View allAll Photos Tagged Moderate
Moderater Eugene Rogan, Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History; Fellow, St Antony's College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, Abdelkader Messahel, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Algeria, Khalid Al Rumaihi, Chief Executive, Bahrain Economic Development Board, Bahrain, H.R.H. Prince Turki Al Faisal Al Saud, Chairman, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Saudi Arabia and Alain Bejjani, Chief Executive Officer, Majid Al Futtaim Holding, United Arab Emirates during the Strategic Outlook: Middle East and North Africa at the Annual Meeting 2018 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 23, 2018. Copyright by World Economic Forum / Valeriano Di Domenico
Dr. Michael Bröning has presented his book and moderated the discussion, The Politics of Change in Palestine: State-Building and Non-Violent Resistance.
“The Politics of Change in Palestine” discusses these changes. The book contradicts the prevalent myth that incompetent, corrupt, and uncompromising Palestinian decision-makers are responsible for the lasting stalemate in the Middle-East Peace Process. The book highlights recent political developments in Palestine that fundamentally redefine important parameters of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These include the re-invention of Hamas, reforms within the Fatah movement, state-building efforts of the Palestinian Authority and the surge of non-violent resistance.
More Information available at:
Shortly about me:
It’s my passion to create stories and bring back pictures of events, people and places that are rarely seen. It’s a combination of exploration, exposition and artistry that together create a life of adventure and excitement.
In my work it is imperative for me that information be accurate and the images must be respectful of the subject and viewer. My goal is to combine creativity with practicality to capture the best possible images to document events, tell a story, meet the picture editor's deadlines.
The exhibition “Beautiful Faces of Balata” currently on show at the Church of the Ascension at the “Kaiserin Auguste Victoria Foundation” on the Mount of Olive's can be visited on a virtual tour on my website. Virtual tour of the Exhibition »
The exhibition is a project of Public Culture - Palpics, under the auspices of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Yafa Cultural Center (YCC) .
If you would like to know more, or even just pick my brains to discuss your project with me, please visit my homepage documentary photography or send me an Email.
[Bakari Gueye] African Islamic associations meet in Nouakchott to promote a moderate ideology.
التقت الجمعيات الإسلامية الإفريقية في نواكشوط لتشجيع فكر وسطي
Les associations islamiques africaines se sont réunies à Nouakchott pour promouvoir une idéologie de la modération.
Full story: www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/f...
القصة
www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/ar/features/awi/feat...
L'article: www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/feat...
Photo captured via Minolta MD Zoom Rokkor-X 75-200mm f/4.5 lens along Highway 1, the Shoreline Highway, before it sharply turns inland and terminates at Junction U.S. 101, the Redwood Highway, in the census-designated place of Rockport. Mendocino County. Mid November 2013.
Sheila Watson (FIA Foundation) moderates a panel that looks at the intricate links between FIA Foundation-funded programmes and partnerships that lead to a sustainable mobility pathway. This official side event takes place during the International Transport Forum's 2023 Summit on "Transport Enabling Sustainable Economies" in Leipzig, Germany on 24 May 2023.
Moderated by Peter Scharf, the Public Safety Panel addressed issues of crime, NOPD reform and community action. Panelists included independent police monitor Susan Hutson, NOPD Chief Ronal Serpas, Jon Wool of the Vera Institute and Allen James of Safe Streets.
Moderate growth rate, super strong, thick, and long branches, sometimes branches twist a bit, very hardy. Sometimes has green coralites under strong light.
AIR TEMP: 35°F / 2°C
WIND SPD: NNW 15 mph / 24 km/h (gusting to ~40 MPH / 64 km/h)
The 2012 Cupid's Undie Run in Washington, DC.
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Are you in this photo? Say hi- leave a comment or send me a message!
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NOTE: Given the potential sensitivity: this image is fully copyrighted. Permission is granted only to Cupid's Undie Run, the disrobed participants contained within, or any other primary subjects to use the photo provided that:
- (1) Users provide attribution in the form of "Image (c) Andrew Bossi, Flickr"
- (2) For online usage, users provide a link either directly to the photo (preferred) or to the following: "http://www.flickr.com/photos/thisisbossi/collections/"
If you are media, anyone not an organiser of Cupid's Undie Run, anyone not contained within the photo, or anyone preferring not to provide attribution & the link: contact me to discuss exemptions. Please note which image(s) you would like to use.
If you are one of the disrobed participants within the photo but would prefer it not publicised: just send me a message with a link to any photos and I will remove them from view. I will comply with your request, though I reserve right to laugh at you for doing such a thing in public & not wanting photo evidence :)
But I did attempt to review my photos and cut out things less than flattering as, let's admit it: no matter the body, the motions of running in revealing clothing does not usually lend toward aesthetic photos. So any photos I've kept are, in my opinion, quite decent... and if you're in them: I hope you agree!
*Also while I very rarely moderate comments: I will moderate comments here. So anything too complimentary or anything quite the opposite will be deleted. In short: don't be rude and don't be creepy. Don't be "that guy".
With only moderate climbing involved (or bring a friend's car too and shuttle the climb), and not requiring a lot of time to ride, these two trails can keep almost anyone interested. Advanced riders (or Intermediate riders improving their skills) will enjoy the optional jumps, rock features, and logs along the Corral trail. And the Sidewinder trail, which parallels upper Corral before joining back up with it, provides an option for beginners of all ages--or any rider looking for a winding, smooth trail. Directions: Take Pioneer Trail towards Meyers, turn left onto Oneidas Street, after passing a few houses this turns into a paved forest service road, follow for about 1/2 mile until the creek crossing and park in dirt parking lot just past the creek on the left.
Photo by Ben Fish.
Dr. Michael Bröning has presented his book and moderated the discussion, The Politics of Change in Palestine: State-Building and Non-Violent Resistance.
“The Politics of Change in Palestine” discusses these changes. The book contradicts the prevalent myth that incompetent, corrupt, and uncompromising Palestinian decision-makers are responsible for the lasting stalemate in the Middle-East Peace Process. The book highlights recent political developments in Palestine that fundamentally redefine important parameters of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These include the re-invention of Hamas, reforms within the Fatah movement, state-building efforts of the Palestinian Authority and the surge of non-violent resistance.
More Information available at:
Shortly about me:
It’s my passion to create stories and bring back pictures of events, people and places that are rarely seen. It’s a combination of exploration, exposition and artistry that together create a life of adventure and excitement.
In my work it is imperative for me that information be accurate and the images must be respectful of the subject and viewer. My goal is to combine creativity with practicality to capture the best possible images to document events, tell a story, meet the picture editor's deadlines.
The exhibition “Beautiful Faces of Balata” currently on show at the Church of the Ascension at the “Kaiserin Auguste Victoria Foundation” on the Mount of Olive's can be visited on a virtual tour on my website. Virtual tour of the Exhibition »
The exhibition is a project of Public Culture - Palpics, under the auspices of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Yafa Cultural Center (YCC) .
If you would like to know more, or even just pick my brains to discuss your project with me, please visit my homepage documentary photography or send me an Email.
Conveying two Mark 3s for a moderate refresh the DRS tractor has for the moment taken over the AGA ecs moves from class 68s. I stopped here to record this angle as I liked the sunlight dancing on the water at high tide in the foreground. I was tempted to do a conventional sunny side shot but that would have meant getting very wet feet!
Moderated by Jonathan Capehart with Panelists Andrew Pasiej, Todd Van Etten, Daniel Sieberh, Alex Torpey, and Maria Cardona
Moderated High-Level Policy Session 5: WSIS Action Lines and the 2030 Agenda / Financing for development and role of ICT
From left to right:
Horyou– Mr. Yonathan Parienti, Founder and CEO
Mr. Vincenzo Aquaro, Chief E-Government Branch, Division for Public Administration and Development Management, UNDESA
Mr. Ernesto Rodríguez, IT Director, Ministry of Communications, Cuba
Mr. Rossen Jeliazkov, Chairman, Communications Regulation Commission, Bulgaria
Mr. Thomas Schneider, Ambassador and Director of International Affairs, Federal Office of Communications OFCOM, Switzerland
Dr. Michael Nelson, Cloudflare, USA
Mr. Yushi Torigoe, Deputy Director, Telecommunication Development Bureau, ITU
Mr. Anders Aeroe, Director, Division of Enterprises and Institutions, ITC
Dr. Salma Abbasi, Chairperson and CEO, eWorldWide Group
Mr. Pavan Duggal, Founder and Chairman, International Commission on Cyber Security Law
©ITU/I.Wood
feels like venice
strength of the old countries
Posted by Second Life Resident Torley Linden. Visit DROBAK village.
MODERATED TALK: Ethics in business
Wolfgang Huber
Theologian, Former Chairman of the Council of the Protestant Church in Germany
Lorena Jaume-Palasí
Executive Director, Ethical Tech Society
Moderated by Melinda Crane, journalist and television host
Stanleya pinnata tolerates moderate physical disturbance, which is evinced by it commonly inhabiting road cuts and sides of arroyos. Cheatgrass grows in the vininity along roadsides in this area but doesn't coexist with Stanleya. Cheatgrass is occasionally common roadside but rare to non-existent out in the shrub steppe of this area.
Moderater Eugene Rogan, Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History; Fellow, St Antony's College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, Abdelkader Messahel, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Algeria, Khalid Al Rumaihi, Chief Executive, Bahrain Economic Development Board, Bahrain, H.R.H. Prince Turki Al Faisal Al Saud, Chairman, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Saudi Arabia and Alain Bejjani, Chief Executive Officer, Majid Al Futtaim Holding, United Arab Emirates during the Strategic Outlook: Middle East and North Africa at the Annual Meeting 2018 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 23, 2018. Copyright by World Economic Forum / Valeriano Di Domenico
Live Link from Damascus
Mr. Yacoub El Hillo
UN Resident/Humanitarian Coordinator, United Nations
Moderated by:
Dr. J. Stephen Morrison
Senior Vice President and Director of the Global Health Policy Center, CSIS
Roundtable: Humanitarian Operations
Ms. Nancy Lindborg
Assistant Administrator for the Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance, USAID
Mr. Rabih Torbay
Vice President for International Operations, International Medical Corps
Moderated by:
Mr. Todd Summers
Senior Adviser, CSIS
Roundtable: Destruction of the Health Sector, Decline of Public Health
Ms. Andrea Gittleman
Senior Legislative Counsel, PHR
Dr. Ron Waldman
Professor of Global Health, George Washington University
Moderated by:
Mr. Len Rubenstein
Director, Program on Human Rights, Health and Conflict, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
Luncheon: What is the U.S. to do?
Mr. Michael Gerson
Syndicated Op-Ed Columnist, Washington Post; Policy Fellow, ONE Campaign
Dr. Kathleen Hicks
Senior Vice President, Henry A. Kissinger Chair, and Director of the International Security Program, CSIS
Dr. Zaher Sahloul
President, Syrian American Medical Society
Moderated by:
Dr. J. Stephen Morrison
Senior Vice President and Director of the Global Health Policy Center, CSIS
Rafael Mariano Grossi, IAEA Director General, moderated Session 1: Plastic Pollution: Challenges and the Need for Global Action, at the NUTEC Plastics Roundtable (virtual) for Europe and Central Asia held at the Agency headquarters in Vienna, Austria. 7 October 2021.
Photo Credit: Dean Calma / IAEA
Distinguished Panelists:
HE Mr Mukhtar Babayev, Minister of Ecology and Natural Resources of Azerbaijan.
HE Mr Levan Davitashvili, Vice-Prime Minister and Minister of Environment Protection and Agriculture of Georgia.
HE Mr Ricardo Serrão Santos, Minister of Maritime Affairs of Portugal.
Mr Virginijus Sinkevičius, European Commissioner for Environment, Oceans and Fisheries, Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, European Commission.
HE Mr Meelis Münt, Deputy Minister of the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Estonia.
HE Mr Christos Dimas, Deputy Minister for Research and Technology, Ministry of Development and Investments of the Hellenic Republic.
Ms Halla Hrund Logadóttir, Director-General, National Energy Authority of Iceland.
Mr Mats Svensson, Director of Department for Marine Management, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management (on behalf of Mr Jakob Granit, Director-General).
Mr Olivier Wenden, Vice President and Chief Executive Of cer, Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation.
Ms Eli K. Vassenden, Vice President Shared Services, Grieg Star, Norway.
Ms Bérengère Prince, Lead Natural Resources Management Specialist, World Bank Group
Moderated by Charlie Slowes, Michael A Taylor and Joe Ross take questions from kids. My favorite: "Michael, what's the worst game you ever had?"
Moderate winter climate of Bitterroot Valley usually results in pockets of open water on Refuge wetlands.
Credit: Bob Danley / USFWS
Moderater Eugene Rogan, Professor of Modern Middle Eastern History; Fellow, St Antony's College, University of Oxford, United Kingdom, Abdelkader Messahel, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Algeria, Khalid Al Rumaihi, Chief Executive, Bahrain Economic Development Board, Bahrain, H.R.H. Prince Turki Al Faisal Al Saud, Chairman, King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies, Saudi Arabia and Alain Bejjani, Chief Executive Officer, Majid Al Futtaim Holding, United Arab Emirates during the Strategic Outlook: Middle East and North Africa at the Annual Meeting 2018 of the World Economic Forum in Davos, January 23, 2018. Copyright by World Economic Forum / Valeriano Di Domenico
I've got the process down to about 3 hours of work. The only extra piece/material needed for the conversion is M42-to-EOS adapter (found readily on ebay). Needless to say, the lens will never again see the light of an old Minolta system (it's a destructive conversion, see the mount being turned below to ready it to receive a modified M42-to-EOS adapter).
I really like the small pancake lens...its color/contrast/sharpness are very good...CA is moderate wide-open.
Curtis Falls, Mount Tamborine
Curtis Falls, Joalah section is a 1.5km return moderate grade walking track. Joalah is an Aboriginal word meaning "haunt of the lyrebird". The loud calls of the male Albert's lyrebird can be heard during winter. The track starts from the Dapsang Drive carpark. It is also possible to start at the shops on Eagle Heights Road, adding an extra 800m return to the walk.
On this track you will walk through rainforest and descend steep stairs to a large pool at the base of Curtis Falls. There is an impressive view of the falls and surrounding columnar basalt rockface. Swimming is prohibited at the falls. A restricted access area below Curtis Falls protects an important glow-worm colony. The track continues from the falls, along a piccabeen palm-fringed creek to a giant strangler fig. Beyond this strangler fig, the lower Joalah track is closed for your safety due to rockfalls.
Flickr - www.flickr.com/photos/behindthesteeringwheel/sets/
Instagram - instagram.com/pauldambraau
Pinterest - pinterest.com/pauldambra/boards/
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Facebook - www.facebook.com/pdambra
Dr. Michael Bröning has presented his book and moderated the discussion, The Politics of Change in Palestine: State-Building and Non-Violent Resistance.
“The Politics of Change in Palestine” discusses these changes. The book contradicts the prevalent myth that incompetent, corrupt, and uncompromising Palestinian decision-makers are responsible for the lasting stalemate in the Middle-East Peace Process. The book highlights recent political developments in Palestine that fundamentally redefine important parameters of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. These include the re-invention of Hamas, reforms within the Fatah movement, state-building efforts of the Palestinian Authority and the surge of non-violent resistance.
More Information available at:
Shortly about me:
It’s my passion to create stories and bring back pictures of events, people and places that are rarely seen. It’s a combination of exploration, exposition and artistry that together create a life of adventure and excitement.
In my work it is imperative for me that information be accurate and the images must be respectful of the subject and viewer. My goal is to combine creativity with practicality to capture the best possible images to document events, tell a story, meet the picture editor's deadlines.
The exhibition “Beautiful Faces of Balata” currently on show at the Church of the Ascension at the “Kaiserin Auguste Victoria Foundation” on the Mount of Olive's can be visited on a virtual tour on my website. Virtual tour of the Exhibition »
The exhibition is a project of Public Culture - Palpics, under the auspices of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH and the Yafa Cultural Center (YCC) .
If you would like to know more, or even just pick my brains to discuss your project with me, please visit my homepage documentary photography or send me an Email.
Experiencing moderate to heavy rain today in the city. Indeed, a strong storm system was battering the region with widespread rain & gusty winds this day. Luckily, it wasn't that busy at work so I had a couple chances to head out & observe the stormy weather. Travel safe out there guys, especially if you are heading up to the Sierras! Footage taken from around Milpitas/San Jose, CA. (Thursday, January 16, 2020)
*Weather update/scenario:
Rain, thunderstorms and snow, oh my! ABC7 News Meteorologist Mike Nicco was tracking a new storm set to bring heavy rain, thunderstorms, gusty winds, hail and even snow to parts of the Bay Area especially this day of Thursday, January 16, 2020… "The most potent storm in more than a month was to be upon us Thursday," said Nicco.... "By 7 a.m., the storm was to push into the heart of the bay before it soaks the East Bay and the South Bay around 9 a.m. By noon, we were to transition to a chance of heavy showers locally and some possible thunderstorms.” Certainly, the stormy weather was causing slick roads and flooding in various areas across the region, according to weather officials. The storm was expected to bring anywhere from 1-3 inches of rainfall to the coastal mountain ranges and the North Bay. Most urban areas could pick up 0.5 to 1 inch of rainfall. Less rain was expected in rain-shadowed valleys. There was a slight chance of thunderstorms Thursday afternoon and evening, according to the weather service... Drive safely out there, fellas!
AIR TEMP: 35°F / 2°C
WIND SPD: NNW 15 mph / 24 km/h (gusting to ~40 MPH / 64 km/h)
The 2012 Cupid's Undie Run in Washington, DC.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Are you in this photo? Say hi- leave a comment or send me a message!
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
NOTE: Given the potential sensitivity: this image is fully copyrighted. Permission is granted only to Cupid's Undie Run, the disrobed participants contained within, or any other primary subjects to use the photo provided that:
- (1) Users provide attribution in the form of "Image (c) Andrew Bossi, Flickr"
- (2) For online usage, users provide a link either directly to the photo (preferred) or to the following: "http://www.flickr.com/photos/thisisbossi/collections/"
If you are media, anyone not an organiser of Cupid's Undie Run, anyone not contained within the photo, or anyone preferring not to provide attribution & the link: contact me to discuss exemptions. Please note which image(s) you would like to use.
If you are one of the disrobed participants within the photo but would prefer it not publicised: just send me a message with a link to any photos and I will remove them from view. I will comply with your request, though I reserve right to laugh at you for doing such a thing in public & not wanting photo evidence :)
But I did attempt to review my photos and cut out things less than flattering as, let's admit it: no matter the body, the motions of running in revealing clothing does not usually lend toward aesthetic photos. So any photos I've kept are, in my opinion, quite decent... and if you're in them: I hope you agree!
*Also while I very rarely moderate comments: I will moderate comments here. So anything too complimentary or anything quite the opposite will be deleted. In short: don't be rude and don't be creepy. Don't be "that guy".
A moderate sized thorny tree with ash colored rough bark.
Origin - native to India
Leaves - alternate, obovate, serrate in the upper part.
Flowers - small, brownish red.
Fruits - ovoid drupes
Part of the plant used in medicine - Gum/resin
The commiphora mukul secretes a fragrant, sticky, resinous sap, known as gum guggul, It is one of the world’s oldest fragrances, obtained by cutting the bark. The resin turns brown after it dries.
Guggul Gum plays a major role in the traditional herbal medicine of India. It has been used for a long time in Ayurvedic medicine to treat rheumatoid arthritis, obesity and other weight related problems. Today, Guggul is frequently used to help lower cholesterol levels and decrease high blood pressure.
Senior Communications Officer Andrew Kanyegirire moderates the African Finance Ministers Press Briefing during the 2016 IMF/World Bank Spring Meetings. Panel members (L to R) also include the Honorable Mohammed Aden Ibrahim, Rosine Sori-Coulibaly, the Honorable Martin G. Dlamini, and Mahamat Allamine Bourma Treye. Cliff Owen/IMF Photo
Moderate to slow growth, very hardy - phenomenally beautiful coral. Generally only encrusting, but may form a rim/edge.
It’s a tragedy that two comedy programs, the Daily Show and The Colbert Report, are the closest thing today that America has to a 4th estate. That being said, as much as I appreciate the good work bit Stewart and Colbert do, I couldn’t help but be struck that the only thing the “Rally to Restore Sanity and/or Fear” really represented was the thought that if you are passionate about ANYTHING, you must be a radical.
Stewart’s penchant for pushing the FALSE left/right equivalency meme is a distortion of American politics – for all the joking - is no laughing matter.
Stewart earlier called the rally a "Million Moderate March." Glenn Greenwald wrote, “to counter what he called a minority of 15 or 20 % of the country that has dominated the national political discussion with extreme rhetoric.
He tarred both parties with that charge, mentioning both the attacks on the right against President Obama for being everything from a socialist to un-American and on the left against former President Bush for being a war criminal.”
But what if the inconvenient truth is that President Obama is NOT a Socialist (or un-American for that matter) whereas former President Bush IS a WAR CRIMINAL?
Stewart correlating a right-wing lie with something the majority of the world knows to be true makes the equivalency not just FALSE but dangerous - and plays into the hands of the powerful entities infesting the halls of power who have a vested interest in keeping the American People wedded to these distortions so as to allow the well-connected criminals to continue to walk free.
The main offender in the rally was the montage of images from the media that intercut images of Fox News/Glenn Beck, etc… with MSNBC/Olbermann/Schultz.
This may be Stewart’s way of appealing and appeasing right-wingers so they don’t feel as if they are entirely attacked by HIS rhetoric, but that tactic is self-serving, not engaged in with altruistic intentions for America.
The fact is, right wing policies ARE deserving of blame!
Just look at the last 100 years to see the fruits of their labors. Right wing policies serve only to create a wide economic gap between the people and the elite whom the Republican Party represent.
To report the truth about the Republican-sponsored decline of the middle class with PASSION is not the same as lying to the middle class to get them to support their own demise.
Conflating Olbermann’s or Shultz’s passion with Glenn Beck’s demagoguery does a disservice to the American People.
Sorry, Stewart. Exposing the right wing class war is NOT the same as right-wingers LYING, whipping up fear and appealing to the worst aspects of the human condition. It's JUST NOT. Keith Olbermann is NOT Glenn Beck just as Alan Grayson (another lefty who made an appearance in Stewart’s montage) IS NOT some nut who is crazy because he said, "Republicans want you to die quickly."
If you put Grayson's statement IN CONTEXT, you will see that Grayson was making a POINT about the lack of action and obstructionist tactics Republicans employ to ensure that Americans CONTINUE to DIE and go bankrupt when they get sick. That kind of unconscionable system CALLS FOR STRONG LANGUAGE. This is the reality facing the American People today and it's about time people stand up with a spine against the powerful forces of the big moneyed interests turning the government "into an appendage of their own affairs", as FDR said.
The IRONY is that Grayson is on the FRONT LINES displaying the courage Stewart constantly MOCKS Democrats for not having! Being a PASSIONATE lefty IS NOT the same as being a lying corporate shill trying to DECEIVE people into supporting the party turning the middle class into compliant serfs.
If FDR were alive today, perhaps we could ask him about the effectiveness of politely pleading with Economic Royalists to play nice with the Plebs... pretty please... with sugar on it... please be nice and let us have our middle class again.
Perhaps Stewart would have been offended at FDR when he took the Economic Royalist elite to the metaphorical woodshed and implemented the New Deal policies that CREATED the Middle Class - and stood up to their inflammatory rhetoric calling him Socialist, Communist, anti-American, by plainly and PASSIONATLY telling the America People what they were up against.
"We had to struggle with the old enemies of peace--business and financial monopoly, speculation, reckless banking, class antagonism, sectionalism, war profiteering. They had begun to consider the Government of the United States as a mere appendage to their own affairs. We know now that Government by organized money is just as dangerous as Government by organized mob. Never before in all our history have these forces been so united against one candidate as they stand today. They are unanimous in their hate for me--and I WELCOME THEIR HATRED!"
Such strong LANGUAGE! Couldn't he have "toned it down?" Perhaps Stewart could intercut this speech with some of the Republican attacks on FDR in which they called him as Communist… you know… to be a good moderate… and by doing so, give the veneer of legitimacy to arguments that are made up of whole cloth.
I hope the rally serves it’s purpose and gets young people out to vote. Tragically, I believe that it has done damage to the truth…. Which as we know… has a well-documented liberal bias.
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Euranet Plus, the leading radio network for EU news, hosted a “Citizens’ Corner” live debate on the “awareness of EU citizenship status and EU citizens’ rights” at the European Parliament in Brussels on November 5, 2014.
The debate was jointly produced by Euranet Plus and MTVA, Hungary, member of the Euranet Plus network, and was moderated by journalist Balázs Náray from MTVA (in Hungarian) and Brian Maguire from the Euranet Plus News Agency in Brussels (in English).
The debate also featured students from the Euranet Plus campus radio network (Kampus Radio, Warsaw, Poland; UBB Online Radio, Cluj, Romania). The debate was broadcasted live at the top of this web page and is now ready to be viewed on-demand above in the Ustream window until available in two parts, one for each language, on our YouTube channel.
You are invited to continue debating the recording of the live stream on our Facebook page event page or on Twitter using the hash tag #CitizensCorner. Get all the details at
euranetplus-inside.eu/citizens-corner-debate-on-eu-citize...
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Moderated by Martha Cummings, Independent Director, Marqeta, Inc
On stage:
Sean McHugh, Independent Non-Executive Board Director, Mizuho Securities Asia Limited
Ebbe Negenman, Chief Risk Officer, Knab
Maciej Lewandowski, Head of Risk Poland, NatWest Group
Elena Minduksheva, Deputy CFO, International investment bank
Curtis Falls, Mount Tamborine
Curtis Falls, Joalah section is a 1.5km return moderate grade walking track. Joalah is an Aboriginal word meaning "haunt of the lyrebird". The loud calls of the male Albert's lyrebird can be heard during winter. The track starts from the Dapsang Drive carpark. It is also possible to start at the shops on Eagle Heights Road, adding an extra 800m return to the walk.
On this track you will walk through rainforest and descend steep stairs to a large pool at the base of Curtis Falls. There is an impressive view of the falls and surrounding columnar basalt rockface. Swimming is prohibited at the falls. A restricted access area below Curtis Falls protects an important glow-worm colony. The track continues from the falls, along a piccabeen palm-fringed creek to a giant strangler fig. Beyond this strangler fig, the lower Joalah track is closed for your safety due to rockfalls.
Flickr - www.flickr.com/photos/behindthesteeringwheel/sets/
Instagram - instagram.com/pauldambraau
Pinterest - pinterest.com/pauldambra/boards/
Triptease - triptease.com/profile/paul-d-ambra/reviews
Facebook - www.facebook.com/pdambra
We have had small groups of pelicans coming through our part of the Elk River on migration! The pelican scouts came about 3 weeks ago and now, groups are passing through! Amazing to see! Feels like a good omen!
The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer or MODIS instrument that flies aboard NASA's Terra satellite captured this image of Tropical Storm Karen on Oct. 4 at 16:20 UTC as it closed in on the Louisiana coast.
Credit: NASA Goddard MODIS Rapid Response Team
Bruce Sacerdote '90 moderates the Q&A session in which Joel Klein engaged with the audience after his lecture on education reform.
Watch the full video of Klein speaking at Dartmouth.
For more information on the public lecture series and course visit Dartmouth Now.
(photo: Joseph Mehling '69)
Although the necrosis that is usually encountered in sarcoid granulomas is usually minimal or small in amount occasional there may be more extensive necrosis as seen in this image.
Low-to moderate-income families will benefit from 24 much-needed new affordable rental homes in the Salt Spring community. Salt Spring Island Community Services is receiving $2.4 million from the Province's Building BC: Community Housing Fund to build the Salt Spring Commons, located at 176 Bishops Walk Rd. The project will include two- and three-bedroom units within eight triplex buildings.
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Indian TV anchor Shaili Chopra moderated on April 21, 2016 on Film - Sustaining the Film Industry in the Digital Environment at the WIPO Conference on the Digital Market, which met in Geneva from April 20 to 22, 2016.
At the Conference, public and private sector leaders as well as creators discuss the creative content economy, which has seen radical change to access and business models for more than a decade.
Copyright: WIPO. Photo: Emmanuel Berrod. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO License.
Recording polygons of moderate balsam woolly adelgid (AB-M) damage with Digital Aerial Sketch Mapping (DASM). Geolink software on an Xplore tablet PC. Mt. Fitzhenry, Olympic National Park, Washington.
Photo by: Justin Hof
Date: July 18, 2017
Credit: USDA Forest Service, Region 6, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection.
Source: Aerial Survey Program collection.
For the 2017 Washington Aerial Survey Storymap see: usfs.maps.arcgis.com/apps/MapJournal/index.html?appid=aa8...
For geospatial data collected during annual aerial forest insect and disease detection surveys see: www.fs.usda.gov/detail/r6/forest-grasslandhealth/insects-...
For related historical program documentation see:
archive.org/details/AerialForestInsectAndDiseaseDetection...
Johnson, J. 2016. Aerial forest insect and disease detection surveys in Oregon and Washington 1947-2016: The survey. Gen. Tech. Rep. R6-FHP-GTR-0302. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection. 280 p.
Image provided by USDA Forest Service, Region 6, State and Private Forestry, Forest Health Protection: www.fs.usda.gov/main/r6/forest-grasslandhealth
Fish, any of approximately 34,000 species of vertebrate animals (phylum Chordata) found in the fresh and salt waters of the world. Living species range from the primitive jawless lampreys and hagfishes through the cartilaginous sharks, skates, and rays to the abundant and diverse bony fishes. Most fish species are cold-blooded; however, one species, the opah (Lampris guttatus), is warm-blooded.
The term fish is applied to a variety of vertebrates of several evolutionary lines. It describes a life-form rather than a taxonomic group. As members of the phylum Chordata, fish share certain features with other vertebrates. These features are gill slits at some point in the life cycle, a notochord, or skeletal supporting rod, a dorsal hollow nerve cord, and a tail. Living fishes represent some five classes, which are as distinct from one another as are the four classes of familiar air-breathing animals—amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. For example, the jawless fishes (Agnatha) have gills in pouches and lack limb girdles. Extant agnathans are the lampreys and the hagfishes. As the name implies, the skeletons of fishes of the class Chondrichthyes (from chondr, “cartilage,” and ichthyes, “fish”) are made entirely of cartilage. Modern fish of this class lack a swim bladder, and their scales and teeth are made up of the same placoid material. Sharks, skates, and rays are examples of cartilaginous fishes. The bony fishes are by far the largest class. Examples range from the tiny seahorse to the 450-kg (1,000-pound) blue marlin, from the flattened soles and flounders to the boxy puffers and ocean sunfishes. Unlike the scales of the cartilaginous fishes, those of bony fishes, when present, grow throughout life and are made up of thin overlapping plates of bone. Bony fishes also have an operculum that covers the gill slits.
The study of fishes, the science of ichthyology, is of broad importance. Fishes are of interest to humans for many reasons, the most important being their relationship with and dependence on the environment. A more obvious reason for interest in fishes is their role as a moderate but important part of the world’s food supply. This resource, once thought unlimited, is now realized to be finite and in delicate balance with the biological, chemical, and physical factors of the aquatic environment. Overfishing, pollution, and alteration of the environment are the chief enemies of proper fisheries management, both in fresh waters and in the ocean. (For a detailed discussion of the technology and economics of fisheries, see commercial fishing.) Another practical reason for studying fishes is their use in disease control. As predators on mosquito larvae, they help curb malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases.
Fishes are valuable laboratory animals in many aspects of medical and biological research. For example, the readiness of many fishes to acclimate to captivity has allowed biologists to study behaviour, physiology, and even ecology under relatively natural conditions. Fishes have been especially important in the study of animal behaviour, where research on fishes has provided a broad base for the understanding of the more flexible behaviour of the higher vertebrates. The zebra fish is used as a model in studies of gene expression.
There are aesthetic and recreational reasons for an interest in fishes. Millions of people keep live fishes in home aquariums for the simple pleasure of observing the beauty and behaviour of animals otherwise unfamiliar to them. Aquarium fishes provide a personal challenge to many aquarists, allowing them to test their ability to keep a small section of the natural environment in their homes. Sportfishing is another way of enjoying the natural environment, also indulged in by millions of people every year. Interest in aquarium fishes and sportfishing supports multimillion-dollar industries throughout the world.
Fishes have been in existence for more than 450 million years, during which time they have evolved repeatedly to fit into almost every conceivable type of aquatic habitat. In a sense, land vertebrates are simply highly modified fishes: when fishes colonized the land habitat, they became tetrapod (four-legged) land vertebrates. The popular conception of a fish as a slippery, streamlined aquatic animal that possesses fins and breathes by gills applies to many fishes, but far more fishes deviate from that conception than conform to it. For example, the body is elongate in many forms and greatly shortened in others; the body is flattened in some (principally in bottom-dwelling fishes) and laterally compressed in many others; the fins may be elaborately extended, forming intricate shapes, or they may be reduced or even lost; and the positions of the mouth, eyes, nostrils, and gill openings vary widely. Air breathers have appeared in several evolutionary lines.
Many fishes are cryptically coloured and shaped, closely matching their respective environments; others are among the most brilliantly coloured of all organisms, with a wide range of hues, often of striking intensity, on a single individual. The brilliance of pigments may be enhanced by the surface structure of the fish, so that it almost seems to glow. A number of unrelated fishes have actual light-producing organs. Many fishes are able to alter their coloration—some for the purpose of camouflage, others for the enhancement of behavioral signals.
Fishes range in adult length from less than 10 mm (0.4 inch) to more than 20 metres (60 feet) and in weight from about 1.5 grams (less than 0.06 ounce) to many thousands of kilograms. Some live in shallow thermal springs at temperatures slightly above 42 °C (100 °F), others in cold Arctic seas a few degrees below 0 °C (32 °F) or in cold deep waters more than 4,000 metres (13,100 feet) beneath the ocean surface. The structural and, especially, the physiological adaptations for life at such extremes are relatively poorly known and provide the scientifically curious with great incentive for study.
Almost all natural bodies of water bear fish life, the exceptions being very hot thermal ponds and extremely salt-alkaline lakes, such as the Dead Sea in Asia and the Great Salt Lake in North America. The present distribution of fishes is a result of the geological history and development of Earth as well as the ability of fishes to undergo evolutionary change and to adapt to the available habitats. Fishes may be seen to be distributed according to habitat and according to geographical area. Major habitat differences are marine and freshwater. For the most part, the fishes in a marine habitat differ from those in a freshwater habitat, even in adjacent areas, but some, such as the salmon, migrate from one to the other. The freshwater habitats may be seen to be of many kinds. Fishes found in mountain torrents, Arctic lakes, tropical lakes, temperate streams, and tropical rivers will all differ from each other, both in obvious gross structure and in physiological attributes. Even in closely adjacent habitats where, for example, a tropical mountain torrent enters a lowland stream, the fish fauna will differ. The marine habitats can be divided into deep ocean floors (benthic), mid-water oceanic (bathypelagic), surface oceanic (pelagic), rocky coast, sandy coast, muddy shores, bays, estuaries, and others. Also, for example, rocky coastal shores in tropical and temperate regions will have different fish faunas, even when such habitats occur along the same coastline.
Although much is known about the present geographical distribution of fishes, far less is known about how that distribution came about. Many parts of the fish fauna of the fresh waters of North America and Eurasia are related and undoubtedly have a common origin. The faunas of Africa and South America are related, extremely old, and probably an expression of the drifting apart of the two continents. The fauna of southern Asia is related to that of Central Asia, and some of it appears to have entered Africa. The extremely large shore-fish faunas of the Indian and tropical Pacific oceans comprise a related complex, but the tropical shore fauna of the Atlantic, although containing Indo-Pacific components, is relatively limited and probably younger. The Arctic and Antarctic marine faunas are quite different from each other. The shore fauna of the North Pacific is quite distinct, and that of the North Atlantic more limited and probably younger. Pelagic oceanic fishes, especially those in deep waters, are similar the world over, showing little geographical isolation in terms of family groups. The deep oceanic habitat is very much the same throughout the world, but species differences do exist, showing geographical areas determined by oceanic currents and water masses.
All aspects of the life of a fish are closely correlated with adaptation to the total environment, physical, chemical, and biological. In studies, all the interdependent aspects of fish, such as behaviour, locomotion, reproduction, and physical and physiological characteristics, must be taken into account.
Correlated with their adaptation to an extremely wide variety of habitats is the extremely wide variety of life cycles that fishes display. The great majority hatch from relatively small eggs a few days to several weeks or more after the eggs are scattered in the water. Newly hatched young are still partially undeveloped and are called larvae until body structures such as fins, skeleton, and some organs are fully formed. Larval life is often very short, usually less than a few weeks, but it can be very long, some lampreys continuing as larvae for at least five years. Young and larval fishes, before reaching sexual maturity, must grow considerably, and their small size and other factors often dictate that they live in a habitat different than that of the adults. For example, most tropical marine shore fishes have pelagic larvae. Larval food also is different, and larval fishes often live in shallow waters, where they may be less exposed to predators.
After a fish reaches adult size, the length of its life is subject to many factors, such as innate rates of aging, predation pressure, and the nature of the local climate. The longevity of a species in the protected environment of an aquarium may have nothing to do with how long members of that species live in the wild. Many small fishes live only one to three years at the most. In some species, however, individuals may live as long as 10 or 20 or even 100 years.
Fish behaviour is a complicated and varied subject. As in almost all animals with a central nervous system, the nature of a response of an individual fish to stimuli from its environment depends upon the inherited characteristics of its nervous system, on what it has learned from past experience, and on the nature of the stimuli. Compared with the variety of human responses, however, that of a fish is stereotyped, not subject to much modification by “thought” or learning, and investigators must guard against anthropomorphic interpretations of fish behaviour.
Fishes perceive the world around them by the usual senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste and by special lateral line water-current detectors. In the few fishes that generate electric fields, a process that might best be called electrolocation aids in perception. One or another of these senses often is emphasized at the expense of others, depending upon the fish’s other adaptations. In fishes with large eyes, the sense of smell may be reduced; others, with small eyes, hunt and feed primarily by smell (such as some eels).
Specialized behaviour is primarily concerned with the three most important activities in the fish’s life: feeding, reproduction, and escape from enemies. Schooling behaviour of sardines on the high seas, for instance, is largely a protective device to avoid enemies, but it is also associated with and modified by their breeding and feeding requirements. Predatory fishes are often solitary, lying in wait to dart suddenly after their prey, a kind of locomotion impossible for beaked parrot fishes, which feed on coral, swimming in small groups from one coral head to the next. In addition, some predatory fishes that inhabit pelagic environments, such as tunas, often school.
Sleep in fishes, all of which lack true eyelids, consists of a seemingly listless state in which the fish maintains its balance but moves slowly. If attacked or disturbed, most can dart away. A few kinds of fishes lie on the bottom to sleep. Most catfishes, some loaches, and some eels and electric fishes are strictly nocturnal, being active and hunting for food during the night and retiring during the day to holes, thick vegetation, or other protective parts of the environment.
Communication between members of a species or between members of two or more species often is extremely important, especially in breeding behaviour (see below Reproduction). The mode of communication may be visual, as between the small so-called cleaner fish and a large fish of a very different species. The larger fish often allows the cleaner to enter its mouth to remove gill parasites. The cleaner is recognized by its distinctive colour and actions and therefore is not eaten, even if the larger fish is normally a predator. Communication is often chemical, signals being sent by specific chemicals called pheromones.
Many fishes have a streamlined body and swim freely in open water. Fish locomotion is closely correlated with habitat and ecological niche (the general position of the animal to its environment).
Many fishes in both marine and fresh waters swim at the surface and have mouths adapted to feed best (and sometimes only) at the surface. Often such fishes are long and slender, able to dart at surface insects or at other surface fishes and in turn to dart away from predators; needlefishes, halfbeaks, and topminnows (such as killifish and mosquito fish) are good examples. Oceanic flying fishes escape their predators by gathering speed above the water surface, with the lower lobe of the tail providing thrust in the water. They then glide hundreds of yards on enlarged, winglike pectoral and pelvic fins. South American freshwater flying fishes escape their enemies by jumping and propelling their strongly keeled bodies out of the water.
So-called mid-water swimmers, the most common type of fish, are of many kinds and live in many habitats. The powerful fusiform tunas and the trouts, for example, are adapted for strong, fast swimming, the tunas to capture prey speedily in the open ocean and the trouts to cope with the swift currents of streams and rivers. The trout body form is well adapted to many habitats. Fishes that live in relatively quiet waters such as bays or lake shores or slow rivers usually are not strong, fast swimmers but are capable of short, quick bursts of speed to escape a predator. Many of these fishes have their sides flattened, examples being the sunfish and the freshwater angelfish of aquarists. Fish associated with the bottom or substrate usually are slow swimmers. Open-water plankton-feeding fishes almost always remain fusiform and are capable of rapid, strong movement (for example, sardines and herrings of the open ocean and also many small minnows of streams and lakes).
Bottom-living fishes are of many kinds and have undergone many types of modification of their body shape and swimming habits. Rays, which evolved from strong-swimming mid-water sharks, usually stay close to the bottom and move by undulating their large pectoral fins. Flounders live in a similar habitat and move over the bottom by undulating the entire body. Many bottom fishes dart from place to place, resting on the bottom between movements, a motion common in gobies. One goby relative, the mudskipper, has taken to living at the edge of pools along the shore of muddy mangrove swamps. It escapes its enemies by flipping rapidly over the mud, out of the water. Some catfishes, synbranchid eels, the so-called climbing perch, and a few other fishes venture out over damp ground to find more promising waters than those that they left. They move by wriggling their bodies, sometimes using strong pectoral fins; most have accessory air-breathing organs. Many bottom-dwelling fishes live in mud holes or rocky crevices. Marine eels and gobies commonly are found in such habitats and for the most part venture far beyond their cavelike homes. Some bottom dwellers, such as the clingfishes (Gobiesocidae), have developed powerful adhesive disks that enable them to remain in place on the substrate in areas such as rocky coasts, where the action of the waves is great.
The methods of reproduction in fishes are varied, but most fishes lay a large number of small eggs, fertilized and scattered outside of the body. The eggs of pelagic fishes usually remain suspended in the open water. Many shore and freshwater fishes lay eggs on the bottom or among plants. Some have adhesive eggs. The mortality of the young and especially of the eggs is very high, and often only a few individuals grow to maturity out of hundreds, thousands, and in some cases millions of eggs laid.
Males produce sperm, usually as a milky white substance called milt, in two (sometimes one) testes within the body cavity. In bony fishes a sperm duct leads from each testis to a urogenital opening behind the vent or anus. In sharks and rays and in cyclostomes the duct leads to a cloaca. Sometimes the pelvic fins are modified to help transmit the milt to the eggs at the female’s vent or on the substrate where the female has placed them. Sometimes accessory organs are used to fertilize females internally—for example, the claspers of many sharks and rays.
In the females the eggs are formed in two ovaries (sometimes only one) and pass through the ovaries to the urogenital opening and to the outside. In some fishes the eggs are fertilized internally but are shed before development takes place. Members of about a dozen families each of bony fishes (teleosts) and sharks bear live young. Many skates and rays also bear live young. In some bony fishes the eggs simply develop within the female, the young emerging when the eggs hatch (ovoviviparous). Others develop within the ovary and are nourished by ovarian tissues after hatching (viviparous). There are also other methods utilized by fishes to nourish young within the female. In all live-bearers the young are born at a relatively large size and are few in number. In one family of primarily marine fishes, the surfperches from the Pacific coast of North America, Japan, and Korea, the males of at least one species are born sexually mature, although they are not fully grown.
Some fishes are hermaphroditic—an individual producing both sperm and eggs, usually at different stages of its life. Self-fertilization, however, is probably rare.
Successful reproduction and, in many cases, defense of the eggs and the young are assured by rather stereotypical but often elaborate courtship and parental behaviour, either by the male or the female or both. Some fishes prepare nests by hollowing out depressions in the sand bottom (cichlids, for example), build nests with plant materials and sticky threads excreted by the kidneys (sticklebacks), or blow a cluster of mucus-covered bubbles at the water surface (gouramis). The eggs are laid in these structures. Some varieties of cichlids and catfishes incubate eggs in their mouths.
Some fishes, such as salmon, undergo long migrations from the ocean and up large rivers to spawn in the gravel beds where they themselves hatched (anadromous fishes). Some, such as the freshwater eels (family Anguillidae), live and grow to maturity in fresh water and migrate to the sea to spawn (catadromous fishes). Other fishes undertake shorter migrations from lakes into streams, within the ocean, or enter spawning habitats that they do not ordinarily occupy in other ways.
The basic structure and function of the fish body are similar to those of all other vertebrates. The usual four types of tissues are present: surface or epithelial, connective (bone, cartilage, and fibrous tissues, as well as their derivative, blood), nerve, and muscle tissues. In addition, the fish’s organs and organ systems parallel those of other vertebrates.
The typical fish body is streamlined and spindle-shaped, with an anterior head, a gill apparatus, and a heart, the latter lying in the midline just below the gill chamber. The body cavity, containing the vital organs, is situated behind the head in the lower anterior part of the body. The anus usually marks the posterior termination of the body cavity and most often occurs just in front of the base of the anal fin. The spinal cord and vertebral column continue from the posterior part of the head to the base of the tail fin, passing dorsal to the body cavity and through the caudal (tail) region behind the body cavity. Most of the body is of muscular tissue, a high proportion of which is necessitated by swimming. In the course of evolution this basic body plan has been modified repeatedly into the many varieties of fish shapes that exist today.
The skeleton forms an integral part of the fish’s locomotion system, as well as serving to protect vital parts. The internal skeleton consists of the skull bones (except for the roofing bones of the head, which are really part of the external skeleton), the vertebral column, and the fin supports (fin rays). The fin supports are derived from the external skeleton but will be treated here because of their close functional relationship to the internal skeleton. The internal skeleton of cyclostomes, sharks, and rays is of cartilage; that of many fossil groups and some primitive living fishes is mostly of cartilage but may include some bone. In place of the vertebral column, the earliest vertebrates had a fully developed notochord, a flexible stiff rod of viscous cells surrounded by a strong fibrous sheath. During the evolution of modern fishes the rod was replaced in part by cartilage and then by ossified cartilage. Sharks and rays retain a cartilaginous vertebral column; bony fishes have spool-shaped vertebrae that in the more primitive living forms only partially replace the notochord. The skull, including the gill arches and jaws of bony fishes, is fully, or at least partially, ossified. That of sharks and rays remains cartilaginous, at times partially replaced by calcium deposits but never by true bone.
The supportive elements of the fins (basal or radial bones or both) have changed greatly during fish evolution. Some of these changes are described in the section below (Evolution and paleontology). Most fishes possess a single dorsal fin on the midline of the back. Many have two and a few have three dorsal fins. The other fins are the single tail and anal fins and paired pelvic and pectoral fins. A small fin, the adipose fin, with hairlike fin rays, occurs in many of the relatively primitive teleosts (such as trout) on the back near the base of the caudal fin.
The skin of a fish must serve many functions. It aids in maintaining the osmotic balance, provides physical protection for the body, is the site of coloration, contains sensory receptors, and, in some fishes, functions in respiration. Mucous glands, which aid in maintaining the water balance and offer protection from bacteria, are extremely numerous in fish skin, especially in cyclostomes and teleosts. Since mucous glands are present in the modern lampreys, it is reasonable to assume that they were present in primitive fishes, such as the ancient Silurian and Devonian agnathans. Protection from abrasion and predation is another function of the fish skin, and dermal (skin) bone arose early in fish evolution in response to this need. It is thought that bone first evolved in skin and only later invaded the cartilaginous areas of the fish’s body, to provide additional support and protection. There is some argument as to which came first, cartilage or bone, and fossil evidence does not settle the question. In any event, dermal bone has played an important part in fish evolution and has different characteristics in different groups of fishes. Several groups are characterized at least in part by the kind of bony scales they possess.
Scales have played an important part in the evolution of fishes. Primitive fishes usually had thick bony plates or thick scales in several layers of bone, enamel, and related substances. Modern teleost fishes have scales of bone, which, while still protective, allow much more freedom of motion in the body. A few modern teleosts (some catfishes, sticklebacks, and others) have secondarily acquired bony plates in the skin. Modern and early sharks possessed placoid scales, a relatively primitive type of scale with a toothlike structure, consisting of an outside layer of enamel-like substance (vitrodentine), an inner layer of dentine, and a pulp cavity containing nerves and blood vessels. Primitive bony fishes had thick scales of either the ganoid or the cosmoid type. Cosmoid scales have a hard, enamel-like outer layer, an inner layer of cosmine (a form of dentine), and then a layer of vascular bone (isopedine). In ganoid scales the hard outer layer is different chemically and is called ganoin. Under this is a cosminelike layer and then a vascular bony layer. The thin, translucent bony scales of modern fishes, called cycloid and ctenoid (the latter distinguished by serrations at the edges), lack enameloid and dentine layers.
Skin has several other functions in fishes. It is well supplied with nerve endings and presumably receives tactile, thermal, and pain stimuli. Skin is also well supplied with blood vessels. Some fishes breathe in part through the skin, by the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the surrounding water and numerous small blood vessels near the skin surface.
Skin serves as protection through the control of coloration. Fishes exhibit an almost limitless range of colours. The colours often blend closely with the surroundings, effectively hiding the animal. Many fishes use bright colours for territorial advertisement or as recognition marks for other members of their own species, or sometimes for members of other species. Many fishes can change their colour to a greater or lesser degree, by movement of pigment within the pigment cells (chromatophores). Black pigment cells (melanophores), of almost universal occurrence in fishes, are often juxtaposed with other pigment cells. When placed beneath iridocytes or leucophores (bearing the silvery or white pigment guanine), melanophores produce structural colours of blue and green. These colours are often extremely intense, because they are formed by refraction of light through the needlelike crystals of guanine. The blue and green refracted colours are often relatively pure, lacking the red and yellow rays, which have been absorbed by the black pigment (melanin) of the melanophores. Yellow, orange, and red colours are produced by erythrophores, cells containing the appropriate carotenoid pigments. Other colours are produced by combinations of melanophores, erythrophores, and iridocytes.
The major portion of the body of most fishes consists of muscles. Most of the mass is trunk musculature, the fin muscles usually being relatively small. The caudal fin is usually the most powerful fin, being moved by the trunk musculature. The body musculature is usually arranged in rows of chevron-shaped segments on each side. Contractions of these segments, each attached to adjacent vertebrae and vertebral processes, bends the body on the vertebral joint, producing successive undulations of the body, passing from the head to the tail, and producing driving strokes of the tail. It is the latter that provides the strong forward movement for most fishes.
The digestive system, in a functional sense, starts at the mouth, with the teeth used to capture prey or collect plant foods. Mouth shape and tooth structure vary greatly in fishes, depending on the kind of food normally eaten. Most fishes are predacious, feeding on small invertebrates or other fishes and have simple conical teeth on the jaws, on at least some of the bones of the roof of the mouth, and on special gill arch structures just in front of the esophagus. The latter are throat teeth. Most predacious fishes swallow their prey whole, and the teeth are used for grasping and holding prey, for orienting prey to be swallowed (head first) and for working the prey toward the esophagus. There are a variety of tooth types in fishes. Some fishes, such as sharks and piranhas, have cutting teeth for biting chunks out of their victims. A shark’s tooth, although superficially like that of a piranha, appears in many respects to be a modified scale, while that of the piranha is like that of other bony fishes, consisting of dentine and enamel. Parrot fishes have beaklike mouths with short incisor-like teeth for breaking off coral and have heavy pavementlike throat teeth for crushing the coral. Some catfishes have small brushlike teeth, arranged in rows on the jaws, for scraping plant and animal growth from rocks. Many fishes (such as the Cyprinidae or minnows) have no jaw teeth at all but have very strong throat teeth.
Some fishes gather planktonic food by straining it from their gill cavities with numerous elongate stiff rods (gill rakers) anchored by one end to the gill bars. The food collected on these rods is passed to the throat, where it is swallowed. Most fishes have only short gill rakers that help keep food particles from escaping out the mouth cavity into the gill chamber.
Once reaching the throat, food enters a short, often greatly distensible esophagus, a simple tube with a muscular wall leading into a stomach. The stomach varies greatly in fishes, depending upon the diet. In most predacious fishes it is a simple straight or curved tube or pouch with a muscular wall and a glandular lining. Food is largely digested there and leaves the stomach in liquid form.
Between the stomach and the intestine, ducts enter the digestive tube from the liver and pancreas. The liver is a large, clearly defined organ. The pancreas may be embedded in it, diffused through it, or broken into small parts spread along some of the intestine. The junction between the stomach and the intestine is marked by a muscular valve. Pyloric ceca (blind sacs) occur in some fishes at this junction and have a digestive or absorptive function or both.
The intestine itself is quite variable in length, depending upon the fish’s diet. It is short in predacious forms, sometimes no longer than the body cavity, but long in herbivorous forms, being coiled and several times longer than the entire length of the fish in some species of South American catfishes. The intestine is primarily an organ for absorbing nutrients into the bloodstream. The larger its internal surface, the greater its absorptive efficiency, and a spiral valve is one method of increasing its absorption surface.
Sharks, rays, chimaeras, lungfishes, surviving chondrosteans, holosteans, and even a few of the more primitive teleosts have a spiral valve or at least traces of it in the intestine. Most modern teleosts have increased the area of the intestinal walls by having numerous folds and villi (fingerlike projections) somewhat like those in humans. Undigested substances are passed to the exterior through the anus in most teleost fishes. In lungfishes, sharks, and rays, it is first passed through the cloaca, a common cavity receiving the intestinal opening and the ducts from the urogenital system.
Oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolve in water, and most fishes exchange dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide in water by means of the gills. The gills lie behind and to the side of the mouth cavity and consist of fleshy filaments supported by the gill arches and filled with blood vessels, which give gills a bright red colour. Water taken in continuously through the mouth passes backward between the gill bars and over the gill filaments, where the exchange of gases takes place. The gills are protected by a gill cover in teleosts and many other fishes but by flaps of skin in sharks, rays, and some of the older fossil fish groups. The blood capillaries in the gill filaments are close to the gill surface to take up oxygen from the water and to give up excess carbon dioxide to the water.
Most modern fishes have a hydrostatic (ballast) organ, called the swim bladder, that lies in the body cavity just below the kidney and above the stomach and intestine. It originated as a diverticulum of the digestive canal. In advanced teleosts, especially the acanthopterygians, the bladder has lost its connection with the digestive tract, a condition called physoclistic. The connection has been retained (physostomous) by many relatively primitive teleosts. In several unrelated lines of fishes, the bladder has become specialized as a lung or, at least, as a highly vascularized accessory breathing organ. Some fishes with such accessory organs are obligate air breathers and will drown if denied access to the surface, even in well-oxygenated water. Fishes with a hydrostatic form of swim bladder can control their depth by regulating the amount of gas in the bladder. The gas, mostly oxygen, is secreted into the bladder by special glands, rendering the fish more buoyant; the gas is absorbed into the bloodstream by another special organ, reducing the overall buoyancy and allowing the fish to sink. Some deep-sea fishes may have oils, rather than gas, in the bladder. Other deep-sea and some bottom-living forms have much-reduced swim bladders or have lost the organ entirely.
The swim bladder of fishes follows the same developmental pattern as the lungs of land vertebrates. There is no doubt that the two structures have the same historical origin in primitive fishes. More or less intermediate forms still survive among the more primitive types of fishes, such as the lungfishes Lepidosiren and Protopterus.
The circulatory, or blood vascular, system consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries, and the veins. It is in the capillaries that the interchange of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and other substances such as hormones and waste products takes place. The capillaries lead to the veins, which return the venous blood with its waste products to the heart, kidneys, and gills. There are two kinds of capillary beds: those in the gills and those in the rest of the body. The heart, a folded continuous muscular tube with three or four saclike enlargements, undergoes rhythmic contractions and receives venous blood in a sinus venosus. It passes the blood to an auricle and then into a thick muscular pump, the ventricle. From the ventricle the blood goes to a bulbous structure at the base of a ventral aorta just below the gills. The blood passes to the afferent (receiving) arteries of the gill arches and then to the gill capillaries. There waste gases are given off to the environment, and oxygen is absorbed. The oxygenated blood enters efferent (exuant) arteries of the gill arches and then flows into the dorsal aorta. From there blood is distributed to the tissues and organs of the body. One-way valves prevent backflow. The circulation of fishes thus differs from that of the reptiles, birds, and mammals in that oxygenated blood is not returned to the heart prior to distribution to the other parts of the body.
The primary excretory organ in fishes, as in other vertebrates, is the kidney. In fishes some excretion also takes place in the digestive tract, skin, and especially the gills (where ammonia is given off). Compared with land vertebrates, fishes have a special problem in maintaining their internal environment at a constant concentration of water and dissolved substances, such as salts. Proper balance of the internal environment (homeostasis) of a fish is in a great part maintained by the excretory system, especially the kidney.
The kidney, gills, and skin play an important role in maintaining a fish’s internal environment and checking the effects of osmosis. Marine fishes live in an environment in which the water around them has a greater concentration of salts than they can have inside their body and still maintain life. Freshwater fishes, on the other hand, live in water with a much lower concentration of salts than they require inside their bodies. Osmosis tends to promote the loss of water from the body of a marine fish and absorption of water by that of a freshwater fish. Mucus in the skin tends to slow the process but is not a sufficient barrier to prevent the movement of fluids through the permeable skin. When solutions on two sides of a permeable membrane have different concentrations of dissolved substances, water will pass through the membrane into the more concentrated solution, while the dissolved chemicals move into the area of lower concentration (diffusion).
The kidney of freshwater fishes is often larger in relation to body weight than that of marine fishes. In both groups the kidney excretes wastes from the body, but the kidney of freshwater fishes also excretes large amounts of water, counteracting the water absorbed through the skin. Freshwater fishes tend to lose salt to the environment and must replace it. They get some salt from their food, but the gills and skin inside the mouth actively absorb salt from water passed through the mouth. This absorption is performed by special cells capable of moving salts against the diffusion gradient. Freshwater fishes drink very little water and take in little water with their food.
Marine fishes must conserve water, and therefore their kidneys excrete little water. To maintain their water balance, marine fishes drink large quantities of seawater, retaining most of the water and excreting the salt. Most nitrogenous waste in marine fishes appears to be secreted by the gills as ammonia. Marine fishes can excrete salt by clusters of special cells (chloride cells) in the gills.
There are several teleosts—for example, the salmon—that travel between fresh water and seawater and must adjust to the reversal of osmotic gradients. They adjust their physiological processes by spending time (often surprisingly little time) in the intermediate brackish environment.
Marine hagfishes, sharks, and rays have osmotic concentrations in their blood about equal to that of seawater and so do not have to drink water nor perform much physiological work to maintain their osmotic balance. In sharks and rays the osmotic concentration is kept high by retention of urea in the blood. Freshwater sharks have a lowered concentration of urea in the blood.
Endocrine glands secrete their products into the bloodstream and body tissues and, along with the central nervous system, control and regulate many kinds of body functions. Cyclostomes have a well-developed endocrine system, and presumably it was well developed in the early Agnatha, ancestral to modern fishes. Although the endocrine system in fishes is similar to that of higher vertebrates, there are numerous differences in detail. The pituitary, the thyroid, the suprarenals, the adrenals, the pancreatic islets, the sex glands (ovaries and testes), the inner wall of the intestine, and the bodies of the ultimobranchial gland make up the endocrine system in fishes. There are some others whose function is not well understood. These organs regulate sexual activity and reproduction, growth, osmotic pressure, general metabolic activities such as the storage of fat and the utilization of foodstuffs, blood pressure, and certain aspects of skin colour. Many of these activities are also controlled in part by the central nervous system, which works with the endocrine system in maintaining the life of a fish. Some parts of the endocrine system are developmentally, and undoubtedly evolutionarily, derived from the nervous system.
As in all vertebrates, the nervous system of fishes is the primary mechanism coordinating body activities, as well as integrating these activities in the appropriate manner with stimuli from the environment. The central nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, is the primary integrating mechanism. The peripheral nervous system, consisting of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to various body organs, carries sensory information from special receptor organs such as the eyes, internal ears, nares (sense of smell), taste glands, and others to the integrating centres of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system also carries information via different nerve cells from the integrating centres of the brain and spinal cord. This coded information is carried to the various organs and body systems, such as the skeletal muscular system, for appropriate action in response to the original external or internal stimulus. Another branch of the nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, helps to coordinate the activities of many glands and organs and is itself closely connected to the integrating centres of the brain.
The brain of the fish is divided into several anatomical and functional parts, all closely interconnected but each serving as the primary centre of integrating particular kinds of responses and activities. Several of these centres or parts are primarily associated with one type of sensory perception, such as sight, hearing, or smell (olfaction).
The sense of smell is important in almost all fishes. Certain eels with tiny eyes depend mostly on smell for location of food. The olfactory, or nasal, organ of fishes is located on the dorsal surface of the snout. The lining of the nasal organ has special sensory cells that perceive chemicals dissolved in the water, such as substances from food material, and send sensory information to the brain by way of the first cranial nerve. Odour also serves as an alarm system. Many fishes, especially various species of freshwater minnows, react with alarm to a chemical released from the skin of an injured member of their own species.
Many fishes have a well-developed sense of taste, and tiny pitlike taste buds or organs are located not only within their mouth cavities but also over their heads and parts of their body. Catfishes, which often have poor vision, have barbels (“whiskers”) that serve as supplementary taste organs, those around the mouth being actively used to search out food on the bottom. Some species of naturally blind cave fishes are especially well supplied with taste buds, which often cover most of their body surface.
Sight is extremely important in most fishes. The eye of a fish is basically like that of all other vertebrates, but the eyes of fishes are extremely varied in structure and adaptation. In general, fishes living in dark and dim water habitats have large eyes, unless they have specialized in some compensatory way so that another sense (such as smell) is dominant, in which case the eyes will often be reduced. Fishes living in brightly lighted shallow waters often will have relatively small but efficient eyes. Cyclostomes have somewhat less elaborate eyes than other fishes, with skin stretched over the eyeball perhaps making their vision somewhat less effective. Most fishes have a spherical lens and accommodate their vision to far or near subjects by moving the lens within the eyeball. A few sharks accommodate by changing the shape of the lens, as in land vertebrates. Those fishes that are heavily dependent upon the eyes have especially strong muscles for accommodation. Most fishes see well, despite the restrictions imposed by frequent turbidity of the water and by light refraction.
Fossil evidence suggests that colour vision evolved in fishes more than 300 million years ago, but not all living fishes have retained this ability. Experimental evidence indicates that many shallow-water fishes, if not all, have colour vision and see some colours especially well, but some bottom-dwelling shore fishes live in areas where the water is sufficiently deep to filter out most if not all colours, and these fishes apparently never see colours. When tested in shallow water, they apparently are unable to respond to colour differences.
Sound perception and balance are intimately associated senses in a fish. The organs of hearing are entirely internal, located within the skull, on each side of the brain and somewhat behind the eyes. Sound waves, especially those of low frequencies, travel readily through water and impinge directly upon the bones and fluids of the head and body, to be transmitted to the hearing organs. Fishes readily respond to sound; for example, a trout conditioned to escape by the approach of fishermen will take flight upon perceiving footsteps on a stream bank even if it cannot see a fisherman. Compared with humans, however, the range of sound frequencies heard by fishes is greatly restricted. Many fishes communicate with each other by producing sounds in their swim bladders, in their throats by rasping their teeth, and in other ways.
A fish or other vertebrate seldom has to rely on a single type of sensory information to determine the nature of the environment around it. A catfish uses taste and touch when examining a food object with its oral barbels. Like most other animals, fishes have many touch receptors over their body surface. Pain and temperature receptors also are present in fishes and presumably produce the same kind of information to a fish as to humans. Fishes react in a negative fashion to stimuli that would be painful to human beings, suggesting that they feel a sensation of pain.
An important sensory system in fishes that is absent in other vertebrates (except some amphibians) is the lateral line system. This consists of a series of heavily innervated small canals located in the skin and bone around the eyes, along the lower jaw, over the head, and down the mid-side of the body, where it is associated with the scales. Intermittently along these canals are located tiny sensory organs (pit organs) that apparently detect changes in pressure. The system allows a fish to sense changes in water currents and pressure, thereby helping the fish to orient itself to the various changes that occur in the physical environment.
Although a great many fossil fishes have been found and described, they represent a tiny portion of the long and complex evolution of fishes, and knowledge of fish evolution remains relatively fragmentary. In the classification presented in this article, fishlike vertebrates are divided into seven categories, the members of each having a different basic structural organization and different physical and physiological adaptations for the problems presented by the environment. The broad basic pattern has been one of successive replacement of older groups by newer, better-adapted groups. One or a few members of a group evolved a basically more efficient means of feeding, breathing, or swimming or several better ways of living. These better-adapted groups then forced the extinction of members of the older group with which they competed for available food, breeding places, or other necessities of life. As the new fishes became well established, some of them evolved further and adapted to other habitats, where they continued to replace members of the old group already there. The process was repeated until all or almost all members of the old group in a variety of habitats had been replaced by members of the newer evolutionary line.
The earliest vertebrate fossils of certain relationships are fragments of dermal armour of jawless fishes (superclass Agnatha, order Heterostraci) from the Upper Ordovician Period in North America, about 450 million years in age. Early Ordovician toothlike fragments from the former Soviet Union are less certainly remains of agnathans. It is uncertain whether the North American jawless fishes inhabited shallow coastal marine waters, where their remains became fossilized, or were freshwater vertebrates washed into coastal deposits by stream action.
Jawless fishes probably arose from ancient, small, soft-bodied filter-feeding organisms much like and probably also ancestral to the modern sand-dwelling filter feeders, the Cephalochordata (Amphioxus and its relatives). The body in the ancestral animals was probably stiffened by a notochord. Although a vertebrate origin in fresh water is much debated by paleontologists, it is possible that mobility of the body and protection provided by dermal armour arose in response to streamflow in the freshwater environment and to the need to escape from and resist the clawed invertebrate eurypterids that lived in the same waters. Because of the marine distribution of the surviving primitive chordates, however, many paleontologists doubt that the vertebrates arose in fresh water.
Heterostracan remains are next found in what appear to be delta deposits in two North American localities of Silurian age. By the close of the Silurian, about 416 million years ago, European heterostracan remains are found in what appear to be delta or coastal deposits. In the Late Silurian of the Baltic area, lagoon or freshwater deposits yield jawless fishes of the order Osteostraci. Somewhat later in the Silurian from the same region, layers contain fragments of jawed acanthodians, the earliest group of jawed vertebrates, and of jawless fishes. These layers lie between marine beds but appear to be washed out from fresh waters of a coastal region.
It is evident, therefore, that by the end of the Silurian both jawed and jawless vertebrates were well established and already must have had a long history of development. Yet paleontologists have remains only of specialized forms that cannot have been the ancestors of the placoderms and bony fishes that appear in the next period, the Devonian. No fossils are known of the more primitive ancestors of the agnathans and acanthodians. The extensive marine beds of the Silurian and those of the Ordovician are essentially void of vertebrate history. It is believed that the ancestors of fishlike vertebrates evolved in upland fresh waters, where whatever few and relatively small fossil beds were made probably have been long since eroded away. Remains of the earliest vertebrates may never be found.
By the close of the Silurian, all known orders of jawless vertebrates had evolved, except perhaps the modern cyclostomes, which are without the hard parts that ordinarily are preserved as fossils. Cyclostomes were unknown as fossils until 1968, when a lamprey of modern body structure was reported from the Middle Pennsylvanian of Illinois, in deposits more than 300 million years old. Fossil evidence of the four orders of armoured jawless vertebrates is absent from deposits later than the Devonian. Presumably, these vertebrates became extinct at that time, being replaced by the more efficient and probably more aggressive placoderms, acanthodians, selachians (sharks and relatives), and by early bony fishes. Cyclostomes survived probably because early on they evolved from anaspid agnathans and developed a rasping tonguelike structure and a sucking mouth, enabling them to prey on other fishes. With this way of life they apparently had no competition from other fish groups. Cyclostomes, the hagfishes and lampreys, were once thought to be closely related because of the similarity in their suctorial mouths, but it is now understood that the hagfishes, order Myxiniformes, are the most primitive living chordates, and they are classified separately from the lampreys, order Petromyzontiformes.
Early jawless vertebrates probably fed on tiny organisms by filter feeding, as do the larvae of their descendants, the modern lampreys. The gill cavity of the early agnathans was large. It is thought that small organisms taken from the bottom by a nibbling action of the mouth, or more certainly by a sucking action through the mouth, were passed into the gill cavity along with water for breathing. Small organisms then were strained out by the gill apparatus and directed to the food canal. The gill apparatus thus evolved as a feeding, as well as a breathing, structure. The head and gills in the agnathans were protected by a heavy dermal armour; the tail region was free, allowing motion for swimming.
Most important for the evolution of fishes and vertebrates in general was the early appearance of bone, cartilage, and enamel-like substance. These materials became modified in later fishes, enabling them to adapt to many aquatic environments and finally even to land. Other basic organs and tissues of the vertebrates—such as the central nervous system, heart, liver, digestive tract, kidney, and circulatory system— undoubtedly were present in the ancestors of the agnathans. In many ways, bone, both external and internal, was the key to vertebrate evolution.
The next class of fishes to appear was the Acanthodii, containing the earliest known jawed vertebrates, which arose in the Late Silurian, more than 416 million years ago. The acanthodians declined after the Devonian but lasted into the Early Permian, a little less than 280 million years ago. The first complete specimens appear in Lower Devonian freshwater deposits, but later in the Devonian and Permian some members appear to have been marine. Most were small fishes, not more than 75 cm (approximately 30 inches) in length.
We know nothing of the ancestors of the acanthodians. They must have arisen from some jawless vertebrate, probably in fresh water. They appear to have been active swimmers with almost no head armour but with large eyes, indicating that they depended heavily on vision. Perhaps they preyed on invertebrates. The rows of spines and spinelike fins between the pectoral and pelvic fins give some credence to the idea that paired fins arose from “fin folds” along the body sides.
The relationships of the acanthodians to other jawed vertebrates are obscure. They possess features found in both sharks and bony fishes. They are like early bony fishes in possessing ganoidlike scales and a partially ossified internal skeleton. Certain aspects of the jaw appear to be more like those of bony fishes than sharks, but the bony fin spines and certain aspects of the gill apparatus would seem to favour relationships with early sharks. Acanthodians do not seem particularly close to the Placodermi, although, like the placoderms, they apparently possessed less efficient tooth replacement and tooth structure than the sharks and the bony fishes, possibly one reason for their subsequent extinction.