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West Coast, NEW ZEALAND
Canon 5DMkII, 16-35mm 2.8L, ISO 50, f20, 5 seconds, polarizer.
Intimate landscapes often reveal details, structure, patterns, geometry and nuances that are not usually noticed by the casual observer. To be able to show something new to viewers and even surprise them is the most rewarding aspect of photography.
Read the rest of my new blog article about the intimate landscape "Think small, print big" here.
It was probably the longest canopy I saw. Like Komendandsky Prospekt in St. Petersburg. I made a series in this tunnel and was about to leave, when I suddenly discovered another aspect of it ...
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An aspect of Chrysanthemum, tightly packed, a true Autumn flower, built against rain, wind and cold?
The name "chrysanthemum" is derived from the Greek words chrysos (gold) and anthemon (flower)
Chrysanthemums, sometimes called mums or chrysanths, are flowering plants of the genus Chrysanthemum in the family Asteraceae.
They are native to Asia and northeastern Europe.
Most species originate from East Asia and the center of diversity is in China.
Chrysanthemums were first cultivated in China as a flowering herb as far back as the 15th century BC.
The flower was brought to the Western World in the 17th century.There are about 40 valid species and countless horticultural varieties and cultivars.
For many years, chrysanthemum signifies praise and admiration.
A chrysanthemum is considered as a noble flower of the Chinese noble class.
Wishing you a day full of good light and thanks for your visit, M, (*_*)
For more: www.indigo2photography.com
Please do not use this image on websites, blogs or any other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved
CHRYSANTHEMUM, purple, portrait, single, pale, flower, colour, design, studio, black-background, square, NikonD7000, "Magda indigo"
Any interesting aspect of railroading up here in Northeast New England is that by and large Pan Am runs older power that still lugs and chugs along. With regular run through power from CSX however, we are treated to newer (mostly GE) Tier 2, 3 and 4 locomotives. It isn't often however we do see some of that newer, 'cleaner', power belching out some dark fumes. Well, I guess that can be attributed to the second unit the SD70MAC 4554, which in itself doesn't make it up here often.
POSE leads a large manifest west through Madbury New Hampshire on this mid-January MLK day. Traffic would be heavy in District 2 around sunset, as foremen held authority most of the day on various sections while Amtrak occupied the open slots. Three hours later, an eastbound 'parade' would make its way to Maine with EDPO and AYPO around sunset.
Neck Point Panorama (3 images 2.0 aspect ratio) - Nikon F75 with Nikkor 1:3.3-5.6 28-80mm zoom & Fuji ISO 400 film - Photographer Russell McNeil PhD (Physics) lives on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, where he works as a writer.
Arcadia, with electricity.
Travelling to Qina (Dendara) from Luxor to see the Temple of Hathor, which contains on an exterior wall the only surviving representation of Cleopatra in the whole of Egypt.
I know who I am, Paul knows who I am, my sons, family and friends know who I am!
Many people do not know who I am, all they see is different facets of the real me.
One piece of the puzzle…
This is the playful aspect, only one particular ‘look’, another way in which I can be viewed by the mind.
The angle here of each ‘facet’ is carefully considered, as the aim is to maximise the effect of the theatrical property.
Many actors relied on props and other means of support when they were being photographed.
Obviously I gathered a fair number of props over the years, so, on that day: mission over, some 'Space' left in the camera, a few more 'creative' ideas, lights still on, put on a wig a pair of outrageous shades and this is the result…
The one thing that is the REAL me is the small silver camera, given to me by my best friend years ago, and that I always wear.
Anybody who’s ever met me, they see this jewel, they know it’s me.
Just some fun… and a different 'take' on a photographer's self-portrait, who is very serious about her work but doesn't take herself too seriously, a sense of humour helps you through everything and gives you the 'good' wrinkles! LOL.
I wish you all a very good time, comments,likes,faves are very much appreciated.
M, (*_*)
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TAXI: maps.secondlife.com/secondlife/Hickory%20Creek/28/8/2701
Colors! One of the primary aspects people like to neglect for Star Wars creations. Usually overshadowed by large grey triangles, but for the case of this parturition series, colors are not only used efficiently. They’re used to tell parts of the story, just the same as characters and vehicles. In this case, the clones stand out in there white armour with black markings, ironically for this placing them as knights on the field of battle, The battle droids however standing out as the foe in their Dark Orange & Pearl Sand Blue rust buckets. The only difference being Durge who with his stature solidifies the rage and power of his character.
Follow my plastic adventures here or on these platforms.
An aspect of any war is that those who are defeated are oftentimes forgotten. There is a tourist industry from the Western countries to the sites of the battles and graveyards of both World Wars. Many are familiar with the white stones over the dead on the Allied side but not too many Westerners would have seen the German graves. Regardless of nationality in each of these graves lie the bodies of young men who died pointlessly on a battlefield. These images were taken at the German War Cemetery at Langemark in Belgium. Rather more austere than the nearby Allied cemeteries there is the same sadness and sense of loss throughout!
Wikipedia has the following: The German war cemetery of Langemark (formerly spelt 'Langemarck') is near the village of Langemark, part of the municipality of Langemark-Poelkapelle, in the Belgian province of West Flanders.[1] More than 44,000 soldiers are buried here.[2] The village was the scene of the first gas attacks by the German army in the western front (see trench map), marking the beginning of the Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915.
During the First Battle of Ypres (1914) in World War I, inexperienced German infantry suffered severe casualties when they made a futile frontal attack on allied positions near Langemark and were checked by experienced French infantry and British riflemen. Contrary to popular myth, only fifteen percent of the German soldiers involved in the Battle of Langemark were schoolboys and students. Legend has it that the German infantry sang the first stanza of what later (1919) became their national anthem "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles", as they charged.
The cemetery, which evolved from a small group of graves from 1915, has seen numerous changes and extensions. It was dedicated in 1932. Today, visitors find a mass grave near the entrance. This comrades' grave contains 24,917 servicemen, including the Ace Werner Voss.[3] Between the oak trees, next to this mass grave, are another 10,143 soldiers (including 2 British soldiers killed in 1918). The 3,000 school students who were killed during the First Battle of Ypres are buried in a third part of the cemetery. At the front of the cemetery is a sculpture of four mourning figures by Professor Emil Krieger. The group was added in 1956, and is said to stand guard over the fallen. The cemetery is maintained by the German War Graves Commission, the Volksbund Deutsche Kriegsgräberfürsorge.
Otherwise, this cemetery has two Commonwealth burials. [4]
Adolf Hitler visited the cemetery on 1 June 1940 during a two-day tour of the Ypres front where he had served in World War I.
Future, Present, Past
Do I have plenty of time?
What is Time?
Running out of Time?
Have I lost time?
When I think so
I have lost consciousness
HKD
Der Bennpunkt der Zeiten ist der Augenblick
Die Erinnerung, das Planen und Tagträumen führt in die Zeit.
Das egolose Bewusstsein kennt keine Zeit.
Das Ego-Bewusstsein ist an Gedanken über Vergangenheit und Zukunft gekettet.
Wenn Zukunft und Vergangenheit substanzlos werden erscheint das augenblickliche Bewusstsein.
HKD
In der Kunst offenbart sich Gott dem Menschen. In den Kunstwerken kann er erkennen, dass Gott in Menschenform immer wieder gelebt hat und lebt. In der Kunst drückt sich das Göttliche auf Erden aus. Es ist lohnenswert, sich mit den Werken tiefschürfender Künstler auseinanderzusetzen.
HKD
I am continually surprised how a change in either a hairstyle or an item of clothing can change the mood of a photo. I think the two above show that to good effect. If one were to go out in public in either the impressions given would be quite different.
Cathedral of Aparecida
Wonderful architectural design and one of the largest in the world.
ZOON to view the dimensions.
Aspecto: Es un pájaro carpintero blanco y negro con cloaca de color rojo brillante. Es similar al pico dorsiblanco, pero el dorso es negro y las partes inferiores no son veteadas. Tiene dos manchas blancas anchas en los hombros. Las hembras tienen capuchón y nuca negra, pero los machos tienen manchas rojas en la nuca, y la nuca de las aves inmaduras es roja.
Tamaño: Largo 23-26 cm, envergadura alar 38-44 cm, peso 70-105 g.
Nido: En un agujero de un árbol, más comúnmente en un álamo temblón. Las aves raramente usan el mismo agujero por más de un solo verano.
Reproducción: Pone 4 a 7 huevos en mayo, incubados por ambos padres durante 10 a 12 días. Los polluelos aprenden a volar entre los 20 y los 25 días.
Distribución: es el pájaro carpintero más común en Finlandia. Anida en todo tipo de hábitat boscoso. La población reproductora finlandesa se estima en 100.000 a 350.000 parejas.
Migración: Es sedentario, pero cada pocos años se producen irrupciones a gran escala a fines del verano y las aves recorren distancias más amplias.
Alimentación: En invierno se alimentan de semillas de pinos y piñas de abetos, que las aves toman como “árboles yunque” para picotear. En otros momentos del año disfrutan de una alimentación más variada, que incluye insectos y algunas veces los huevos y polluelos de otras aves. También visitan comederos de aves durante el invierno.
Limestone Hall is one of two crossings at Kirksanton, near Millom, that have manually operated gates and semaphore signals. Although a non block post, it is the only place in Cumbria that has three aspect semaphore signals (that is stop signals with operational distant arms below them) in both directions.
6C23, the 0942 Sellafield - Barrow Marine Terminal test train - headed by 68018+68005 with 68021 on the rear - approaches the crossing on 13 May 2016. On the left of the image, the down home (with Silecroft's distant below it) looks a little overwhelmed by the metalwork (modern standard fall protection) attached behind it.
One aspect that makes MB's design look so much better than the UCS versions, is the back.
Of course, the 75192 UCS Falcon is impressive, robust and clever, and has a landing gear, but I think that the back is not that great.
I guess that's one of the reasons why there is no backside shot on the box of the 75192.
[Edit] I totally missed it, but thanks to SucramH, I noticed such a (small) photo on the side of the box.
My first version did not include landing gear, but while working on the instructions for Brickvault.toys, MB suggested to add his landing gear design, which was more than awesome, so we made space for it in the bottom.
The Ferrari 250 GT Berlinetta SWB is one of the most beautiful cars in my opinion, and given the lack of vintage cars in my LEGO collection, I thought it was high time I built one.
This car took about 2.5 months to build start to finish; it came together fairly quickly compared to most of my other builds. The front and rear were the most difficult aspects of this car to replicate, but after multiple revisions I think the end result is fairly accurate.
If you would like to build one for yourself, instructions are available for purchase on eBay.
Aspect Travel
Caledonian Travel
Neoplan Tourliner N2216SHD
ex GL19TON
OU19XXW
Now carrying the livery of Caledonian Travel, Aspect Travel Neoplan AGZ433, ex GL19TON
The afternoon sun wreaking havoc with my photos in the Morrisons car park. This is a clean example and original in every aspect. Plz comment
Deep on the Delaware Bayside of New Jersey. Lush green grass, warm hues above, and friends out crabbing at sunset. All visible and memorable aspects.
Not visible were the swarms of green head flies that were the worst I've ever experienced. I luckily had on long pants since I was expecting mosquitos. I had to run back to my car and grab a hooded sweatshirt to block the annoying bugs from landing and biting. I may have looked weird, and was sweating bullets but it was worth it.
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EXPOSITION, NUMBER AND KIND OF ART WORKS, EVERYTHING PRESERVED IN A WONDERFUL ORDER...
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The Musée du Louvre
is one of the world's largest museums, and a historic monument. A central landmark of Paris, France, it is located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the 1st arrondissement (district). Nearly 35,000 objects from prehistory to the 21st century are exhibited over an area of 60,600 square metres (652,300 square feet). With more than 8 million visitors each year, the Louvre is the world's most visited museum.
The museum is housed in the Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre) which began as a fortress built in the late 12th century under Philip II. Remnants of the fortress are visible in the basement of the museum. The building was extended many times to form the present Louvre Palace. In 1682, Louis XIV chose the Palace of Versailles for his household, leaving the Louvre primarily as a place to display the royal collection, including, from 1692, a collection of antique sculpture.[6] In 1692, the building was occupied by the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres and the Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, which in 1699 held the first of a series of salons. The Académie remained at the Louvre for 100 years. During the French Revolution, the National Assembly decreed that the Louvre should be used as a museum, to display the nation's masterpieces.
The museum opened on 10 August 1793 with an exhibition of 537 paintings, the majority of the works being royal and confiscated church property. Because of structural problems with the building, the museum was closed in 1796 until 1801. The size of the collection increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed the Musée Napoléon. After the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, many works seized by his armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was further increased during the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second French Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings have grown steadily through donations and gifts since the Third Republic. As of 2008, the collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Near Eastern Antiquities; Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities; Islamic Art; Sculpture; Decorative Arts; Paintings; Prints and Drawings.
FOR MORE INFORMATIONS, PLEASE, FOLLOW THIS LINK:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Louvre
The Tuileries Garden
is a public garden located between the Louvre Museum and the Place de la Concorde in the 1st arrondissement of Paris. Created, in the heart of Paris, by the great and important Italian woman,
✿CATERINA DE MEDICI ✿ en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de'_Medici✿
as the garden of the Tuileries Palace in 1564, it was eventually first opened to the public in 1667, and became a public park after the French Revolution. In the 19th and 20th century, it was the place where Parisians celebrated, met, promenaded, and relaxed.
FOR MORE INFORMATION, PLEASE, FOLLOW THIS LINK:
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuileries_Garden
Le palais des Tuileries
était un palais parisien dont la construction commença en 1564 sous l'impulsion de
✿CATHERINE DE MEDICIS✿ fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_de_Médicis✿
à l'emplacement occupé auparavant par l'une des trois fabriques de tuiles établies en 1372 à côté des Quinze-Vingts et devant le Louvre. Agrandi sous les règnes successifs, il disposait d'une immense façade (266 mètres de long) et devint résidence royale de nombreux souverains (Henri IV, Louis XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI ou encore Louis XVIII), et impériale (Napoléon Ier puis Napoléon III) jusqu'à sa destruction par un incendie en mai 1871. Ses ruines furent abattues en 1883 (début officiel des travaux de démolition en janvier).
fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palais_des_Tuileries
FOR THE AREA
PLEASE, FLOOW THIS LINK:
wikimapia.org/#lang=fr&lat=48.862301&lon=2.331398...
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“It is an illusion that photos are made with the camera…
they are made with the eye, heart and head.”
[Henry Cartier Bresson]
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Please don't use any of my images on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit written permission.
© All rights reserved
Get Carter is a 1971 British gangster film, written and directed by Mike Hodges in his directorial debut and starring Michael Caine, Ian Hendry, John Osborne, Britt Ekland and Bryan Mosley. Based on Ted Lewis's 1970 novel Jack's Return Home, the film follows the eponymous Jack Carter (Caine), a London gangster who returns to his hometown in North East England to learn about his brother's supposedly accidental death. Suspecting foul play, and with vengeance on his mind, he investigates and interrogates, regaining a feel for the city and its hardened-criminal element.
Producer Michael Klinger optioned Lewis's novel shortly after its publication and made a deal with the ailing Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) to finance and release the film, making Get Carter the last project to be approved by the studio's Borehamwood division before its closure. The production went from novel to finished film in ten months, with principal photography taking place from July to September 1970 in and around Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead and County Durham. Hodges, Klinger and Caine intended to create a more realistic portrayal of violence and criminal behaviour than had previously been seen in British films: Caine, who also served as an uncredited co-producer, incorporated aspects of criminal acquaintances into his characterisation of Carter, while Hodges conducted research into the criminal underworld of Newcastle (in particular the one-armed bandit murder). Cinematographer Wolfgang Suschitzky worked with Hodges to give scenes a naturalistic feel, drawing heavily on their backgrounds in documentary films.
Turning a respectable profit upon its initial UK release, Get Carter initially attracted mixed reviews. Critics begrudgingly appreciated the film's technical achievements and Caine's performance while criticizing the complex plot, violence and amorality, in particular Carter's apparent lack of remorse for his actions. American critics were generally more enthusiastic, but the film languished on the drive-in circuit, while MGM focused its resources on producing Hit Man, a blaxploitation-themed remake of the film.
Get Carter eventually garnered a cult following, and further endorsements from directors such as Quentin Tarantino and Guy Ritchie led to the film being critically re-evaluated, with its depiction of class structure and life in 1970s Britain and Roy Budd's minimalist jazz score receiving considerable praise. In 1999, Get Carter was ranked 16th on the BFI Top 100 British films of the 20th century; five years later, a survey of British film critics in Total Film magazine chose it as the greatest British film of all time. A poorly received second remake under the same title was released in 2000, with Sylvester Stallone portraying Jack Carter and Caine in a supporting role.
Sir Michael Caine CBE (born Maurice Joseph Micklewhite; 14 March 1933) is an English retired actor. Known for his distinctive Cockney accent, he has appeared in more than 160 films over a career spanning eight decades and is considered a British film icon. He has received numerous awards including two Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, three Golden Globe Awards, and a Screen Actors Guild Award. As of 2017, the films in which Caine has appeared have grossed over $7.8 billion worldwide. Caine is one of only five male actors to be nominated for an Academy Award for acting in five different decades. In 2000, he received a BAFTA Fellowship and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II.
Often playing a Cockney, Caine made his breakthrough in the 1960s with starring roles in British films such as Zulu (1964), The Ipcress File (1965), The Italian Job (1969), and Battle of Britain (1969). During this time he established a distinctive visual style wearing thick horn-rimmed glasses combined with sharp suits and a laconic vocal delivery; he was recognised as a style icon of the 1960s. He solidified his stardom with roles in Get Carter (1971), The Last Valley (1971), The Man Who Would Be King (1975), The Eagle Has Landed (1976), and A Bridge Too Far (1977).
Caine received two Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actor for his roles as Elliot in Woody Allen's comedy Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), and as Dr. Wilbur Larch in Lasse Hallström's drama The Cider House Rules (1999). His other Oscar-nominated films include Alfie (1966), Sleuth (1972), Educating Rita (1983), and The Quiet American (2002). Other notable performances include in the films California Suite (1978), Dressed to Kill (1980), Mona Lisa (1986), Little Voice (1998), Quills (2000), Children of Men (2006), Harry Brown (2009), and Youth (2015).
Caine is also known for his performance as Ebenezer Scrooge in The Muppet Christmas Carol (1992), and for his comedic roles in Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (1988), Miss Congeniality (2000), Austin Powers in Goldmember (2002), and Secondhand Lions (2003). Caine portrayed Alfred Pennyworth in Christopher Nolan's Batman trilogy (2005–2012). He has also had roles in five other Nolan films: The Prestige (2006), Inception (2010), Interstellar (2014), Dunkirk (2017), and Tenet (2020). He announced his retirement from acting in October 2023, with his final film being The Great Escaper, which came out in the same month.
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Eco-quartier du Fort Numérique - Issy-les-Moulineaux - France
A suburb of Paris - France
Un quartier vraiment surprenant, on se croirait dans une ville proprette du futur.
Personnellement, je trouve que cela manque un peu de chaleur, et que cela donne un peu l’impression d’un quartier replié sur lui-même vivant dans une bulle, comme pour se protéger de l’extérieur, genre ghetto de la classe moyenne supérieure.
Ceci dit, l’architecture est vraiment intéressante. On ne peut pas rester indifférent devant ce quartier novateur sur bien des aspects.
D’un autre coté et paradoxalement on retrouve beaucoup de caractéristiques des cités populaires sur dalle des années 70. Cité repliée sur elle-même, parkings souterrains sous les jardins, place enfermée au centre d’un grand immeuble incurvé central. Immeuble d’ailleurs percé de passages pour permettre de le traverser à pied ou en voiture. Quelques commerces intégrés sur la place permettant de vivre en quasi autarcie. Impression d’avoir de multiples immeubles plantés les uns à côté des autres.
(Source : construction21.org)
Construit sur le site d'une ancienne forteresse du XIXe siècle démilitarisée en 2009, l'éco-quartier du Fort d'Issy représente 5% du territoire de la ville d'Issy-les-Moulineaux. Il s'étend sur 12 hectares et compte 1 623 logements (dont 330 logements sociaux), plus de 3 500 habitants, 2 300 m² de commerces et d'équipements publics et 44 000 m² d'espaces verts plantés de 300 arbres fruitiers. Dominant l'agglomération parisienne, il est conçu dans le respect d'une très haute qualité environnementale. Son habitat, ses équipements collectifs et ses activités respectent les normes de performances énergétiques les plus exigeantes, l'ensemble étant chauffé par géothermie. Le quartier est en outre raccordé à IssyGrid®, premier réseau de quartier intelligent en France, dont le but est de consommer mieux, moins et au bon moment.
Dans la plupart des logements, la fibre optique et un équipement domotique permettent de profiter au mieux de tous les services numériques. L'éco-quartier bénéficie par ailleurs d'un système inédit de collecte pneumatique des déchets par aspiration. Enfin, il est aussi le lieu d'expérimentation de la smart mobilité à Issy-les-Moulineaux : parking partagé, suivi en temps réel du bus grâce à son smartphone ou encore voitures électriques en libre-service.
Le projet d’Architecture-Studio, agence lauréate en 2001 du concours pour l’aménagement du nouvel éco-quartier numérique du Fort d'Issy a été primé à plusieurs reprises : il a notamment reçu la Marianne d'Or 2012 du développement durable et le Grand Prix des collectivités locales 2015 (prix des réseaux numériques).
(Source : leparisien.fr)
Au hasard des rencontres, dans le nouvel écoquartier d'Issy-les-Moulineaux, dans les hauteurs de la ville et loin de la rumeur urbaine, les habitants semblent étrangement unanimes : «On est dans une bulle ici. Il y a tous les commerces nécessaires, on n'a pas envie de quitter le quartier. C'est zen» assure un habitant en jogging, promenant son chien. Jeudi, la ville a dévoilé les résultats d'un sondage d'opinion réalisé sur 323 résidents et 46 habitants d'autres quartiers. 95% des personnes interrogées s'estiment fières de vivre au Fort. «Ca ne m'étonne pas, poursuit Pascal, habitant du quartier. Même si les derniers travaux n'ont été achevés qu'en septembre dernier, le quotidien est vraiment bien ici». Le secret, selon les habitants, le calme lié à l'absence de voiture. Le stationnement se fait en sous-sol. Et grâce à la collecte pneumatique souterraine - 9M€ d'investissements - les sacs-poubelles sont aspirés à l'extérieur du fort, évitant le passage des camions poubelles dans le quartier : «Il n'y a pas d‘agressions extérieures liées à la circulation, poursuit Laurence. On se rend compte de la différence dès que l'on met un pied à l'extérieur du Fort. Cela se répercute sur les comportements des gens, qui sont plus sereins, plus apaisés». En septembre dernier, Bruitparif, l'association qui mesure le bruit en Ile-de-France avait d'ailleurs chiffré à «3,8 milliards d'euros chaque année», l'impact lié aux nuisances sonores dans la région. Mais vivre dans un écoquartier signifie aussi réduire la facture énergique. Trois ans après les premières livraisons, 1623 logements cohabitent désormais au Fort d'Issy, avec un supermarché, deux restaurants, une conciergerie, une boulangerie, mais aussi une piscine et une médiathèque. Selon la mairie, cette mixité fonctionnelle permet de réduire 10 à 15% des déplacements. Et, la géothermie répond à 78% des besoins en chauffage ou en climatisation et a permis d'économiser 2000 tonnes de CO2 par an (chiffre Bouygues). Ce que confirment les habitants. De nouvelles expérimentations doivent être menées, entre autre pour réduire la consommation d'électricité du quartier. Reste toutefois que le chauffage semble poser encore quelques problèmes lors de sa mise en route chez certains locataires. «Et comme le quartier est très calme, nous sommes encore plus sensibles, poursuit Pascale, qui fait face au stade de football, notamment aux éclairages très forts du stade et aux cris des joueurs jusqu'à 22 heures tous les soirs».
El aspecto exterior siempre es importante que sea el mejor posible, tanto en lo personal (y si no que nos lo digan cuando salimos ,o como yo, salíamos a ligar) como en el profesional (imagen de empresa)
Esta pequeña reflexión la hago a colación del tren de la foto. Hasta no hace mucho las lonas de los contenedores de Tramesa iban de roña hasta las cejas, tanto que incluso era difícil distinguir el nombre en ellos. Parece que los responsables se dieron cuenta de la mala publicidad que era esa y sea quizá por ello ahora circulan limpios (teniendo en cuenta lo que transportan y que circulan largas distancias a la intemperie). Chapeau!!, sí señor, eso es cuidar la comunicación de la empresa. De paso, todo hay que decirlo, los que fotografiamos lo agradecemos porque las fotos ganan mucho.
Para terminar decir que la locomotora de Takargo, la 6007, es de las que me faltaba pillar con tren, si bien ya estaba inmortalizada desde el principio de sus tiempos. Ello es debido a que cuando salió de la factoría de Vossloh en pruebas un servidor estaba en Masalfa aguardando para pillarla. Aquel día bajó tan tarde de Barracas que fue imposible cazarla con las tolvas que llevaba. No obstante aguardé a que dejara la carga y subiera a la factoría para, sola, hacerla a pesar de las extremas condiciones de luz. Fue posible porque mientras realiza las maniobras de entrada no tiene más remedio que detenerse.
En fin, empieza el finde y solo quiero desearos que os vaya fenomenal.
Vigo-Sagunto. Barrio Roca -Meliana- (Valencia)
Historia de la fotografía
Retrato al daguerrotipo de una bailarina española de la escuela bolera, hacia el año 1850. Fototeca del IPCE.
Fotografía de J. Laurent, hacia el año 1875, de la Torre Nueva de Zaragoza. Fototeca del IPCE.
Diseño de una cámara oscura del siglo XVIII.
La historia de la fotografía estudia todos los aspectos relacionados con las imágenes fotográficas, a través del tiempo: procedimientos, inventores, fabricantes, autores de las fotografías, visión artística y documental, progreso técnico y evolución estética, aplicaciones, comercialización y consumo de imágenes fotográficas, difusión en otros medios de comunicación, conservación en museos y colecciones. Y su análisis, clasificación e interpretación.
Índice [ocultar]
1 Antecedentes
2 Inicios
2.1 Innovaciones técnicas y científicas
2.2 Fotografía en color
3 La fotografía en las artes visuales
3.1 Pictorialismo
4 Fotografía en el siglo XX: desde 1900 hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial
5 La fotografía a partir de 1945
6 La fotografía en el siglo XXI: digitalización
7 Véase también
8 Referencias
9 Bibliografía
10 Enlaces externos
Antecedentes[editar]
La historia de la fotografía empieza oficialmente en el año 1839, con la divulgación mundial del primer procedimiento fotográfico: el daguerrotipo.1
Como antecedentes de la fotografía, se encuentran la cámara oscura y las investigaciones sobre las sustancias fotosensibles, especialmente el ennegrecimiento de las sales de plata. Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965 a 1040) llevó varios experimentos sobre la cámara oscura y la cámara estenopeica.2
Cronología
1521 La primera publicación sobre la cámara oscura es la de Cesare Cesarino, un alumno de Leonardo Da Vinci durante el Renacimiento. Por su parte, el científico Georgius Fabricus experimentaba ya con las sales de plata, notando algunas de sus propiedades fotosensibles.
1558, Giovanni Battista della Porta, por sus publicaciones sobre el funcionamiento de la cámara oscura, se hizo popular entre los pintores de la época. Gerolamo Cardano sugiere una importante mejora: un lente en la apertura de la cámara, anteriormente un simple orificio o estenopo.
1600, durante el siglo XVII, la cámara que hasta ese momento era una habitación como tal se transforma en un instrumento portátil de madera. Johann Zahn transformó esa caja en un aparato parecido al usado en los principios de la fotografía.
En este siglo los científicos continuaban experimentando con sales de plata, notando cómo se oscurecían con la acción del aire y del Sol, sin saber que era la luz la que les hacía reaccionar, hasta que científicos como el sueco Carl Wilhelm Scheele y el suizo Jean Senebier revelaron que las sales reaccionaban con la acción de la luz.
1685, de acuerdo a tratados publicados por Zahn, la cámara ya estaba lista para la fotografía; pero todavía no se podían fijar las imágenes.
1777, el sueco Carl Wilhelm Scheele publica su tratado sobre las sales de plata y la acción de la luz, en latín y alemán; en 1780 en inglés, y un año más tarde en francés. En el estilo de las pinturas de artistas exitosos de este siglo como Canaletto parece evidente el uso como herramienta de la cámara oscura. Una cámara de este tipo que tiene grabado el nombre de Canaletto, se conserva en Venecia, aunque no está confirmado que efectivamente perteneciera al artista.
Artistas que comercializaban con éxito retratos, como el de Maximilien Robespierre, hacían uso de todo tipo de instrumentos para lograr trabajos casi perfectos. La silueta, un invento derivado del teatro de sombras chinas, se empezó a usar en Francia a mediados del siglo XVIII, como método rápido, económico y automático para hacer retratos de la creciente clientela burguesa que no podía pagar los retratos tradicionales pintados, ni las miniaturas que por esa época estaban de moda entre la nobleza. La silueta era un retrato de perfil, que se hacía copiando el perímetro de la sombra de una persona sobre un papel negro, que luego se recortaba con muchísimo cuidado, para montarse finalmente en otro papel blanco.
En esa misma línea evolutiva, sobre fines del siglo XVIII aparece el fisionotrazo para hacer perfiles, inventado por Gilles Louis Chretien. Estos inventos han sido denominados por Gisèle Freund como "precursores ideológicos" de la fotografía,3 en tanto representan los esfuerzos de muchos investigadores y artistas de Europa sobre fines del siglo XVIII y principios del XIX, de dar respuesta a una necesidad social en la burguesía ascendente: tener una forma de representación objetiva, mecánica, económica y rápida. El retrato de personas fue, desde entonces, el principal motor de las innovaciones técnicas que la fotografía incorporó durante todo el siglo XIX.
1801, pocos años antes de su muerte, el inglés Thomas Wedgwood hizo nuevos descubrimientos para capturar imágenes, sin lograr fijarlas adecuadamente.
Inicios[editar]
Vista desde la ventana en Le Gras. Debido a las 8 horas de exposición, la luz del sol ilumina los edificios de ambos lados.
Daguerrotipo experimental de 1837. Bodegón, por Daguerre.
A principios del siglo XIX, en el año 1824, el científico francés Nicéphore Niepce obtuvo unas primeras imágenes fotográficas, inéditas.3 La fotografía más antigua que se conserva es una reproducción de la imagen conocida como Vista desde la ventana en Le Gras, obtenida en 1826 con la utilización de una cámara oscura y una placa de peltre recubierta en betún.
Cuando Niepce comenzó sus investigaciones necesitaba un poco más de ocho horas de exposición, a plena luz del día, para obtener sus imágenes. En 1827, Niepce entra en contacto con Daguerre, quien se interesa por su invento e insiste en un acuerdo de trabajo para que le revele su procedimiento, el cual logra firmar con Niepce poco antes de su muerte en 1833. Desde entonces, Daguerre continúa sus experimentaciones, regresando al uso de las sales de plata que habían sido desestimadas por Niépce, y en 1839 hace público -con apoyo del Estado Francés y gran despliegue mediático-, su proceso para la obtención de fotografías sobre una superficie de plata pulida, a la que denominó daguerrotipo. Resolvía algunos problemas técnicos del procedimiento inicial de Niepce y reducía los tiempos necesarios de exposición, para hacerlo más adecuado a los fines del retrato de personas.
Casi al mismo tiempo Hércules Florence, Hippolythe Bayard y William Fox Talbot desarrollaron otros métodos diferentes, sin conocerse entre sí. El procedimiento creado por Fox Talbot obtenía negativos sobre un soporte de papel, y a partir de esos negativos reproducía copias positivas, también en papel. El procedimiento negativo-positivo de Talbot se llamó calotipo o talbotipo.
Inicialmente el daguerrotipo era mucho más popular, ya que era muy útil para obtener retratos, y su calidad de imagen era muy superior al calotipo. Estos "retratos al daguerrotipo" empezaron a divulgarse entre la clase burguesa de la Revolución industrial, por ser mucho más baratos que los pintados, lo que dio un gran impulso a esta nueva técnica.
Innovaciones técnicas y científicas[editar]
GERONA.- Puente de Isabel II. En el invierno de 1866-1867, José Martínez Sánchez obtuvo este negativo original de vidrio al colodión, del formato 27 x 36 centímetros. Se conserva en el Instituto del Patrimonio Cultural de España.
Para captar las imágenes se empleó la cámara oscura que experimentó constantes mejoras en su diseño y tamaño, así como en las lentes ópticas u objetivos utilizados, debido a las aportaciones de diferentes investigadores.
Los procedimientos fotográficos utilizados durante el siglo XIX fueron muy diversos, empezando por el daguerrotipo, y el calotipo. A partir de 1855 triunfó el sistema de los negativos de colodión húmedo, que permitían positivar muchas copias en papel a la albúmina, con gran nitidez y amplia gama de tonos. Estas copias a la albúmina fueron el tipo de papel fotográfico más empleado en la segunda mitad del siglo XIX. Todos estos sistemas se basaban en procesos artesanales, y requerían destrezas manuales significativas por parte de los fotógrafos, así como conocimientos prácticos de química y física.
Después de 1880 se desarrollaron las nuevas placas secas al gelatino-bromuro, que podían ser producidas de modo industrial y comercializadas sin limitaciones. Los fotógrafos compraban cajas de placas vírgenes, ya sensibilizadas, listas para cargar en chasis y ser expuestas en la cámara. También eran placas de vidrio; pero pronto empezó a usarse el soporte flexible de película de nitrato.
Tampoco deben olvidarse las aportaciones de George Eastman y la casa Kodak, que permiten concluir el camino hacia la instantánea fotográfica. A partir de 1888, Kodak sacó al mercado una cámara que utilizaba carretes de película enrollable, en lugar de placas planas. El sistema inventado por Kodak se complementaba además con el revelado de las tomas luego de expuestas, y la carga de la cámara con nueva película. Bajo el concepto "Ud. aprieta el botón, nosotros hacemos el resto", Kodak inauguraba la fotografía de aficionados.
Procedimientos fotográficos utilizados durante el siglo XIX:
Daguerrotipo
Calotipo
En 1851 se inventa el colodión húmedo, que reemplazó casi inmediatamente a las demás técnicas, por las mejoras introducidas en los tiempos de exposición. Con el colodión húmedo se habla por primera vez de "instantánea" fotográfica.
En 1854 se patentó la ambrotipia, un proceso fotográfico que crea una imagen positiva en una placa de cristal, mediante el proceso del colodión húmedo, es una patente de James Ambrose Cutting quien utilizó el colodión húmedo para obtener una imagen positiva en lugar de un negativo. Una variante de los ambrotipos son los ferrotipos, realizados sobre una base metálica de hierro.
Charles E. Bennett en 1878 inventa las placas secas al gelatino-bromuro que permitían positivar muchas copias en papel a la albúmina.
Desde 1888, Kodak fabrica carretes de película enrollable.
En el campo de las investigaciones científicas efectuadas con la utilización de la fotografía pueden resaltarse los estudios sobre locomoción humana y animal de Étienne Jules Marey y Edward Muybridge. Así, muy interesante fue poder averiguar la secuencia de movimientos de las patas de un caballo al galope, que era un tema de amplio debate entre los pintores de la época.
Fotografía en color[editar]
Exterior del estudio fotográfico de Kimbei, en Yokohama, Japón. Vista coloreada a mano, hacia 1881.
Placa autocroma Lumière, hacia 1917. Biplano francés en sus colores fotográficos.
La fotografía en color fue experimentada durante el siglo XIX, pero no tuvo aplicaciones comerciales, por su dificultad e imperfección. Los experimentos iniciales no fueron capaces de conseguir que los colores quedaran fijados en la fotografía. Una primera fotografía en color fue obtenida por el físico James Clerk Maxwell en 1861, realizando tres fotografías sucesivas, con la lente con un filtro diferente: rojo, verde y azul. Cada una de las tres imágenes se proyectaba sobre la misma pantalla con la luz del color del filtro que se había empleado para tomarla.
A lo largo del siglo XIX, y principios del XX, algunas fotografías se coloreaban a mano, con acuarelas, óleo, anilinas, u otros pigmentos. Pero este coloreado manual era artístico y no técnicamente fotográfico. Ya en la época del daguerrotipo se empezaron a colorear los retratos, pagando un suplemento. En algunos países, como Japón, se coloreaban la mayoría de las copias a la albúmina para su venta a extranjeros, especialmente los retratos de tipos populares y las vistas de paisajes y ciudades. Kusakabe Kimbei destacó en el coloreado de fotografías, realizando verdaderas obras maestras, hasta el año 1912.
La auténtica primera placa fotográfica en color, conocida comercialmente como Autochrome, fue patentada en diciembre de 1903 por los hermanos Lumière,4 pero no llegó a los mercados hasta 1907. Esas placas autocromas se fabricaban en Francia, y eran transparencias o diapositivas en soporte de vidrio. El sistema se basaba en una rejilla con puntos, cada uno de los tres colores elementales, como las pantallas de TV en color, que se ponía sobre una placa fotográfica en blanco y negro, al revelarla, la intensidad de luz correspondía a la del color de cada punto, formándose una imagen en colores. El procedimiento: 'Cibachrome', puesto a la venta en el último cuarto del siglo XX, se basaba en la misma idea. Fueron utilizadas especialmente por fotógrafos aficionados de todo el mundo. La mayor colección de placas autocromas se conserva en el Museo Albert-Kahn.5
La primera película fotográfica en color moderna, Kodachrome, fue utilizada por primera vez en 1935, y dejó de fabricarse en 2009. Eran diapositivas en color, producidas y reveladas por la compañía Eastman Kodak. Las demás películas modernas se han basado en la tecnología desarrollada por Agfacolor en 1936.
La fotografía en las artes visuales[editar]
La discusión acerca del estatus artístico de las fotografías se inaugura desde su invención. Sin embargo, durante el siglo XIX serán sólo intentos aislados los que se animen a desafiar el lugar que la institución artística ha destinado para la fotografía: el de auxiliar científico a la observación de la realidad, sin ninguna posibilidad de aspirar a la categoría de obra de arte en cuanto se consideraba que era la máquina la que hacía todo el trabajo.
Pictorialismo[editar]
La primera iniciativa organizada de fotografía artística surge en 1890 en Europa. Un grupo de fotógrafos crea técnicas de manipulación en la toma y en el positivado, y propone que el resultante de su uso es una obra de arte fotográfico, en cuanto requieren de manipulación por parte del autor y generan obras únicas: dos de los puntos discutidos por parte de los pintores para negar la artisticidad de la fotografía. Algunos autores pictorialistas son: Peter Henry Emerson, Robert Demachy, Henry Peach Robinson, Comandante Puyo. Los pictorialistas reconocen influencias y antecedentes en la fotografía academicista de Oscar Gustav Rejlander y en la obra de Julia Margaret Cameron, ambas de la década del 60 del siglo XIX. La fotografía pictorialista también se conoce como fotografía impresionista por la similitud formal y temática con esta corriente de la pintura.
Fotografía en el siglo XX: desde 1900 hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial[editar]
Fotografía aérea de Colonia, destruida por bombardeos aliados durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial
La aproximación a este período histórico de la fotografía nos lleva ineludiblemente al análisis del periodismo fotográfico, la relación de las vanguardias históricas y la fotografía y a una exposición de los diferentes realismos fotográficos que se desarrollan en estos años.
El periodismo fotográfico es el que nos da a conocer por medio de una foto lo que pasa en un lugar. Estas visualizaciones contienen mucha información, y permiten representarnos de un modo detallado -aunque siempre con limitaciones, como toda representación- lo que ha pasado en ese lugar y momento específico.
La posibilidad de imprimir fotografías junto al texto en periódicos y revistas fue investigada durante el siglo XIX mediante diferentes posibilidades, como la litografía o la xilografía. En 1880 se inventó la tećnica de impresión en medios tonos, que es la antecesora de los actuales procedimientos de ófset y fotocromía. Sin embargo, el fotoperiodismo también se enfrentaba a problemas técnicos en la toma fotográfica, ya que las emulsiones aún tenían sensibilidades muy bajas, por lo que tomar fotos en interiores o de noche se limitaba al uso irreemplazable del flash (de magnesio, en aquel entonces), cuyo funcionamiento tornaba indisimulable la presencia del fotógrafo. Sumado a esta dificultad, las cámaras de gran formato y la frecuente necesidad de usar trípode hacían que los fotoperiodistas estuvieran muy limitados en sus posibilidades de trabajar una suerte de "discurso fotográfico documental".
El primer fotógrafo que logró superar estas limitaciones fue Erich Salomon en Alemania, a partir de 1925. Salomon creó un estilo fotográfico documental conocido como "foto live" o fotografía cándida. Sus fotos se caracterizan por mostrar a los sujetos espontáneamente, sin pose ni arreglo, muchas veces sorprendidos por el fotógrafo, al estilo de los paparazzi.
A partir de entonces se inicia la época de las revistas ilustradas, como la francesa Vu, desde 1928, dirigida por Lucien Vogel y la estadounidense Life, a cargo de Henry Luce, desde 1936. Hasta la década de 1970 serán los soportes principales de publicación para los fotodocumentalistas, y luego irán perdiendo protagonismo frente a la televisión.
La fotografía a partir de 1945[editar]
Todos los géneros fotográficos surgidos en momentos históricos anteriores tienen su continuación tras la finalización de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Especial relevancia presenta la evolución en estos años del periodismo fotográfico, en el ámbito de la fotografía documental y los nuevos diálogos que se establecen entre la fotografía y las artes plásticas, que comienzan a fundirse en la denominación genérica de artes visuales.
Asistimos, igualmente a la aparición de otros usos de la fotografía en este período, así como al desarrollo de nuevas visiones de la fotografía de paisaje y del empleo masivo de la fotografía en color, gracias a la obra de William Eggleston, entre otros autores.
En estos años merecen especial mención las obras de Robert Doisneau, W. Eugene Smith, Robert Frank, Diane Arbus, entre muchos otros.
Cronología
1947 Se funda la Agencia Magnum: una cooperativa de fotógrafos preocupados por la manipulación de la información fotográfica en los medios de prensa, que se autoorganiza para controlar los temas a cubrir, y la edición fotográfica a la hora de su publicación.
1950, nuevos procedimientos industriales permiten incrementar enormemente la velocidad y la sensibilidad a la luz de las películas en color y en blanco y negro. La velocidad de éstas últimas se elevó desde un máximo de 100 ISO hasta otro teórico de 5000 ISO, mientras que en las de color se multiplicó por diez.
1960, que los primeros VTR (video tape recorder) que en 1951, ya eran capaces de capturar imágenes de televisión, convertirlas en una señal eléctrica y guardarlas en soportes magnéticos) son utilizados por la NASA, para captar las primeras fotografías electrónicas de Marte.
1969, es considerado el inicio de la carrera digital. Willard Boyle y George Smith diseñan la estructura básica del primer CCD (acrónimo de Charge Couple Device ó Dispositivo de Carga Acoplada). Este dispositivo CCD planteado como un sistema para el almacenamiento de información es utilizado un año más tarde, por los laboratorios Bell como sistema para capturar imágenes al construir la primera videocámara.
La fotografía en el siglo XXI: digitalización[editar]
Artículo principal: Fotografía digital
Animación con la fotografía del [pPuente Golden Gate
de San Francisco, EE. UU. En la imagen se puede ver la original y el retoque.]]
A finales del siglo XX aparece un nuevo tipo de tecnología en los medios audiovisuales que supone un cambio de rumbo en la forma de utilizarlos. La aparición de la primera cámara digital en 1990 constituye la base de la creación inmediata de imágenes. A pesar de que en sus orígenes el precio de estas cámaras era elevado y las hacía inaccesibles para muchos, con el tiempo no sólo han bajado de precio sino que han aumentado su calidad técnica. La digitalización ha liberado a la fotografía del carácter documental histórico ya que la manipulación de imágenes a través de la infografía ha permitido recuperar el imaginario pictórico y narrativo que se había perdido de la cultura visual como consecuencia de la aparición de la cámara.
"La fotografía digital entronca con la ideología del collage entendido como fotomontaje de vanguardia dadaísta o constructivista, que mostraba el recorte y el carácter fragmentario de su construcción sin pretender engañar a nadie. No obstante, la fotografía digital consigue eliminar las marcas del proceso de construcción del "collage" y dotar al fotomontaje de carácter unitario".6
Desde su invención, la fotografía tenía total credibilidad como testimonio incuestionable de la realidad debido al funcionamiento del dispositivo de captura. Posteriormente, la manera de registrar la realidad se ha considerado un posicionamiento ideológico, que nada tiene que ver con el carácter neutral y objetivo de su funcionamiento.
Las nuevas tecnologías digitales tienen la capacidad de convertir lo real e intervenir sobre el registro de la imagen, hasta el punto de manipular y distorsionar las imágenes sin perder el realismo fotográfico con el que fueron captadas.
La digitalización desposee a la fotografía de su carácter objetivo y rompe la conexión física entre el referente y la impresión fotosensible, es decir, entre la experiencia perceptiva de la realidad por observación directa y la imagen mediada a través de una tecnología. Con la pérdida de objetividad de la imagen fotográfica, a comienzos de la década de los noventa, se empieza a hablar de la era post-fotográfica, en la que se supera el paradigma fotográfico como modelo de realismo. Lo real y lo virtual se mezclan dando lugar a un nuevo tipo de imagen híbrida para definir las nuevas creaciones pseudo-fotográficas. Los programas de manipulación de la imagen son protagonistas en esta etapa, así como el retoque fotográfico, la fusión de imágenes, la infografía o la generación de tridimensionalidad, holografía.
by A. HYATT VERRILL from travel magazine, June 1925, Los aguateros de burro eran más numerosos que los de cabalo y eran los que estaban más sujetos a fiscalización. Ruschenberger los describe así: “... el aguador va sentado en ancas moviendo sus piernas desnudas, primero una y después la otra como en el acto de espolear”. Montaba “ apoyado transversalmente sobre el fuste delantero de la silla” y llevaba una vara larga con un garfio en la punta, haciendo sonar un cencerro que usaba prendido a la montura con el fin de anunciar su presencia.
Al detenerse para vender el agua, el aguatero desataba una de las dos tinajas y sostenía la otra con la vara “evitando así que se vuelque la montura”.
Otros eran los muleros de la carne o carniceros callejeros, porque hasta la carne “se expendía por vendedores ambulantes que salían a las 11 de la mañana de los
mercados municipales”, del Puerto, el Cardonal y el Cóndor a fines del XIX. Era la carne para el consumo, y se vendía por las calles transportada en burros en los años treinta, y que, según William Ruschenberg “generalmente causa repugnancia al extranjero, tanto por la apariencia sucia y seca de la carne, cuanto por el aspecto cruel y ensangrentado del carnicero” y apunta que “en lugar de descuartizar el animal, disecan separadamente los grandes músculos, siendo este sistema muy a propósito para la cocina chilena”.
Llevaban los trozos de carne en alforjas de cuero que colocaba a cada lado de su burro, siguiendolo a paso lento y con un gran cuchillo dispuesto a trozar rápidamente la carne, que ofrecía con su fuerte pregón “con voz gangosa, carne de vaca o carne (de) cordero”.
Tengo un par de fotos de vendedores de pescado, que cuelgan a los costados de sus burros, dale una mirada al álbum que recién formé.
A fines del siglo XIX se veía todavía esta imagen de siempre. Benjamín Subercaseaux, que reparaba en las pequeñeces de la ciudad, distingue las clases de burros según su carga y se detiene en describir el burro de la carne que va cargando “los trozos de carne sanguinolienta [y] trepa por las calles empinadas remeciendo su carga... de pulpa y de gorduras bajo los paños que la cubren, y un enjambre de moscas que se agitan en torno”.
Más cotidianos eran los panaderos ambulantes o petaqueros”, quienes traían el pan desde las panaderías y lo ofrecían en el plan y en los cerros “en carpachos de cuero curtidos”, tal como lo captó Harry Olds en una de sus fotografías de 1899.
En ella se ve al hombre y al burro, y a cada lado de este último, dos grandes recipientes de cuero con su tapa, cosido también con cuero, y envueltos en un paño blanco, que permitía mantener la tapa abierta para mostrar la frescura del pan a los compradores. La mayoría de los petaqueros no horneaban su mercancía sino que eran distribuidores contratados por quienes tenían panadería en el plan.
En la mañana, lo expendían fresco y, por las tardes, subían a los cerros a ofrecer el pan endurecido que no se había vendido durante el día. El panadero, como lo ha llamado Harry Olds, vestía delantal blanco e iba acompañado por su perro, que compartía la montura con su amo.