive at a shared understanding. So, in our collective choice to experience this digital immersive art exhibition, we are Reflecting Forward in search of Connectivism.
Brightly colored lights, movement, and music drive you through these interactive, digital spaces: Diamond Matrix, Kaleidoscope, We All Live in Bubbles, Connect the Dots & Universe.
Connectivism stresses that internet technologies like web browsers, search engines, and social media contribute to new ways of understanding and learning in our digital age. - Studio Irma
Banksy. A mysterious British artist known for his humorous and political street art. The Banksy exhibition at Moco contains several of his infamous street pieces, as well a large number of his indoor works, including work on canvas. One of these is his giant 'Beanfield' painting, a beautiful piece that is displayed on the ground floor. An impossible-to-miss eye-catcher as you enter the Banksy exhibition. Other highlights include 'Girl with Balloon', 'Laugh Now' and 'Keep It Real'. The Banksy collection at Moco Museum: come check it out!
The Modern Contemporary (Moco) Museum has made its home in Villa Alsberg, a townhouse overlooking Museumplein in the heart of Amsterdam. The building was designed in 1904 by Eduard Cuypers, nephew of the renowned Pierre Cuypers who designed Amsterdam's Central Station and the Rijksmuseum, which is at the opposite end of the square. This privately-owned residence was one of the first family homes built along Museumplein and retained this function until 1939. Subsequently, the house was let to priests who taught at the Saint Nicolas School in Amsterdam, and later it was converted into an office for a law firm.
No effort is spared to ensure that this breathtaking mansion makes an impact on visitors, adding an extra layer to the Moco experience. There is one small drawback, though: charming as the building is, its compact size does mean it can feel crowded during peak hours.
The Moco Museum is a private initiative of Lionel and Kim Logchies. The exhibited works of art are on loan from their carefully cultivated international network of art collectors. Part of the proceeds from the museum will be donated to charities that are close to the hearts of the initiators.
( A little city trip in Amsterdam
Un petit city trip a Amsterdam )