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A duck stands profile to the right, looking up at a doll, held in the hand of a young girl. The inscription Π Λ Α Ν Γ Ω Ν, carved on the epistyle, probably identifies the young girl as Plangon. She is standing in 3/4-view to the left, looking down at the bird. She wears slippers, a high-belted, short-sleeved chiton with shoulder cords, and a stephane around her short curly hair. She holds the doll in her upraised left hand, and a bird in her left hand, held at her side. In the background plane, as if hanging on a wall, are articulated a large bag, which may have contained astragaloi (knucklebones), and two objects that are not easily identified. The objects seem to be oversized, perhaps to emphasize the girl's small size, and youth.
The overall scene is enclosed in a naiskos comprised of antae supporting a narrow architrave, with shallow pediment above. The pediment is only decorated with one central akroterion.
Source: www.perseus.tufts.edu
Marble funerary stele
Late classical Period
About 325 BC
From Athens [?]
Munich, Glyptothek
The 14:17 Bangor to Crewe accelerates away from Rhyl in the care of Class 33/0 33062. For an all too brief period, these splendid Type 3s could be seen working along the North Wales coast and I enjoyed a ride behind examples several times.
This particular product of the Birmingham Railway Carriage & Wagon Company [BRCW] entered service in December 1961 as D6582 and was allocated to Hither Green [HG]. This Type 3 machine provided over 25 years of service prior to withdrawal in September 1987. Vic Berry, Leicester completed the cutting in late 1990.
All images on this site are exclusive property and may not be copied, downloaded, reproduced, transmitted, manipulated or used in any way without expressed written permission of the photographer. All rights reserved – Copyright Don Gatehouse
"En Cuba no hay periodistas presos, hay mercenarios presos"
Lázaro Barredo es director del periódico Granma, órgano oficial del Partido Comunista de Cuba. En esta entrevista, realizada por cuestionario, por Carlos Salas, director de Metro España, Barredo explica el papel de la prensa en Cuba, el estado de la libertad de expresión y comenta el impacto de las medidas recientes.
Lázaro Barredo (Granma-Metro España) [22.04.2008 22:12] - 10 lecturas - 0 comentarios
Los cubanos ya pueden entrar en los hoteles, disponer de teléfonos móviles, comprar computadoras. Grandes cambios. Y respecto a la prensa, ¿cuál va ser el paso que va a dar el Gobierno?
Esas y muchas otras cosas que se atenderán en las próximas semanas y que hemos denominado ahora "prohibiciones" constituyen la rectificación de decisiones que se adoptaron en los momentos más aciagos de la crisis económica a principios de la década de los 90, cuando comenzó lo que los cubanos llamamos Período Especial y que fue consecuencia del derrumbe del campo socialista, la desaparición de la Unión Soviética y el reforzamiento de las medidas del criminal bloqueo económico y financiero de Estados Unidos, y que se asumieron en aquel momento con el deseo de evitar desigualdades en una sociedad hasta aquel momento marcadamente igualitarista.
Esas decisiones fueron superadas por las propias coyunturas y las realidades y debieron haber sido enmendadas mucho tiempo atrás.
Con respecto a la prensa, se han venido dando pasos para poner el énfasis en una mayor profundidad de análisis y crítica de los problemas y ampliar el despliegue de la necesaria variedad de perfiles de los medios y órganos, que sean reflejo cada vez más de la realidad misma y no de la edulcoración, sin dejar de reconocer que la prensa aquí, allá y acullá, responde siempre a una línea política y a un sistema.
En nuestro caso, esa concepción está bien definida en la ideas que recién acaba de expresarle el compañero Fidel en su mensaje a los intelectuales reunidos en el VII Congreso de la Unión de Escritores y Artistas de Cuba: "todo lo que fortalezca éticamente a la Revolución es bueno, todo lo que la debilite es malo".
En Cuba hablamos mucho de Batalla de Ideas, no es una consigna, es una estrategia política que parte de un presupuesto martiano: "Ser cultos es el único modo de ser libres" y que lo asociamos directamente a la idea de que el máximo de libertad del ser humano reside en el máximo de conocimientos que tenga.
Los medios son parte de esa estrategia. En los últimos seis años salieron al aire casi 30 emisoras radiales nuevas con programaciones de 18 a 24 horas cada una de ellas (de 63 a 91 emisoras en todo el territorio nacional); de dos canales nacionales de televisión se han pasado a cinco y uno internacional y de 11 estaciones televisivas territoriales a 32, en provincias y municipios, además de 71 corresponsalías municipales con moderna capacidad tecnológica y estudios para elaborar programas con su propia sustentación. A la vez, se ha ido produciendo una recuperación paulatina de los medios de prensa plana que virtualmente colapsaron hace casi 20 años atrás al desaparecer el mercado natural que tenía Cuba, es decir la Unión Soviética y el campo socialista. Ya hoy más de 700 publicaciones nacionales periódicas y no periódicas han vuelto a circular.
En el mes de junio próximo tendremos las sesiones finales del Congreso de los periodistas que tiene también proyectada una importante agenda de debate político y profesional.
Desde hace pocos días, los cubanos pueden exponer sus quejas en una sección de su periódico. ¿Es un signo de lo que puede pasar en Granma?
Lo que estamos haciendo ha estado siempre dentro de la intencionalidad de nuestro colectivo de redacción. Granma ya tuvo en la década de los 80 una sección de intercambio con los lectores que se llamó "A vuelta de Correo" y después en la década de los 90 tuvo otra denominada "Abrecartas", ambas propiciaron espacios para la queja, la denuncia y el intercambio de opiniones
¿Cuál es el papel de Granma en estos momentos en los que muchos analistas internacionales ven cambios sólidos en Cuba?
Granma, como el resto de los medios, tienen un importante desempeño en la información, orientación, en el emplazamiento a los principales problemas del mundo y de la sociedad. Y hacerlo todo profesionalmente a partir de aquellos conceptos de la reflexión del Apóstol "la prensa no es aprobación bondadosa o ira insultante; es proposición, estudio, examen y consejo".
En otras palabras, llevar a vías de hecho la recomendación de José Martí de que hacer un buen diario es que no haya una manifestación de la vida, cuyos diarios accidentes no sorprendan al diarista.
Temas internacionales para abordar, en los que el mundo vive uno de sus momentos más peligrosos de la supervivencia humana, tenemos suficientes. Como también tenemos muchísimos temas nacionales. El país necesita más respuestas sobre el llamado a la profundización de las concepciones socialistas de la Revolución, más énfasis en la institucionalidad, mas acentos en el control estatal y la participación ciudadana y popular en la exigencia y una batalla mucho más abierta y pública contra el burocratismo, la corrupción, la ilegalidad, la indisciplina social y laboral, la falta de eficiencia, la doble moral y la simulación, contra las tendencias desmoralizantes de quienes por mezquindad han perdido la virtud ética y desprestigian hoy las funciones de la administración y dañan la autoridad de la Revolución.
Tengo la más íntima convicción de que como nunca el país necesita que todos los periodistas tratemos con absoluta responsabilidad el análisis de los principales problemas de nuestra realidad social, que razonemos y argumentemos sobre las causas de las dificultades, rehuyendo el facilismo, la espectacularidad, las declaraciones generales y abstractas y la tendencia a la simplificación.
Su periódico es el órgano del Partido Comunista Cubano. ¿Lo ve usted en un futuro como un periódico que no dependa del partido?
La Revolución, el Partido y Granma es una misma cosa. Hace unos años atrás, Fidel nos decía que el diario es un órgano en que la cuestión política, revolucionaria, ideológica, está muy por encima de cualquier tentación de subordinar un átomo de su papel, porque dejaría de ser el órgano revolucionario de excelencia política, con prioridad absoluta en la política, lo cual no excluye que haga las cosas con el máximo de técnica periodística y que esté ajustado fielmente a la realidad de la nación.
Ustedes publican periódicamente columnas de opinión del comandante Castro ¿Qué mensaje de fondo cree usted que está transmitiendo Fidel Castro a los cubanos?
Bueno, son más de 100 artículos o Reflexiones en este último año. Cuando Fidel anunció que no aceptaría la nominación para el cargo de Presidente de los Consejos de Estado y de Ministros, no había renunciado como se acuñó por los medios internacionales con toda mala intención. Como escribí al día siguiente de su decisión en un comentario en Granma: Fidel no ha renunciado, no se ha despedido de nosotros, sino que por sus limitaciones físicas nos ha comunicado una decisión que ha meditado mucho: "Deseo solo combatir como un soldado de las ideas". Es la consecuencia de lo que nos ha dicho siempre y de lo que proclama ahora con su ejemplo, de que un comunista tiene que dedicar el ciento por ciento de sus energías, de su trabajo, de su vida, a los empeños revolucionarios.
Ha escrito pensando siempre en los jóvenes, abordando temas medulares que tienen por su actualidad política un impacto en la opinión pública internacional, desde las insensatas medidas que condenan a la humanidad a una encrucijada destructiva, como la condena a muerte por hambre a la mayoría de la población mundial, la irracionalidad del uso de alimentos para producir biocombustibles, los graves problemas que destruyen el medio ambiente o fustigando sin cesar las mentiras y los embustes de W. Bush, por mencionarte algunos ejemplos. Sus certeros análisis no abordan solo la crítica a esos fenómenos, sino también la observación sobre fórmulas aplicables para afrontarlos.
Creo que si me preguntaras que te nombrara una en particular, te mencionaría una joya política y literaria, Regalo de Reyes que publicó el pasado 14 de enero, dedicado en su primera parte a la gira de Bush por el Medio Oriente, pero que lleva de la mano sobre algunos de los pretextos de la guerra de Iraq, la crisis actual y concluye con un impactante llamado a la juventud:
A los revolucionarios más jóvenes, especialmente, recomiendo exigencia máxima y disciplina férrea, sin ambición de poder, autosuficiencia, ni vanaglorias. Cuidarse de métodos y mecanismos burocráticos. No caer en simples consignas. Ver en los procedimientos burocráticos el peor obstáculo. Usar la ciencia y la computación sin caer en lenguaje tecnicista e ininteligible de élites especializadas. Sed de saber, constancia, ejercicios físicos y también mentales.
En la nueva era que vivimos, el capitalismo no sirve ni como instrumento. Es como un árbol con raíces podridas del que sólo brotan las peores formas de individualismo, corrupción y desigualdad. Tampoco debe regalarse nada a los que pueden producir y no producen o producen poco. Prémiese el mérito de los que trabajan con sus manos o su inteligencia.
Si hemos universalizado los estudios superiores, debemos universalizar el trabajo físico simple, que ayuda por lo menos a realizar parte de las infinitas inversiones que todos demandan, cual si existiera una enorme reserva de divisas y de fuerza de trabajo. Cuídense en especial de los que inventan empresas del Estado con cualquier pretexto y administran después las fáciles ganancias cual si hubiesen sido capitalistas toda la vida, sembrando egoísmo y privilegios.
Mientras no se tome conciencia de esas realidades, ningún esfuerzo puede realizarse para "impedir a tiempo", como diría Martí, que el imperio al que vio surgir por haber vivido en sus entrañas, destroce los destinos de la humanidad.
Ser dialécticos y creadores. No hay otra alternativa posible.
En la última columna de Castro se leía que la religión no es un obstáculo para ser militante del Partido Comunista. ¿Piensa que se está preparando a los cubanos para un gran cambio?
Esta pregunta tuya es una prueba de lo poco que se conoce la realidad de Cuba. Es comprensible, ha sido mucha la manipulación mediática sobre nuestra vida nacional.
El libro Fidel y la Religión, Conversaciones con Frei Betto, un sacerdote dominico brasileño, editado por primera vez en octubre de 1985, originó un prolongado debate político en Cuba que culminó en 1991 cuando en mayoritarios segmentos sociales se llegó a la conclusión sobre la necesidad de rectificar una cierta posición discriminatoria contra algunos sectores creyentes y esa fue una de las premisas en el debate del IV Congreso del Partido celebrado ese año de 1991. Allí se aprobó el principio de que la religión no debía ser un obstáculo para que un creyente pudiese hasta llegar a ingresar en las filas del Partido Comunista de Cuba. Como ves, esa política se aprobó hace cerca de 27 años y Fidel en sus reflexiones no hizo otra cosa que recordarlo.
Las reformas constituciones de 1992, aprobadas por los diputados a la Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular (Parlamento) enmendaron desde el punto de vista legislativo esa situación discriminatoria al establecer los principios del Estado Laico.
Debo aclararte que no hablamos solo de la religión católica o las protestantes, sino también de más de 50 congregaciones con personalidad jurídica, entre ellas varias denominaciones sincréticas de la cultura africana –que es la religión más extendida en Cuba-, las cuales por primera en la historia cubana han sido reconocidas por el Estado.
Si tuviera que hacer una autocrítica, ¿qué cambiaría de su periódico?
Autocráticamente, nuestro colectivo de redacción tiene que reflejar mucho más las contradicciones de nuestra sociedad, la lucha por resolver los problemas de la nación y el enfrentamiento a las deficiencias y con argumentos no retóricos o apologéticos demostrar que el socialismo es viable, porque para los cubanos cualquier otra opción es perder nuestra independencia y soberanía.
¿Cómo están considerados los periodistas en su país? ¿Son los garantes de la libertad de expresión?
Esta pregunta me obliga a tratar la disquisición conceptual que pretende denigrar al sistema político cubano.
En el mundo comunicacional, el concepto de libertad de expresión es muy controvertido, depende de la apreciación de cada cual. Por ejemplo, desde mi punto de vista se tienden a confundir la libertad de opinión del ciudadano y su derecho a estar informado con la llamada libertad de prensa que por sí misma, y en buena parte del mundo, impone limitaciones de una forma u otra por intereses propios de lo que no pocas veces, sin lugar a duda, resulta más bien la "libertad de empresa".
La libertad de expresión en nuestro caso la garantizan la Constitución y las leyes y sobre todas las cosas las condiciones materiales creadas para garantizar ese ejercicio y que están dadas por el hecho de que la prensa, la radio, la televisión, el cine y otros medios de difusión masiva son de propiedad estatal o social y no pueden ser objeto, en ningún caso, de propiedad privada, lo que asegura su uso al servicio exclusivo de los intereses de la sociedad.
En la difusión sobre las realidades de lo que acontece en Cuba hay mucha mala fe, pero visto el asunto cubano con objetividad nadie podría negar que en el ámbito político-cultural es ostensible una cada vez más abierta y profunda discusión de los problemas sociales, intelectuales, artísticos y filosóficos entre los propios creadores y un espacio crítico que tienen hoy reflejo en la diversidad de las numerosas publicaciones que se editan.
En la isla no existe un sentimiento de xenofobia o aldeanismo con respecto a la comunicación mundial. En el país se proyectan anualmente más de 1 200 filmes extranjeros, el 80 % de ellos norteamericanos. Se difunde la música universal de todos los tiempos y en los centros de documentación y bibliotecas hay pleno acceso a decenas de miles de autores de todas las corrientes, principios filosóficos y tendencias estéticas, así como a revistas y periódicos universales, mientras que en los medios televisuales se reproducen importantes segmentos informativos de varias cadenas televisivas internacionales.
Haga un ejercicio de búsqueda de los principales acontecimientos en la isla en el último año y verá que Cuba ha estado de congreso en congreso, de asamblea en asamblea, discutiendo plenamente y con absoluto respeto toda la agenda política del país.
No hay ninguna norma del Estado que impida el ejercicio de la opinión, y de hecho aun las personas que se convierten en instrumentos de la política de agresión de Estados Unidos contra Cuba, dentro de Cuba, expresan sin ninguna restricción legal el derecho a emitir sus opiniones, acudir a los corresponsales extranjeros o las misiones diplomáticas, establecen comunicaciones directas con personas y con medios en el exterior.
Cuba tiene una alta densidad radial y es una de las naciones que mayores accesos tiene a la comunicación mundial, cuando por la situación geográfica de la isla se pueden captar en el dial más de 100 emisiones internacionales, desde la BBC de Londres, Radio Exterior de España y la Voz del Vaticano, pasando por Radio Rumbo de Venezuela, Radio Caracol de Colombia y hasta la Voz de los Estados Unidos.
No es necesaria mucha imaginación para evaluar lo que puede significar para una isla larga y estrecha como Cuba, tener emplazada contra ella a 15 plantas radiales, transmitiendo en más de 30 frecuencias de ondas media y corta desde Estados Unidos, con más de 250 horas de programación diaria totalmente destinada para Cuba, con propaganda intencionada en los propósitos de infundir temor e incertidumbre, fanatismo, y enajenación, a la vez que empeñadas en estimular conductas sin escrúpulos y sin consideraciones éticas.
Desde estas emisoras, provenientes de Miami en lo fundamental, se promueve constantemente la subversión mediante llamados abiertos a la subversión civil, la realización de sabotajes a la economía nacional como forma de destrucción de la infraestructura del país, a la celebración de huelgas, a incrementar el delito económico, a colocar propaganda contra el Gobierno.
Agencias federales norteamericanas han dedicado más de 600 millones de dólares en los últimos años al fomento de estas plantas que operan bajo su amparo oficial (las más llamadas Radio y Televisión Martí), que se identifican o complementan con la de grupos terroristas y otras del servicio comercial de Miami, comprometidas por las ambiciones políticas de quienes las patrocinan.
Nadie en Cuba es perseguido ni por escuchar las transmisiones extranjeras, ni tampoco por oír ninguna de esas emisoras abiertamente antinacionales.
Y lo que es más, la mayoría de las personas que se autodenominan disidentes, hablan casi en muchísimas oportunidades por esas emisoras radiales, expresas sus comentarios directos o son entrevistados, a la vez que escriben desde la isla para los periódicos más importantes de Miami, sin que por ello sufran ninguna acción legal, pese a que en la mayoría de los casos se denigra flagrantemente y de manares reiterada a la Revolución, sus instituciones y sus dirigentes.
La prensa extranjera tiene acceso al país. Hay más de 150 periodistas de 111 medios de prensa extranjeros acreditados en las corresponsalías permanentes, incluidas las principales agencias cablegráficas internacionales y cerca de 20 000 periodistas de diversas latitudes obtuvieron visa para trabajar en el país y reportar libremente en los últimos 19 años, desde 1989.
Los periodistas en Cuba son profesionales y se distinguen por ser revolucionarios.
Hay algunos periodistas cubanos encarcelados por expresar su opinión. Como periodista que dirige Granma, ¿cuál es su opinión?
En Cuba no hay periodistas presos por ejercer su profesión. Hay mercenarios presos, pagados por una potencia extranjera, en este caso el gobierno de los Estados Unidos, para llevar adelante planes de subversión que propicien el derrocamiento de la Revolución.
En ningún país del mundo se admitiría el financiamiento de grupos de personas por una potencia extranjera para llevar adelante actividades políticas violatorias de las leyes.
¿Qué opina de medios como El Nuevo Herald en Miami?
El Nuevo Herald es un libelo de la mafia terrorista de Miami.
Si tienes tiempo tómate el trabajo de analizar lo que publica sobre Cuba The Miami Herald y El Nuevo Herald, que tienen la misma matriz, y si comparas los mismos textos en inglés y en español, apreciaras la manipulación,comprobarás esta apreciación.
¿Qué opinión tiene de los medios de comunicación europeos?
No se si en España será así, pero en Cuba cuando hay cosas difíciles acostumbramos a decir "Me la has puesto en China" (por el término de distancia). No tengo posibilidad de hacer una evaluación. Hay de todo como en botica. Pero con respecto a Cuba hay una tendencia bastante generalizada a la enajenación y publicitar cuanta manipulación se prepare contra la isla. Contra Cuba, todo es bueno.
¿Y de los medios norteamericanos más poderosos como New York Times o The Washington Post o The Wall Street Journal?
Nosotros aquí públicamente hemos denunciado la parcialidad con que algunos medios norteamericanos tratan el asunto cubano. Hay varias investigaciones que prueban el grado de complicidad que tienen con la política del gobierno, una de ellas es el silencio que han hecho del caso de cinco cubanos luchadores contra el terrorismo que guardan prisión injustamente, condenados a cadena perpetua en un amañado proceso judicial, donde se ha impuesto la presión de los grupos terroristas de Miami en contubernio con la Administración de George W. Bush.
Solo aporto como prueba, que cuando los abogados defensores apelaron a la Corte de Apelaciones del Circuito de Atlanta, fue nombrado un panel de tres renombrados jueces norteamericanos por esa misma Corte. Tras un año de revisión, los tres jueces elaboraron por unanimidad un documento de 93 páginas donde de punta a cabo, desde la A hasta la Z, consideraron que el proceso había sido arbitrario. En un precedente inaudito en la jurisprudencia norteamericana, el entonces Fiscal General de los Estados Unidos, Albert Gonzáles, a nombre del Gobierno de W. Bush solicitó a la Corte de Apelaciones la anulación del fallo del Panel de esos tres jueces, lo cual fue concedido. La prensa norteamericana ha ignorado completamente todo esto.
Ahora, si se piensa que estoy prejuiciado con Estados Unidos, invito a leer el libro Agentes de Poder, escrito por el catedrático y periodista J. Herbert Altschull, quien fue reportero y editor de la agencia AP, el diario The New York Times, la cadena televisiva NBC, y la revista Newsweek.
Analizando el cacareado código de la objetividad de que se enaltece la gran prensa norteamericana, ¿qué dice Altschull?
"Bajo el código de la objetividad no es posible atacar a las instituciones fundamentales. Y tampoco es posible atacar a los símbolos de esas instituciones fundamentales: por ejemplo, a la bandera, o a la "democracia"; o a la libertad de prensa, de expresión, o de religión; o a la Presidencia. No se puede aplaudir a los enemigos del sistema, ni a las representaciones simbólicas de esos enemigos. No se puede apoyar el ateísmo; la libertad religiosa no llega a ese extremo. Y tampoco se puede apoyar ningún símbolo de animosidad hacia la familia. La homosexualidad puede tolerarse, pero no apoyarse. La maternidad no puede ser condenada; el comunismo no puede ser defendido. Y para el caso, dentro de los perímetros del sistema, tampoco es aceptable atacar el código de la objetividad.
"Es más, el código de la objetividad parece ser eficaz sólo dentro de los límites geográficos de los Estados Unidos. Cuando Estados Unidos está en colisión con otra nación, no es necesario conceder la misma atención a "ambos lados" de la disputa; sería poco patriótico. Es raro encontrar que se conceda la misma importancia a las opiniones de Fidel Castro que a las de sus enemigos y cuando se presenta la postura de Castro, por lo común se reporta de tal manera que ilustre con claridad lo obstinado de sus puntos de vista".
¿Cree que Chávez es ya el nuevo mito de la izquierda en América Latina, como lo fue en su tiempo Fidel Castro?
Chávez y Fidel son símbolos de la cruenta lucha emprendida por los humildes y para los humildes. En esa consagración fecunda reside la grandeza de ambos y son referentes enaltecedores de los movimientos sociales.
Te reitero lo que escribí en enero, al día siguiente de la decisión de Fidel: En este mundo donde la política es una caricatura no pueden entender que esta Revolución en su pensamiento y en su acción es un proceso de continuidad y que el compañero Fidel seguirá siendo el líder de la Revolución de hoy y de mañana, que por encima de cargos y títulos, seguirá siendo el consejero de ideas al que tendremos que acudir siempre, porque Fidel ha logrado trascender la vida política para insertarse como algo íntimo en la vida familiar de la inmensa mayoría de los cubanos.
Si ha conocido personalmente a Hugo Chávez, ¿cómo lo definiría?
Un revolucionario y un hombre de su tiempo, consecuente con sus ideas.
¿Qué cree que le hace falta en este momento a Cuba desde el punto de vista económico?
Que termine el criminal bloqueo económico y financiero de los yankis y todas sus leyes extraterritoriales, y nos dejen hacer nuestra vida nacional en paz.
¿Cómo describiría el estado de ánimo de sus compatriotas?
Quien lea el Programa de Santa Fe, que fue la plataforma política elaborada por los pujantes neoconservadores republicanos en 1979 para la Administración de Ronald Reagan, encontrará que sobre Cuba quedó claramente definido que había que hacerle pagar caramente a La Habana el costo del desafío.
Los cubanos, como los españoles que enfrentaron al imperio de Napoleón en el siglo XIX, lo hemos resistido todo: amenaza de bombardeo nuclear, agresión militar, actos de terrorismo donde han sido asesinados más de 3 500 niños, mujeres y hombres, guerra económica para rendirnos por hambre y enfermedades, guerra bacteriológica que ha matado personas y dañado nuestras principales producciones agrícolas y ganaderas, guerra radial y televisiva, en fin, todo lo posible para derrocar a la Revolución. Y pese a todo, aquí estamos.
Acabamos de terminar en el país un proceso popular de discusión política. Más de cuatro millones de compatriotas participaron y se hizo más de un millón de planteamientos de asuntos a atender desde la fábrica, la cooperativa o la universidad, pasando por los municipios y provincias y hasta llegar a los ministerios, el gobierno o el Estado.Todas las opiniones, incluso las más críticas, estuvieron dirigidas a fortalecer la Revolución. Hay una expectativa muy favorable. Creo que el propio Presidente Raúl Castro lo definió claramente ante los diputados a la Asamblea Nacional: No hay por qué temer a las discrepancias en una sociedad como la nuestra, en que por su esencia no existen contradicciones antagónicas, porque no lo son las clases sociales que la forman. Del intercambio profundo de opiniones divergentes salen las mejores soluciones.
Hay optimismo en que con las medidas que se comienzan a aplicar, las cuales cuentan con el consenso popular, saldremos adelante. Si la Revolución inspira confianza es porque hace todo lo que dice.
¿Qué cree que debe Cuba copiar hoy día de China?
¿Copiar? Si algo hemos aprendido en estos años es que "a historia propia, soluciones propias".
Con China tenemos buenísimas relaciones en todos los campos y constituyen un ejemplo de transparencia y colaboración pacífica entre dos naciones que sostienen los ideales del socialismo. Las ventajas que disfrutan nuestros dos países al compartir similares objetivos, salvando las particularidades propias, crean el ambiente necesario que facilitan el desarrollo ulterior estable e ininterrumpido.
En Europa, en muchos medios, hay una fuerte oposición al embargo. ¿Cree que los medios europeos han sido muy débiles a la hora de oponerse o crear estados de opinión?
Europa ha utilizado a Cuba como una tarjeta de cambio en sus relaciones trasatlánticas con Estados Unidos. Su oposición ha sido más bien discursiva porque es demasiado evidente la trasgresión de las normas del Derecho Internacional dadas las disposiciones extraterritoriales de leyes norteamericanas como la Torricelli o la Helms-Burton. Ha primado más bien el patrón mediático contra la isla, reclamándole medidas injerencistas a Cuba, las cuales no las han pedido a nadie más en este mundo.
Por último, ¿diría que Cuba está a las puertas del cambio más importante desde que comenzó la Revolución hace justamente 50 años?
He observado con respeto que casi todas las preguntas que me has hecho tienen como elemento vinculante la palabra "CAMBIO".
Me pregunto ¿y qué tiene que cambiar Cuba?
A una pregunta similar respondí en el periódico semanas atrás:
¿Qué cambios estructurales o que transición tendría que hacer Cuba después de la que hizo el Primero de Enero de 1959?
¿Puede olvidarse que las leyes y medidas revolucionarias más radicales, que modificaron completamente los cimientos de nuestro Estado, fueron adoptadas con el beneplácito de la inmensa mayoría de la población?
No hay posiblemente otro caso en la historia en que una Revolución y su liderazgo hayan contado con un apoyo tan masivo y en una época caracterizada por cambios profundos, radicales y acelerados, a la vez que ha tenido que enfrentarse durante medio siglo a la fuerza descomunal de la agresión norteamericana.
El Estado revolucionario rescató para todo el pueblo las riquezas nacionales de manos de los imperialistas y de los explotadores de todo tipo: eliminó el desempleo y abrió fuentes de trabajo para todos: acabó con el analfabetismo y puso la educación de manera gratuita al alcance de todos y con plena equidad social: garantizó por primera vez la atención médica y hospitalaria gratuitamente a todos; popularizó y amplió los cauces de la cultura; desarrolló el deporte y algo muy sobresaliente: organizó al pueblo, le dio armas y le enseñó a manejarlas para que se defendiera.
La Revolución ha partido de motivaciones auténticas, de valores y principios éticos y morales para mover a la mayoría de los cubanos hacia una participación soberana de sus ciudadanos en los asuntos más importantes de la sociedad.
Eso no quiere decir que estemos satisfechos ni mucho menos, y que aun en el orden democrático haya que trabajar por lograr un estadio superior, pero nadie puede negar que por primera vez en nuestra historia nacional las mayorías sociales logran expresarse como mayorías políticas.
Si ya hicimos esa transición hace 50 años, ¿qué nos proponen entonces como no sea volver atrás, al otro medio siglo de neocolonia con un daño irreversible: perder nuestra identidad?
Launch Lake Wallis at completion of the hull (1940/41); she was brought around from the beach on a cradle and launched near the main Tuncurry wharf. The tug assisting is believed to be the Forster; Henry Miles (with hat) on deck and Harry Avery (braces) assisting.
Other images of the Lake Wallis can be found in the Album Lake Wallis
The ferry Lake Wallis operated out of Forster for a long period and was well-known to both holidaymakers and schoolchildren as she plied the waters of Wallis Lake.
UPDATED OCTOBER 2018
Lake Wallis built by Harry Avery
Recent information supplied by Peter Emmerson, son of Albert CARL Emmerson, indicates that his father had the Lake Wallis built specifically for use on Wallis Lake by John Wright & Co. Ltd's chief shipwright, Harry Avery. Commenced circa 1940 and launched circa 1941/2 she was built prior to the time when Wright's shipyard was contracted to building a large number of vessels for the US Army and the Australian Army. While the timbers used in construction are unknown, the planking was of White Beech (Gmelina leichhardtii) sourced from the Comboyne Plateau.
From the images provided by Peter Emmerson it is clear that the hull was completed with timber frame to allow later finishing as a ferry; she was taken by cradle further upstream to an area adjacent to the Tuncurry coal-loader.
Albert CARL Emmerson fits out the Lake Wallis
It appears likely that Carl Emmerson bought the hull only and fitted her with steering gear and a 2 cyl. J2 Kelvin Diesel with petrol assist start. Petrol and spark plugs was used ignite the chamber and thus assist the flywheel to turn; this was an essential component of the starting procedure in cold weather. Carl fitted out the launch with anything that was available. In 1943, equipment and components were unavailable with invasion by Japanese forces appearing almost inevitable. Carl's innovative approach included using the steering wheel of an old Dodge truck. The new launch, named the Lake Wallis replaced his previous launch the ex-cream boat Dorrie May.
Carl Emmerson obtained a Special Lease to build a wharf on Wallis Lake and operated the Lake Wallis as the official mail boat, passenger ferry, delivery launch and later for excursionists. Carl operated his launch service at 9 am Monday, Wednesday and Friday (3h return trip). From Forster the launch travelled to Green Point (Lach Fraser’s dairy); then South to Charlotte Bay Creek then NW to Whoota; then to Coomba Park (Beddington’s) then to Sointu's wharf (John Sointu and Ida Niemi) on the SW side of Wallis Island and finally back to Forster. On the other days he operated his bus service to Elizabeth Beach, Booti Booti, Charlottte Bay and back to Forster. Carl also delivered boxes of butter from the Cape Hawke Co-operative Butter factory in Tuncurry to stores in Forster, three days a week.
Carl Emmerson starts tourist trips around Wallis lake
After the War, when people were again able to travel, Carl commenced a tourist operation taking visitors around the extensive Wallis Lake. His wife, Mollie, acted as deckhand and morning tea maker - pleasing everyone with her home-made shortbread biscuits.
In 1967 Carl sold his entire operation (including the Lake Wallis, the Special Lease, the established tourist route and wharf facilities to Stan Croad.
Stan Croad
The Master of the Lake Wallis from 1967 was Stan Croad, both a ferryman and film operator at the Regent Theatre in Forster. Stanley Osbourne Croad was born in Kempsey in 1912 and moved to Forster around 1937 when the Regent Theatre opened and he commenced work as film operator.
Prior to purchase of the Lake Wallis he operated a launch - name unknown. In 1944, newspaper reports show that Stan had secured a contract to transport schoolchildren from areas around Wallis Lake to Forster. In 1946 he sought a Special Lease from the Lands Board Office to operate his launch service, “carrying school children to and from school per motor launch, and conducting scenic tours of Wallis Lakes” - as indicated by this notice in the Northern Champion.
“It is notified in the Government Gazette of 19th and 26th September and 3rd and 10th October, 1947, that application has been made by Stanley Osbourne Croad, for Special Lease No. 47/37, Land District of Taree, for Jetty, containing about 2 perches below high water mark of Wallis Lake at Forster, between portions 297 and 343 and south of and adjoining the area applied for as Special Lease 46/62 (The Northern Champion (Taree, NSW: 1913 - 1954 Sat 11 Oct 1947).
Croad operated from Emmerson's Lease 38/21 post 1967 but the precise details of his earlier operation is unknown: According to Carl's son, Peter, the relationship between Carl Emmerson and Stan Croad was not a happy one. It was Stan Croad who replaced the Kelvin J2 diesel with the more powerful Lister diesel motor.
In 1975 the Wallis Lake was registered to carry 39 persons and provide life-saving devices for 18 persons. She was described only as 29 ft 3 inches long and only licenced to travel on CAPE HAWKE HARBOUR – Smooth Water only. Graeme Andrews recorded her dimensions as 9 ft 10 inches breadth and 5.3 tonnes.
AFLOAT MAGAZINE ARTICLE
The best description of Stan’s operation was published in the magazine AFLOAT. It was written by Graeme and Winsome Andrews in 1976. Excerpts are included below:
“Stan Croad of Forster is a throw-back. In 1976 he is probably the last of the travelling storemen who once could be seen on most of Australia’s waterways. These water-borne carriers could be found on any river. They brought stores and religion. They collected produce outbound and replaced it with passengers inbound.
Stan still does something like that. Along with his tourist passengers he carries beer, bread, mail and vegetables and at various wharves around the lake he is met by the locals. Meanwhile his passengers watch the process with interest, probably unaware of just what they are watching.
Stan’s small well-deck ferry Lake Wallis is one of the last of the small working craft of the Forster area, her lineage goes back to the time when Forster was a thriving coastal shipping port. The days of the small ferry are numbered as Forster’s population is increasing and new waterfront businesses are growing, along with bigger, faster and more obvious cruise boats. Stan reckons he will not be able to compete but he and his little boat might last long enough, particularly as her shallow draft allows her to reach places out of bounds to bigger craft.
In 1976 only one other boat competed with Stan for the tourist trade. The ex-river milk boat Sun with her liquor license and great size carried a different load to Stan and their paths rarely crossed. [In 2016 Sun is based in Brooklyn on the Hawkesbury River and services Dangar Island and the settlements such as Little Wobby.]
Stan collects his goods and passengers from almost the heart of Forster. The trip is advertised as starting at 0900hrs but Lake Wallis and her amiable Master are no longer young and not in any hurry. The ferry seems to have been built about 1944. She carries up to 38 passengers with a crew of one. A Lister diesel can give her about eight knots but six or seven will do her unless the wind and the lake look like whipping up. When we travelled with Stan he was contemplating buying a newer and bigger boat but was bothered that this would mean he would have to increase his prices.
At about 0920 the Lister rumbles into life and Lake Wallis moves away from her berth with perhaps 20 adults with a dozen or so kids. Passengers and crew are seated low in the hull. She is like an old private launch with the engine covered by a large flat-topped box, slap in the middle of the boat.
Nearing the Forster - Tuncurry Bridge the launch swings sharply to port and skirts a steep sand island where kids are sliding down the sand dune to end up with a great splash. The launch crosses the next channel past low-lying Cockatoo Island towards the ‘Cut’ which is the entrance to the Wallamba River. A considerable tidal outflow can be felt there and the Lister picks up a few revs to cope. Stan has done this many times but he still keeps his ship’s head lined up on the various official and local knowledge navigation markers and piles.
Along the top of Wallis Island the ferry plods. In the area between Regatta Island and Wallis Island the local people once held picnic regattas. Paddle steamers, early motor launches and sail craft of all types – private and commercial- competed in picnic races while the families ashore tucked into the goodies and egged on the contestants.
At Coomba, a hamlet on the western shores of Wallis Lake, a small jetty pokes out from the shore. Here a cluster of people await their purchases. A run-down public toilet attracts some sighs of relief from some of the intrepid passengers. Coomba was to be a glamour development but something went wrong and the 20 or so homes house retirees in considerable peace. Stores and money change hands and Lake Wallis backs carefully out into the channel and heads onwards.
On the south-western end of Wallis Island is a grand and remarkable two-storey house. It is obviously old and apparently houses a Finnish family who have crops, cattle and the obligatory sauna. Their ‘wharf’ consists of the remains of the steam paddle lighter, or ‘drogher’ Queen. About 40 m long by 10 or 12 m wide, this craft is a wooden boat enthusiast’s dream. Much of the exposed timber remains showing grown timbers and adzed wood working. Stores and monies change hands and off we go again.
Out in the middle of the lake the Lister’s muted growl suddenly fades into silence. Skipper Croad puts down his microphone, takes off his Captain’s hat and replaces it with a chef’s hat. A white apron mysteriously appears, while from a large white locker, good china cups and saucers appear. Within a few minutes Stan is passing around, via the ladies, cups of very hot tea or coffee, biscuits for those that want them and scones for those who prefer. The children get cold soft drinks and or cordial.
As the boat drifts Stan tells us more about the lake, his boat and of the locals. Fifteen minutes after ‘Tea-Oh!’ the diesel awakes, tea remnants disappear into the locker, the tablecloth leaves the top of the engine box and we press on somewhat refreshed and impressed.
The homeward, northward run takes us into shallows. Clumps of weeds slide past close to the hull and Stan keeps his eyes on his marks. He tells us about ‘The Step’. Between the mainland at Wallis Point and Wallis Island is a sand bank known as ‘The Step’. Here the incoming tide rolls over the edge of the Stockyards Channel and forms a sand ‘lip’. Here it is that deeper-draft vessels baulk but the little launch slides up and over, the Lister going flat out. All aboard feel the bow then the rest of the boat lift and then drop as we bump into deeper water. Lake Wallis has nearly completed her run.
She swings to starboard off the rarely-used airfield on Wallis Island and heads down Breckenridge Channel. Past Godwin Island Stan swings to starboard and eases in towards his pile berth. Lake Wallis’s stem settles into the low-tide shore-line mud as Stan secures his berthing lines before waving us ashore over a plank that is strong enough but makes one wonder anyway. Stan makes his personal farewell to every person leaving and then, as we straggle away, turns to and cleans up his place of work.
Stan Croad and his comfortable little launch provided one of the best-value tourist dollars the Grey Wanderers have ever had. More than 30 years later we sometimes talk of him, wondering what became of him. Perhaps one of Afloat’s amazing knowledgeable readers can complete the tale?
A more recent publication by the Coomba Progress Association describes Stan as follows:
“For many years people in Coomba had relied for mail delivery on the services of men like Stan Croad, who had operated excellent ferry services, and delivered so cheerfully and willingly not only their basic needs, but would even shop and bring back a grocery order without charging for this extra service.
Stan Croad sold his operation in 1978 to William and Noni Coombe who only ran the Lake Wallis for a couple of times when they replaced her with the younger and larger vessel - Amaroo. Matt Coombe, William Coombe's son noted "This paved the way for bigger and better vessels, all given the prestigious name of ‘Amaroo’" Manning-Great Lakes Focus BLOG 1st June 2010
Stan died in 1994.
Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Graeme and Winsome Andrews for their contribution and AFLOAT magazine for allowing us to extract a large part of the material in Tea and Scones on Lake Wallis in 1976
Image Source: Peter Emmerson
All Images in this photostream are Copyright - Great Lakes Manning River Shipping and/or their individual owners as may be stated above and may not be downloaded, reproduced, or used in any way without prior written approval.
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Arte rupestre, pintura rupestre ou ainda gravura rupestre, é o nome que se dá às mais antigas representações pictóricas conhecidas, as mais antigas datadas do período Paleolítico Superior (40.000 a.C.) gravadas em abrigos ou cavernas, em suas paredes e tetos rochosos, ou também em superfícies rochosas ao ar livre, mas em lugares protegidos, normalmente datando de épocas pré-históricas.
Na vida do Homem pré-histórico tinham lugar a Arte e o espírito de conservação daquilo de que necessitava. Estudos arqueológicos demonstram que o Homem da Pré-História (a fase da História que precede a escrita) já conservava, além de cerâmicas, armas e utensílios trabalhados na pedra, nos ossos dos animais que abatiam e no metal. Arqueólogos e antropólogos datando e estudando peças extraídas em escavações conferem a estes vestígios seu real valor como "documentos históricos", verdadeiros testemunhos da vida do Homem em tempos remotos e de culturas extintas.
Prospecções arqueológicas realizadas na Europa, Ásia e África, entre outras, revelam em que meio surgiram entre os primitivos homens caçadores os primeiros artistas, que pintavam, esculpiam e gravavam, demonstrando que o desejo de expressão através das artes é inerente ao ser humano. A cor na pintura já era conhecida pelo Homem de Neandertal. As "Venus Esteatopígicas", esculturas em pedra ou marfim de figuras femininas estilizadas, com formas muito acentuadas, são manifestações artísticas das mais primitivas do "Homo Sapiens" (Paleolítico Superior, início 40000a.C) e que demonstram sua capacidade de simbolizar. A estas esculturas é atribuído um sentido mágico, propiciatório da fertilidade feminina.
Não é menos notável o desenvolvimento da pintura na mesma época. Encontradas nos tetos e paredes das escuras grutas, descobertas por acaso, situadas em fundos de cavernas. São pinturas vibrantes realizadas em policromia que causam grande impressão, com a firme determinação de imitar a natureza com o máximo de realismo, a partir de observações feitas durante a caçada. Na Caverna de Altamira (a chamada Capela Sistina da Pré-História), na Espanha, a pintura rupestre do bisonte impressiona pelo tamanho e pelo volume conseguido com a técnica claro-escuro. Em outros locais e em outras grutas, pinturas que impressionam pelo realismo. Em algumas, pontos vitais do animal marcados por flechas. Para alguns, "a magia propiciatória" destinada a garantir o êxito do caçador. Para outros estudiosos, era a vontade de produzir arte.
Qualquer que seja a justificativa, a arte preservada por milênios permitiu que as grutas pré-históricas se transformassem nos primeiros museus da humanidade.
A Arte Rupestre é uma maneira de representar a Arte Primitiva. Acredita-se que estas pinturas, cujos materiais mais usados são o sangue, argila e excrementos humanos, têm um cunho ritualístico. Estima-se que esta arte tenha começado no Período Aurignaciano (Hohle Fels, Alemanha), alcançando o seu apogeu no final do Período Magdaleniano do Paleolítico.
Uma teoria alternativa e mais moderna quanto ao objectivo destas pinturas, baseada em estudos de sociedades mais recentes de caçadores-coletores, é que as pinturas foram feitas por xamãs do grupo dos Cro-Magnon.
Os xamãs retirar-se-iam para a escuridão das cavernas, entrariam em estado de transe e pintariam, então, imagens de suas visões, talvez com alguma intenção de extrair força das paredes da caverna para eles mesmos. Isso favorece a explicação sobre a antigüidade de algumas pinturas (que freqüentemente ocorrem em cavernas profundas e pequenas) e a variedade dos motivos (de animais de presa a predadores e desenhos de mãos humanas).
Normalmente os desenhos são formados por figuras de grandes animais selvagens, como bisões, cavalos, cervos entre outros. A figura humana surge raramente, sugerindo muitas vezes actividades como a dança e, principalmente, a caça, mas normalmente em desenhos esquemáticos e não de forma naturalista, como acontece com os dos animais. Paralelamente encontram-se também palmas de mãos humanas e motivos abstratos (linhas emaranhadas), chamados por Henri Breuil de macarrões.
Nos sítios espalhados pelo mundo, é padrão encontrar, além dos desenhos parietais, figuras e objetos decorativos talhados em osso, modelados em argila, pedra ou chifres de animais.
Quando os europeus (mais precisamente Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola) encontraram pela primeira vez as pinturas de Magdalenia da caverna de Altamira, na Cantábria, Espanha, em torno de 150 anos, elas foram consideradas como fraude por acadêmicos.
O novo pensamento darviniano sobre a evolução das espécies foi interpretado como significando que os primitivos humanos não poderiam ter sido suficientemente avançados para criar arte.
Émile Cartailhac, um dos mais respeitados historiadores da Pré-História do final do século XIX, acreditava que as pinturas tinham sido forjadas pelos creacionistas (que sustentavam a criação do Homem por Deus) para apoiar suas idéias e ridicularizar Darwin. Recentes reavaliações e o crescente número de descobertas têm ilustrado a autenticidade das figuras encontradas e indicam o alto nível de capacidade de arte dos humanos do Paleolítico Superior, que usavam apenas ferramentas básicas. As pinturas rupestres podem proporcionar, também, valiosas pistas quanto à cultura e às crenças daquela época.
No entanto, a idade das pinturas permanece, em muitos sítios arqueológicos, uma questão controvertida, dado que métodos como a datação por carbono radioativo podem facilmente levar a resultados errôneos pela contaminação de amostras de material mais antigo ou mais novo, e que as cavernas e superfícies rochosas estão tipicamente atulhadas com resíduos de diversas épocas.
A escolha da datação pelo material subjacente pode indicar a data, por exemplo, da rena na caverna espanhola denominada Cueva de Las Monedas, que foi determinada como sendo do período da última glaciação. A caverna mais antiga é a de Chauvet, com 32.000 anos.
Contudo, como ocorre com toda a Pré-História, é impossível estar-se seguro dessa hipótese devido à relativa falta de evidência material e a diversas lacunas associadas com a tentativa de entender o pensar pré-histórico aplicando a maneira de raciocinar do Homem moderno.
Os sítios mais conhecidos e estudados encontram-se na Europa, sobretudo França e no norte da Espanha, na região denominada franco-cantábrica; em Portugal, na Itália e na Sicília; Alemanha; Balcãs e Roménia. No norte mediterrâneo da África; na Austrália e Sibéria são conhecidas milhares de localidades, porém não tão estudadas, como é o caso do Brasil. Em 2003, pinturas rupestres foram também descobertas em Creswell Crags, Nottinghamshire, Inglaterra.
No Brasil são encontrados diversos arquipélagos onde existem manifestações de arte rupestre. Os mais conhecidos ficam em Naspolini, no Estado Santa Catarina, na região Sul do país. Em Minas Gerais na região de Lagoa Santa, Varzelândia e Diamantina próximo à cachoeira da Sentinela. Destacam-se também a Toca da Esperança, região central da Bahia e Florianópolis, Estado de Santa Catarina, no sul. No nordeste também foram encontradas pinturas no Estado do Piauí, na Serra da Capivara. As cidades mais próximas dos sítios arqueológicos são Coronel José Dias e São Raimundo Nonato (30 km). No estado do Rio Grande do Norte, diversos sítios também são encontrados, principalmente nas regiões do Seridó e na chapada do Apodi, tendo como destaque o Lajedo de Soledade.
Segundo informação da "FUMDHAM", Fundação Museu do Homem Americano, de São Raimundo Nonato, há 260 sítios arqueológicos com pinturas rupestres na área do Parque Nacional da Serra da Capivara, que foi criado em 1979.
This large clay female figurine with helmet, is dedicated to the sanctuary of Gortyna (Gortis). The hand posture indicates that she held shield and spear, in the type of Athena Promachos, the goddess of wisdom and war. - Archaic period, 7th century BC
There not many churches in east Kent that I have not been into.
I thought I had been into St Mary before, but looking at my shots from a visit some six years ago, I just reported that the church was locked and I posted no shots of the church.
This I found out once I was back home.
Anyway.
St Mary sits at the east end of the picturesque village square, partially hidden behind the White Horse, a wide path leads to the west door in the base of the tower.
It was unlocked on Saturday, so passing through the inner and outer door, into the vast and airy space of the nave and large side aisles, I was first stuck by the many large and extravagant memorials in both the side chapels and aisles.
At the west end of the village square sits Chilham "Castle", still a private residence, and the former owners of that house now rest for eternity in the church, under tombs of marble.
Lots of great details; medieval glass fragments, corbel stones.
A very fine church indeed.
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This large sombre church stands just off the picturesque village square. Dating mainly from the fifteenth century, its interior was much restored in the Victorian period. The visitor today should spend time studying the stained glass and monuments which all commemorate the families associated with the village. In the north aisle is an excellent polished memorial to Sir Dudley Digges who lived in Chilham Castle in the early seventeenth century. It is made of Bethersden marble, and is similar in workmanship to many fireplaces in the castle. In the north chapel is a memorial to the Hardy children who died in 1858. It shows them reading a book with their toys around them. Originally made to stand in the castle it was presented to the church in 1919. The fine examples of stained glass in the north and south windows are also memorials to the Hardy family, designed by C.E. Kempe and Co. Ltd in 1914.
www.kentchurches.info/church.asp?p=Chilham
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CHILHAM
LIES upon the river Stour, about six miles southward from Canterbury. It is called in Domesday, Cilleham; in Saxon, Cyleham; which signifies the cold place; and some think this place was antiently called Julham, or Juliham, i. e. the village or dwelling of Julius, in regard to Julius Cæsar, the Roman emperor, who had several conflicts with the Britons in and near it.
The Parish of Chilham is situated exceedingly pleasant, in a fine healthy part of the county, about six miles southward from Canterbury, and nine from Ashford, the high road leading through it, a little below which the river Stour runs along the eastern part of the parish, on which there is a corn mill, long known by the name of French Mill, belonging to Mr. Wildman, and on the height above it the noted mount of earth, usually called Julliberries grave. On an eminence, almost adjoining to the opposite or west side of the road, is the village, built mostly on the summit of the hill, round a small forstal, having the church and vicarage, a neat modern built house, on the north side of it, and the antient castle, with the stately mansion and park of Chilham. On the opposite side from which there is a most beautiful view over the spacious Ashford vale, through which the river Stour directs its course; a vale which comprehends within it a most beautiful scene, ornamented with seats, parks, towns, and churches, in the various parts of it, bounded by the majestic tower of Ashford church in front, the fine down hills, the summits of which are well cloathed with soliage on one side, and the extended range of Wye and Braborne downs on the other, all together forming a most rich and luxuriant prospect.
The parish is nearly circular, between three and four miles across. The ground in it is very unequal and hilly, the soil of the hills being mostly chalk, and the vales clay. There is some coppice wood in the south west part of it towards Molash, where it becomes, among the hills, which are bold and romantic, a barren and slinty country. About a mile northward from Chilham church is the common, or small heath, called Old Wives lees, over which the branch of the turnpike road goes which leads for the Ashford road abovementioned to Faversham. Near the lees is Lower Emsin, and adjoining the Blean woods. There are about one hundred and twenty houses, and seven hundred and twenty inhabitants in this parish.
The market mentioned to be granted below, has been disused time out of mind, and the fair on the Assumption has likewise been long disused, but there is one held here yearly on Nov. 8, for cattle, &c.
THE MANOR OF SELGRAVE in Faversham, having fallen to Sir Dudley Diggs, by escheat, and being also purchased by him of the heir of Sir Christopher Cleve, he, by a codicil to his will in 1638, devised it to charitable uses, ordering that it should be let to some tenant, who should pay over and above the quit-rents, twenty pounds per annum; and so soon as that sum should be raised, then that the lord of Faversham, or in his absence, the mayor, with the advice of four of the jurats, and the lord of Chilham, or in his absence, the vicar of Chilham, with the advice of four of the best freeholders, should chuse a young man, and a young maiden, of good conversation, between the ages of sixteen and twenty four; and these two young men and two young maidens, on the 19th of May yearly, should run a tye at Chilham, and the young man and young maid who should prevail, should each of them have ten pounds.
This running is still kept up; several young men and maids run at Old Wives-lees, in this parish, yearly on the first of May, and several others at Sheldwichlees on the Monday following, by way of trial; and the two which prevail at each of those places run for the above-mentioned ten pounds on Old Wives-lees, on the 19th of May, among a great concourse of the neighbouring gentry and inhabitants, who constantly assemble there on this occasion. (fn. 1) The late Mr. Heron, as lord of Chilham, endeavoured to put an end to this diversion, but found it out of his power.
¶CAMDEN says, it was the current opinion among the inhabitants, that Julius Cæsar encamped here in his second expedition against the Britons, and that thence this parish acquired its name of Julham, i e. Julius's station, or house; and if he mistook not, they had truth on their side. (fn. 2) Meaning this to be the place where Cæsar, in his Commentaries, says, that having marched about twelve miles he discovered the Britons, who were advanced to the banks of a river, and begin from a rising ground to oppose the Romans and give them battle; but being repulsed, they retired to a place fortisied both by art and nature in an extraordinary manner. Camden surely seems to be mistaken here; for this place is full sixteen statute miles in a direct line from Deal, which is nearly seventeen miles and a quarter by the Roman estimation; too great a difference, we must suppose, for Cæsar to be mistaken in. It is more probable, that this was the place where the Britons, the next day after the attack, which they under the command of Cassivelaun, had made on the Romans, immediately after Cæsar's return from fortifying his camp, had posted themselves, on the hills at some distance from the Roman camp, and harassed from thence their cavalry and attacked their foragers under C. Trebonius, rushing on them so suddenly from all parts, as even to fall in with the legions and their standards. If their post for this purpose was here, the spot of it must have been at Shillingheld wood, where there are large and extensive remains of strong fortifications and entrenchments, and where the Romans afterwards, from the works already made there, and the eligibility of its situation, placed one of their castra stativa, or more lasting encampments, to which probably the scite, where the antient castle of Chilham stands, might be an exploratory fort.
CHILHAM was of eminent account in the earliest times, and from its situation was most probably, in the time of the antient Britons, fortified, and held by them as a place of strength against the Romans, who had several encounters in and near it with them; and afterwards, when that nation had gained a more permanent footing in this island, was more strongly fortified by them, and made use of as one of their castra stativa, or more lasting encampments; and many Roman remains have been from time to time discovered in it, in the spot where the present mansion of the castle now stands, with the plain appearance of a much more antient building under the foundations of it. This appeared when Sir Dudley Digges pulled down the old mansion of Chilham, and dug the foundations deeper for the present house, when the basis of a much more antient building was discovered, and many culinary vessels of the Romans were found at a considerable depth. After the Romans had deserted Britain, the Saxon chiefs seem to have kept possession of it, and to have had a fortress or castle on or just by the scite of the present one; and in the time of the heptarchy, Widred, king of Kent, who reigned at the latter end of the 7th century, resided at it, and made it a place of much greater strength and defence; and Bede notices that the villæ regiæ of the Saxons were mostly placed upon or near the places where the Romans had before made their stations and principal fortified encampments. After which, as this kingdom made but an inconsiderable figure, historians have made little mention of the several princes who reigned, or their transactions in it, so that there is no following account of this place till the invasion of the Danes, who in one of their in cursions, probably in either the year 838 or 851, in both which they took and plundered Canterbury, sacked and demolished this castle, which seems after this to have remained desolate till the time of the Conqueror; though the scite and domains belonging to it appear by the record of Domesday to have been, in the reign of king Edward the Consessor, in the possession of Sired de Cilleham, a noble Saxon, who had large possessions in different parts of this county, and was in the battle of Hastings, on the side of king Harold, by which he forfeited this estate to the Conqueror, who soon afterwards granted it to his half-brother Odo, bishop of Baieux, under the general title of whose lands it is thus entered in the book of Domesday:
In Feleberge hundred, Fulbert holds of the bishop, Cilleham. It was taxed at five at five sulings. The arable land is twenty carucates. In demesue there are two carucats, and thirty eight villeins, with twelve corttages having twelve carucates. There is a church, and six mills and an half, of six pounds and eight shillings, and two fisheries of seventeen pence, and pasture of eighteen shillings and seven pance.
In Canterbury, city there are thirteen houses belonging to this manor, paying fifteen shillings, and nine acres of meadow. Wood sufficient for the pannage of twenty hogs.
In the time of king Edward the Confessor it was valued at forty pounds, and afterwards at thirty pounds and forty shillings. Sired held it of king Edward.
CHILHAM is within the Ecclesiastical Ju risdiction of the diocese of Canterbury, and deanry of Bridge.
The church, which is dedicated to St. Mary, is a handsome building, consisting of a body and two isles, all covered with lead, and a high chancel, with two chaples, one of which is dedicated to St. Anne, on the south side; there was a chantry on the north side, now pulled down, with a transept, all covered with tile. It has a tower steeple at the west end, on one corner of which is a beacon turret, which till of late was covered with a small spire. There are six bells and a clock in it. The steeple was built about the year 1534, as appears by a legacy towards the building of it. In the chancel is a monument for Margaret, sister of Sir D. Digges, wife of Sir Anthony Palmer, K. B. obt. 1619. He lies buried here, within the altar-rails, obt. 1630. A memorial for Anne St. Leger, mother of Sir D. Diggs, obt. 1636, and several memorials for the Fogges. In the body of the church are memorials for the Cumberlands, Paynes, Cobbes, Belkes, and Bates; in the north transept, for Masters, Petits, Spracklyns, and Cobbe; and in the south one for Dixon. There were formerly in the windows the arms of Ensing and Thawyts, as has been already mentioned, and of Ross and Honywood. In the chapel on the south side of the chancel, probably that of St. Anne, is the burial vault built by Sir Dudley Diggs, for himself and family, and referred to by his will, in it many of this family lie buried; and in the chapel is a monument for Mary Kempe, lady Digges, wife of Sir Dudley, with her genealogy and that of Digges, and another for Sir D. Digges himself, 1638; and on the north side, probably where the old chantry above-mentioned was, is a circular mausoleum, with a cupola at top, built by the Colebrooke family for their use.
The church of Chilham was antiently an appendage appurtenant to the honor and manor of Chilham; but so early as the reign of king Stephen it was separated from it, and in the possession of William de Ipre, who in 1153 gave it to the priory of Throwley, which was confirmed by king Stephen that year. (fn. 18)
This religious house was an alien priory, established as a cell to the Benedictine abbey of St. Bertin, the capital of Artois, in Flanders, from whence a certain number of monks, who were mostly foreigners, and removeable at pleasure, were sent over, with a prior at their head, who were little more than stewards to their superior abbey, to which they returned the revenues of their possessions annually; for which reason, during the wars with France, as their revenues went to support the king's enemies, these kind of houses were generally seized, and restored again upon the return of peace.
¶In the 8th year of king Richard II. this church of Chilham was valued at forty pounds, at which time it was become appropriated to this cell, and a vicarage was endowed in it. In which situation both parsonage and vicarage remained till the general suppression of the alien priories throughout England, in the 2d year of Henry V. when this of Throwley was, among others, suppressed, and it seems to have remained in the hands of the crown till king Henry VI. in his 22nd year, settled it on the monastery of Sion, founded by his father. With which this church and vicarage continued till the general suppression of religious houses, this of Sion being one of those greater monasteries dissolved by the act of 31 Henry VIII. by which all such, together with their possessions, were given to the king. This parsonage and vicarage thus coming into the hands of the crown, the king in his 32d year, granted the rectory of Chilham, together with the chapel of Molash, and the advowson of the vicarage of the church of Chilham, with all their appurtenances, together with the manor of Chilham, to Sir Thomas Chene, in manner as has been already mentioned; (fn. 19) whose only son and heir Henry, lord Cheney, of Tuddington, in the 3d year of queen Elizabeth levied a fine of all his lands, and soon afterwards seems to have alienated a moiety of the parsonage of Chilham, with all the tithes and emoluments belonging to it, arising on the east of the high road leading from Godmersham, through Chilham town to Faversham; and they are now the property of the Rev. Sir John Fagg, bart. The great tithes of the chapel and parish of Molash seem to have been alienated by him at the same time, as will be further mentioned hereafter; but the other moiety and remainder of the parsonage of Chilham, with all the tithes arising in the parish, on the other or west side of the above-mentioned high road, together with the advowson of the vicarage of Chilham, with the appendant chapel of Molash, was alienated by him, together with the honor and castle, in the 10th year of queen Elizabeth, to Sir Thomas Kempe, since which they have passed together in manner as has been more fully mentioned before, in a like succession of ownership down to Thomas Wildman, esq. the present possessor of this part of the parsonage, and parton likewise of the advowson of the church of Chilham.
The vicarage of Chilham, with the chapel of Molash, is valued in the king's books at 13l. 6s. 8d. and the yearly tenths at 1l. 6s. 8d. In 1578 here were communications three hundred and fifty nine. In 1640 it was valued at eighty-nine pounds. Communicants three hundred and seventy-seven. It is now worth two hundred pounds per annum.
IT HAS BEEN mentioned, that there was A CHANTRY on the north side of this church. It was endowed with twenty-two acres of land, as appears by the roll in the Augmentation-office, of 30 Henry VIII. This chantry was dissolved by the act of the 1st year of king Edward VI. The last incumbent of it, John Castelyn, was living anno 1553, and had then a pension of six pounds. (fn. 20)
By the survey of chantries in the above office, taken in the 2d year of king Edward VI. it appears that Robert Pell gave a house and garden in Chilhæn, on condition that the stipendiary priest there should live in it.
There was in 1349 A CHAPEL in the castle of Chilliam, called the free chapel of the blessed Virgin Mary, of which Margery, lady Roos, daughter of Bartholomew, lord Badlesmere, and widow of William, lord Roos de Hamlake, was patroness, and accordingly that year, at her presentation, the see of Canterbury being then vacant, one Osbertus was admitted by the prior and chapter of Christ-church, personally to serve as a perpetual chaplain in it.
Some will remember this trailer on the back of the Westfield Trasport Mandator. I just for get the make now but I am sure i will be put right.
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Christmas Period in Sandefjord,Norway
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Periodo de Calentamiento del Real Madrid CF antes del partido de Copa del Rey contra el Olímpic de Xátiva
"Le bleu intense des gouaches découpées que Matisse réalise dans les années 50 rend son oeuvre si particulière. Mais avant d'en arriver à cette technique des papiers colorés et découpés, Matisse a été inspiré par des multiples variations de bleu. Des bleus de la Méditerranée jusqu'à ceux de son voyage à Tahiti, la sensibilité et la perception que Matisse a de cette couleur ne cesseront de s'enrichir. De nombreuses peintures illustrent cette capacité à créer des atmosphères où le bleu représente l'ombre et la lumière, l'intérieur et l'extérieur."
1.- Del náhuatl: “Acame”: Cañas; “pul”: Grueso. “Co”: Locativo
“Donde hay cañas gruesas”
2.- Acatl: Carrizo; Pol: Arrasar, destruir; Co: En el lugar.
“En el lugar en que fueron destruidos los carrizos”
Cronología: Antigüedad
Restos arqueológicos indican especialmente la existencia de una población en el período preclásico. Se encontraron figuras cuyos rasgos extraordinarios difieren de muchas otras regiones de México.
*Prehistórico o arcaico:
La Sabana.
Se considera la existencia de una ciudad en ese tiempo, cuyos vestigios son llamados “La ciudad perdida”. Se han encontrado objetos de acaso 2 mil años de antigüedad, entre ellos figuras de bellas damas.
Época precortesiana:
Datos escogidos en una conferencia de mesa redonda por personalidades de antropología e historia, “hace 5 mil años, la bahía estaba habitada y 2 mil años después la poblaron los nahoas denominando al lugar “Acapulco” que se traduce como “donde fueron arrasados los carrizos”.
Siglo VII (aproximadamente)
Arribaron los tlahuicas y siglos después, dominaron el territorio los “yopes” quienes fueron conquistados por el emperador azteca “Ahuitzol” por el año 1488.
1486-1502
Acapulco pasó a formar parte del imperio azteca durante el reinado de Ahuitzol.
Siglo XVI
Las primeras manifestaciones arquitectónicas datan del siglo XVI, en que los primeros misioneros construyeron conventos y hermitas en Chilapa, Tlapa, Tepecoacuilco, Tasco y Acapulco.
1519
Hernán Cortés tuvo la primera noticia de la existencia de Acapulco, de boca del mismo emperador Moctezuma II, al mostrarle los mapas que tenía en su imperio, siendo Francisco Chico el primer emperador que recorrió esta región pasando por Acapulco el 15 de diciembre de 1521.
1522
Con el fin de encontrar en el mar del sur, una ruta hacia oriente, Cortés promovió varias expediciones marítimas a partir de este año.
1523 (finales)
Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte lleva a cabo la conquista definitiva de Acapulco, mereciendo por ello la encomienda que se extendía desde el río del Papagayo, abarcando los pueblos de Xaltianguis, Nahuala y otros hasta Coyuca.
1524
Envía Cortés otra expedición al sur en busca de estaño. Exploraron la región de Taxco el Viejo y fundaron algunos centros mineros que recibieron el nombre de “reales”; uno de ellos que quedaba en Tetelcingo, dio origen posteriormente a la actual ciudad de Taxco. Como esta región resultaría riquísima en metales preciosos, pronto fue poblada por los españoles.
1527
Fue hasta el 31 de octubre de este año cuando salieron de Zacatula las primeras naves hacia oriente, que por cierto no volvieron.
1528 (25 de abril)
Por una real orden del Rey Carlos I de España y V de Alemania, Acapulco pasó a poder directo de la Corona el 25 de abril de 1528, tomando el nombre de “Acapulco, la ciudad de los Reyes”.
1531
Se abrió la vía de comunicación de la capital del virreynato al puerto de Acapulco.
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1532 (principios)
Gran actividad se registraba en el puerto de Acapulco con motivo de la expedición que se preparaba en cumplimiento del contrato celebrado entre la emperatriz Isabel y Hernán Cortés.
1532 (31 de mayo día de Corpus Cristi)
Salió de Acapulco la primera expedición marítima al mando de Hurtado de Mendoza.
1532
Hernán Cortés manda expediciones a explorar las costas del pacífico.
Andres de Urdaneta zarpó de Acapulco a Filipinas.
1532
Salió de Acapulco la expedición mandada por Hurtado de Mendoza para descubrir las islas de los mares del sur.
1532
Zarpan de Acapulco las embarcaciones de Hurtado de Mendoza.
1532
Muy poco provecho había alcanzado Hernán Cortés en las expediciones que preparó y envió hasta este año, gastando su fortuna en la construcción de barcos.
Fueron 2 naves que habían salido a explorar: “La Concepción”, cuyo almirante fue Diego Becerra; “San Lázaro” a cargo del Capitán Hernando de Grijalva.
“San Lázaro” descubrió la Isla del Socorro y el Archipiélago de San Benedicto; llegó al puerto de Acapulco a finales del año.
1533 (5 de octubre)
Los frailes que llegaron al actual estado de Guerrero atenuaron con su bondad los rigores aplicados por los encomenderos a los indios, la evangelización de nuestro pueblo indígena estuvo a cargo de frailes agustinos y franciscanos.
Los frailes agustinos llegaron a Chilapa el 5 de octubre de 1533 encabezados por los frailes Agustín de Coruña y Jerónimo de San Esteban. Estos fundaron 3 conventos. Uno en Chilapa, otro en Tlapa y otro en Tepecoacuilco.
Por su parte, la orden de frailes dieguinos fundó otros 2 conventos. Uno en Tasco y otro en Acapulco.
1535
Cortés embarcó en Tehuantepec, pero tuvo que buscar puerto en Acapulco.
1535
Levan anclas en el puerto los navíos que Cortés envió en ayuda de Pizarro.
1536
Hernán Cortés transita el camino México-Acapulco viniendo de regreso de su expedición a la California; enseguida dispuso que se rectificaran tramos para facilitar el paso a caballo y con bestias de carga.
1539
Salió de Acapulco la expedición de Francisco de Ulloa con el propósito de conquistar las míticas ciudades de Cíbola y Quivira.
1540
Salió de Acapulco la expedición de Domingo de Castillo, a quien se debe la Carta Geográfica más antigua de las costas occidentales del país.
1540
Zarpan otros navíos, ya sin patrocinio de Cortés, explorando el litoral del pacífico hasta el mar Cortés.
1540
El primer virrey Antonio de Mendoza mandó a acondicionar el camino México-Acapulco, para facilitar los aprestos de la expedición que iba a emprender Hernando de Alarcón, imponiendo la reparación y conservación a las comunidades de naturales y de algunos hacendados lindantes.
1550 (12 de marzo)
Don Antonio de Mendoza, visorrey y gobernador de la Nueva España, extiende nombramiento al primer alcalde de la ciudad de Acapulco a Don Pedro Pacheco.
1550
Acapulco empezó a poblarse con familias que trajo Fernando de Santa Anna; algunas de éstas (españolas y mestizas) las llevó a La Sabana.
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1550
Felipe II le otorgó el título de Ciudad, pero habiéndose perdido el documento, se volvió a expedir otro el 28 de noviembre de 1799. (Véase 1799)
1550
El virrey Antonio de Mendoza mandó condicionar por segunda vez el camino México-Acapulco, cuando tuvo que embarcarse en Acapulco, promovido al Perú con igual grado.
1553
Fray Juan Bautista Moya evangelizó Acapulco y sus contornos.
1561
Andrés de Urdaneta, en atención a sus condiciones portuarias, escribe del puerto singular elogio calificándolo de “grande, seguro, muy saludable y dotado de buen agua”.
1564 (31 de julio)
El 2° virrey Luis de Velasco, mandó condicionar nuevamente el camino México-Acapulco, dos años antes de su muerte.
Notablemente se mejoró en cuanto hubo certeza de poderse efectuar los tornaviajes de la Filipina y, por ende, la posibilidad de entablar un provechoso comercio.
1564 (21 de noviembre)
Empezó la conquista de Filipinas por Legazpi y Urdaneta. Este último estableció una ruta con Asia a través de Baja California.
1564 (21 de noviembre)
Parte para las Filipinas la expedición de Miguel López de Legazpi, como primer piloto va un fraile de la Orden de San Agustín de nombre Andrés de Urdaneta, marino de largo historial.
1565 (8 de octubre)
Vuelve Urdaneta al puerto de Acapulco procedente de la Isla de Cebú. Conquista con ello una de las rutas marinas más difíciles de su tiempo.
1565
El fraile Andrés de Urdaneta, cumplida su misión de dirigir la expedición de Legazpi a las Filipinas, al regreso fija la ruta del Oriente asiático a la América con puerto en Acapulco.
1565
Recibió la nave que, mandada por Felipe de Saleeda y Fray Andrés de Urdaneta, volvía de Filipinas tras haber descubierto la llamada “Vuelta al poniente”.
1565
Desembarcó en el puerto Fray Andrés de Urdaneta,quien volvía de las Islas Filipinas, dejando establecida la ruta de regreso de Asia por el Pacífico.
1565 (octubre)
Fray Antón de Urdaneta ancló de tornaviaje en Acapulco.
1571
El comercio en Acapulco favoreció los ataques de piratas y corsarios, que hacían lo indecible por adueñarse de los galeones, perjudicando de paso a España. Entre los bandidos más famosos del mar, Francisco Drake por 1579; Thomas Candish, 1586; el alemán Spielberg, 1615; Jorge Anson, 1742.
Con el fin de protegerse de estos ataques, el gobierno virreynal mandó construir el Fuerte . (Véase 1784)
1571 (18 de mayo)
Termina la conquista de las Filipinas por Legaspi y Urdaneta, fecha en que se declara a Acapulco único puerto comercial entre Asia a través de México, lo que propició el comercio que consistía en transportar mercancía en barcos grandes de vela que llamaban Naos, que llegaban en diciembre de cada año.
1571 (14 de abril)
Felipe II ordena que Acapulco sea el único puerto oficial en la América para el comercio con Asia.
1571
Se estableció una comunicación permanente entre Acapulco y Manila. Anualmente realizaba estos viajes un galeón cargado de provisiones para las Islas Filipinas, trayendo a Acapulco riquísimas mercancías: Tejidos de seda y algodón, cerámica china, especias y objetos de arte.
De Acapulco esta mercancía pasaba a la capital, y de ahí eran enviados a Veracruz, Puebla, Guadalajara, Jalapa y Saltillo; gran parte de la misma eran expedidas a España. Cada vez que arribaba un galeón, acudían al puerto los principales comerciantes, no sólo de México, sino hasta del Perú y otras regiones lejanas.
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1578
Francis Drake fue el primer pirata que conoció el valioso comercio que se sostenía con el Asia al cruzar estos mares en este año, pero no entró en Acapulco temeroso de perder las riquezas que traía en su nave, pero por los informes que rindió en Inglaterra, el pirata Cavendish atrapó en aguas de California a la Nao Santa Ana en 1587.
1579 (14 de abril)
Gracias a la proeza de Fray Andrés de Urdaneta, fue posible el comercio en Acapulco que en pocos años se hizo intensivo, a grado tal, que alarmó a la Corte de España, dando lugar a que con fecha 14 de abril de 1579 firmara Cédula Real el Rey Felipe II declarando como único puerto comercial entre la América y Asia, al de Acapulco. Desde entonces empieza a aumentar la importancia de Acapulco.
1579 (14 de abril)
Se ampliaron los horizontes comerciales hasta China y la India, y entonces las naos hacían hasta tres y cuatro viajes de ida y vuelta, por lo que Felipe II fue presionado por los mercaderes de Sevilla a fin de que declarara por Cédula Real del 14 de abril de 1579, que el único puerto comercial con el Asia era Acapulco.
1582
Llegó la expedición marítima de Francisco Galli y otras.
1582 (28 de octubre)
El virrey, conde de La Coruña, en carta enviada al rey Felipe, le manda un plano del puerto y de la fortaleza que conviene construir para protegerlo del ataque de los rufianes del mar.
1591
Los representantes de Cadiz y Sevilla eran los más poderosos y controlaban el comercio en grande. Viendo el desorden de las ferias, lograron en este año que se expidieran grandes restricciones para el comercio con el oriente; se prohibió al comercio mediano que traficara con Manila, y los comerciantes de aquella lejana provincia, solamente podrían enviar dos galeones de 400 toneladas como máximo y que el valor de las mercancías no podía exceder de 250,000 pesos. La nave que zarpara de Acapulco, controlada naturalmente por los ricos acaparadores, sólo llevaría plata por un valor de 500,000 y los frailes que quisieran ir a evangelizar...
1592
La carretera México-Acapulco, llamda Ruta de Asia, era una vereda, hasta en este año que el virrey Luis de Velaszo la convirtió en camino de herradura.
1592
Fue construido el camino entre México y Acapulco por órdenes del Virrey Mendoza, mejorándose en 1596 por instrucciones del virrey Velasco; los mismos mandatarios ordenaron la construcción de otro camino que comunicaba al Real de Minas de Tasco con la capital.
De Acapulco partía otro camino hacia Zihuatanejo para terminar en Valladolid (Morelia). Hacia esta ciudad partía otro desde Tepecoacuilco, pasando por Iguala Teloloapan y Coyuca de Catalán. Otro más salía de chilapa, se dirigía a Chilpancingo, continuaba por Tlacotepec, pasaba por Coyuca y terminaba en la misma Valladolid. Otro camino salía de México y se dirigía a Alahuistlán pasando por los minerales de Zacualpan y Sultepec tocando a Tenancingo y a Toluca.
De Puebla salía otro hacia Ometepec, pasando por Tlapa y Chipetlán. Otro comunicaba a Chilapa con Tlapa, pasando por Olinalá.
El transporte de mercancías se hizo utilizando el sistema de arriería.
1593 (25 de febrero)
El virrey D. Luis de Velasco encarece al rey Felipe una vez mas la construcción de la fortaleza para la mejor protección del puerto.
1596 y 1602
Llegaron las 2 primeras expediciones de Sebastián Vizcaíno, quien llegó a los 42 grados de latitud norte buscando en vano un estrecho septentrional.
Siglo XVII
Debido a la afluencia de españoles hacia poblados indígenas, algunas alcaldías menores y repúblicas de indios, se transformaron en alcaldías mayores, entre ellas: Acapulco, Chilapa, Tixtla, Ajuchitlán, Zacualpa, Tasco, Iguala, Tlapa y Zacatula.
En cada una de ellas continuaron existiendo repúblicas de indios.
1600 (18 de abril)
El virrey, Conde de Monterrey, en carta que dirige a Felipe III, hace suya la petición de sus antecesores, para que se inicie la construcción de la fortaleza en dicho puerto de Acapulco.
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1602
Bernardo de Balbuena, al escribir su “grandeza mexicana”, en la ampulosidad del su prosa, dice de Acapulco: “En ti se junta España con la China, Italia con Japón, y finalmente un mundo entero en trato y disciplina.
En ti de los tesoros del poniente se goza lo mejor; en ti la nata de cuanto entre su luz cría el oriente”.
1607 (7 de junio)
Los franciscanos fundaron en Acapulco el Convento de San Diego, bajo la advocación de Nuestra Señora de la Guía.
Acapulco pertenecía al arzobispado de México, junto con otros pueblos: Tasco, Teloloapan, Chilpancingo e Iguala.
1611 (22 de mayo)
Sale de Acapulco la primera embajada de México al Japón a cargo de Sebastián Vizcaíno y llegó a playas japonesas en agosto del mismo año, embajada que fue correspondida mediante el jefe de arcabuceros del emperador, Recuyemon Faxitura, quien con un séquito de 150 personas arribó al puerto de Acapulco el 25 de enero de 1614.
1611
Zarpó de Acapulco Sebastián Vizcaíno, cuando el virrey Luis de Velasco lo nombró representante ante el emperador de Japón.
1614
Nicolás Cardona, con 30 arcabuceros a sus órdenes; trata vanamente de iniciar la construcción del fuerte, asistiendo durante dos meses y medio a las fajinas, cercas, trincheras y demás reparos necesarios.
1614
Arribó a las playas del Japón la embarcación de Sebastián Vizcaíno; la embajada nipona estaba encabezada por el capitán Hasekura.
1615
Una flota holandesa de la compañía de las Indias Orientales invadió la bahía, pero izó la bandera blanca ante los primeros disparos que se le hicieron y acabó cambiando por víveres a los prisioneros españoles que llevaba.
1615
La fábrica de la fortaleza de Acapulco no pasaba de ser uno de tantos proyectos, cuya resolución duerme el sueño de la espera en la Corte de Madrid. Algo hizo realidad la defensa. Cuando los holandeses desembarcaron en el puerto de Zalahua, los graves señores madrileños se alarmaron y pidieron el proyecto a los archivos.
Días después el virrey Marqués de Guadalcázar, quegobernó la Nueva España de 1612 a 1621, tras largas y complicadas discusiones con propios y extraños, encargó al ingeniero Adrian Boot, la construcción del Fuerte de San Diego para la defensa de la bahía.
1615 (últimos meses del año)
Bajo la dirección de Boot se inició la construcción del Fuerte de San Diego, que tuvo por base un pentágono irregular con caballeros unidos por lienzos o cortinas. Los nombres de estos caballeros a ángulos del pentágono fueron: Rey, Príncipe, Duque, Marqués y Guadalcázar.
La altura y perímetro de los mismo no fe igual; se manifestó como razón para ello, dar mayor firmeza al edificio, teniendo en cuenta la irregularidad del terreno sobre el que se construía.
1616 (principios)
Ante el peligro que corría Acapulco a causa de piratas y filibusteros, el virrey Diego Fernández de Córdoba ordenó la construcción del castillo, iniciándose las obras a principios de 1616 y al terminar tomó el nombre de Fuerte de San Diego.
1617 (15 de abril)
Termina la fábrica del castillo de San Diego. En la portada se dejó una inscripción que dice: “Reynando en las Españas, Yndias Orientales y Occidentales la Magd. del Imbictissimo y Católico Rey Don Felipe nuestro señor, Terzero deste nombre, siendo su Virrey lugarteniente y Capitán General en los Reynos de la Nueva España Don Diego Fernández de Córdoba, Marquéz de Guadalcázar, se hizo esta fortificación. año de 1616. Yngeniero Adrian Boot”. (Véase 1776 y 1778 a 1783, re acondicionamiento del fuerte).
1617 (mayo)
El virrey anuncia al soberano la terminación del Fuerte de San Diego, con un costo de 11,400 ducados. Entre la documentación que se manda al rey, hay una vista panorámica de la bahía, hecha por Adrián Boot. La falta de perspectiva es tal, que todo parece estar en un mismo plano. La bahía está dibujada desde la montaña, posiblemente bajo las ramas de un árbol enorme que es capaz de proyectar su sombra sobre ella.
1624 (marzo)
El príncipe Nasáu al mando de poderosa escuadra y disparando su artillería entera en la bahía de Acapulco, y sus vecinos y tropa, atemorizados por el alarde de fuerza, huyeron a las montañas.
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1625
Gobernando el virrey Marqués de Cerralvo, la escuadra holandesa del príncipe de Nassau, atacó y tomó el Fuerte de San Diego, sin que la guarnición hubiera opuesto ni la menor resistencia.
Los holandeses, dueños de la plaza, saquearon y robaron a su antojo durante varios días.
Cuando los asaltantes brincaron a sus naves y se alejaron, el virrey ordenó la erección de un nuevo muro en el castillo y la fábrica de cuatro nuevos bastiones.
1634
Edificación y fundación de la primera capilla de San José, construida a instancias del sargento Francisco Rincón.
Durante esta época colonial, Acapulco tuvo una apariencia muy pobre, salvo el castillo, el hospital administrado por los hipólitos y esta capilla.
1646
Se fundó y comenzó a funcionar la primera aduana, misma que estaba ubicada a la orilla del mar en un jacalón de madera de 4 aguas. Por supuesto que esa oficina solamente abría sus puertas durante las ferias de diciembre. La fayuca iniciaba su institucionalización en estos litorales.
1673 (22 de octubre)
En las instrucciones del virrey Marqués de Mancera al duque de Veragua, se habla de las mejoras hechas a la fortaleza de Acapulco; se asienta: “que no se admite disputa es en que consiste la defensa del reyno, por el mar del sur en el castillo de Acapulco, no menos que por la del norte, en el de San Juan de Ulúa y que merece toda atención y providencias por ser escala de las Islas Filipinas y de las provincias del Perú y uno de los más capaces y seguros puertos de la monarquía.
1697
Acapulco era una humilde aldea de pescadores; sus casas son bajas y viles, hechas de madera, barro y paja, situadas al pie de altísimos montes.
Estaba habitado por negros y mulatos –que son los nacidos de negros y blancas-, y rara vez se veía en aquel lugar algún nacido en él de color aceitunado.
1697 (21 de enero)
Gemelli Careri desembarcó en Acapulco, fecha en que inicia su diario correspondiente a la Nueva España, en donde permaneció hasta el 14 de diciembre del mismo año.
El 21 de enero (1697), al no encontrar albergue alguno en Acapulco, tuvo necesidad de ir ese día lunes al convento de Nuestra Señora del Guía, de padres franciscanos “los cuales me hospedaron muy humanamente” señala en su diario.
1697
El italiano Gemelli Careri, a su paso por Acapulco toma la pluma y escribe: “La seguridad natural del puerto, que siendo a manera de caracol y con igual fondo por todas partes, que quedan en él las naves cerradas como un patio cercado de altísimos montes y atados a los árboles que están en la ribera.
1697
El virrey Gemelli Carreri empleó 12 días en recorrer la carretera México- Acapulco per en la estación de lluvias había que esperar hasta 10 días sólo para vadear el río Mezcala o el Papagayo.
1698 (aproximadamente)
El Fraile dominico Ignacio Muñoz, de la clave o derrotero de las naves al entrar al puerto: “En entrando de la dicha punta del grifo para adentro, luego vereis la fortaleza enfrente encima de un tiesso, y las causas del pueblo que están para el norueste en la dicha rinconada. En entrando dentro dareis fondo frontero de las casas, la popa en tierra y estareis de ella apartado como medio cable porque todo es sondeable y limpio y se puede barloventar dentro, porque no hay que temer más que de aquello que se viene. De bien los navíos del rey que vienen de Filipinas, y son muy grandes surgen enfrente de la fortaleza , a medio tiro de mosquete y se amarran en Tierra”.
Siglo XVI (Colonización española del territorio)
Para compensar los servicios que numerosos españoles prestaron a la conquista de México, Cortés a nombre del Rey de España, otorgó a algunos ciertas enmiendas y repartimientos de indios. Acapulco, por ejemplo, fue de Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte, quien recibía cacao, algodón y maíz de los indios que ahora estaban a su servicio.
Siglo XVI
A pesar de los peligros que corrían las naves y las dificultades que presentaban los caminos, a finales del siglo, tenía lugar en Acapulco la Feria más importante de América con mercancías que llegaban de Sur América, Nueva España y del Oriente.
Siglo XVIII (principios)
La fortaleza se mantiene con la misma planta de la centuria anterior, aunque totalmente deteriorada.
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1712
Miguel Gallo, castellano de Acapulco, informa al rey que el castillo tiene 6 culebrinas, 27 cañones de bronce y 20 piezas de hierro. La guarnición se compone de un alférez, un sargento, 40 infantes y 15 artilleros con su condestable.
1730
Francisco Álvarez Barreiro emprende la tarea de hacer un cuidadoso plano del puerto. En el dibujo se advierte la fortaleza, así como también varios edificios de 2 plantas, 2 iglesias y una enorme cruz sobre un zócalo.
1742 (enero)
Trata de entrar por la fuerza en Acapulco el pirata Ansón, pero temiendo no lograrlo, tomó el rumbo de las Filipinas a fin de esperar el regreso de la nao en cuyas aguas cayó en su poder, obteniendo un botín de un millón 300 mil pesos en moneda acuñada y 40 mil en barras de plata.
1743
El corsario inglés Jorge Ansón apresó en sus inmediaciones al galeón “La Covadonga”.
1743 (7 de julio)
Se terminó de construir el actual Fuerte, al cual le pusieron el nombre de San Carlos, en honor del rey Carlos III. Los nombres de las torres quedaron así:
Oeste: San José; Norte: San Antonio; Noroeste: San Luis; Suroeste: Santa Bárbara; Sur: La Purísima Concepción.
1752
Pedro Murillo Velarde, en su “Geografía histórica” publicada en Madrid, dice refiriéndose a Acapulco: “...ni se puede llamar ciudad ni villa y con dificultad aún merece el nombre de aldea, pues sólo hay alguna gente desde diciembre hasta abril, en que está allí el galeón de Filipinas. Fuera de este tiempo, apenas asisten allí algunos indios mulatos y mestizos, pues ni aún el alcayde del castillo vive allí entre año”
1762 (29 de octubre)
La Nao Santísima Trinidad, el barco más grande de la época, cae en poder del pirata Cornish y con todas las riquezas que portaba lo llevó a Inglaterra donde causó admiración.
1776 (21 de abril)
Un terrible terremoto sacude la población de Acapulco “a las dos de la tarde, con el acostumbrado bramido de los cerros circunvecinos, que inspira el mayor horror y espanto a los pobres habitantes, por más que están hechos a oírlo”.
El terremoto tiró el ala izquierda del castillo, por lo que se decidió construir uno nuevo un poco más arriba.
1776
Don Miguel Costanzo, activo y diligente ingeniero, propone al virrey la construcción de una nueva fortaleza para Acapulco, pues alega: “La inutilidad del gasto que se invierte con esta mira, respecto a ser aquella una fortificación, que más parece un reducto de irregularísima figura, o un cuerpo de guardia retrincherado, que un castillo construido sobre un sistema regular de defensa”.
El proyecto de Costanzo fue enviado por el virrey Bucareli a Don José de Gálvez, ministro de Indias, para su aprobación. Visto y estudiado el trabajo de Costanzo, se dio el visto bueno a la fábrica del nuevo fuerte. Para la ejecución de la obra se nombró al ingeniero Ramón Panón, uno d elos mejores técnicos militares de España.
1776
El alférez de ingeniero, Don José González, propone para la fortaleza de San Diego grandes mejores que importan $15,250.00 y para ello recomienda habilitar las baterías frente al mar, en tanto que se espera la resolución del rey.
Anticipándose a la resolución real, el virrey Marquéz de Croix, principia las mejoras a la fortaleza, por considerarlas de gran utilidad.
1777
Llega Panón a Acapulco y en el sitio de la antigua fortaleza traza un plano sobre el terreno, en donde el nuevo castillo se habría de levantar. De entonces data el “Plano que manifiesta la majistral y contornos del antiguo Castillo de San Diego y la traza más ventajosa, para el establecimiento del nuevo pentágono aprobado por S.M.”
1778 (16 de marzo)
Principia la excavación de los cimientos de la nueva fortaleza. Los cinco baluartes reciben los nombres de “San Antonio, “San Luis”, “La Concepción”, “San José” y “Santa Bárbara”. Al nuevo castillo se le denomina de “San Carlos” en honor al monarca reinante, pero la tradición sigue llamándolo “Castillo de San Diego”.
1778 a 1783
Reconstrucción del Fuerte de San Diego que fue destruido en 1776 por un terremoto, según proyecto del ingeniero Miguel Constansó.
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1783 (7 de julio)
Termina la construcción de la fortaleza de San Carlos. Su costo excedió de los $600,000.00. Su forma es de una estrella con 5 baluartes para montar 70 piezas de artillería. De la fortaleza mitad mira hacia el mar y mitad hacia la tierra.
Tiene “cuatro bóvedas grandes con sus galeras, sirviendo dos de ellas para cuarteles de la tropa, otra para guardar los pertrechos y útiles de la artillería y la otra para guardar cuando había víveres. Además tenia otras 8 bóvedas más chicas, siendo una para la guarnición principal, otra de almacén de pólvora, otra para depósito de armas y las demás para habitación de oficiales. Tenía a más del calabozo y galera para los presos, cocina y dos aljibes para abastecer de agua a más de 2 mil soldados por un año”.
1799 (1 de noviembre)
El rey Carlos IV confirma el título de Ciudad al puerto de Acapulco.
1784
La escuadra del almirante Jorge Anson es puesta en fuga por seiscientos hombres milicianos, que contra él combaten en el fuerte.
1789
El capitán de navío Alejandro Malaspina da la vuelta al mundo al mando de las corbetas Descubierta y Atrevida. Los tres pintores que van a la expedición, a su paso por Acapulco, se dan a la feliz tarea de llevar el lienzo tres vistas o paisajes portuarios.
Fernando Brambila pinta un cuadro con el tema de “Puerto de Acapulco”; Tomás de Suria una: “Vista de la bahía y puerto de Acapulco desde el arco de los ospitales de los padres ipólitos”, y José Cordero una: “Vista del puerto y parte de la ciudad de Acapulco, sacada desde su ospital”.
1791
Tocaron el puerto las corbetas: “Descubierta” y “Atrevida” que luego navegaron hasta la bahía de Behring (59 grados de latitud norte).
1792 (15 de enero)
Sale de Acapulco Francisco de la Bodega y Cuádra, con el fin de fijar los límites entre los Estados Unidos y la Nueva España.
Siglo XIX
Se estableció el servicio de diligencias para el transporte de personas; en ambos casos los riesgos siempre fueron múltiples, pues los caminos eran pésimos y los robos muy frecuentes.
Siglo XIX (primera mitad, 1850 aproximadamente)
Bien poco adelantó el comercio en el puerto, ya que aislado de todo el país, solamente se tenía comunicación marítima.
Fue en esa época que se estableció aquí la casa “B. Fernández y Cía.” con un para entonces poderoso capital. Estaba localizada en donde está ahora el edificio de Don Israel Soberanis, en la calle Jesús Carranza.
Fue por muchos años el centro comercial más importante de Acapulco y las costas.
1803 (22 de marzo)
Desembarca en Acapulco el barón de Humbolt al amparo de una carta del rey de España para sus estudios de mineralogía y botánica.
1803
Pasa por Acapulco el barón de Humboldt y tiene, a juzgar por lo que escribe, una triste opinión del puerto, pues le parece que: “Forma una inmensa concha abierta entre rocas graníticas, hacia el sur-suroeste, y la cual tiene más de seis mil metros de ancho de este a oeste. He visto pocos parajes en ambos hemisferios que presentan un aspecto más triste y horroroso. Estas rocas forman una costa tan escarpada, que un navío de línea puede pasar tocándolas, sin peligro alguno, porque casi por todas partes hay diez o doce brazas de fondo.”
1803
Alejandro de Humboldt advirtió que era una miserable ciudad, poblado exclusivamente por 4 mil personas de color, que aumentaban a 9 mil cuando llegaba la Nao de China.
1805 (marzo)
Llega al puerto “La Caravana de la Salud” compuesta de 22 niños portadores de la vacuna contra la viruela bajo el sistema “Brazo a brazo” los que siguieron bajo el cuidado del Dr. Balmis a Filipinas.
1810
Se suspendió la “Feria de Acapulco”
1810 a 1812
Tiempo de la Revolución Mexicana, terminó el auge de Acapulco.
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1810 (20 de octubre)
Recibió Morelos nombramiento de lugarteniente de Hidalgo y comisión de apoderarse de Acapulco.
Morelos llevó el movimiento a otros lugares: A Tixtla, donde se le unieron los Bravo; a Chilpancingo, Chilapa, Tehuacan, Orizaba, Oaxaca y Cuautla.
Tecpan fue nombrada ciudad capital de la nueva provincia; Acapulco perdió su nombre de “Ciudad de los Reyes” por el de “Congregación de los fieles”.
1810 (19 de noviembre)
El insurgente José Ma. Morelos y Pavón, inicia el asedio de Acapulco. (véase 1813 19 de agosto)
1811
José María Morelos derrotó al realista Francisco París en 3 Palos (4 de enero) pero no pudo tomar el Fuerte de San Diego (8 de febrero) cuyo asedio levantó a la postre (19 de febrero).
1813 (6 de abril)
De regreso de su tercera campaña Morelos puso sitio a Acapulco. Desalojados sucesivamente los españoles de Casamata, del Cerro de la Mira y del Baluarte del Hospital, se concentraron en la fortaleza hasta el 20 de agosto en que capitularon.
1813 (19 de agosto)
El insurgente José Ma. Morelos logra apoderarse de Acapulco, tras reñidos combates y riguroso asedio al castillo, donde se desarrollaron escenas de tragedia por la falta de alimentos, leña, agua y medicinas. Ciudad que recuperaron los realistas al año siguiente para pasar a poder de la nación mexicana el 15 de octubre de 1821 como consecuencia de los Tratados de Córdoba.
1813 (20 de agosto)
Morelos logra posesionarse del puerto en los primeros años de la guerra de Independencia. En lo alto de la fortaleza ondea la bandera azul y blanco de los insurgentes.
1813 (18 de septiembre)
Morelos fue nombrado Generalísimo de las Armas Nacionales.
Morelos, tomando como capital a Valladolid, hoy Morelia, marcha a la ciudad donde lo atacaron los realistas y perdió. El Congreso dictó sentencia a todos los presos del Fuerte y mandó quemar las casas de Acapulco, así se hizo; el 10 y 11 de abril de 1814, Acapulco era una ruina histórica.
1813 (27 de septiembre)
A finales del siglo XVIII la Revolución Industrial de Europa invadió el mundo con sus productos, violando todas las barreras y convenios aduanales. Esto afectó a España, quien tuvo que luchar también contra la piratería con máscara de corsarios, auspiciada por Inglaterra que iniciaba su poderío por todos los mares.
Entonces Fernando VII expidió el siguiente decreto:
“Queda suprimida la Nao de Manila o de Acapulco (se entiende que como tráfico oficial) y los habitantes de las Islas Filipinas pueden hacer por ahora el comercio de géneros de la China y del Continente Asiático, en buques particulares nacionales, continuando su giro con la Nueva España a los puertos de Acapulco y San Blas, bajo el mismo permiso de quinientos mil pesos convenidos a la Nao de Manila y al millón de retorno. Cádiz, 27 de septiembre de 1813”.
1813-1814 (diciembre y enero)
Después de los desastres de Valladolid (Morelia) y Purvarán, José Ma. Morelos volvió al puerto (a principios de marzo) de donde salió (9 de abril) acosado por los realistas. Previamente mandó incendiar la ciudad, degollar a los españoles residentes y fusilar a todos los prisioneros. El 14 de abril Armijo recuperó la plaza.
1849 (27 de octubre)
Se erigió el estado de Guerrero.
1854
El 1 de marzo de este año se proclamó en Ayutla, Gro. el Plan que desató la revolución contra la última dictadura de Antonio López de Santa Anna. El día 11 siguiente la guarnición de Acapulco se adhirió al movimiento y designó a Ignacio Comonfort (que era administrador de la aduana) gobernador del puerto y jefe provisional de las fuerzas armadas en cuyo carácter invitó a Juan Álvarez a que asumiera el mando supremo del Ejército Restaurador de la Libertad.
1854 (26 de abril)
El presidente López de Santa Anna, que salió al frente de un ejército de 5 mil hombres a someter a los sublevados, fracasó en su intento de tomar Acapulco.
1863 (10 y 11 de enero)
Una escuadra francesa bombardeó el puerto y luego desembarcaron los marinos, que no pasaron de los límites de la ciudad abandonada, retirándose tres días después.
El 4 de junio volvieron por mar y un batallón de tiradores argelinos se posesionó de la plaza.
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1863 (enero 10-12)
Al estallar la guerra entre México y Francia., Acapulco sufrió horrible bombardeo los días 10, 11 y 12 de enero porque e Gral. Diego Álvarez no quiso aceptar las proposiciones del almirante Bovet, quien, al frente de poderosa escuadra se hallaba en el puerto.
1864
A finales de este año los invasores franceses evacuaron Acapulco después de la derrota que Vicente Jiménez y Diego Álvarez infringieron a los imperiales en el Zapotal.
1865 (junio y septiembre)
Los franceses intentaron nuevamente invadir el territorio por ese punto, pero fueron rechazados por los republicanos.
1868
Primeras escuelas en la calle 5 de mayo (una de niños y una de niñas)
1894
El VIII virrey Luis de Velasco, hijo, mandó acondicionar notablemente el camino México-Acapulco, en 1894, un año antes de que fuese promovido con igual rango al Perú.
1904
Llegó al puerto un crucero italiano.
El 30 de julio hubo un gran temblor que sólo el castillo quedó de pie.
1910
Era un somnoliento pueblecito con algunas estrechas y retorcidas calles empedradas y la mayoría protegidas por su piso natural arenoso. A la quebrada se subía por una tortuosa vereda y otra conducía a la bella playa de Caleta.
1910
Se inauguró el alumbrado público de 30 faroles de acetileno en el centro de la población y algunos faroles de petróleo medio iluminaban las esquinas de otras calles hasta las 11 de la noche.
1910
El primer hotel de Acapulco “Doña Eliza Sutter de Link”; después pasa a hotel “Miramar” y después se convierte en el famoso Edificio “Pintos”.
Donde se encuentra el hotel Colonial estuvo la aduana, después se instaló ahí la Casa de Huéspedes “Dos de abril” y más tarde El Colonial.
1911 (10 de mayo)
Atacaron por primea vez los maderistas; sorprendieron a los mercaderes y a muchas amas de casa en el primitivo mercado que se localizaba en la Plaza Álvarez, al norte de ésta, frente a lo que es ahora el Banco Mexicano del Sur.
Este mercado era una serie de mesas o grandes cajones de madera, algunos con techo de lámina, en donde se expendía el pescado y la carne. Lo demás, las verduras, la leche, el pan y cuanto comestible consumía aquel pequeño pueblo, estaban en el suelo sobre petates de palma.
1912
Doña Elisa dejó su negocio y en el local se estableció en 1912 el Hotel Jardín, donde más tarde, por 1934 se construyó el Hotel Miramar y después se convirtió en el Edificio Pintos.
1912 (30 de octubre)
Un ciclón arrasó con el puerto de Acapulco.
1913
Primer planta eléctrica.
1913 (noviembre)
Estuvo lista la primer planta eléctrica)
1913 (¿1923?)
Juan R. Escudero, primer líder sindical. Se inició con los cargadores de los barcos.
1920
Contaba solamente con un automóvil, marca “Exes” y una lancha a motor que pertenecía a la capitanía del puerto. En un carro tirado por mulas se recogía la basura de las calles.
1920
Vino el príncipe de Gales, posteriormente el rey Eduardo VIII.
1922
Llegaron los primeros submarinos americanos y también varios hidroplanos entraron por Pie de la Cuesta.
1924 (31 de julio)
Un grupo de audaces comerciantes dieron forma a la Cámara de Comercio, constituyéndola legalmente el 31 de julio de 1924.
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1927 (mediados)
Una nueva etapa fue marcada en la vida comercial de Acapulco cuando a mediados de 1927 el señor presidente Plutarco Elías Calles, desde el Castillo de Chapultepec, detonó un petardo que voló la última piedra que obstruía la brecha o camino México- Acapulco, a la altura casi del actual puente de Xaltianguis.
Era entonces gobernador del estado el general Héctor F. López. La Cámara Nacional de Comercio en pleno y otros sectores representativos, estuvieron presentes en aquel acto trascendental.
1927 (11 de noviembre)
Día de fiesta, de la tarde en que se hizo volar el último obstáculo de la carretera México- Acapulco e hicieron su entrada principal al puerto los 12 primeros automóviles procedentes de México.
Los concurrentes a la inauguración oficial llenaron los 2 únicos hoteles: El Jardín y el Acapulco, así como varias casas de huéspedes, ejemplo: La Costeña, del señor Pintos.
1927 (11 de noviembre 6:00 pm)
Llegaron al puerto, aunque transitando por una brecha de trabajo, los 12 primeros automóviles a bordo de los cuales iban el gobernador del estado, el presidente municipal y las autoridades militares.
1927 (11 de noviembre)
El presidente Plutarco Elías Calles accionó por teléfono desde el Castillo de Chapultepec, el dispositivo que hizo estallar la dinamita que removió el último obstáculo en la carretera a Acapulco, cuyo trazo se había interrumpido en el kilómetro 402 por un tapón de roca.
1927 (11 de noviembre)
Hubo agua potable en los manantiales de Santa Cruz.
1927 (27 de noviembre)
La era de la prosperidad de Acapulco se inició este día al quedar abierta la carretera hacia la Cd. de México, pero su desenvolvimiento como centro turístico se realizó bajo el gobierno del Lic. Miguel Alemán Valdés durante el cual se llevaron a cabo grandes obras, colocando a la ciudad a la altura de los granes centros turísticos del mundo.
1928
La pequeña mejoría lograda desde la construcción de la carretera México-Acapulco se exteriorizó con la apertura del Hotel México (segundo en Acapulco), frente a la casa de huéspedes “La Mar” que abrió también en 1928.
1928
Desde esta fecha se había realizado la primera obra a favor del turismo, cuando el pueblo de Acapulco construyó el camino de rueda para hacer accesible la playa de Caleta, y a continuación se reunieron $30,000.00 para el camino de rueda a Pie de la Cuesta
ROMA ARCHEOLOGICA & RESTAURO ARCHITETTURA 2020. «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. The NYT (18 Aug. 2020) & Scuderie del Quirinale / You-Tube (13 Apr. 2020). S.v., "Raffaello architetto", in: The NYT (06 March 2020); Università di Padova (20/07/2020); Archivio di Stato di Mantova (2020); Jhon Correa / Facebook (1 July 2020) & Prof. Cammy Brothers (2001). wp.me/pbMWvy-uQ
1). ROME - «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. Scuderie del Quirinale (5 March - June 2020).
A monographic exhibition with over two hundred masterpieces among paintings, drawings and comparative works, dedicated to Raffaello on the 500th anniversary of his death, which took place in Rome on April 6, 1520 at the age of just 37 years old.
The exhibition, which finds inspiration particularly in the Raffaello's fundamental Roman period which consecrated him as an artist of incomparable and legendary greatness, tells his whole complex and articulated creative path with richness of detail through a vast corpus of works, for the first time exposed all together.
Many institutions involved have contributed to enrich the exhibition with masterpieces from their collections: among these, in Italy, the National Galleries of Ancient Art, the National Art Gallery of Bologna, the Museum and the Real Bosco di Capodimonte, the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, the Brescia Museums Foundation, and abroad, in addition to the Vatican Museums, the Louvre, the National Gallery of London, the Prado Museum, the National Gallery of Art in Washington, the Albertina in Vienna, the British Museum, the Royal Collection, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, the Musée des Beaux-Arts in Lille.
Fonte / source:
--- Scuderie del Quirinale (5 March - June 2020).
www.scuderiequirinale.it/mostra/copia-di-raffaello
2.1). ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483», in: Intervento delle Scuderie del Quirinale per la maratona del MiBACT "Italia chiamò" / Scuderie del Quirinale / You-Tube (Mar 13, 2020).
www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8l6q9ywLxY&t=112s
2.2). ROME - «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. / English / Scuderie del Quirinale / You-Tube (Apr. 13, 2020). www.youtube.com/watch?v=s58gYvvNrKQ&t=61s
3). ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. Scuderie del Quirinale (05/03 - 02/06/2020).
Il 6 aprile 1520 muore a Roma, a trentasette anni, Raffaello Sanzio, il più grande pittore del Rinascimento. La città sembra fermarsi nella commozione e nel rimpianto, mentre la notizia della scomparsa si diffonde con incredibile rapidità in tutte le corti europee. S’interrompeva non solo un percorso artistico senza precedenti, ma anche l’ambizioso progetto di ricostruzione grafica della Roma antica, commissionato dal pontefice, che avrebbe riscattato dopo secoli di oblio e rovina la grandezza e la nobiltà della capitale dei Cesari, affermando inoltre una nuova idea di tutela. Sepolto secondo le sue ultime volontà nel Pantheon, simbolo della continuità fra diverse tradizioni di culto, forse l’esempio più emblematico dell’architettura classica, Raffaello diviene immediatamente oggetto di un processo di divinizzazione, mai veramente interrotto, che ci consegna oggi la perfezione e l’armonia della sua arte.
A distanza di cinquecento anni, questa mostra racconta la sua storia e insieme quella di tutta la cultura figurativa occidentale che l’ha considerato un modello imprescindibile. La mostra, articolata secondo un’idea originale, propone un percorso che ripercorre a ritroso l’avventura creativa di Raffaello, da Roma a Firenze, da Firenze all’Umbria, fino alla nativa Urbino. Un incalzante flash-back che consente di ripensare il percorso biografico partendo dalla sua massima espansione creativa negli anni di Leone X. Risalendo il corso della vita di Raffaello di capolavoro in capolavoro, il visitatore potrà rintracciare in filigrana la prefigurazione di quel linguaggio classico che solo a Roma, assimilata nel profondo la lezione dell’antico, si sviluppò con una pienezza che non ha precedenti nella storia dell’arte. Grazie ad un numero eccezionale di capolavori provenienti dalle maggiori raccolte italiane ed europee, la mostra organizzata dalle Scuderie del Quirinale insieme con le Gallerie degli Uffizi, costituisce un’occasione ineguagliabile per osservare da vicino le invenzioni dell’Urbinate. Il suo breve, luminoso percorso ha cambiato per sempre la storia delle arti e del gusto: Raffaello rivive nelle sale dell’esposizione che lo celebra come genio universale.
Fonte / source:
--- Scuderie del Quirinale (05/03 - 02/06/2020).
www.scuderiequirinale.it/mostra/raffaello-000
3). ROME «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. The NYT (18 Aug. 2020).
ROME - In the Virtual (and Actual) Footsteps of Raphael - In Italy and beyond, the plan was to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the Renaissance artist’s death with great fanfare. Then came the pandemic, and the virtual world stepped in. The NYT (18 Aug. 2020).
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Also see:
--- ROME - Rome Celebrates the Short, but Beautiful, Life of Raphael - Amid new coronavirus restrictions on museums in Italy, a blockbuster show traces the artistʼs life from finish to start. The NYT (06 March 2020).
www.nytimes.com/2020/03/06/arts/raphael-rome-coronavirus....
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This was supposed to be the year of Raphael. Five hundred years after his death at 37, the Renaissance master was due to receive the exalted rollout reserved for artistic superstars: blockbuster museum shows in Rome and London; conferences and lectures at universities and cultural centers around the world; flag-waving and wreath-laying in his Italian hometown, Urbino. There was even the tang of controversy when the advisory committee of Florence’s Uffizi Gallery resigned en masse to protest the inclusion of a precious papal portrait in the big exhibition at Rome’s Scuderie del Quirinale. Then the coronavirus hit and Raphael’s annus mirabilis turned into the world’s annus horribilis.
When news of the handsome young artist’s death broke in Rome on April 6, 1520, Pope Leo X wept and church bells tolled all over the city.
Half a millennium later, Rome was in lockdown along with the rest of Italy as deaths from the virus spiraled. The Scuderie show, a once-in-a-lifetime gathering of more than 200 works (120 by Raphael) from all over the world, was forced to shut its doors after just three days, despite having presold a record 70,000 tickets. Raphael’s tomb in the Pantheon was supposed to be adorned with a red rose every day of 2020 to commemorate his death — but the ancient temple was also shuttered because of the virus. Lectures and conferences were canceled, postponed or moved online.
Poor Raphael. Last year, the 500th anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci’s death came off without a hitch. Raphael’s devotees hoped that this
year’s celebrations would restore the artist’s luster, which has dimmed over the past centuries. When the world fell ill this past winter,
Raphael was one of the casualties. But all is not lost. The Scuderie show reopened on June 2 and will remain up until the end of August. The Scuderie’s president, Mario de Simoni, had expected as many as 500,000 people to see the show pre-virus, but now says the number probably won’t exceed 160,000. For those unable to attend in person, the Scuderie has released an English-language version of its excellent video, recapping the highlights of the exhibition, room by room. You’ll want to hit the pause button in Room 2 to admire two masterpieces on loan from the Louvre: a selfportrait with a friend and the portrait of Baldassare Castiglione, one of the glories of Renaissance portraiture. The close-ups of his paintings of women in Room 6 testify to the artist’s passionate appreciation of feminine beauty. Other Scuderie videos (in Italian) delve into particular aspects of his genius — for instance, the jewelry worn by his female subjects, or the literary world he moved in.
Tour guides such as Clam Tours and Joy of Rome now offer virtual journeys in which small groups can zoom around Italy in the footsteps of the artist. On Sept. 13, for example, you can join the Renaissance specialist Antonio Forcellino and other Italian art experts on Clam Tour’s virtual exploration of Raphael’s incomparable frescoes of the four sibyls at Rome’s Santa Maria della Pace church ($25). Check out Joy of Rome’s free two-minute video about Raphael’s frescoes at the Villa Farnesina to see if you’d like to sign up for a two-and-a-half hour virtual tour (prices on request).
Even on a laptop screen, Raphael’s ever-evolving craftsmanship and quicksilver brilliance are apparent. “The year of Raphael has not
been ruined, but simply modified,” said Marzia Faietti, a curator of the Scuderie show. “Since many conferences and lectures have been
put off until next year, in a sense there will be two years of Raphael.”
For Italians, a silver lining of the pandemic has been the opportunity to relish their cultural treasures without the tourist hordes. “I cried,”
said Francesca Pagliaro, founder of the Joy of Rome tour company, of the experience of standing alone in the Vatican’s recently reopened
Sala di Costantino — one of four rooms in the museum frescoed by Raphael and his students, and which you can view here. “It’s the first
time in five years that I’ve seen the Stanze without scaffolding — and I had it to myself,” Ms. Pagliaro said. “It was magical.” Americans, barred from European travel for the foreseeable future, will have to make do with all this virtual magic. Not ideal — but Raphael’s magic is powerful, subtle and enduring enough to withstand the challenge.
The spirit of Urbino
I can attest to this because back in November 2019, I had the opportunity to follow in Raphael’s actual, not virtual, footsteps in Italy. I stood
shivering in the room where he was born in Urbino in 1483. I knelt at the austere tomb in a niche inside the Pantheon where he was
interred 37 years later. I feasted my eyes not only on paintings and frescoes, but on the humble church and glorious Roman chapel that
attest to his emerging genius for architecture. My pilgrimage would be impossible today — but thanks to the wonders of the internet and
the resourcefulness of Italy’s leading cultural institutions, I can remotely retrace my steps, refresh my memories and relive the
revelations.
The first revelation came, aptly, in Urbino’s Palazzo Ducale, the magnificent Renaissance palace constructed in the late 15th century by the
humanist and warlord Federico da Montefeltro that now houses the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche. Judge the magnificence for yourself
by clicking through Google Images’ impressive photo archive. Another click puts you face to face with the museum’s sole work by Raphael
— the haunting portrait known as “La Muta” (“The Mute Woman”). As in so many of his portraits, Raphael posed this stern beauty against a solid dark background, eschewing any visual cues that would evoke a sense of place.
How, I wondered, did Urbino influence the art of its most famous son?
I posed this question to Peter Aufreiter, then director of the Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, when I sat down with him in his office in the
Palazzo Ducale. Mr. Aufreiter’s response was to click on an image of Raphael’s 1507 portrait of Federico’s son, Duke Guidobaldo da
Montefeltro (now in the Uffizi), and then summon me to the window. “Look at the hillside across the valley and that house at the base of
the hill — it’s the same background Raphael put in his painting of Guidobaldo.” You can see exactly what Mr. Aufreiter meant by using the
magnify feature on this online image. Urbino’s steep green landscape, limpid light and crystalline architecture — you can also get a good sense of it here — imprinted themselves on the artist’s young mind and surface repeatedly in his work.
Even though Raphael spent most of his career in Florence and Rome, Mr. Aufreiter insists that Urbino, whose cityscape has changed little
since the Renaissance, is where you can feel his spirit most intensely.
The spirit is palpable in the artisans’ quarter surrounding the house where Raphael was born, the son of the local court painter Giovanni
Santi. Near the summit of the ski-slope-pitched Via Raffaello, just a stone’s throw from the rather pompous bronze monument of the artist
erected in 1897, the Casa Natale di Raffaello has been preserved as a museum. There’s a rather rudimentary virtual tour on its website, but
you’ll get a better feel for the interior and exterior spaces in this YouTube video. In these bare simple rooms and the deep brick courtyard
they enclose, little imagination is required to dial the scene back to Raphael’s apprenticeship in the last years of the 15th century. Giovanni
Santi’s bottega (workshop) occupied the ground floor, and the future master grew up amid the bustle of painters grinding pigments,
dabbing madonnas and trading in art supplies.
Father and son conducted a more exalted commerce at Urbino’s Palazzo Ducale. Fabricated of brick, stone and flawless geometry, this
palace was one of the glories of the Italian Renaissance — not only for its divine architecture, but for the refined elegance of the nobles
who gathered here. This video captures some facets of the palace’s perfection — the way its silhouette pierces the profile of surrounding
hills, the ideal proportions of its noble courtyard, the interplay of volume and decoration in its interior.
Baldassare Castiglione set his 1528 masterpiece, “The Book of the Courtier,” in this storied palace — and it was here that the young
Raphael polished his manners, sharpened his wit, cultivated invaluable connections and acquired a lifelong passion for classical antiquity.
Raised at court, Raphael was pursued by the powerful (Popes Julius II and Leo X), esteemed by the brilliant (Castiglione and the Urbinoborn
architect Donato Bramante were close friends) and adored by the beautiful. “Raphael was a very amorous person,” wrote Giorgio Vasari, his first biographer. It was Vasari who originated the claim that Raphael died after an overindulgence in sex with his Roman mistress, Margherita Luti. Whatever really killed him on April 6, 1520, Raphael accomplished much and rose high in his brief life — but he never ceased to be “il maestro Urbinate,” the master from Urbino.
A couch-surfing brush-for-hire.
Orphaned when his father died in 1494 (his mother had died three years earlier), Raphael spent his teenage years as an apprentice before
undertaking commissions in Umbria and Tuscany. It’s likely that he was in Florence by 1504 — not as a permanent resident but rather a
couch-surfing brush-for-hire.
Though Raphael’s footsteps in Florence are faint, there is no question that he encountered the works of both Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo here — including, very likely, the Mona Lisa, which you can view here, and the marble statue of David, which you can see
and read about on the Accademia’s detailed website. Critics and connoisseurs have been measuring this Renaissance trio against each other for 500 years now. Florence’s Uffizi Gallery is the ideal place to revisit this rivalry, both in person and virtually. After a recent renovation, paintings by the big three have been put on display in two beautifully lit adjoining rooms, and you can find them on the Uffizi website.
To my eyes, neither Michelangelo nor Leonardo ever matched the sheer painterly virtuosity of the fringed white collar that Raphael stitched around the neck of the cloth merchant Agnolo Doni, or the faint dent he incised between the young businessman’s anxious brows (use the magnify function to zoom in on this image). Agnolo’s 15-year-old bride, Maddalena Strozzi, hangs beside him, posed like the Mona Lisa with bejeweled hands clasped on her lap, but clad in a kaleidoscope of watered red silk, embroidered blue damask and shimmering gauze. Across the Arno are the glories of the Pitti Palace’s Galleria Palatina — the largest collection of Raphael’s works outside the Vatican. Unlike the Uffizi, the Pitti Palace retains the ambience and layout of an aristocratic residence: Paintings are stacked three deep in gilded high-ceilinged chambers; works are arranged idiosyncratically rather than chronologically; and the lighting can be maddeningly inadequate. Luckily for remote visitors, the lighting is much better on the palace’s website, as well as in the Italian and Spanish language videos about the museum’s treasures, posted here.
To the Eternal City
Raphael was summoned to Rome in 1508 by Pope Julius II, and he remained there until his death in 1520. Those 12 final years in the
Eternal City marked the apogee of his career. Painter, architect, entrepreneur, archaeologist, pioneer printmaker, Raphael became the
prototype of the artist as celebrity — the Andy Warhol of the Renaissance.
In pre-pandemic Rome, visitors had to endure the lines and tour groups that plagued the Vatican Museums in order to spend a few crowded moments with one of Raphael’s supreme accomplishments: the four papal chambers, known as the Stanze di Raffaello, that the artist and his workshop frescoed between 1508 and 1520. These days, in-person visitors to the reopened Vatican Museums enjoy the Stanze along with the nearby Sistine Chapel in ideal conditions. But remote visits can also be rewarding, thanks to the beautifully produced videos and virtual tours now available on the Vatican’s website. With the click of a mouse, you can hop back and forth between the virtual Sistine Chapel ceiling and the Raphael Stanze and decide for yourself which is the greater masterpiece.
“Everything he had in art, he had from me,” the curmudgeonly Michelangelo once grumbled of his younger rival. When you view their
roughly contemporaneous fresco cycles one after the other (or side by side on your computer), it’s clear that Raphael did much more than
borrow. “The School of Athens,” the most celebrated work in the Stanze, has the propulsive tension of a film paused at its climactic scene.
Cast members — a mix of classical philosophers and Renaissance savants — converse, argue, scribble, read and declaim on a sprawling,
but unified, “set” framed by classical architecture. By contrast, Michelangelo’s Sistine ceiling, for all its bravura, reads like a series of
static cels.
After the Vatican’s Raphael Stanze, a logical next stop, whether actually or virtually, is the Villa Farnesina, with its two beguiling frescoed
loggias — “The Triumph of Galatea” in one of the loggias and “Cupid and Psyche” in the other. Despite the name, this riverside Trastevere landmark is neither a villa nor originally a Farnese property, but rather a suburban pleasure pavilion that Agostino Chigi built for himself in the early 16th century. Chigi brought in the finest artists of the day to fresco the loggias; the result is a delightful crazy quilt of mythological scenes and astrological symbols. Raphael’s “Galatea,” with her wind-whipped tresses, elegantly torqued bare torso and dolphin-powered, scallop-shell raft, has become an icon of High Renaissance grace and wit, and you can see it and other highlights in the villa’s video archive. Even if you don’t speak Italian, the short films are worth delving into for the imagery alone.
From painting to architecture
In the last phase of his career, Raphael increasingly turned from painting to architecture. Sadly, his major architectural achievements — the grand unfinished Villa Madama perched on a wooded hill two miles north of the Vatican, and the classically inspired Raphael loggias inside the Vatican’s Apostolic Palace — were inaccessible to the public even before the pandemic, and remain so. To get a sense of Raphael’s architectural genius, make (or click) your way to the church of Santa Maria del Popolo in the piazza of the same name at the northwest edge of the historic center. Like so many transplants, Raphael fell under the spell of the Eternal City’s classical substructure: Rome itself, its layers, its ruins and relics, its ceaseless commerce with the past, became a source of inspiration. The chapel he designed for Chigi inside the Popolo church evinces just how deeply and fruitfully Raphael internalized this inspiration. At first glance, it’s just another church chapel — tight, high, adorned with art and inlaid with precious stone. But on this site you can glimpse the almost miraculous geometry of this space — the interplay of disc and dome, the rhythm set up between the vertical pleats of the Corinthian pilasters and the elongated triangles of the twin red marble pyramids that mark the Chigis' graves. Fittingly, the artist who devoted the final years of his career to measuring, cataloging, preserving and mapping Roman antiquities, was laid to rest in the greatest classical structure to survive the ages: the Pantheon. If a trip to the physical Pantheon is not in the cards, you can drop in with Tom Hanks as your guide in this clip from the film “Angels and Demons.” As for his tomb — an easy-to-miss niche with a statue of the Virgin, modest and vague, presiding over the glassed-in coffin — you can view it here.
Marzia Faietti, curator of Rome’s Scuderie show, has been struck by how the virus has enhanced Raphael’s reputation and heightened
awareness of the twin beauties of his art and character. “Young people in particular have reacted with an outpouring of enthusiasm and
benevolence which I really didn’t expect,” she said. “The pandemic has brought suffering to so many, but the year of Raphael will be
remembered more vividly, not despite the virus, but because of it.”
Fonte / source:
--- The NYT (18 Aug. 2020).
www.nytimes.com/2020/08/18/travel/in-the-virtual-and-actu...
Foto / fonte / source:
--- ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483», et al., Scuderie del Quirinale / You-Tube (05/03 - 02/06/2020) (08/2020).
www.youtube.com/user/ScuderieQuirinale/videos
4.). ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483»., in: "Raffaello architetto e la Lettera a Papa Leone X." Università di Padova (20/07/2020).
Artista dal talento straordinario, affermato, corteggiato, desiderato. Questo, ma non solo questo, fu Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520): l'esperienza come architetto, lo studio e l'impegno per la tutela degli edifici antichi di Roma sono di importanza centrale nel suo percorso, a partire dalla realizzazione di opere come la Cappella Chigi e Villa Madama, fino alla stesura, insieme a Baldassarre Castiglione, della Lettera a Papa Leone X. La grande mostra Raffaello 1520-1483, allestita alle Scuderie del Quirinale di Roma, prorogata fino al 30 agosto, dedica ampio spazio alla sua appassionata attività nel campo dell'architettura.
"Sin dai primi anni di formazione, l'interesse di Raffaello per l'architettura, in particolare per quella del mondo antico, è fortemente presente - racconta il professor Zaggia al Bo Live - Fino a sfociare in un'opera fondamentale come Lo sposalizio della vergine, in cui compare un tempio a pianta centrale sullo sfondo che interpreta in modo molto chiaro le sperimentazioni del suo tempo in ambito architettonico. A questa sperimentazione dell'architettura sul piano della rappresentazione, segue poi, con il trasferimento di Raffaello a Roma tra il 1508 e il 1509 e l'incontro con Bramante, un interesse concreto rivolto alla costruzione e alla progettazione vera e propria. Da questo punto di vista, il rapporto che si instaura tra Raffaello e Bramante per lo studio dell'architettura antica, conservata all'interno della città, diventa fondamentale punto di partenza per un approfondimento che aprirà strade nuove all'architettura successiva. Con la morte di figure di riferimento, come Bramante appunto, Raffaello diventa la personalità più importante che opera nel campo dell'architettura all'interno dei grandi cantieri pontifici. Si apre così una stagione breve in cui le opere realizzate da Raffaello saranno numerose e importanti: alcune realmente costruite, altre solo progettate".
In questo contesto si inserisce la Lettera a Papa Leone X, scritta nel 1519 da Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione, il raffinato autore del Cortegiano (ai due, uniti da amicizia e stima reciproca, è dedicata una mostra al Palazzo Ducale di Urbino, dal titolo Baldassarre Castiglione e Raffaello.Volti e momenti della civiltà di corte), sul tema della tutela e dello studio degli edifici antichi. La premessa al documento è rintracciabile nei fatti avvenuti qualche anno prima: nell'estate del 1515, infatti, Leone X nomina Raffaello præfectus marmorum et lapidum omnium (dal 1514 l'Urbinate già dirigeva la fabbrica di San Pietro). La lettera dedicatoria, la cui prima edizione venne inserita all'interno delle opere di Baldassare Castiglione pubblicate a Padova nel 1733, si apre così: "Sono molti, padre santissimo, i quali misurando col loro piccolo giudizio le cose grandissime che delli romani circa l’arme, e della città di Roma circa al mirabile artificio, ai ricchi ornamenti e alla grandezza degli edifici si scrivono, quelle più presto stimano favolose che vere. Ma altrimenti a me suole avvenire; perché considerando dalle ruine, che ancor si veggono di Roma, la divinità di quegli animi antichi, non istimo fuor di ragione il credere che molte cose a noi paiono impossibili, che ad essi erano facilissime".
Nella prima parte Raffaello esalta la grandezza del passato, dichiara le proprie competenze in ambito architettonico e invita il pontefice a intervenire per garantire la tutela dei monumenti antichi, da salvare dal degrado. Nella seconda invece si concentra su questione più tecniche, introducendo anche la descrizione di uno strumento per la misurazione degli edifici antichi di sua invenzione: "Farassi adunque un instromento tondo e piano, come un astrolabio, il diametro del quale sarà due palmi o più o meno, come piace a chi vuole adoperarlo, e la circonferenza di questo istromento si partirà in otto parti giusti, e a ciascuna di quelle parti si porrà il nome d’uno degli otto venti, dividendola in trentadue altre parti picciole, che si chiameranno gradi [...] Con questo adunque misureremo ogni sorte di edificio, di che forma sia, o tondo o quadro o con istrani angoli e svoglimenti quanto dir si possa".
"L'importanza della lettera risiede nei principi enunciati all'inizio del testo, in cui Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione sostengono la necessità e l'urgenza di tutelare i monumenti antichi, per trasmetterle alle generazioni future - conclude Zaggia -. Non a caso la lettera, pubblicata alla fine del Settecento, una volta riconosciuto l'autore in Raffaello, diventa il punto di partenza per la legislazione adottata successivamente dagli Stati europei per la protezione del patrimonio artistico e culturale. Erede ultimo di questa tradizione è l'articolo 9 della nostra Costituzione".
Fonte/ source:
--- Università di Padova (20/07/2020).
ilbolive.unipd.it/it/news/raffaello-architetto-lettera-pa...
4.1). ROMA / Archivio di Stato di Mantova (2020): «Raffaello 1520-1483»., "Raffaello architetto e la Lettera a Papa Leone X." S.v., Lettera a papa Leone X di Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione; in: Archivio di Stato di Mantova (2020).
Nella galleria fotografica potrete scorrere la lettera di Raffaello e Baladassare Castiglione a papa Leone X. Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione, Lettera a papa Leone X, s.d. [1519]. Manoscritto cartaceo costituito da 6 carte di formato 220 x 290 mm circa, ripiegate a formare fascicoletto non rilegato di 24 facciate, di cui 21 scritte, 3 bianche. ASMn, Archivio Castiglioni (acquisto 2016), busta 2, n. 12.
Fonte / source:
--- Lettera a papa Leone X di Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione, in: Archivio di Stato di Mantova (2020).
www.archiviodistatomantova.beniculturali.it/index.php?it/...
4.2). ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483». Raffaello a Roma è un percorso a ritroso dal 1520 al 1483. Scuderie del Quirinale (05/03 - 02/06/2020), in: Jhon Correa / Facebook (1 July 2020). www.facebook.com/jhon.correa.7549
4.3). ROMA - «Raffaello 1520-1483». Lettera a papa Leone X di Raffaello e Baldassarre Castiglione. S.v.,
Prof. Cammy Brothers, “Architecture, History, Archaeology: Drawing Ancient Rome in the Letter to Leo X & in Sixteenth-Century Practice,” in Coming About…A Festschrift for John Shearman, ed. Lars R. Jones and Louisa C. Matthew. Cambridge: Harvard University Art Museums (2001): 135–40 [in PDF].
Fonte / source:
--- Prof. Cammy Brothers / academia.edu. (2020).
The Ajanta Caves (Ajiṇṭhā leni; Marathi: अजिंठा लेणी) in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra, India are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. The caves include paintings and sculptures described by the government Archaeological Survey of India as "the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting", which are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, with figures of the Buddha and depictions of the Jataka tales. The caves were built in two phases starting around the 2nd century BCE, with the second group of caves built around 400–650 CE according to older accounts, or all in a brief period of 460 to 480 according to the recent proposals of Walter M. Spink. The site is a protected monument in the care of the Archaeological Survey of India, and since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The caves are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra, near Jalgaon and just outside the village of Ajinṭhā 20°31′56″N 75°44′44″E), about 59 kilometres from Jalgaon railway station on the Delhi – Mumbai line and Howrah-Nagpur-Mumbai line of the Central Railway zone, and 104 kilometres from the city of Aurangabad. They are 100 kilometres from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu and Jain temples as well as Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta. The Ajanta caves are cut into the side of a cliff that is on the south side of a U-shaped gorge on the small river Waghur, and although they are now along and above a modern pathway running across the cliff they were originally reached by individual stairs or ladders from the side of the river 35 to 110 feet below.
The area was previously heavily forested, and after the site ceased to be used the caves were covered by jungle until accidentally rediscovered in 1819 by a British officer on a hunting party. They are Buddhist monastic buildings, apparently representing a number of distinct "monasteries" or colleges. The caves are numbered 1 to 28 according to their place along the path, beginning at the entrance. Several are unfinished and some barely begun and others are small shrines, included in the traditional numbering as e.g. "9A"; "Cave 15A" was still hidden under rubble when the numbering was done. Further round the gorge are a number of waterfalls, which when the river is high are audible from outside the caves.
The caves form the largest corpus of early Indian wall-painting; other survivals from the area of modern India are very few, though they are related to 5th-century paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka. The elaborate architectural carving in many caves is also very rare, and the style of the many figure sculptures is highly local, found only at a few nearby contemporary sites, although the Ajanta tradition can be related to the later Hindu Ellora Caves and other sites.
HISTORY
Like the other ancient Buddhist monasteries, Ajanta had a large emphasis on teaching, and was divided into several different caves for living, education and worship, under a central direction. Monks were probably assigned to specific caves for living. The layout reflects this organizational structure, with most of the caves only connected through the exterior. The 7th-century travelling Chinese scholar Xuanzang informs us that Dignaga, a celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books on logic, lived at Ajanta in the 5th century. In its prime the settlement would have accommodated several hundred teachers and pupils. Many monks who had finished their first training may have returned to Ajanta during the monsoon season from an itinerant lifestyle.
The caves are generally agreed to have been made in two distinct periods, separated by several centuries.
CAVES OF THE FIRST (SATAVAHANA) PERIOD
The earliest group of caves consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A. According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE – c. 220 CE) who ruled the region. Other datings prefer the period 300 BCE to 100 BCE, though the grouping of the earlier caves is generally agreed. More early caves may have vanished through later excavations. Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa halls of chaitya-griha form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are vihāras (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types). The first phase is still often called the Hinayāna phase, as it originated when, using traditional terminology, the Hinayāna or Lesser Vehicle tradition of Buddhism was dominant, when the Buddha was revered symbolically. However the use of the term Hinayana for this period of Buddhism is now deprecated by historians; equally the caves of the second period are now mostly dated too early to be properly called Mahayana, and do not yet show the full expanded cast of supernatural beings characteristic of that phase of Buddhist art. The first Satavahana period caves lacked figurative sculpture, emphasizing the stupa instead, and in the caves of the second period the overwhelming majority of images represent the Buddha alone, or narrative scenes of his lives.
Spink believes that some time after the Satavahana period caves were made the site was abandoned for a considerable period until the mid-5th century, probably because the region had turned mainly Hindu
CAVES OF THE LATER OR VAKATAKA PERIOD
The second phase began in the 5th century. For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over a long period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE, but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Emperor Harishena of the Vakataka dynasty. This view has been criticized by some scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example Huntington and Harle.
The second phase is still often called the Mahāyāna or Greater Vehicle phase, but scholars now tend to avoid this nomenclature because of the problems that have surfaced regarding our understanding of Mahāyāna.
Some 20 cave temples were simultaneously created, for the most part viharas with a sanctuary at the back. The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some "modernization" of earlier caves. Spink claims that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below. Although debate continues, Spink's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions. The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: "The second phase of paintings started around 5th – 6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries". Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves. Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, the rest viharas.
According to Spink, the Ajanta Caves appear to have been abandoned by wealthy patrons shortly after the fall of Harishena, in about 480 CE. They were then gradually abandoned and forgotten. During the intervening centuries, the jungle grew back and the caves were hidden, unvisited and undisturbed, although the local population were aware of at least some of them.
REDISCOVERY
On 28 April 1819, a British officer for the Madras Presidency, John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tiger, accidentally discovered the entrance to Cave No. 10 deep within the tangled undergrowth. There were local people already using the caves for prayers with a small fire, when he arrived. Exploring that first cave, long since a home to nothing more than birds and bats and a lair for other larger animals, Captain Smith vandalized the wall by scratching his name and the date, April 1819. Since he stood on a five-foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye-level gaze of an adult today. A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822. Within a few decades, the caves became famous for their exotic setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional, all but unique paintings. A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery, covered below. In 1848 the Royal Asiatic Society established the "Bombay Cave Temple Commission" to clear, tidy and record the most important rock-cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson, as president. In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India. Until the Nizam of Hyderabad built the modern path between the caves, among other efforts to make the site easy to visit, a trip to Ajanta was a considerable adventure, and contemporary accounts dwell with relish on the dangers from falls off narrow ledges, animals and the Bhil people, who were armed with bows and arrows and had a fearsome reputation.
Today, fairly easily combined with Ellora in a single trip, the caves are the most popular tourist destination in Mahrashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings. In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly-lit and hard to read in the caves. Figures for the year to March 2010 showed a total of 390,000 visitors to the site, divided into 362,000 domestic and 27,000 foreign. The trends over the previous few years show a considerable growth in domestic visitors, but a decline in foreign ones; the year to 2010 was the first in which foreign visitors to Ellora exceeded those to Ajanta.
PAINTINGS
Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves. Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 9 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of court-led painting in India from this period, and "show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painter had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars".
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which "have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist", and fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2. The latter group were thought to be a century or more later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them much closer to the earlier group, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region. The paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster.
All the paintings appear to be the work of painters at least as used to decorating palaces as temples, and show a familiarity with and interest in details of the life of a wealthy court. We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the courts of the Gupta period. Unlike much Indian painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal compartments like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture. The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as an animal or human commoner, and so show settings from contemporary palace life.
In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular. According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in caves such as 4 and 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.
COPIES
The paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works. However, the earliest projects to copy the paintings were plagued by bad fortune. In 1846, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to replicate the frescoes on the cave walls to exhibit these paintings in England. Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863 (though he continued to be based there until his death in 1875, writing books and photographing) and made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display.
Another attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths, then principal of the Bombay School of Art, to work with his students to make new copies, again for shipping to England. They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum. But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred paintings that were in storage. The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955. The largest are some 3 × 6 metres. A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria. Griffith and his students had unfortunately painted many of the paintings with "cheap varnish" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.
A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose. The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling India Society. More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them. According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.
Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, who learnt to use a camera from about 1856, and whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library), then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).
ARCHITECTURE
The monasteries mostly consist of vihara halls for prayer and living, which are typically rectangular with small square dormitory cells cut into the walls, and by the second period a shrine or sanctuary at the rear centred on a large statue of the Buddha, also carved from the living rock. This change reflects the movement from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism. The other type of main hall is the narrower and higher chaitya hall with a stupa as the focus at the far end, and a narrow aisle around the walls, behind a range of pillars placed close together. Other plainer rooms were for sleeping and other activities. Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light. There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave.
The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more or less square open area. Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister. Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls. Originally they had wooden doors. The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue. The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines. Spink in fact places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.
The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group. Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall. Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.
The four completed chaitya halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction. All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central "nave" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (pradakshina). The later two have high ribbed roofs, which reflect timber forms, and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs, which have now perished. The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26. Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete chaitya hall.
The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both chaitya halls using simple octagonal columns, which were painted with figures. In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide. Many columns are carved over all their surface, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.
The flood basalt rock of the cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous, is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality, so the excavators had to amend their plans in places, and in places there have been collapses in the intervening centuries, as with the lost portico to cave 1. Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; the half-built vihara cave 24 shows the method. Spink believes that for the first caves of the second period the excavators had to relearn skills and techniques that had been lost in the centuries since the first period, which were then transmitted to be used at later rock-cut sites in the region, such as Ellora, and the Elephanta, Bagh, Badami and Aurangabad Caves.
The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave, but according to Spink the later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites. After the death of Harisena smaller donors got their chance to add small "shrinelets" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these "intrusive" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.
A grand gateway to the site, at the apex of the gorge's horsehoe between caves 15 and 16, was approached from the river, and is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective snake deity.
ICONOGRAPHY OF THE CAVES
In the pre-Christian era, the Buddha was represented symbolically, in the form of the stupa. Thus, halls were made with stupas to venerate the Buddha. In later periods the images of the Buddha started to be made in coins, relic caskets, relief or loose sculptural forms, etc. However, it took a while for the human representation of the Buddha to appear in Buddhist art. One of the earliest evidences of the Buddha's human representations are found at Buddhist archaeological sites, such as Goli, Nagarjunakonda, and Amaravati. The monasteries of those sites were built in less durable media, such as wood, brick, and stone. As far as the genre of rock-cut architecture is concerned it took many centuries for the Buddha image to be depicted. Nobody knows for sure at which rock-cut cave site the first image of the Buddha was depicted. Current research indicates that Buddha images in a portable form, made of wood or stone, were introduced, for the first time, at Kanheri, to be followed soon at Ajanta Cave 8 (Dhavalikar, Jadhav, Spink, Singh). While the Kanheri example dates to 4th or 5th century CE, the Ajanta example has been dated to c. 462–478 CE (Spink). None of the rock-cut monasteries prior to these dates, and other than these examples, show any Buddha image although hundreds of rock-cut caves were made throughout India during the first few centuries CE. And, in those caves, it is the stupa that is the object of veneration, not the image. Images of the Buddha are not found in Buddhist sailagrhas (rock-cut complexes) until the times of the Kanheri (4th–5th century CE) and Ajanta examples (c. 462–478 CE).
The caves of the second period, now all dated to the 5th century, were typically described as "Mahayana", but do not show the features associated with later Mahayana Buddhism. Although the beginnings of Mahāyāna teachings go back to the 1st century there is little art and archaeological evidence to suggest that it became a mainstream cult for several centuries. In Mahayana it is not Gautama Buddha but the Bodhisattva who is important, including "deity" Bodhisattva like Manjushri and Tara, as well as aspects of the Buddha such as Aksobhya, and Amitabha. Except for a few Bodhisattva, these are not depicted at Ajanta, where the Buddha remains the dominant figure. Even the Bodhisattva images of Ajanta are never central objects of worship, but are always shown as attendants of the Buddha in the shrine. If a Bodhisattva is shown in isolation, as in the Astabhaya scenes, these were done in the very last years of activities at Ajanta, and are mostly 'intrusive' in nature, meaning that they were not planned by the original patrons, and were added by new donors after the original patrons had suddenly abandoned the region in the wake of Emperor Harisena's death.
The contrast between iconic and aniconic representations, that is, the stupa on one hand and the image of the Buddha on the other, is now being seen as a construct of the modern scholar rather than a reality of the past. The second phase of Ajanta shows that the stupa and image coincided together. If the entire corpus of the art of Ajanta including sculpture, iconography, architecture, epigraphy, and painting are analysed afresh it will become clear that there was no duality between the symbolic and human forms of the Buddha, as far as the 5th-century phase of Ajanta is concerned. That is why most current scholars tend to avoid the terms 'Hinayana' and 'Mahayana' in the context of Ajanta. They now prefer to call the second phase by the ruling dynasty, as the Vākāţaka phase.
CAVES
CAVE 1
Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horse-shoe shaped scarp, and is now the first cave the visitor encounters. This would when first made have been a less prominent position, right at the end of the row. According to Spink, it is one of the latest caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine. This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have been happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time. Although there is no epigraphic evidence, Spink believes that the Vākāţaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jakata tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.
The cliff has a more steep slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade. There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen "half-intact in the 1880s" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carving, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river, from where they have been lost, presumably carried away in monsoon torrents.
This cave has one of the most elaborate carved façades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. A two pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished. The cave has a front-court with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side. These have a high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on both ends. The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggest that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become a necessity and norm. Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways. Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.
Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 12 m long and 6.1 m high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the dharmachakrapravartana mudra. There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle. The walls are covered with paintings in a fair state of preservation, though the full scheme was never completed. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the Jataka stories of the Buddha's former existences as a bodhisattva), the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration. The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-life size figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above). According to Spink, the original dating of the paintings to about 625 arose largely or entirely because James Fegusson, a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that a scene showing an ambassador being received, with figures in Persian dress, represented a recorded embassy to Persia (from a Hindu monarch at that) around that date.
CAVE 2
Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars. It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation.
Cave 2 has a porch quite different from Cave one. Even the façade carvings seem to be different. The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs. The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends. The cells on the previously "wasted areas" were needed to meet the greater housing requirements in later years. Porch-end cells became a trend in all later Vakataka excavations. The simple single cells on porch-ends were converted into CPVs or were planned to provide more room, symmetry, and beauty.
The paintings on the ceilings and walls of this porch have been widely published. They depict the Jataka tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as Bodhisattva. Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasize kingship, those in cave 2 show many "noble and powerful" women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman. The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior.
The hall has four colonnades which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine forms.
Paintings appear on almost every surface of the cave except for the floor. At various places the art work has become eroded due to decay and human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded the special attention of the devotee. They are didactic in nature, meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive rebirths. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research since the site's rediscovery in 1819. Dieter Schlingloff's identifications have updated our knowledge on the subject.
CAVE 4
The Archeological Survey of India board outside the caves gives the following detail about cave 4: "This is the largest monastery planned on a grandiose scale but was never finished. An inscription on the pedestal of the buddha's image mentions that it was a gift from a person named Mathura and paleographically belongs to 6th century A.D. It consists of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells. The rear wall of the verandah contains the panel of Litany of Avalokiteśvara".
The sanctuary houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above.
CAVES 9-10
Caves 9 and 10 are the two chaitya halls from the first period of construction, though both were also undergoing an uncompleted reworking at the end of the second period. Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE, and cave 9 about a hundred years later. The small "shrinelets" called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period, and were commissioned by individuals.
The paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernization in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals. These mostly avoided over-painting the "official" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible.
OTHER CAVES
Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned. Caves 5 and 6 are viharas, the latter on two floors, that were late works of which only the lower floor of cave 6 was ever finished. The upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha, but is otherwise unfinished. Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos but, perhaps because of faults in the rock, which posed problems in many caves, was never taken very deep into the cliff, and consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall. Some cells were fitted in.
Cave 8 was long thought to date to the first period of construction, but Spink sees it as perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an "afterthought". The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished. The cave was painted, but only traces remain.
SPINK´S DETAILED CHRONOLOGY
Walter M. Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century. This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves. He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period "between 100 BCE – 100 CE", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so "for over three centuries", as the local population had turned mainly Hindu. This changed with the accession of the Emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty, who reigned from 460 to his death in 477. Harisena extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the Gupta Empire ruled northern India at the same period, and the Pallava dynasty much of the south.
According to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation. This activity began in 462 but was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings. Work continued on only caves 1, Harisena's own commission, and 17–20, commissioned by Upendragupta. In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls "the Hiatus", which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.
Work was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves. The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty. In the years 478–480 major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of "intrusions" – statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them. These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers. They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves. According to Spink, "After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site", and as Hinduism again dominated the region, the site was again abandoned, this time for over a millennium.
Spink does not use "circa" in his dates, but says that "one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases".
IMPACT ON MODERN INDIAN PAINTINGS
The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka.
The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists examples from ancient India to follow. Nandlal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style. Abanindranath Tagore also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.
WIKIPEDIA
Classical, Hellenistic, or Roman period: variously dated between the 4th c. BCE and the 1st c. CE
Found in the mouth of the river Sele (Foce del Sele) at Paestum, probably originally from the nearby Sanctuary of Hera (see on Pleiades).
Recovered during underwater survey undertaken in 1974 by the Soprintendenza Archeologica di Salerno under Mario Napoli.
In the collection of the Parco Archeologico di Paestum
Photographed on display in the exhibit "Thalassa: meraviglie sommerse dal Mediterraneo" (December 12, 2019-August 31, 2020) at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (MANN).
Building concept
When originally was planned to construct a building each for both the House of Representatives as well as the House of Lords of the Imperial Council, so it was, for reasons of cost, ultimatively decided for a single construction. The contract for the planning went to the Danish architect Theophil Hansen in the year 1869.
Construction concept
"Because just as the Greeks have realized the largest deployment and highest perfection of art in their temples, the Romans in the forum, the later Christian period in the churches, so in our time a new monument has been added where the attention of the peoples is being concentrated, that is the Parliament." With these words, Hansen honored the institution "Parliament".
The architect also explained that he had for the parliament building chosen the style of Classical Greek because the Greeks were the first people that loved liberty and legality above all. In addition, also important constitutional terms such as "politics" or "democracy" originate from ancient Greek civilization.
Symbolic significance has also the use of materials from nearly all crown lands of the monarchy, which is to represent the interaction of all forces in the Imperial Council.
Autarky in the providing facilites, the latest technology, a well thought out down to the smallest detail magnificent building in which the architecture, fine arts, painting and crafts form a harmonious whole, this is the achievement of the architect of the parliament building.
The parliament building - a Gesamtkunstwerk
The architect put much care to synchronise the exterior and the interior of the Parliament in the sense of a Gesamtkunstwerk with each other. Therefore, he also designed the picturesque and plastic equipment himself and exercised a great influence on the implementation.
Allegories and architectural details
When one looks at the building outside and inside thoroughly it becomes clear how much the idea of a humanistic state in details is echoed.
The sculptural decorations at the facade and inside illustrate the interplay of powers and the basic ideas of democracy.
The Pallas Athena fountain in front of the Parliament refers to the separation of powers as a fundamental principle of the modern constitutional state.
Pallas Athene in the middle of the fountain is to embody the political wisdom. Next to her sit two figures that represent the "legislative" and the "enforcement of laws". The legislation is illustrated by a legislative panel in the hands of the right figure, the enforcement of laws by executioner's sword and scales in the hands of the left figure.
Above the main entrance a glass mosaic frieze can be found which addresses the subject of separation of powers again. Left a female figure is recognizable holding the book of written laws in her hands and right Justitia is depicted. In the center of this frieze Austria is recognizable to whom the Crown Lands and Estates (trade, transport, agriculture and animal husbandry) pay homage.
Another painting frieze by Eduard Lebiedzki can be admired in the portico. It is now only preserved in fragments because of irreparable damage caused by the war. The allegorical representations point to the "most superb ideals and economic tasks of the Parliament".
On the gables of the building edges the administration and the judiciary are indicated.
At the beginning of the ramp leading to the Parliament one finds the "Horse Tamers". The men who tame the horses make an appeal to the MPs. They should curb their political passion.
The Greek and Roman historians claim responsibility of every political action before history.
Bauidee
War ursprünglich geplant, sowohl für das Abgeordnetenhaus als auch für das Herrenhaus des Reichsrates jeweils ein Gebäude zu errichten, so entschied man sich letztendlich aus Kostengründen für ein einziges Bauwerk. Den Auftrag für dessen Planung erhielt der dänische Architekt Theophil Hansen im Jahre 1869.
Schmerlingplatzsseite, Rampe © Gedruckte Ansicht von 1874, Darstellung des Parlaments von der Ringstraßenseite ©
Das Baukonzept
"Denn so wie die Griechen die größte Entfaltung und höchste Vollendung der Kunst in ihren Tempeln verwirklicht haben, die Römer in dem Forum, die spätere christliche Zeit in den Kirchen, so ist in unserer Zeit ein neues Monument hinzu gekommen, wo sich die Aufmerksamkeit der Völker concentrirt, das ist das Parlament." Mit diesen Worten würdigte Hansen die Institution "Parlament".
Der Architekt erklärte weiters, er habe für das Parlamentsgebäude den Stil der griechischen Klassik gewählt, weil die Hellenen das erste Volk waren, welches die Freiheit und die Gesetzmäßigkeit über alles liebte. Zudem stammen auch wichtige staatsrechtliche Begriffe wie z. B. "Politik" oder "Demokratie" aus der griechischen Antike.
Symbolhafte Bedeutung hat auch die Verwendung von Materialien aus fast allen Kronländern der Monarchie, die das Zusammenwirken aller Kräfte im Reichsrat versinnbildlichen soll.
Autarkie in den Versorgungseinrichtungen, modernste Technik, ein bis ins kleinste Detail durchdachtes monumentales Bauwerk, bei dem Architektur, Bildende Kunst, Malerei und Handwerk ein harmonisches Ganzes bilden, darin besteht die Leistung des Architekten des Reichsratsgebäudes.
Das Parlamentsgebäude – ein Gesamtkunstwerk
Der Architekt legte viel Wert darauf, das Äußere und das Innere des Parlaments im Sinne eines Gesamtkunstwerkes aufeinander abzustimmen. Deshalb entwarf er auch die malerischen und plastischen Ausstattungen selbst und nahm auf die Umsetzung großen Einfluss.
Allegorien und architektonische Details
Wenn man das Gebäude außen und innen genau betrachtet wird deutlich, wie sehr sich die Idee eines humanistischen Staates in Details wiederfindet.
Mosaik auf Goldgrund von Eduard Lebiedzky, 1902 fertig gestellt: Huldigung der Austria durch die im Reichsrat vertretenen Kronländer. ©
Der plastische Schmuck an der Fassade und im Inneren verdeutlicht das Zusammenspiel der Gewalten und die Grundideen der Demokratie.
Der Athenebrunnen vor dem Parlamentsgebäude verweist auf die Gewaltentrennung als ein Grundprinzip des modernen Rechtsstaates.
Pallas Athene in der Mitte des Brunnens soll die Staatsweisheit verkörpern. Neben ihr sitzen zwei Figuren, die die "Gesetzgebung" und den "Vollzug der Gesetze" darstellen. Die Gesetzgebung wird durch eine Gesetzestafel in der Hand der rechten Figur verdeutlicht, der Vollzug der Gesetze durch Richtschwert und Waage in den Händen der linken Figur.
Über dem Haupteingang ist ein Glasmosaikfries zu finden, das das Motiv der Gewaltentrennung erneut aufgreift. Links ist eine Frauengestalt zu erkennen, die das Buch der geschriebenen Gesetze in ihren Händen hält und rechts ist Justitia abgebildet. Im Zentrum dieses Frieses ist Austria zu erkennen, der die Kronländer und die Stände (Handel, Verkehr, Ackerbau und Viehzucht) huldigen.
Ein weiteres Gemäldefries von Eduard Lebiedzki ist in der Säulenhalle zu bewundern. Es ist wegen irreparabler Schäden durch den Krieg heute nur noch in Fragmenten erhalten. Die allegorischen Darstellungen weisen auf die "vorzüglichsten Ideale und volkswirtschaftlichen Aufgaben des Parlaments" hin.
Auf den Giebeln der Gebäudeflanken wird auf die Verwaltung und die Justiz hingewiesen.
Am Beginn der Rampe, die zum Parlament führt, findet man die "Rossebändiger". Die Männer, die die Pferde zähmen, stellen einen Appell an die ParlamentarierInnen dar. Sie sollen ihre politische Leidenschaft zügeln.
Die griechischen und römischen Geschichtsschreiber mahnen Verantwortung jedes politischen Handelns vor der Geschichte ein.
www.parlament.gv.at/GEBF/ARGE/Baugeschichte/Bauidee/index...