View allAll Photos Tagged Defensive
The castle of Les Cars in the province of Limousin (central France) was built in the early days of the Renaissance with one of the most famous and powerful families of the province. It retains a distinctly Mediæval and defensive flavor, even though it was built more for pleasure than anything else.
The ruins are quite a sight to behold.
A Oklahoma Brown Tarantula (Aphonopelma hentzi) assumes a defensive position with pedipalps raised. Its spinnerettes are clearly visible and appear to brace its body as it stands at somewhat of an angle. This spider was photographed on a dirt road (that is where you find them) on the Comanche National Grasslands of Colorado during their annual "migration".
Mid-instar Sergeant Butterfly Caterpillar (Athyma sp., Nymphalidae)
Growing up in the wilderness is a dangerous and demanding task, especially if you are a tiny defenseless butterfly larva. Several genera of Nymphalid butterflies have upped the survival ante by creating various adaptions on frass chains.
As they consume their hostplant leaf, they leave behind the sturdy midrib and when they are still in their early instars, this is where they isolate themselves away from harm's way. They build a barrier of frass (caterpillar poo) at the leaf margin to act as a deterrent against intruders like ants (some coat the midrib with their faeces). As they increase in size, this frass patch becomes the ideal hiding place as it matches their general appearance.
At some stage though, the leaf larder is exhausted and the caterpillar too large to take advantage of the precarious perch, so they moult into a leaflike livery (usually variations of green) and conclude their later instars away from the confines and safety of their "frass chain".
This individual has its previous instar skin still attached to the tip of the leaf rib. As imposing as it's spiky antlers appear, they offer no defensive advantages in terms of stinging capabilities. They are actually quite soft and pliable and more decorative than defensive.
Pu'er, Yunnan, China
see comments for additional image (another individual).....
A Dallas Win YEAH !
Had no way of knowing the secondary would be so crucial for the Packer win
Hmmm the song to the victors
:-)
www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzQvGz6_fvA
I'm on fire - Bruce Springsteen
Go Packs Go !
g
Montreal
Inside Fort Pickens, a fort built in 1834 to defend Pensacola Bay and the Florida Gulf Coast. It was used as a defensive fortification all the way through World War II.
A break in the defensive Morlais Castle wall.
Copyright © 2015 Clive Rees All rights reserved
If you would like to use one of my images for any purpose please get in contact first, to get my written permission. Manipulation of a copyright image or use only a portion of the image still infringes my copyright
I was going to close out this series but thought this last one was an image that was very interesting ( IMHO ) in that the pose and aggression move was a good one. There was a little commotion out of view of camera angle so he picked up his prize and started toward the fracas and I think it was to protect what he had, thanks to all so very much and have a safe and great weekend.
Small defensive structure on headland near La Collette. Presumably built by German occupiers in WW2, made of shuttered concrete with horizontal embrasures. St Helier, Jersey, CI.
Walls of Dubrovnik are a series of defensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the citizens of Dubrovnik, Croatia, since the city's founding prior to the 7th century. With numerous additions and modifications throughout their history, they have been considered to be amongst the great fortification systems of the Middle Ages, as they were never breached by a hostile army during this time period.In 1 979, the old city of Dubrovnik, which includes a substantial portion of the old walls of Dubrovnik, joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
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Red-winged blackbird attacking black-crowned night heron in flight, at Cherry Creek State Park, Colorado.
Check it out full-screen to see the fine mist of white, in addition to the obvious stream of white.
A Snouted Cobra (Naja annulifera), also known as the Egyptian Banded Cobra, highly poisonous, assumes an aggressive defensive pose. A bird was flyig off with this cobra firmly in its talons but dropped it in the middle of the road in Kruger National Park of South Africa. I picked it up and moved it off the road as otherwise it would get run over.
In mid-October, I searched a mountain road for a couple of hours, largely unsuccessfully, looking for snakes but only finding 4 common ones. A strong wind was blowing, and it was only 16 C, so it wasn't much of a surprise, and I was kicking myself as I drove back down at the start of an hour and a half trip home. As there weren't any snakes around, I was going a bit faster than normal, when suddenly I screeched to a halt as a meter-long hundred pacer snake (Deinagkistrodon acutus) was edging its way across the road. In the car's lights it looked almost black and quite awesome.
Hadrian's Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of Great Britain. It was the second of three such fortifications built across Great Britain, the first being Gask Ridge and the last the Antonine Wall. All three were built to prevent military raids by the Pictish tribes (ancient inhabitants of Scotland) to the north, to improve economic stability and provide peaceful conditions in the Roman province of Britannia to the south, and to physically mark the frontier of the Empire. Hadrian's Wall is the best known of the three because it remains the most physically preserved and evident today.
The wall was the northern border of the Empire in Britain for much of the Roman Empire's rule, and also the most heavily fortified border in the Empire. In addition to its use as a military fortification, it is thought that the gates through the wall would also have served as customs posts to allow trade taxation.
A significant portion of the wall still exists, particularly the mid-section, and for much of its length the wall can be followed on foot. It is the most popular tourist attraction in Northern England, where it is often known simply as the Roman Wall. It was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. English Heritage, a government organization in charge of managing the historic environment of England, describes it as "the most important monument built by the Romans in Britain".[1]
Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route, though other large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects.
Sections of Hadrian's Wall remain near Greenhead and along the route, though other large sections have been dismantled over the years to use the stones for various nearby construction projects.
The Roman name of the Wall
No stone inscription survives to confirm what the Wall was called in antiquity, and no historical source gives it a name. However, the discovery of a small enamelled bronze Roman cup in Staffordshire in 2003 has provided a clue. The cup is inscribed with a series of names of Roman forts (see also the botrom of this page) along the western sector of the Wall, together with a personal name and a phrase:
MAIS COGGABATA VXELODVNVM CAMBOGLANNA RIGORE VALI AELI DRACONIS
Here we have Bowness (MAIS, followed by what must be the correct name for Drumburgh-by-Sands (COGGABATA) until now known only as CONGAVATA from the late Roman document, the Notitia Dignitatum. Next comes Stanwix (VXELODVNVM), then Castlesteads (CAMBOGLANNA), before we get to the most tantalizing part.
RIGORE seems to be the ablative form of the Latin word rigor. This can mean several things, but one of its less well-known meanings is ‘straight line’, ‘course’ or ‘direction’. This was used by Roman surveyors and appears on a number of inscriptions to indicate a line between places. So the meaning could be ‘from the course’, or better in English 'according to the course'.
The Staffordshire Moorlands cup, which provides the ancient name of Hadrian's Wall.
The Staffordshire Moorlands cup, which provides the ancient name of Hadrian's Wall.
There is no such word as vali, but in antiquity Hadrian’s Wall was known as the Vallum, the Latin word for a frontier which is today incorrectly applied to the ditch and mounds dug by the Roman army just south of the Wall. The genitive form of Vallum is Valli, so one of the most likely meanings is VAL[L]I, ‘of the frontier’. Omitting one of a pair of double consonants is common on Roman inscriptions, and transcribing an inscription from a written note is the easiest way to miss out letters. Another similar bronze vessel, known as the Rudge Cup (found in Wiltshire in the 18th century) has VN missing from the name VXELODVNVM, for example, although the letters appear on the Staffordshire cup. The Rudge Cup only bears fort names.
The name AELI is also in the genitive. This was Hadrian's nomen, his main family name and we know that the Roman bridge at Newcastle-upon-Tyne was called Pons Aelius.
Finally we have the name DRACONIS, which can be translated as ‘[by the hand – or property] of Aelius Draco’. It was normal for Roman manufacturers to give their names in the genitive (‘of’), and ‘by the hand’ would be understood. The form is common, for example, on samian pottery.
The translation, therefore, could be:
‘Mais, Coggabata, Uxelodunum, Camboglanna, according to the line of the Aelian frontier. [By the hand or The property] of Draco’.
This would mean the Romans knew Hadrian's Wall as Vallum Aeli, 'the Aelian frontier'.
Dimensions
Hadrian's Wall was 80 Roman miles (73.5 English miles or 117 kilometres) long, its width and height dependent on the construction materials which were available nearby: east of River Irthing the wall was made from squared stone and measured 3 m (9.7 ft) wide and 5 to 6 metres (16–20 ft) tall; west of the river the wall was made from turf and measured 6 metres (20 ft) wide and 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high. This does not include the wall's ditches, berms, and forts. The central section measured 8 Roman feet wide (7.8 ft or 2.4 m) on a 10 foot base.
Route
Map showing the location of Hadrian's Wall.
Map showing the location of Hadrian's Wall.
Hadrian's Wall extended west Segedunum at Wallsend on the River Tyne to the shore of the Solway Firth. The A69 and B6318 roads follow the course of the wall as it starts in Newcastle upon Tyne to Carlisle, then on round the northern coast of Cumbria. The Wall is entirely in England and south of the border with Scotland by 15 kilometres (9 mi) in the west and 110 kilometres (68 mi) in the east.
Hadrian
Hadrian's Wall was built following a visit by Roman emperor Hadrian (AD 76–138) in AD 122. Hadrian was experiencing military difficulties in Britain, and from the peoples of various conquered lands across the Empire, including Egypt, Judea, Libya, Mauretania, and many of the peoples conquered by his predecessor Trajan, so he was keen to impose order. However the construction of such an impressive wall was probably also a symbol of Roman power, both in occupied Britain and in Rome. Frontiers in the early empire were based more on natural features or fortified zones with a heavy military presence. Military roads or limes often marked the border, with forts and signal towers spread along them and it was not until the reign of Domitian that the first solid frontier was constructed, in Germania Superior, using a simple fence. Hadrian expanded on this idea, redesigning the German border by ordering a continuous timber palisade supported by forts behind it. Although such defences would not have held back any concerted invasion effort, they did physically mark the edge of Roman territory and went some way to providing a degree of control over who crossed the border and where.
Hadrian reduced Roman military presence in the territory of the Brigantes and concentrated on building a more solid linear fortification to the north of them. This was intended to replace the Stanegate road which is generally thought to have served as the limes (the boundary of the Roman Empire) until then.
Construction
Construction probably started in 122 AD and was largely completed within eight years, with soldiers from all three of the occupying Roman legions participating in the work. The route chosen largely paralleled the nearby Stanegate road from Luguvalium (Carlisle) to Coria (Corbridge), which was already defended by a system of forts, including Vindolanda. The Wall in part follows the outcrop of a harder, more resistant igneous dolerite rock escarpment, known as the Great Whin Sill.
The initial plan called for a ditch and wall with 80 small, gated milecastle fortlets every Roman mile holding a few dozen troops each, and pairs of evenly spaced intermediate turrets used for observation and signalling. The wall was initially designed to a width of 3 metres (10 ft) (the so-called "Broad Wall"). The height is estimated to have been around 5 or 6 metres (16–20 ft). Local limestone was used in the construction, except for the section to the west of Irthing where turf was used instead as there were no useful outcrops nearby. The turf wall was 6 metres wide (20 ft) and around 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) high. Milecastles in this area were also built from timber and earth rather than stone but turrets were always stone. The Broad Wall was initially built with a clay-bonded rubble core and mortared dressed rubble facing stones, but this seems to have made it vulnerable to collapse and repair with a mortared core was sometimes necessary.
Roman fort at Corstopitum.
Roman fort at Corstopitum.
The milecastles were of three different designs, depending on which Roman legion built them — the Second, Sixth, and Twentieth Legions, whose inscriptions tell us were all involved in the construction. Similarly there are three different turret designs along the route. All were about 493 metres (539 yd) apart and measured 4.27 metres square (46.0 sq ft) internally.
Construction was divided into lengths of about 5 miles (8 km). One group of each legion would create the foundations and build the milecastles and turrets and then other cohorts would follow, building the wall itself.
Early in its construction, just after reaching the North Tyne (construction worked from east to west), the width of the wall was narrowed to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) or even less (sometimes 1.8m) (the "Narrow Wall"). However, Broad Wall foundations had already been laid as far as the river Irthing, where the Turf Wall began, and many turrets and milecastles were optimistically provided with stub 'wing walls' in preparation for joining to the Broad Wall; a handy reference for archaeologists trying to piece together the construction chronology.
Within a few years it was decided to add a total of 14 to 17 (sources disagree) full-sized forts along the length of the wall, including Vercovicium (Housesteads) and Banna (Birdoswald), each holding between 500 and 1,000 auxiliary troops (no legions were posted to the wall). The eastern end of the wall was extended further east from Pons Aelius (Newcastle) to Segedunum (Wallsend) on the Tyne estuary. Some of the larger forts along the wall, such as Cilurnum (Chesters) and Vercovicium (Housesteads), were built on top of the footings of milecastles or turrets, showing the change of plan. An inscription mentioning early governor Aulus Platorius Nepos indicates that the change of plans took place early on. Also some time still during Hadrian's reign (i.e., before AD 138) the wall west of the Irthing was rebuilt in sandstone to basically the same dimensions as the limestone section to the east.
Vallum at Hadrian's Wall near milecastle 42
Vallum at Hadrian's Wall near milecastle 42
After the forts had been added (or possibly at the same time), the so-called Vallum was built on the southern side. It consisted of a large, flat-bottomed ditch 6 metres (20 ft) wide at the top and 3 metres (10 ft) deep bounded by a berm on each side 10 metres (33 ft) wide. Beyond the berms were earth banks 6 metres (20 ft) wide and 2 metres (6.5 ft) high. Causeways crossed the ditch at regular intervals. Initially the berm appears to have been the main route for transportation along the wall. The Vallum probably delineated a military zone rather than intending to be a major fortification, though the British tribes to the south were also sometimes a military problem.
The Wall was thus part of a defensive system which, from north to south included:
* a glacis and a deep ditch
* a berm with rows of pits holding entanglements
* the curtain wall itself
* a later military road (the "Military Way")
* a north mound, a ditch and a south mound to prevent or slow down any raids from a rebelling southern tribe.
Roman-period names
The remains of milecastle 39, near Steel Rigg
The remains of milecastle 39, near Steel Rigg
The Roman-period names of some of the Hadrian's Wall forts are known, from the Notitia Dignitatum and other evidence:
* Segedunum (Wallsend)
* Pons Aelius (Newcastle on Tyne)
* Condercum (Benwell Hill)
* Vindobala (Halton Chesters)[2]
* Hunnum (Rudchester)[2]
* Cilurnum (Chesters aka Walwick Chesters)[2]
* Procolita (Carrowburgh)
* Vercovicium (Housesteads)
* Aesica (Great Chesters)[2]
* Magnis (Carvoran)
* Banna (Birdoswald)
* Camboglanna (Castlesteads)
* Uxelodunum (Stanwix. Also known as Petriana)
* Aballava (Burgh-by-Sands)
* Coggabata (Drumburgh)
* Mais (Bowness)
Outpost forts beyond the Wall include:
* Habitancum (Risingham)
* Bremenium (Rochester)[2]
* Ad Fines (Chew Green) [1]
Supply forts behind the wall include:
* Alauna (Maryport)
* Arbeia (South Shields)
* Coria (Corbridge)
* Vindolanda (Little Chesters)[2]
* Vindomora (Ebchester)[2]
Garrison
The wall was garrisoned by auxiliary (i.e., non-legionary) units of the army (non-citizens). Their numbers fluctuated throughout the occupation, but may have been around 9,000 strong in general, including infantry and cavalry. The new forts could hold garrisons of 500 men while cavalry units of 1,000 troops were stationed at either end. The total number of soldiers manning the early wall was probably greater than 10,000.
They suffered serious attacks in 180, and especially between 196 and 197 when the garrison had been seriously weakened, following which major reconstruction had to be carried out under Septimius Severus. The region near the wall remained peaceful for most of the rest of the 3rd century. It is thought that many in the garrison may have married and integrated into the local community.
Part of Hadrian's wall near Housesteads.
Part of Hadrian's wall near Housesteads.
After Hadrian
In the years after Hadrian's death in 138, the new emperor, Antoninus Pius essentially abandoned the wall, though leaving it occupied in a support role, and began building a new wall in Scotland proper, about 160 kilometres (100 mi) north, the Antonine Wall. This turf wall ran 40 Roman miles (about 37.8 mi or 61 km) and had significantly more forts than Hadrian's Wall. Antonine was unable to conquer the northern tribes and so when Marcus Aurelius became emperor, he abandoned the Antonine Wall and occupied Hadrian's Wall once again in 164. It remained occupied by Roman troops until their withdrawal from Britain.
In the late 4th century, barbarian invasions, economic decline, and military coups loosened the Empire's hold on Britain. By 410, the Roman administration and its legions were gone, and Britain was left to look to its own defences and government. The garrisons, by now probably made up mostly of local Britons who had nowhere else to go, probably lingered on in some form for generations. Archaeology is beginning to reveal that some parts of the Wall remained occupied well into the 5th century. Enough also survived in the 8th century for spolia from it to find its way into the construction of Jarrow Priory, and for Bede to see and describe the Wall thus in Historia Ecclesiastica 1.5, although he misidentified it as being built by Septimius Severus:
“ after many great and dangerous battles, he thought fit to divide that part of the island, which he had recovered from the other unconquered nations, not with a wall, as some imagine, but with a rampart. For a wall is made of stones, but a rampart, with which camps are fortified to repel the assaults of enemies, is made of sods, cut out of the earth, and raised above the ground all round like a wall, having in front of it the ditch whence the sods were taken, and strong stakes of wood fixed upon its top. ”
But in time the wall was abandoned and fell into ruin. Over the centuries and even into the 20th century a large proportion of the stone was reused in other local buildings.
In fiction
Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")
Sycamore Gap (the "Robin Hood Tree")
* Hadrian's Wall was featured extensively in the movie King Arthur (which depicted the story of the people the Arthurian legends were supposedly based on). The one kilometre (0.6 mi) long replica, located in County Kildare, Ireland, was the largest movie set ever built in that country, and took a crew of 300 construction workers four and a half months to build. The fort in the movie where Arthur and his Sarmatian "knights" were garrisoned was based on the Roman fort named Vindolanda, which was built around AD 80 just south of Hadrian's Wall in what is now called Chesterholm, in Northern England. In the movie, the fort is attached to the wall.
* Sycamore Gap, a section of the wall between two crests just west of milecastle 38, is locally known as the "Robin Hood Tree". This location was used in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, as the setting for an interlude during Robin's journey from the White Cliffs (actually shot at the Seven Sisters Hills) to Nottingham via Aysgarth Falls.
The Alhambra (Arabic: الحمراء = Al-Ħamrā; literally "the red one"; the complete name is "Qal'at al-Hambra", which means "The red fortress") is a palace and fortress complex of the Moorish rulers of Granada in southern Spain (known as Al-Andalus when the fortress was constructed), occupying a hilly terrace on the southeastern border of the city of Granada. 37°10′37″N 3°35′24″W37.17686, -3.589901
Once the residence of the Muslim rulers of Granada and their court, the Alhambra is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions exhibiting the country's most famous Islamic architecture, together with Christian 16th century and later interventions in buildings and gardens that marked its image as it can be seen today. Within the Alhambra, the Palace of Charles V was erected by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor in 1527. Coordinates: 37°10′36.81″N 3°35′23.95″W
The terrace or plateau where the Alhambra sits measures about 740 m (2430 ft) in length by 205 m (674 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from WNW to ESE and covers an area of about 142,000 m².
Its most westerly feature is the alcazaba (citadel); a strongly fortified position. The rest of the plateau comprises a number of palaces, enclosed by a relatively weak fortified wall, with thirteen towers, some defensive and some providing vistas for the inhabitants.
The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Assabica valley, containing the Alhambra Park on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror, separate it from the Antequeruela district.
Completed towards the end of Muslim rule in Spain by Yusuf I (1333-1353) and Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353-1391), the Alhambra is a reflection of the culture of the last days of the Nasrid emirate of Granada. It is a place where artists and intellectuals had taken refuge as Christian Spain won victories over Al Andalus. The Alhambra mixes natural elements with man-made ones, and is a testament to the skill of Muslim craftsmen of that time.
The literal translation of Alhambra "red fortress" derives from the colour of the red clay of the surroundings of which the fort is made. The buildings of the Alhambra were originally whitewashed; however, the buildings now seen today are reddish.
The first reference to the Qal’at al Hamra was during the battles between the Arabs and the Muladies during the rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888-912). In one particularly fierce and bloody skirmish, the Muladies soundly defeated the Arabs, who were then forced to take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira, presently located in Granada. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The castle was then largely ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were renovated and rebuilt by Samuel ibn Naghralla, vizier to the King Bādīs of the Zirid Dynasty, in an attempt to preserve the small Jewish settlement also located on the Sabikah hill. However, evidence from Arab texts indicates that the fortress was easily penetrated and that the actual Alhambra that survives today was built during the Nasrid Dynasty.
Ibn Nasr, the founder of the Nasrid Dynasty, was forced to flee to Jaén in order to avoid persecution by King Ferdinand and his supporters during attempts to rid Spain of Moorish Dominion. After retreating to Granada, Ibn-Nasr took up residence at the Palace of Bādis in the Alhambra. A few months later, he embarked on the construction of a new Alhambra fit for the residence of a king. According to an Arab manuscript published as the Anónimo de Granada y Copenhague, "This year 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra" inspected it, laid out the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of its construction…" The design included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses. During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Previously, the old Alhambra structure had been dependent upon rainwater collected from a cistern and from what could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan's Canal solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and ascetic structure.
The Muslim rulers lost Granada and Alhambra in 1492 without the fortress itself being attacked when King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile took the surrounding region with overwhelming numbers.
The decorations within the palaces typified the remains of Moorish dominion within Spain and ushered in the last great period of Andalusian art in Granada. With little influence from the Islamic mainland[citation needed], artists endlessly reproduced the same forms and trends, creating a new style that developed over the course of the Nasrid Dynasty. The Nasrids used freely all the display of stylistical resorts that had been created and developed during eight centuries of Muslim rule in the Peninsula as the Calliphal horse-shoe arch, the Almohad sebka or the Almoravid palm, and unused combinations of them, beside novelties as the stilted arches and the capitals of muqarnas, among others. The isolation with the rest of the Islam, and the commercial and political relationship with the Christian kingdoms also influenced in the space concepts. Columns, muqarnas and stalactite-like ceiling decorations, appear in several chambers, and the interiors of numerous palaces are decorated with arabesques and calligraphy. The arabesques of the interior are ascribed, among other kings, to Yusef I, Mohammed V, and Ismail I.
Damage produced in Later Era After the Christian conquest of the city in 1492, the conquerors began to alter the Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and gilding effaced, and the furniture soiled[citation needed], torn, or removed. Charles V (1516–1556) rebuilt portions in the Renaissance style of the period and destroyed the greater part of the winter palace to make room for a Renaissance-style structure which has never been completed. Philip V (1700–1746) Italianised the rooms and completed his palace in the middle of what had been the Moorish building; he had partitions constructed which blocked up whole apartments.
Over subsequent centuries the Moorish art was further damaged, and, in 1812, some of the towers were destroyed by the French under Count Sebastiani, while the whole building narrowly escaped the same fate. Napoleon had tried to blow up the whole complex. Just before his plan was carried out, a soldier who secretly wanted the plan of Napoleon — his commander — to fail, defused the explosives and thus saved the Alhambra for posterity.[citation needed] In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage. The work of restoration undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras was endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII; and after the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair success by his son Rafael (d. 1890) and his grandson. Designed to reflect the very beauty of Paradise itself, the Alhambra is made up of gardens, fountains, streams, a palace, and a mosque, all within an imposing fortress wall, flanked by 13 massive towers. [1]
Moorish poets[who?] described it as "a pearl set in emeralds," in allusion to the colour of its buildings and the woods around them. The palace complex was designed with the mountainous site in mind and many forms of technology were considered. The park (Alameda de la Alhambra), which is overgrown with wildflowers and grass in the spring, was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges and myrtles; its most characteristic feature, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by the Duke of Wellington in 1812. The park has a multitude nightingales and is usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades. These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5 miles) long, which is connected with the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle, above Granada.
In spite of the long neglect, willful vandalism and sometimes ill-judged restoration which the Alhambra has endured, it remains an atypical example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively uninfluenced by the direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba. The majority of the palace buildings are, in ground-plan, quadrangular, with all the rooms opening on to a central court; and the whole reached its present size simply by the gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages. Alhambra was added onto by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex. However, each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise on earth." Column arcades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were used to make add to the aesthetic and functional complexity. In every case, the exterior is left plain and austere. Sun and wind are freely admitted. Blue, red, and a golden yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colours chiefly employed.
The decoration consists, as a rule, of stiff, conventional foliage, Arabic inscriptions, and geometrical patterns wrought into arabesques. Painted tiles are largely used as panelling for the walls. The palace complex is designed in the Mudéjar style which is characteristic of western elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and largely popular during the Reconquista, a period of history in which the Christian kings reconquered Spain from the Muslims.
The Alhambra resembles many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold arrangement as a castle, a palace and a residential annex for subordinates. The alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland which terminates the plateau on the northwest. That is all massive outer walls, towers and ramparts are left. On its watchtower, the Torre de la Vela, 25 m (85 ft) high, the flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised, in token of the Spanish conquest of Granada on January 2, 1492. A turret containing a large bell was added in the 18th century and restored after being damaged by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba is the palace of the Moorish rulers, or Alhambra properly so-called; and beyond this, again, is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), originally tenanted by officials and courtiers.
Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain erected in 1554, to the main entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta Judiciaria (Gate of Judgment), a massive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the passage rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345 and used in the 16th century as a cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V, a smaller Renaissance building.
The Royal Complex consists of three main parts: Mexuar, Serallo, and the Harem. The Mexuar is modest in decor and houses the functional areas for conducting business and administration. Strapwork is used to decorate the surfaces in Mexuar. The ceilings, floors, and trim are made of dark wood and are in sharp contrast to white, plaster walls. Serallo, built during the reign of Yusef I in the 14th century, contains the Patio de los Arrayanes. Brightly colored interiors featured dado panels, yesería, azulejo, cedar, and artesonado. Artesonado are highly decorative ceilings and other woodwork. Lastly, the Harem is also elaborately decorated and contains the living quarters for the wives and mistresses of the Arabic monarchs. This area contains a bathroom with running, hot and cold water, baths, and pressurized water for showering. The bathrooms were open to the elements in order to allow in light and air. The Harem also features representations of human forms, which is forbidden under Islamic law. The Christian artisans were most likely commissioned to design artwork that would be placed in the palace and the tolerant Muslim rulers allowed the work to stay.
The present entrance to the Palacio Árabe, or Casa Real (Moorish palace), is by a small door from which a corridor connects to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca (Court of the Blessing or Court of the Pond), from the Arabic birka, "pool". The birka helped to cool the palace and acted as a symbol of power. Because water was usually in short supply, the technology required to keep these pools full was expensive and difficult. The aim of the pools was to give the impression that the pool had mystical powers because it never evaporated, making them form a good opinion of their leader.[citation needed] This court is 42 m (140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) broad; and in the centre, there is a large pond set in the marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are galleries on the north and south sides; that on the south is 7 m (27 ft) high and supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal entrance, and over it are three windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this court, the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north and reflected in the pond.
The Salón de los Embajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the largest in the Alhambra and occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being 12 m (37 ft) in length, while the centre of the dome is 23 m (75 ft) high. This was the grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance. It was in this setting that Christopher Columbus received Isabel and Ferdinand's support to sail to the New World. The tiles are nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) high all round, and the colours vary at intervals. Over them is a series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There are nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is decorated with inlaid-work of white, blue and gold, in the shape of circles, crowns and stars. The walls are covered with varied stucco works, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.
The Patio de los Leones (Court of the Lions) is an oblong court, 116 ft (35 m) in length by 66 ft (20 m) in width, surrounded by a low gallery supported on 124 white marble columns. A pavilion projects into the court at each extremity, with filigree walls and light domed roof. The square is paved with coloured tiles, and the colonnade with white marble; while the walls are covered 5 ft (1.5 m) up from the ground with blue and yellow tiles, with a border above and below enamelled blue and gold. The columns supporting the roof and gallery are irregularly placed. They are adorned by varieties of foliage, etc.; about each arch there is a large square of arabesques; and over the pillars is another square of filigree work. In the centre of the court is the Fountain of Lions, an alabaster basin supported by the figures of twelve lions in white marble, not designed with sculptural accuracy, but as symbols of strength and courage.[citation needed]
The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives its name from a legend according to which the father of Boabdil, last king of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here.[citation needed] This room is a perfect square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is decorated in blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las dos Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two white marble slabs laid as part of the pavement. These slabs measure 50 by 22 cm (15 by 7½ in). There is a fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof —a dome honeycombed with tiny cells, all different, and said to number 5000— is an example of the so-called "stalactite vaulting" of the Moors.
Among the other features of the Alhambra are the Sala de la Justicia (Hall of Justice), the Patio del Mexuar (Court of the Council Chamber), the Patio de Daraxa (Court of the Vestibule), and the Peinador de la Reina (Queen's Robing Room), in which there is similar architecture and decoration. The palace and the Upper Alhambra also contain baths, ranges of bedrooms and summer-rooms, a whispering gallery and labyrinth, and vaulted sepulchres.
The original furniture of the palace is represented by the vase of the Alhambra, a specimen of Moorish ceramic art, dating from 1320 and belonging to the first period of Moorish porcelain. It is 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) high; the ground is white, and the enamelling is blue, white and gold.
Of the outlying buildings in connection with the Alhambra, the foremost in interest is the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife (the Muslim Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif," or "Garden of the Architect"). This villa probably dates from the end of the 13th century but has been restored several times. Its gardens, however, with their clipped hedges, grottos, fountains, and cypress avenues, are said to retain their original Moorish character.[who?] The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were forced to build the Alhambra and confined here in subterranean cells. The Torres Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of 200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of Monte Mauror.
The Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín of Granada are listed as World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
Alhambra in literature
Parts of the following novels are set in the Alhambra:
•Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra. It is a collection of essays, verbal sketches, and stories. Irving lived in the palace while writing the book and was instrumental in reintroducing the site to Western audiences.
•Salman Rushdie's The Moor's Last Sigh
•Amin Maalouf's Leon L'Africain, depicting the reconquest of Granada by the Catholic kings.
•Philippa Gregory's The Constant Princess.
•Langston Hughes's poem "Movies" in his collection Montage of a Dream Deferred (1951)
•Federico Garcia Lorca's play Dona Rosita the Spinster, mentioned by title character Dona Rosita in her song/speech to the Manola sisters.
•Paulo Coelho's novel The Alchemist
•Ali Smith's The Accidental
Alhambra in music
Alhambra has directly inspired musical compositions as Francisco Tárrega's famous tremolo study for guitar Recuerdos de la Alhambra (Memories of the Alhambra)[1], Claude Debussy's piece for 2 pianos Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and the prelude La Puerta del Vino (in the 2nd book of preludes, composed 1912-13).[2].
"En los Jardines del Generalife", first movement of Manuel de Falla's Noches en los Jardines de España, and other pieces by composers such as Ruperto Chapí (Los Gnomos de la Alhambra,1891) Tomás Bretón [2] and many others are included in a stream called by scholars "Alhambrismo".[3] [4]
In pop and folk music, Alhambra is the subject of the Ghymes song of the same name.[citation needed] The rock band, The Grateful Dead, released a song called Terrapin Station on the 1977 album of the same name. The song itself was a series of small compositions penned by Robert Hunter and put to music by Jerry Garcia, a lyrical section of this Terrapin Station "suite" was called Alhambra.
In September 2006, Canadian singer/composer Loreena McKennitt performed live at the Alhambra. The resulting footage premiered on PBS and was later released as a three-disc DVD/CD set entitled Nights from the Alhambra.
Alhambra is the title of an EP by Canadian rock band The Tea Party, containing acoustic versions of a few of their songs.[citation needed]
British composer Julian Anderson's Alhambra Fantasy (1999–2000), commissioned by the London Sinfonietta, was influenced by the architecture of the Alhambra Palace. In two sharply contrasting sections the work relates different facets of the Alhambra – the first, rough and energetic, is related to the building of the Palace itself[citation needed], dominated by the sounds of hammering and banging on percussion. Short counterpointed and juxtaposed motifs create, for some, the impression of a mosaic[citation needed]. The second section evokes the beautiful landscape of the Vega[citation needed]. The composer is careful to point out[citation needed] that he has not written programmatic music, although his concern is with the splendour of the palace itself, its place in the landscape and its relevance to the complex and turbulent history of the region.
In 1976, filmmaker Christopher Nupen filmed "The Song of the Guitar" at the Alhambra. It was an hour long program featuring the legendary Spanish guitarist Andres Segovia. It is now available on DVD.
M. C. Escher's visit in 1922 inspired his following work on regular divisions of the plane after studying the Moorish use of symmetry in the Alhambra tiles.
Influence in 19th- and 20th-century architecture
From 19th-century Romantic interpretations until the present day, many buildings and portions of buildings worldwide have been inspired by the Alhambra: there is a Moorish Revival house in Stillwater, Minnesota which was created and named after the Alhambra. Also, the main portion of the Irvine Spectrum Center in Irvine, California, is a postmodern version of the Court of the Lions.
One also recalls the Alhambra Theatre in central Bradford, England [3].
A prairie rattlesnake prepares to defend itself against the rude photographer. This one was sunning itself in the middle of the road, so I eventually ran it off into the grass.
This crab unlike most crabs I had come across did not run into its hole but was standing on its toe and looking straight at me. I was surprised and got down to take its picture. Its eyes were fully focused on my lens movements. After taking couple of shots I realized that it was wounded by some one and had lost couple of legs and so it could not run and had to be defensive.
© Akshathkumar Shetty - All Rights Reserved. This image should not be reproduced, published, transmitted in any forum (even via e-mails/or upload to Orkut/or any other networking sites) or in print or in any other physical or electronic forum either in part or in whole without the explicit written consent from the copyright owner. Legal action will be initiated against any individual, organisation, institution, agency, publishing house, etc. who violate the Copyright laws including but not limited to those mentioned here and use the image for any commercial/non-commercial purposes.
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TURTON TOWER EVOLVED FROM BEING A SIMPLE STONE PELE TOWER, WHICH WAS BUILT AROUND 1420 AS A DEFENSIVE FORTRESS, TO AN IMPRESSIVE AND COMFORTABLE RESIDENCE BY THE TUDOR AND EARLY STUART PERIOD. IS THE STONE PELE TOWER WHICH MEASURES 45 FEET IN LENGTH FROM NORTH TO SOUTH AND IS 28 FEET WIDE. THE TOWER IS ABOUT 35 FEET IN HEIGHT WITH WALLS FOUR FEET THICK. IN THE NORTH-WEST CORNER OF THE TOWER THE SHAFT OF A GARDEROBE PROJECTS FROM THE MAIN STRUCTURE. THE TOWER HAD THREE LOW STOREYS AS EVIDENCED BY THE BLOCKED WINDOW OPENINGS. THE WALLS HAVE ROUGH WITH LARGE CORNER QUOINS. THE SIMPLE STONE STRUCTURE WAS ADDED TO WITH TIMBER EXTENSIONS BY THE ORRELL FAMILY TRANSFORMING IT TO A LAVISH HOUSE. IN DOING SO, HOWEVER IT WOULD APPEAR THAT THEY OVERSPENT AND WERE FORCED TO SELL. THE TOWER WAS PURCHASED BY HUMPHREY CHETHAM IN 1628. THE ORRELL’S CONTINUED TO LIVE ON AT THE TOWER RENTING THE TOWER FROM HIM. DURING THE CIVIL (1642-1650), THE ORRELL’S WERE CAVALIERS WHERE THE CHETHAMS SUPPORTED THE ROUNDHEAD AND THIS MUST HAVE MADE FOR INTERESTING TIMES AT THE TOWER WHEN CHETHAM GARRISONED HIS TROOPS WITHIN THE TURTON ESTATE!
THE GREENE AND FRERE FAMILIES WERE THE OWNERS IN THE LATE 18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURIES AND THEY CONTINUED THIS TRADITION OF KEEPING HOUSES ELSEWHERE ALTHOUGH THE HOUSE WAS OCCUPIED FOR SOME TIME BY MEMBERS OF THE HORROCKS FAMILY WHO ARE STILL NUMEROUS IN THIS AREA.
THE ARRIVAL OF THE KAY FAMILY IN 1835 SAW TURTON TOWER TRANSFORMED INTO A ROMANTIC GOTHIC BUILDING. THEY CHANGED THE SOUTH FRONT, BUILT A ‘MOCK TUDOR’ EXTENSION AND REBUILT THE SUMMER HOUSE WHICH IS NOW ON PRIVATE GROUND BUT CAN BE VIEWED FROM THE TOWER. THEY SUPPORTED THE BUILDING OF THE RAILWAY NEARBY AND CREATED A TENNIS COURT IN THE GROUNDS.
THE KAYS DEPARTED IN THE 1890S AND, AFTER OCCUPATION BY SEVERAL MORE TENANTS, THE PROPERTY WAS PURCHASED BY SIR LEES KNOWLES AND USED AS A HUNTING LODGE AND WEEKEND RETREAT. ON HIS DEATH IN 1929 LADY NINA KNOWLES, HIS WIDOW, GAVE THE TOWER AND GROUNDS TO TURTON URBAN DISTRICT COUNCIL TO USE FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE PUBLIC. SINCE THEN THE TOWER HAS BEEN USED AS COUNCIL OFFICES AND SINCE 1974 AS A MUSEUM AND HISTORIC HOUSE. TURTON TOWER IS NOW OWNED BY BLACKBURN WITH DARWEN COUNCIL.
Sgt. Herbert Cosio, Sgt. Austin Elder, Sgt. Michael Thomas and Sgt. Martin Minner retire the colors during a Los Angeles Chargers and New Orleans Saints pre-season game at the Stub Hub Center in Carson, California., Aug. 20, 2017.
(U.S. Marine Corps photo by Sgt. Jessica Quezada)
Nizwa, Oman, is a historic city located about 140 km southwest of Muscat. Once a center of trade, education, and religion, it was the capital of Oman during the early years of Islam. Nizwa is known for its traditional souk, famous for silver jewelry, pottery, and fresh produce, as well as its historic fort.
Nizwa Fort, built in the mid-17th century by Imam Sultan Bin Saif Al Yarubi, is one of Oman’s most visited landmarks. Its massive round tower was designed to defend against attacks, and its strategic location offered control over trade routes. The fort features hidden traps, narrow staircases, and wells for storing water, showcasing its defensive design. The fort also provides excellent views of the city and the surrounding mountains.
Digital Camera SeaLife Reefmaster DC1000
This Day Octopus assumed a defensive pose when it was approached by a pair of tangs.
Defensive emphasis has been placed on the front of the mech, clearly. The back is swarmed with a network of exposed hoses, a trait Dawn Forge engineers have never been able to overcome.
Asian Tiger keelback - Rhabdophis tigrinus formosanus
The tiger keelback is one of the few snakes in the world that gets to be classed as both venomous and poisonous. In this photo, you can see a raised head and the slight flattening of the snake's neck, presenting the nuchal glands on the rear of the neck to any predator present (in this case, me).
The snakes of the genus Rhabdophis all share this poisonous element and interestingly the majority possess a wonderfully beautiful pattern to draw as much attention to it as possible. Other examples include the red-knecked keelback (Rhabdophis subminiatus) and the black-striped keelback (Rhabdophis nigrocinctus). It seems that the poison possessed by these snakes has been sequestered from the toads that are a favourite food.
The Nakajima B5N (Japanese: 中島 B5N, Allied reporting name "Kate") was a carrier torpedo bomber of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). When the B5N appeared, it was much faster and advanced than its Allied counterparts, like the TBD Devastator or the Fairey Swordfish.
B5Ns were extensively used during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (one of them sunk the Battleship USS Arizona) and played the main role in sinking the American carrier Lexington at Coral Sea, the Yorktown at Midway, and Hornet at the Battle of Santa Cruz in October 1942. But, like most torpedo bombers, it was slow and vulnerable to antiaircraft and fighters..
Some of them were used on kamikaze strikes.
About the MOC:
The plane features retractable landing gear, folding wings, movable defensive machine gun, tail hook and an external torpedo.
About the Picture:
The painting behind the plane was made by the British artist John Hamilton and represents the Japanese attack against Pearl Harbor.
Curiously, the painting is backwards! It seems that Hamilton painted the scene from a photo, and the negative was reversed when printed.
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