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Shared slab - multiple notonectid water bugs; red arrow indicates 90017; scale bar: 5 mm with 0.1 mm div.
Portugal 03-10-2019
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Papilionidae
Genus: Papilio
Species: P. machaon
Binomial name
Papilio machaon
Linnaeus, 1758
Introduction
Back in the 18th century when Linnaeus created the System Naturae, the word Papilio was used as the genus name for every known species of butterfly in the world. Since then much has been learnt about the relationships between different species. Consequently most have been reassigned to new genera, and only about 215 of the 17600 currently known species are retained in Papilio.
Papilio machaon is widespread and common throughout much of the northern hemisphere. It occurs over the whole of continental Europe, eastward across temperate Asia to Japan; in Africa north of the Sahara; and throughout much of North America. In Britain it is locally common on the Norfolk Broads, an area of fenland and lakes in eastern England.
Individuals originating from France occasionally migrate across the English Channel and have been periodically recorded in Hampshire, Dorset, Sussex and the Isle of Wight, but such sightings are very rare - perhaps one or two sightings per year. Genuine migrants can usually be recognised by their faded and worn appearance. Fresh looking insects seen anywhere apart from Norfolk can be attributed to escaped or deliberately released livestock - both the British subspecies brittanicus and the continental gorganus are commonly reared by hobbyists. ( it is illegal to capture or breed stock of British origin, but nevertheless a widespread practice ).
There are no similar species occurring in Britain. On the Mediterranean islands of Corsica and Sardinia machaon shares it's habitat with Papilio hospiton, which is similarly marked but has much shorter tails on the hindwings. In Algeria the distribution of machaon overlaps that of the Saharan Swallowtail Papilio saharae, which is identical in appearance except for the antennae, which have 30 segments in saharae, and 33-36 segments in machaon.
Lifecycle
The butterfly is bivoltine on the continent, emerging in May and August, but in Britain the second brood is either partial or non-existent.
In the Norfolk fens where the butterflies emerge in late May, they lay their large brown globular eggs singly on the fine leaves of milk parsley Peucidanum palustre. The eggs are nearly always laid on the upper foliage of tall plants which project above the surrounding reedbeds. They hatch after about a week.
The young caterpillar is black, marked with a band of white. It looks remarkably like a small bird-dropping as it rests openly on the leaves. According to Thomas the camouflage is not effective against spiders, which may predate up to 65% of 1st instar larvae. When fully grown in July, the caterpillar is a most magnificent creature - bright green, marked with narrow black bands and orange spots. Behind it's head is an eversible fleshy pink forked structure called an osmaterium, which is raised if the larva is irritated. This structure emits pungent chemicals, capable of deterring ants, wasps, and flies, but does not deter birds - reed buntings, sedge warblers and bearded tits between them devouring at least 50% of mature larvae.
The chrysalis occurs in 2 colour forms, being either plain green, or light brown with a dark lateral stripe. It is attached vertically by a thin silken girdle and by the cremaster, usually low down on the stem of a reed, where it hibernates until the following May.
Adult behaviour
The butterfly has a characteristic powerful gliding flight, and is capable of covering large distances. In France and Spain for example I have often observed males indulging in "hill-topping", i.e. flying to congregate at the top of hills, where they compete for the attention of passing females. In Britain the butterfly breeds only on the flat terrain of Norfolk, and probably only covers short distances, although it can be seen crossing open expanses of water on the Broads.
On warm sunny days, male Swallowtails patrol back and forth along a regular route in search of females. Often both sexes home in on a particular clump of bushes where courtship and copulation take place. The pair often remain joined for 2 or 3 hours before the female departs to oviposit.
In the morning, and again in late afternoon both sexes can be seen flying freely about their habitat, pausing regularly to nectar at the pink flowers of angelica, knapweeds, marsh thistles, red campion, ragged robin and valerian. When nectaring they keep their wings constantly fluttering to prevent the weight of their bodies from dragging down on the fragile flowers. This fluttering behaviour is typical of all Papilioninae, wherever they occur in the world. In Norfolk the butterflies also often nectar at the spectacular bright yellow flowers of yellow iris.
In cool but sunny weather, or during periods of hazy sunshine, Swallowtails can sometimes be seen basking amongst dry grasses. During overcast weather they roost hanging from reed stems, and probably also amongst the foliage of sallow and alder bushes, and other fenland vegetation.
In the French Alps and the Pyrenees the butterflies commonly indulge in mud-puddling - siphoning mineral-rich moisture from damp mud and cattle dung, but I have not observed this behaviour in Britain.
Insecta: Lepidoptera
Thyrididae, Siculodinae
Herdonia hainanensis
Chuk Yeung Road, Shan Liu, Sai Kung, Hong Kong
Loepa mirandula Yen, Naessig, Naumann & Brechlin, 2000
昆蟲綱 Class Insecta
鱗翅目 Order Lepidoptera
天蠶蛾科 Family Saturniidae
黃豹天蠶蛾屬 Genus Loepa
Insecta: Lepidoptera
Erebidae, Pangraptinae
Episparis liturata
daytime observation, at rest under a leaf
Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden,
Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong
First observation of this species in Hong Kong - yet another tropical moth species shifting its distribution?
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pieridae
Tribe: Pierini
Genus: Pieris
Species: P. brassicae
Binomial name
Pieris brassicae
Habitat: The "Cabbage White" is widespread but especially seen where there are crucifers and brassica crops.
There are two broods annually.
Flight time: From April to June
From July to September
Larval Food Plants: Brassicas and Crucifers
Hibernation: Overwinters as a pupa.
The tip of the forewings are black and the apex greyish in the spring brood. The hindwings have a single black mark on their upper margins. The female differs from the male by having two black spots in the middle of each forewing and a black bar along its lower margin, and its hindwings are more yellow than the male. These markings are more conspicuous in the summer brood with black replacing grey at the wing tips.
It may be less plentiful than formerly due to a reduction in domestic vegetable growing and the use of pesticides. Numbers are augmented by immigration.
Life Cycle of the Large White
Ovum:
The eggs are laid in neat groups of about 40 on the upper or more usually the underside of the food plant.
They are tall and cylindrical/skittle shaped measuring c.1.44 mm high.
Initially pale yellow in colour, changing to dark orange. Hatching takes place in 1-2 weeks depending on the
temperature.
Larva:
The fully grown larva is c.45mm long with mottled dark green, black and yellow markings.
It has broad dorsal and lateral yellow stripes, orange spiracles and short white setae.
The larvae live and feed together and may be seen from May until late in the year. This larval stage takes approximately 4 weeks.
Pupa:
Pupation may occur a considerable distance from the food plant, on tree trunks, fences, walls, ledges etc.
The first generation pupae produce butterflies in c.2 weeks while the later generation pupae
overwinter in this pupal state.
Adult:
The adult emerges from the end of April onwards.