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To comprehend the origins of the fascinating cave churches of Matera, you need really only understand how the Middle Ages affected this area. For centuries starting roughly at the end of the first millennium, a Who's Who of world leaders sent their armies up and down the eastern and western coasts of southern Italy, either to protect their dominions or to usurp someone else's. Some of those armies strayed into Basilicata, but most took the more streamlined Apulian, Calabrian and Campanian routes. This relative obscurity made it possible for another "army" to invade the region: the Benedictine and Basilian monks who were fleeing from the persecution of generations of foreign "infidels." These monks literally "dug in," excavating individual cells, tiny chapels and even some spacious churches in the hills, valleys and ravines around Matera.
Julienrupt, le village... En contrebas les cités ouvrières où vivaient ma grand-mère et ses jeunes enfants, parmi lesquels ma mère, durant la guerre (WW2) ... Mon grand-père, combattant, était retenu prisonnier par le barbare germanique ... Je ne sais si les actuels résidents de ces bâtisses aujourd'hui rénovées savent que les caves ont longuement servi de logements protecteurs pendant les terribles bombardements à la fin de cette guerre ?...
Ainsi passe la vie ...
Lumix G & Olympus - 35.0mm f/9.0 1/400 ISO 200 ...
Cave origins of Luxembourg City's oldest church
This remarkable Medieval chapel is striking not only for its origins many centuries in the past but also because of its location: cleft in rock in Luxembourg City's Pétrusse Valley.
Some history and features
This chapel is Luxembourg City's oldest church, already being used as such in the 11th century. Indeed, as a religious site, it is thought to have pre-Christian, indeed, pre-Roman, origins.
In 1355 a natural cave was adapted into a church building; it is reckoned that the building received early patronage from the Knights of the Teutonic Order. This Order was responsible for the guardianship of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, and this Chapel was thought to have been used as a commemoration of this role of the Order.
The waters of a natural spring occurring in the immediate vicinity of the church were formerly thought to possess therapeutic qualities.
19th century restoration by Charles Arendt
In 1884-85, the building was renovated by the architect Charles Arendt (1825-1910), who was also responsible for work on several other churches in the Grand Duchy, on the Grand Ducal Palace in the city, and on Vianden Castle; Architect Arendt also authored numerous publications on architectural and artistic subjects.
The addition of the Chapel's belfry and spire constituted part of these 19th century renovations. It may be asked, if Architect Arendt was restoring the Chapel, why was he making substantial changes and even additions to this building? The answer to this lies in the widespread perception among architects in the 19th century that a 'restoration' could and should entail much more original work than architects today, responsible for restoration work. For example, the widely influential French architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) was responsible for some huge 'restoration' projects which virtually entailed original creations of what he deemed to be a Medieval design ideal which had not necessarily ever existed. In this light, the additions to the Chapel of Saint-Qurin by Architect Arendt would not have been regarded as unusual by 19th century standards.
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~~~ While descending from a winter hike, I suddenly saw this scene, hidden up to now. The weather was very overcast and it was snowing in large flakes (visible in the picture). My pulse has quickened and the shutter has slammed twice before the scene vanishes totally in the mist... then began a few weeks during which I have cherished the memory of this moment, really, I thought only of that!! ... pending the development of the film ...
Eight years later, this photo remains my most intense photographic emotion ... probably also because it was one of the first ...
This is just for that brief moment that I continue to take pictures, to try to live it again... I know I am a naïve person :) ... ~~~
To be seen in full screen (Press L + F11)
- Homemade analog print -
- Pentax MX -
- Ilford Delta 100 -
- Bergger Variable CB baryt paper -
The origin of life for Calgary and Southern Alberta begins it's long journey. Heavenly Bow Lake lies just below Bow Glacier deep in the heart of the Rockie Mountains as summer gives way to fall.
5d, 17-40f4L, 3SND, 3HS GND
Hérault - Languedoc - France
Toponymie:
Le nom de la localité est attesté sous les formes "alode de Balarug" en 961 (dans une copie du XVIIe siècle); Ballaruc en 1083; castrum de Baladuco dans une charte de 1120; Balazuc en 1129 et en 1130; Bazaluch en 1130; Baladuc en 1140 et dans une charte de 1182; Balazuc en 1145; de Balazuco en 1169; castelli Bazaluci en 1170; Bazaluco en 1226.
En 1962, Charles Camproux donne une origine gauloise au nom Balaruc dont une des formes anciennes serait Baladunum dans une charte de 1099: bal évoque un escarpement et dunum la notion de forteresse.
Dans son Dictionnaire des noms de lieux de l'Hérault, F. Hamlin est plus prudent mais, lui aussi, propose une origine prélatine. Balaruc serait donc un oppidum gaulois.
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Mi scuso con gli amici e i visitatori, ma sono costretta a venirvi a trovare solo un po' per volta...
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Sorry, to me is very difficult to visit people that always only leave a fav without commenting...
Do not use any of my images on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission.
All rights reserved - Copyright © fotomie2009 - Nora Caracci
The origin and the history of the chapel are not known, but it was built no later than the early 15th century, as in 1426 it is recorded that the Pope gave money for its repair. The chapel may have been linked to the nearby Holyrood Abbey.
From L to R:
Arkham Origins Joker: Went back and played it again. Also made a black trench coat. So I made him. Coat should be dark purple, but I kept it as purist as possible. It works. If not Arkham Origins Joker, then it's just a cool Joker.
Leto Joker: Just threw this together after experimenting with the hair. No tattoos because this figure won't stay together.
Phantasm: My favorite of this bunch. I finally watched Batman mask of The Phantasm beginning to end the other night. I've seen parts of it before, but never the whole film. It's pretty top. So I wanted to make a Phantasm figure. Lego has no good head for a completely purist one, so I made a custom mask out of a black hood and a Skull Head helmet from Space Police. Gonna be honest tho, didn't give a toss about making an accurate knife hand, so I just did this. it works for me. Not 100% accurate, but I like it.
Slade Wilson: Made a Slade head fro my Deathstroke. Just a Magneto head with some paint mods.
Prometheus: I guess you could say this one is a Moose-Verse figure. Taylor suggested I use this torso for him because of the scarf, and I went from there. Went with a more militaristic look and got rid of the bright colors. I actually really like it.
what do you think? Which is your favorite and why?
Muy buenas, hoy vuelvo para mi tierra, pegadito a la costa, y os dejo esta toma que realicé en el Parque Natural de Calblanque. En esta ocasión la idea la tenía clara, unir el efecto que produce la lana de acero con el entorno y aprovechar la vía láctea para realizar un encuadre completo.
Como siempre, en una sola toma, sin utilizar Photoshop, y realizando un procesado ligero en Lightroom. En esta ocasión, pude realizar la toma gracias a tener un objetivo completamente manual. Para los que estéis familiarizados con la fotografía nocturna, sabréis que la configuración de la cámara para sacar la vía láctea, es totalmente distinta a la configuración para lograr una correcta exposición de la lana de acero. Para lograrlo, tuve que jugar con la apertura, y solo pude hacerlo gracias a que el objetivo que utilicé es totalmente manual, y me permite cambiar la apertura una vez iniciada la toma.
Estos son los datos de la toma:
Canon 6D @ Samyang 14mm @ 40 seg. @ 6400 ISO @ F/2.8-22
Espero que os guste…
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Night shot obtained zooming out with my lens, from 40mm to 17mm, during an exposure time of only 30 seconds, ISO 6400. Obviously camera on tripod.
Shot taken in the far September 27th 2011 while I was wandering during the night at the foot of Mount Paterno (Dolomites), whose tormented ridges look also as visually drag during the use of my zoom.
On the left, the more brilliant line is generated by planet Jupiter. The gas giant in our solar system that shines, especially on moonless nights, more than any star because of its "proximity" to the Earth.
Therefore, I hope it is clear, nothing to do with the star trail technique, which itself is often largely misunderstood. In that case you need to set a long exposure of at least 15 minutes up to what you want, also a few hours, by pointing your camera towards the Polaris in the Northern Hemisphere, or Sigma Octantis if your are in the Southern Hemisphere, then you obtain concentric trails. Also it is possible to point the camera toward any other cardinal point in order to get more "parallel" trails the more you get closer to the celestial equator.
Instead, in this shot the trails appear to come from a single point, as a sort of Big Bang structure, which wouldn't be obtainable in any other way except that zooming during exposure.
The fact of being able to get a similar shot in just 30 seconds (without having to wait hours!) undoubtedly has its advantages. An image like this definitely belongs within the field of abstract photography... this implies it may be necessary to make a few attempts before to get a "making sense" dialogue between the various elements visible and less visible to the naked eye.
Here it seemed to me that the shining Jupiter on the left, the ridges of Paterno at the bottom as well as on the right, and the central "point of origin", due to the lens zooming, contribute to create a logical structure in the overall image (hopefully also with a symbolic meaning).
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©Roberto Bertero, All Rights Reserved. This image is not available for use on websites, blogs or other media without the explicit written permission of the photographer.
London Country still had a good quantity of AEC origin buses all through the 1970`s though the later variants were not of the same longevity as their predecessors. At Dartford Garage on 23 August 1978, SM 458 was still active for a couple more years but despite SMA 18 looking quite good it only had months left in service.
I swirled the water around inside the bowl of this leaf to get this shot. This one was the most amusing--like it has a little mouth or something.
The original Origins
Chiesetta campestre in origine, oggi si trova all'interno del cimitero. La facciata a capanna, di lineare fattura, è impreziosita da una serie di archetti pensili che sovrastano il portale d'ingresso centinato.
FS 3.5.19
Assassin's Creed: Origins
Otis_Inf's injectable camera system; hotsampling via SRWE (7000x5000); bicubic smother resampling; reshade 4.3.0
Le mot arabe « kasbah » désignait à l’origine une citadelle ou fortification militaire d'architecture berbère originaire des pays d'Afrique du Nord. Par extension, le terme désigne également le cœur historique – fortifié ou non – d'une ville d'Afrique du Nord.
Les remparts de la kasbah furent édifiés en 1195 par le sultan Yacoub el-Mansour après sa victoire sur Alphonse III. Ces murailles consolidées au 17e s et 18e s par les Alaouites, dont leur fondateur Moulay Rachid (frère aîné de Moulay Ismaïl) qui édifia les remparts ceignant le jardin andalou, forment une construction militaire si solide qu'elle servit pendant des siècles de repaire aux pirates salaouis.
La tribu Oudaya est une tribu arabe belliqueuse qui fut installée dans la kasbah par Moulay Ismaïl pour protéger la ville des tribus rebelles. Le site leur doit le nom définitif de kasbah des Oudayas. C'est la kasbah qui a d’ailleurs donné son nom à la ville. Le Ribat est en effet un couvent fortifié et c'est ici que s'installèrent des moines-soldats qui partaient en guerre sainte en Espagne contre les chrétiens.
Rabat, capitale du Maroc, est située au bord de l'Atlantique au nord-ouest du Maroc. Elle est séparée de la ville de Salé au niveau de l'embouchure du Abou Regreg, d'où leur surnom de "villes jumelles". Aujourd’hui Rabat est à la fois une capitale moderne et une ville historique, le résultat d’un dialogue fructueux entre le passé arabo-musulman et le modernisme occidental. Cela lui a valu d’être classé au patrimoine de l'humanité de l'UNESCO (WHL- 1401) en 2012.
The seed of the horse chestnut, Aesculus hippocastanum
On finding your first conker of the season, you should say:
" Oddly oddly onker my first conker".
This ensures good fortune and few tangles throughout the coming season.
How to ensure you have a winning obblyonker........first put your collected onkers in a bowl of water all the conkers that have damage inside them will, due to their lack of density, float to the surface so disgaurd them.
Three ways to harden onker.....
Soak your conker in vinegar. Bake your conker in the oven.
Use an old conker from previous years.
A few more facts that no one “with a life” need know about obblyonkers...
The first recorded game of conkers was on the Isle of Wight in 1848 and was modelled on a 15th century game played with hazelnuts, also known as cobnuts
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The origin of the name 'conker' is unclear, but one popular explanation is that it stems from the French word cogner, meaning to "hit" or "biff".
Extracts from horse chestnuts have been used to treat malaria, varicose veins, diarrhoea, frostbite and ringworm, as well as being a component of sunscreen products.
Assassin's Creed: Origins
Otis_Inf's injectable camera system; hotsampling via SRWE (35MP); bicubic smother resampling; reshade 4.3.0
The origin Hungarian title (Csepp a "fű szállón") is originated from a Hungarian wordplay (pun) owing to one of my teammate. For foreign language speakers:"csepp" means drop,"fű" means grass and "szálló" means hotel and "szállón" means "in the hotel". The mosaic word "fű szállón" is very similar to the following phrase:"fűszálon" which means "to be on the grass haulm" and my teammate told me it seems the waterdrop relaxes on the grasshaulm as you relax in the hotel. :) So this is the story of the Hungarian title.
The game may be the weakest in the series, but the figure is awesome! I love the design of the suit in this game the most, really looks like a suit that is modified from a hi tech kevlar and it's really imposing! I was also surprised by the good articulation as well~ Sadly the other foes in this series are not as good as him...
This was a giant LED Sculpture by United Visual Artists and Scanners (by Ash Nehru) that was on display at The Creators Project this weekend at Fort Mason in San Francisco. It was pretty incredible!
Homenagem do povo Buziano,a musa do cinema internacional,dos anos 60.encontra-se ,na orla da cidade de Búzios-RJ,área chamada de Orla Bardot,esse belo litoral frequentado pela deusa do cinema mundial...
วัดพระธาตุหริภุญชัย
Wikipedia: Wat Phra That Hariphunchai is a Buddhist temple (wat) in Lamphun, Thailand. The temple's origins date from the 11th century but the central stupa is thought to originate in the 9th century.Wat Phra That Hariphunchai's earliest origins were in 897 when the then king of Hariphunchai is said to have built a stupa (now the central stupa) to house a hair of the Buddha The present compound, founded by Hariphunchai King Athitayarai, dates from 1044.
The temple was first rebuilt in 1443 by King Tilokaraja of Lanna kingdom Chiang Mai. The temple's pyramid-shaped Chedi Suwanna was built in 1418. In the 1930s temple renovations were made by the northern Thai monk Khru Ba Sriwichai
Di grande valore storico-culturale è l'ipogeo al quale si accede mediante una stretta scalinata, all'interno della stessa chiesa, per giungere in un andito con ai lati due camere rettangolari coperte con volte a botte.
Procedendo nel corridoio si entra in una rotonda coperta a cupola con pozzo di aerazione centrale.
Nel pavimento si trova un pozzo le cui acque, ritenute medicali, costituiscono il punto di partenza del culto.
Dalla rotonda si accede ad altri tre vani, uno semicircolare (nel punto dove c'è un altare) e due laterali rettangolari; al centro del pavimento è aperto un pozzo circolare con un betilo nuragico. Sulle pareti di quasi tutti i vani, numerose immagini, segni di scrittura, vere e proprie scene di soggetto diverse (navi, due leoni, diverse figure di donne) fanno capire le diverse culture che si sono succedute.
Sicuramente di origine pagana, l'ipogeo è stato usato forse come catacombe, come carceri e come rifugio nei primi tempi del Cristianesimo.
È forse nel IV secolo che viene adibito a culto cristiano ed è probabile che il pozzo del nucleo centrale venisse usato come battistero.
Of great historical and cultural value is the hypogeum which is accessed via a narrow staircase, inside the church itself, to reach in a passageway with two rectangular rooms covered with barrel vaults on the sides.
Proceeding in the corridor you enter a covered domed rotunda with a central ventilation shaft.
In the floor there is a well whose waters, considered medical, constitute the starting point of the cult.
The roundabout leads to three other rooms, one semicircular (where there is an altar) and two rectangular sides; in the center of the floor there is a circular well with a nuragic betilo. On the walls of almost all rooms, numerous images, signs of writing, real scenes of different subjects (ships, two lions, different figures of women) make us understand the different cultures that have followed.
Definitely of pagan origin, the hypogeum was perhaps used as catacombs, as prisons and as a refuge in the early days of Christianity.
It is perhaps in the 4th century that it was used for Christian worship and it is probable that the well of the central nucleus was used as a baptistery.
my workshop on my Facebook just like ;-) Clic Here
my 500px Clic Here
Origins
Although there are no historical records that deal directly with the founding of Venice,[10] tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees from Roman cities near Venice such as Padua, Aquileia, Treviso, Altino and Concordia (modern Portogruaro) and from the undefended countryside, who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions.[11] Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers"). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo at the islet of Rialto (Rivoalto, "High Shore"), which is said to have been at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421.[12][13]
The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula was that of the Lombards in 568, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire a small strip of coast in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna, administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (the Exarch) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople, but Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes and with the Venetians' isolated position came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, dated from c. 568.[14]
The traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, Paul's magister militum (General; literally, "Master of Soldiers.") In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II. The Exarch was murdered and many officials put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own leader for the first time, although the relationship of this ascent to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus would become the first of 117 "doges" (doge is the Venetian dialect development of the Latin dux ("leader"); the corresponding word in English is duke, in standard Italian duce.) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions" and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as dux[15] and given the added title of hypatus (Greek for "Consul".)[16]
In 751, the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge"), was situated in Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased in correspondence with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories as refugees sought asylum in the lagoon city. In 775/776, the episcopal seat of Olivolo (Helipolis) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811–827), the ducal seat was moved from Malamocco to the highly protected Rialto, the current location of Venice. The monastery of St. Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark, as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here. Winged lions, which may be seen throughout Venice, are a symbol for St. Mark.
Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his own rule. He ordered the Pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast,[17] and Charlemagne's own son Pepin of Italy, king of the Lombards under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.
In 828, the new city's prestige was raised by the acquisition of the claimed relics of St. Mark the Evangelist from Alexandria, which were placed in the new basilica. The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop and as Byzantine power waned, it led to the growth of autonomy and eventual independence.[18]
Expansion
Piazza San Marco in Venice, with St Mark's Campanile and Basilica in the background
These Horses of Saint Mark are a replica of the Triumphal Quadriga captured in Constantinople in 1204 and carried to Venice as a trophy.
From the 9th to the 12th century, Venice developed into a city state (an Italian thalassocracy or Repubblica Marinara, the other three being Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi). Its strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable. With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world (especially the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic world).
The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The Doge already carried the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as the "Terraferma", and were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat, on which the city depended. In building its maritime commercial empire, the Republic dominated the trade in salt,[19] acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Cyprus and Crete, and became a major power-broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.
Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called Golden Bulls or 'chrysobulls' in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the Empire but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice's power.[20][21]
Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire. As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople, which were originally placed above the entrance to St Mark's cathedral in Venice, although the originals have been replaced with replicas and are now stored within the basilica. Following the fall of Constantinople, the former Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, and captured Crete.[22]
The seizure of Constantinople would ultimately prove as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes after Manzikert. Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453.
View of San Giorgio Maggiore Island from St. Mark's Campanile
Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim world. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. During this time, Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "Doge", or duke, the ceremonial head of the city, who normally held the title until his death.
The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the Doge), a senate-like assembly of nobles, and a mass of citizens with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected Doge. Church and various private properties were tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means (hence, the city's early production of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce).
Francesco Guardi, The Grand Canal, 1760 (Art Institute of Chicago)
The chief executive was the Doge, who theoretically held his elective office for life. In practice, several Doges were forced by pressure from their oligarchical peers to resign the office and retire into monastic seclusion when they were felt to have been discredited by perceived political failure.
Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism and it enacted not a single execution for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with the Papacy. In this context, the writings of the Anglican Divine, William Bedell, are particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most famous, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V.
Venetian ambassadors sent home still-extant secret reports of the politics and rumours of European courts, providing fascinating information to modern historians.
The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world, and the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented the concept of paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag. His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.[23]
Decline
The Grand Canal in Venice
Venice's long decline started in the 15th century, when it first made an unsuccessful attempt to hold Thessalonica against the Ottomans (1423–1430). It also sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks (1453). After Constantinople fell to Sultan Mehmet II he declared war on Venice. The war lasted thirty years and cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Next, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World. Then Portugal found a sea route to India, destroying Venice's land route monopoly. France, England and the Dutch Republic followed them. Venice's oared galleys were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing the great oceans, and therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.
The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and once again between 1575 and 1577.[24] In three years the plague killed some 50,000 people.[25] In 1630, the plague killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens.[26] Venice began to lose its position as a center of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth, while France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, the Venetian empire was a major exporter of agricultural products and, until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing center.
Modern age[edit source | editbeta]
A map of the sestiere of San Marco
The Republic lost independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the First Coalition. The French conqueror brought to an end the most fascinating century of its history: during the 18th century, Venice became perhaps the most elegant and refined city in Europe, greatly influencing art, architecture and literature. Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population, although it can be argued they had lived with fewer restrictions in Venice. He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.
Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. It was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy, but was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. In 1848–1849, a revolt briefly reestablished the Venetian Republic under Daniele Manin. In 1866, following the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
During the Second World War, the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler, a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations there in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage done the city itself.[27] However the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste and Trento were repeatedly bombed.[28] On 29 April 1945, New Zealand troops under Freyberg reached Venice and relieved the city and the mainland, which were already in partisan hands.[29]
Subsidence[edit source | editbeta]
Further information: Acqua alta
Acqua alta or high water in Venice.
Venice and surroundings in false colour, from Terra. The picture is oriented with North at the top.
Foundations
The buildings of Venice are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles. Most of these piles are still intact after centuries of submersion. The foundations rest on the piles, and buildings of brick or stone sit above these footings. The piles penetrate a softer layer of sand and mud until they reach a much harder layer of compressed clay.
Submerged by water, in oxygen-poor conditions, wood does not decay as rapidly as on the surface.
Most of these piles were made from trunks of alder trees,[30] a wood noted for its water resistance.[31] The alder came from the westernmost part of today's Slovenia (resulting in the barren land of the Kras region), in two regions of Croatia, Lika and Gorski kotar (resulting in the barren slopes of Velebit) and south of Montenegro.[citation needed] Leonid Grigoriev has stated that Russian larch was imported to build some of Venice's foundations.[32] Larch is also used in the production of Venice turpentine.[33]
History[edit source | editbeta]
The city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic between autumn and early spring. Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city. This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment.
In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a 'stamp tax'. When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper with the superscription 'AQ' and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for 'letters to officials'. At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.
During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside. It was realised that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods (called Acqua alta, "high water") that creep to a height of several centimetres over its quays, regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, the former staircases used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.
Some recent studies have suggested that the city is no longer sinking,[34][35] but this is not yet certain; therefore, a state of alert has not been revoked. In May 2003, the Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE project (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates; the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 centimetres, the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float and block the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea. This engineering work is due to be completed by 2014.[36]
Geography
Sestieri of Venice:
Cannaregio
Castello
Dorsoduro
San Marco
San Polo
Santa Croce
The historical city is divided into six areas or "sestiere" (while the whole comune (municipality) is divided into 6 boroughs of which one is composed of all 6 sestiere). These are Cannaregio, San Polo, Dorsoduro (including the Giudecca and Isola Sacca Fisola), Santa Croce, San Marco (including San Giorgio Maggiore) and Castello (including San Pietro di Castello and Sant'Elena). Each sestiere was administered by a procurator and his staff. Nowadays each sestiere is a statistic and historical area without any degree of autonomy.
These districts consist of parishes – initially seventy in 1033, but reduced under Napoleon and now numbering just thirty-eight. These parishes predate the sestieri, which were created in about 1170.
Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri, having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.
Each sestiere has its own house numbering system. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Venice has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with cool winters and very warm summers. The 24-hour average in January is 2.5 °C (36.5 °F), and for July this figure is 22.7 °C (72.9 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 801 millimetres (31.5 in).