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"A lei da mente é implacável.
O que você pensa, você cria;
O que você sente, você atrai;
O que você acredita torna-se realidade"
Buda
"The law of the mind is relentless.
What do you think, you create;
What do you feel, you attract;
What you believe becomes reality "
Buddha
"La ley de la mente es implacable.
Qué piensa usted, que cree;
Qué sientes, atraes;
Lo que usted cree se convierte en realidad "
Buda
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Portuguese
O budismo tibetano, também chamado de budismo vajrayana ou lamaísmo, emprega práticas de meditação na forma de elaborados rituais, com leitura de Saddhanas (textos litúrgicos), visualizações e instrumentos musicais. Possui uma forte tradição nas artes, com elaboradas pinturas e esculturas, e também em ordens monásticas, com ênfase no relacionamento entre alunos e lamas.
Pertence a uma vertente do budismo chamada maaiana, mais precisamente, a vertente Vajrayana (tantrismo ou "Veículo do Diamante"), e apesar de não se organizar como uma instituição, tem sua representação maior na figura do Dalai Lama.
As principais escolas são Nyingma, Kagyu, Gelug (escola de que faz parte o Dalai Lama) e Sakya.
O termo "lamaísmo" provém do tibetano Lama, que significa "mestre" ou "superior", e que designa, geralmente, os monges tibetanos, em especial os hierarquicamente superiores.
Esta denominação foi dada ao budismo tibetano pelos estudiosos europeus, principalmente, que se utilizaram deste termo para distingui-lo do budismo indiano e permitir que fosse dada ênfase ao seu caráter místico. Segundo alguns outros autores, contudo, tal emprego da palavra é impróprio, pois tem a intenção de estabelecer distinções entre as duas correntes que, na verdade, não existem.
O Lamaísmo apresenta um duplo aspecto, assim como a maior parte das religiões orientais: o doutrinal e o popular.
A doutrina lamaica", que se distingue da tradição Teravada (também chamada de "Doutrina dos Anciões"), tem como base filosófica a manutenção e o desenvolvimento da tradição do Mahaiana (Mahayana, "grande veículo") que não tem um caráter de pura magia. Entretanto, o culto popular, em função da influência da religião Bön, mais antiga e nativa, apresenta várias divindades e uma conotação acentuadamente mágica.
Essa doutrina, em síntese, é bem menos conhecida que suas manifestações populares. Em razão disso, alguns estudiosos erroneamente exageram em seu aspecto mágico, estendendo-o também à prática monástica.
English
Tibetan Buddhism is the body of Buddhist religious doctrine and institutions characteristic of Tibet, Mongolia, Tuva, Bhutan, Kalmykia and certain regions of the Himalayas, including northern Nepal, and India (particularly in Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Dharamsala, Lahaul and Spiti district in Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim). It is the state religion of Bhutan. It is also practiced in Mongolia and parts of Russia (Kalmykia, Buryatia, and Tuva) and Northeast China. Religious texts and commentaries are contained in the Tibetan Buddhist canon such that Tibetan is a spiritual language of these areas.
The Tibetan diaspora has spread Tibetan Buddhism to many Western countries, where the tradition has gained popularity. Among its prominent exponents is the 14th Dalai Lama of Tibet. The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million.
Tibetan
སྐད་རིགས་གཞན་ཐོག།
བོད་བརྒྱུད་ནང་བསྟན་ནི་ནང་བསྟན་གྱི་གཟུགས་བརྙན་ལྟ་བུ་ཡིན་ཞིང་ཆོས་ཀྱི་སྙིང་པོ་དང་ ཁོངས་གཏོགས་དམིགས་བསལ་རང་བཞིན་གྱི་བོད་དང་ ཧེ་མ་ལ་ཡའི་གྱི་བལ་ཡུལ་གྱི་བྱང་ཕྱོགས་དང་ འབྲུག་ཡུལ་དེ་མིན་རྒྱ་གར་དང་ ཨ་རུ་ནཱ་ཅལ་མངའ་སྡེ།ལ་ཏགས་འབྲས་ལྗོངས་བཅས་སུ་ཡོད།
Spanish
El budismo tibetano es el budismo que se desarrolló en los Himalayas. También conocido como budismo vashraiana y budismo tántrico. Esta forma de budismo es seguida por el 6 % de todos los budistas, siendo una de las escuelas budistas más practicadas y una de las mejor conocidas en Occidente.
El budismo tibetano o lamaísta es mayoritario en Bután, Mongolia, Ladakh (India) y Tíbet, así como hay importantes minorías budistas lamaístas en Sikkim (India), en Nepal y en las regiones de etnia mongol de Rusia como Buriatia, Kalmukia, Tuvá y en Mongolia Interior (China). Básicamente, esta forma de budismo es la religión predominante de los pueblos mongoles y tibetanos, todos los cuales reconocen al Dalái Lama como Bodhisattva y por tanto lo respetan como un alto maestro espiritual, si bien cada una de las escuelas tiene una jerarquía distinta y un sistema propio de enseñanza. Al tener unos 20 millones de seguidores, mayoritarios en diferentes países y regiones autónomas, es una de las ramas más grandes e importantes del budismo.
Asociado a este tipo de budismo aparece la figura del lama. En la clásica división del budismo entre monjes y laicos, los lamas tibetanos suponen una figura con relevancia no solo religiosa sino que fueron centro de la vida social y económica de Tíbet.
Wikipedia
© Zoë Murdoch - All Rights Reserved! Use without permission is illegal!
Requiem For Fiction
~ Image No: 23.
Account
The history of my stupidity would fill many volumes.
Some would be devoted to acting against consciousness,
Like the flight of a moth which, had it known,
Would have tended nevertheless toward the candle's flame.
Others would deal with ways to silence anxiety,
The little whisper which, thought it is a warning, is ignored.
I would deal separately with satisfaction and pride,
The time when I was among their adherents
Who strut victoriously, unsuspecting.
But all of them would have one subject, desire,
If only my own -- but no, not at all; alas,
I was driven because I wanted to be like others.
I was afraid of what was wild and indecent in me.
The history of my stupidity will not be written.
For one thing, it's late. And the truth is laborious.
~ Czeslaw Milosz
*D.H. Lawrence
Photo Copyright 2012, dynamo.photography.
All rights reserved, no use without license
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Hong kong)
Hong Kong, officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, is an autonomous territory south to Mainland China and east to Macao in East Asia. With around 7.2 million Hong Kongers of various nationalities[note 2] in a territory of 1,104 km2, Hong Kong is the world's fourth most densely populated country or territory.
Hong Kong used to be a British colony with the perpetual cession of Hong Kong Island from the Qing Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). The colony expanded to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and acquired a 99-year lease of the New Territories from 1898. Hong Kong was later occupied by Japan during the Second World War until British control resumed in 1945. The Sino-British Joint Declaration signed between the United Kingdom and China in 1984 paved way for the transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong in 1997, when it became a special administrative region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China with a high degree of autonomy.[15]
Under the principle of "one country, two systems",[16][17] Hong Kong maintains a separate political and economic system from China. Except in military defence and foreign affairs, Hong Kong maintains its independent executive, legislative and judiciary powers.[18] In addition, Hong Kong develops relations directly with foreign states and international organisations in a broad range of "appropriate fields".[19] Hong Kong involves in international organizations, such as the WTO[20] and the APEC [21], actively and independently.
Hong Kong is one of the world's most significant financial centres, with the highest Financial Development Index score and consistently ranks as the world's most competitive and freest economic entity.[22][23] As the world's 8th largest trading entity,[24] its legal tender, the Hong Kong dollar, is the world's 13th most traded currency.[25] As the world's most visited city,[26][27] Hong Kong's tertiary sector dominated economy is characterised by competitive simple taxation and supported by its independent judiciary system.[28] Even with one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, it suffers from severe income inequality.[29]
Nicknamed "Pearl of the Orient", Hong Kong is renowned for its deep natural harbour, which boasts the world's fifth busiest port with ready access by cargo ships, and its impressive skyline, with the most skyscrapers in the world.[30][31] It has a very high Human Development Index ranking and the world's longest life expectancy.[32][33] Over 90% of the population makes use of well-developed public transportation.[34][35] Seasonal air pollution with origins from neighbouring industrial areas of Mainland China, which adopts loose emissions standards, has resulted in a high level of atmospheric particulates in winter.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Prehistory
2.2 Imperial China
2.3 British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
2.4 Japanese occupation: 1941–45
2.5 Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
2.6 Handover and Special Administrative Region status
3 Governance
3.1 Structure of government
3.2 Electoral and political reforms
3.3 Legal system and judiciary
3.4 Foreign relations
3.5 Human rights
3.6 Regions and districts
3.7 Military
4 Geography and climate
5 Economy
5.1 Financial centre
5.2 International trading
5.3 Tourism and expatriation
5.4 Policy
5.5 Infrastructure
6 Demographics
6.1 Languages
6.2 Religion
6.3 Personal income
6.4 Education
6.5 Health
7 Culture
7.1 Sports
7.2 Architecture
7.3 Cityscape
7.4 Symbols
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Sources
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
Hong Kong was officially recorded in the 1842 Treaty of Nanking to encompass the entirety of the island.[39]
The source of the romanised name "Hong Kong" is not known, but it is generally believed to be an early imprecise phonetic rendering of the pronunciation in spoken Cantonese 香港 (Cantonese Yale: Hēung Góng), which means "Fragrant Harbour" or "Incense Harbour".[13][14][40] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet—now Aberdeen Harbour (Chinese: 香港仔; Cantonese Yale: Hēunggóng jái), literally means "Little Hong Kong"—between Aberdeen Island and the southern coast of Hong Kong Island. Aberdeen was an initial point of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.[41]
Another theory is that the name would have been taken from Hong Kong's early inhabitants, the Tankas (水上人); it is equally probable that romanisation was done with a faithful execution of their speeches, i.e. hōng, not hēung in Cantonese.[42] Detailed and accurate romanisation systems for Cantonese were available and in use at the time.[43]
Fragrance may refer to the sweet taste of the harbour's fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River or to the incense from factories lining the coast of northern Kowloon. The incense was stored near Aberdeen Harbour for export before Hong Kong developed Victoria Harbour.[40]
The name had often been written as the single word Hongkong until the government adopted the current form in 1926.[44] Nevertheless, a number of century-old institutions still retain the single-word form, such as the Hongkong Post, Hongkong Electric and the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation.
As of 1997, its official name is the "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China". This is the official title as mentioned in the Hong Kong Basic Law and the Hong Kong Government's website;[45] however, "Hong Kong Special Administrative Region" and "Hong Kong" are widely accepted.
Hong Kong has carried many nicknames. The most famous among those is the "Pearl of the Orient", which reflected the impressive nightscape of the city's light decorations on the skyscrapers along both sides of the Victoria Harbour. The territory is also known as "Asia's World City".
History
Main articles: History of Hong Kong and History of China
Prehistory
Main article: Prehistoric Hong Kong
Archaeological studies support human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area (now Hong Kong International Airport) from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago and on Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.[46][47][48]
Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the earliest sites of human habitation in Hong Kong during the Paleolithic Period. It is believed that the Three Fathom Cove was a river-valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggested cultural differences from the Longshan culture of northern China and settlement by the Che people, prior to the migration of the Baiyue to Hong Kong.[49][50] Eight petroglyphs, which dated to the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC – 1066 BC) in China, were discovered on the surrounding islands.[51]
Imperial China
Main article: History of Hong Kong under Imperial China
In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of a centralised China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern-day Liangguang region and Vietnam) and incorporated the area of Hong Kong into his imperial China for the first time. Hong Kong proper was assigned to the Nanhai commandery (modern-day Nanhai District), near the commandery's capital city Panyu.[52][53][54]
After a brief period of centralisation and collapse of the Qin dynasty, the area of Hong Kong was consolidated under the Kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC.[55] When Nanyue lost the Han-Nanyue War in 111 BC, Hong Kong came under the Jiaozhi commandery of the Han dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates an increase of population and flourish of salt production. The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb on the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built as a burial site during the Han dynasty.[56]
From the Han dynasty to the early Tang dynasty, Hong Kong was a part of Bao'an County. In the Tang dynasty, modern-day Guangzhou (Canton) flourished as an international trading centre. In 736, the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military stronghold in Tuen Mun to strengthen defence of the coastal area.[57] The nearby Lantau Island was a salt production centre and salt smuggler riots occasionally broke out against the government. In c. 1075, The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 AD in modern-day New Territories by the Northern Song dynasty.[58] During their war against the Mongols, the imperial court of Southern Song was briefly stationed at modern-day Kowloon City (the Sung Wong Toi site) before their ultimate defeat by the Mongols at the Battle of Yamen in 1279.[59] The Mongols then established their dynastic court and governed Hong Kong for 97 years.
From the mid-Tang dynasty to the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Hong Kong was a part of Dongguan County. During the Ming dynasty, the area was transferred to Xin'an County. The indigenous inhabitants at that time consisted of several ethnicities such as Punti, Hakka, Tanka and Hoklo.
European discovery
The earliest European visitor on record was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer, who arrived in 1513.[60][61] Having established a trading post in a site they called "Tamão" in Hong Kong waters, Portuguese merchants commenced with regular trading in southern China. Subsequent military clashes between China and Portugal, however, led to the expulsion of all Portuguese merchants from southern China.
Since the 14th century, the Ming court had enforced the maritime prohibition laws that strictly forbade all private maritime activities in order to prevent contact with foreigners by sea.[62] When the Manchu Qing dynasty took over China, Hong Kong was directly affected by the Great Clearance decree of the Kangxi Emperor, who ordered the evacuation of coastal areas of Guangdong from 1661 to 1669. Over 16,000 inhabitants of Xin'an County including those in Hong Kong were forced to migrate inland; only 1,648 of those who had evacuated subsequently returned.[63][64]
British Crown Colony: 1842–1941
A painter at work. John Thomson. Hong Kong, 1871. The Wellcome Collection, London
Main articles: British Hong Kong and History of Hong Kong (1800s–1930s)
In 1839, threats by the imperial court of Qing to sanction opium imports caused diplomatic friction with the British Empire. Tensions escalated into the First Opium War. The Qing admitted defeat when British forces captured Hong Kong Island on 20 January 1841. The island was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpi as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan. A dispute between high-ranking officials of both countries, however, led to the failure of the treaty's ratification. On 29 August 1842, Hong Kong Island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Treaty of Nanking.[65] The British officially established a Crown colony and founded the City of Victoria in the following year.[66]
The population of Hong Kong Island was 7,450 when the Union Flag raised over Possession Point on 26 January 1841. It mostly consisted of Tanka fishermen and Hakka charcoal burners, whose settlements scattered along several coastal hamlets. In the 1850s, a large number of Chinese immigrants crossed the then-free border to escape from the Taiping Rebellion. Other natural disasters, such as flooding, typhoons and famine in mainland China would play a role in establishing Hong Kong as a place for safe shelter.[67][68]
Further conflicts over the opium trade between Britain and Qing quickly escalated into the Second Opium War. Following the Anglo-French victory, the Crown Colony was expanded to include Kowloon Peninsula (south of Boundary Street) and Stonecutter's Island, both of which were ceded to the British in perpetuity under the Convention of Beijing in 1860.
In 1898, Britain obtained a 99-year lease from Qing under the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, in which Hong Kong obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island, the area north of Boundary Street in Kowloon up to Shenzhen River and over 200 other outlying islands.[69][70][71]
Hong Kong soon became a major entrepôt thanks to its free port status, attracting new immigrants to settle from both China and Europe. The society, however, remained racially segregated and polarised under early British colonial policies. Despite the rise of a British-educated Chinese upper-class by the late-19th century, race laws such as the Peak Reservation Ordinance prevented ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong from acquiring houses in reserved areas such as Victoria Peak. At this time, the majority of the Chinese population in Hong Kong had no political representation in the British colonial government. The British governors did rely, however, on a small number of Chinese elites, including Sir Kai Ho and Robert Hotung, who served as ambassadors and mediators between the government and local population.
File:1937 Hong Kong VP8.webmPlay media
Hong Kong filmed in 1937
In 1904, the United Kingdom established the world's first border and immigration control; all residents of Hong Kong were given citizenship as Citizens of United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC).
Hong Kong continued to experience modest growth during the first half of the 20th century. The University of Hong Kong was established in 1911 as the territory's first higher education institute. While there had been an exodus of 60,000 residents for fear of a German attack on the British colony during the First World War, Hong Kong remained unscathed. Its population increased from 530,000 in 1916 to 725,000 in 1925 and reached 1.6 million by 1941.[72]
In 1925, Cecil Clementi became the 17th Governor of Hong Kong. Fluent in Cantonese and without a need for translator, Clementi introduced the first ethnic Chinese, Shouson Chow, into the Executive Council as an unofficial member. Under Clementi's tenure, Kai Tak Airport entered operation as RAF Kai Tak and several aviation clubs. In 1937, the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out when the Japanese Empire expanded its territories from northeastern China into the mainland proper. To safeguard Hong Kong as a freeport, Governor Geoffry Northcote declared the Crown Colony as a neutral zone.
Japanese occupation: 1941–45
Main article: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong
The Cenotaph in Hong Kong commemorates those who died in service in the First World War and the Second World War.[73]
As part of its military campaign in Southeast Asia during Second World War, the Japanese army moved south from Guangzhou of mainland China and attacked Hong Kong in on 8 December 1941.[74] Crossing the border at Shenzhen River on 8 December, the Battle of Hong Kong lasted for 18 days when British and Canadian forces held onto Hong Kong Island. Unable to defend against intensifying Japanese air and land bombardments, they eventually surrendered control of Hong Kong on 25 December 1941. The Governor of Hong Kong was captured and taken as a prisoner of war. This day is regarded by the locals as "Black Christmas".[75]
During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, the Japanese army committed atrocities against civilians and POWs, such as the St. Stephen's College massacre. Local residents also suffered widespread food shortages, limited rationing and hyper-inflation arising from the forced exchange of currency from Hong Kong dollars to Japanese military banknotes. The initial ratio of 2:1 was gradually devalued to 4:1 and ownership of Hong Kong dollars was declared illegal and punishable by harsh torture. Due to starvation and forced deportation for slave labour to mainland China, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony on 2 September 1945.[76]
Resumption of British rule and industrialisation: 1945–97
Main articles: British Hong Kong, 1950s in Hong Kong, 1960s in Hong Kong, 1970s in Hong Kong, 1980s in Hong Kong, and 1990s in Hong Kong
Flag of British Hong Kong from 1959 to 1997
Hong Kong's population recovered quickly after the war, as a wave of skilled migrants from the Republic of China moved in to seek refuge from the Chinese Civil War. When the Communist Party eventually took full control of mainland China in 1949, even more skilled migrants fled across the open border for fear of persecution.[69] Many newcomers, especially those who had been based in the major port cities of Shanghai and Guangzhou, established corporations and small- to medium-sized businesses and shifted their base operations to British Hong Kong.[69] The establishment of a socialist state in China (People's Republic of China) on 1 October 1949 caused the British colonial government to reconsider Hong Kong's open border to mainland China. In 1951, a boundary zone was demarked as a buffer zone against potential military attacks from communist China. Border posts along the north of Hong Kong began operation in 1953 to regulate the movement of people and goods into and out of the territory.
Stamp with portrait of Queen Elizabeth II, 1953
In the 1950s, Hong Kong became the first of the Four Asian Tiger economies under rapid industrialisation driven by textile exports, manufacturing industries and re-exports of goods to China. As the population grew, with labour costs remaining low, living standards began to rise steadily.[77] The construction of the Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme to provide shelter for the less privileged and to cope with the influx of immigrants.
Under Sir Murray MacLehose, 25th Governor of Hong Kong (1971–82), a series of reforms improved the public services, environment, housing, welfare, education and infrastructure of Hong Kong. MacLehose was British Hong Kong's longest-serving governor and, by the end of his tenure, had become one of the most popular and well-known figures in the Crown Colony. MacLehose laid the foundation for Hong Kong to establish itself as a key global city in the 1980s and early 1990s.
A sky view of Hong Kong Island
An aerial view of the northern shore of Hong Kong Island in 1986
To resolve traffic congestion and to provide a more reliable means of crossing the Victoria Harbour, a rapid transit railway system (metro), the MTR, was planned from the 1970s onwards. The Island Line (Hong Kong Island), Kwun Tong Line (Kowloon Peninsula and East Kowloon) and Tsuen Wan Line (Kowloon and urban New Territories) opened in the early 1980s.[78]
In 1983, the Hong Kong dollar left its 16:1 peg with the Pound sterling and switched to the current US-HK Dollar peg. Hong Kong's competitiveness in manufacturing gradually declined due to rising labour and property costs, as well as new development in southern China under the Open Door Policy introduced in 1978 which opened up China to foreign business. Nevertheless, towards the early 1990s, Hong Kong had established itself as a global financial centre along with London and New York City, a regional hub for logistics and freight, one of the fastest-growing economies in Asia and the world's exemplar of Laissez-faire market policy.[79]
The Hong Kong question
In 1971, the Republic of China (Taiwan)'s permanent seat on the United Nations was transferred to the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong Kong's status as a recognised colony became terminated in 1972 under the request of PRC. Facing the uncertain future of Hong Kong and expiry of land lease of New Territories beyond 1997, Governor MacLehose raised the question in the late 1970s.
The British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified Hong Kong into a British Dependent Territory amid the reorganisation of global territories of the British Empire. All residents of Hong Kong became British Dependent Territory Citizens (BDTC). Diplomatic negotiations began with China and eventually concluded with the 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration. Both countries agreed to transfer Hong Kong's sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, when Hong Kong would remain autonomous as a special administrative region and be able to retain its free-market economy, British common law through the Hong Kong Basic Law, independent representation in international organisations (e.g. WTO and WHO), treaty arrangements and policy-making except foreign diplomacy and military defence.
It stipulated that Hong Kong would retain its laws and be guaranteed a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, based on English law, would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer. It was ratified in 1990.[69] The expiry of the 1898 lease on the New Territories in 1997 created problems for business contracts, property leases and confidence among foreign investors.
Handover and Special Administrative Region status
Main articles: Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong and 2000s in Hong Kong
Transfer of sovereignty
Golden Bauhinia Square
On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China took place, officially marking the end of Hong Kong's 156 years under British colonial governance. As the largest remaining colony of the United Kingdom, the loss of Hong Kong effectively represented the end of the British Empire. This transfer of sovereignty made Hong Kong the first special administrative region of China. Tung Chee-Hwa, a pro-Beijing business tycoon, was elected Hong Kong's first Chief Executive by a selected electorate of 800 in a televised programme.
Structure of government
Hong Kong's current structure of governance inherits from the British model of colonial administration set up in the 1850s. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration states that "Hong Kong should enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all areas except defence and foreign affairs" with reference to the underlying principle of one country, two systems.[note 3] This Declaration stipulates that Hong Kong maintains her capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of her people for at least 50 years after the 1997 handover. [note 4] Such guarantees are enshrined in the Hong Kong's Basic Law, the territory's constitutional document, which outlines the system of governance after 1997, albeit subject to interpretation by China's Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).[95][96]
Hong Kong's most senior leader, Chief Executive, is elected by a committee of 1,200 selected members (600 in 1997) and nominally appointed by the Government of China. The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, Legislative Council, civil service and Judiciary.
Policy-making is initially discussed in the Executive Council, presided by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, before passing to the Legislative Council for bill adoption. The Executive Council consists of 30 official/unofficial members appointed by the Chief Executive and one member among them acts as the convenor.[97][98]
The Legislative Council, set up in 1843, debates policies and motions before voting to adopt or rejecting bills. It has 70 members (originally 60) and 40 (originally 30) among them are directly elected by universal suffrage; the other 30 members are "functional constituencies" (indirectly) elected by a smaller electorate of corporate bodies or representatives of stipulated economic sectors as defined by the government. The Legislative Council is chaired by a president who acts as the speaker.[99][100]
In 1997, seating of the Legislative Council (also public services and election franchises) of Hong Kong modelled on the British system: Urban Council (Hong Kong and Kowloon) and District Council (New Territories and Outlying Islands). In 1999, this system has been reformed into 18 directly elected District Offices across 5 Legislative Council constituencies: Hong Kong Island (East/West), Kowloon and New Territories (East/West); the remaining outlying islands are divided across the aforementioned regions.
Hong Kong's Civil Service, created by the British colonial government, is a politically neutral body that implements government policies and provides public services. Senior civil servants are appointed based on meritocracy. The territory's police, firefighting and customs forces, as well as clerical officers across various government departments, make up the civil service.[101][102]
August 12, 2017 - West of Pleasanton Nebraska US
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I had several chances at storms over the month of July into Early August... I did make an several attempts... resulting in several good sunsets (I'll post these at a later time), just no good storms to capture ... until this one.
This would be the start to several sets of images expanding from Mid August to late September and a few chases in October.
10:00pm, and the rain was coming down in sheets. Radar had several cells starting to mature, and warnings were just issued for Northern Buffalo County. Can you say right time right place...
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Dale Kaminski @ NebraskaSC Photography
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This video may not be copied, reproduced, published or distributed in any medium without the expressed written permission of the copyright holder.
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Visit my Photostream Archive (On Flickr) of Severe Weather
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Link to Cincinnati Zoo..............
Also a new group to join for anyone who has Ohio Zoo pictures!
www.flickr.com/groups/ohio_zoos/
Also check out Zoos Around the World group!
www.flickr.com/groups/zoos_around_the_world/
I don't know how much I'll be able to be on Flickr except to post some photos because my hip surgery is taking place on Feb. 9th and I have a lot of things to do. I'll stop in whenever possible but I know that I will miss a lot of photos. Right now I want to spend time getting things ready, spend time with my family, and my dogs. I hope you all understand. Hopefully I'll have a chance to let everyone know how I'm doing after I get home from the hospital. I'll do that as soon as possible. Obviously it will be awhile before I can come back to Flickr in full force. I wish you all a very nice week and want to thank you all for being such great friends here on Flickr. Lots of love and hugs!
I'm sorry that I am posting so many photos. I just have so many and I want to have more on here for the Cincinnati Zoo. You certainly don't have to comment on them because I can't promise that I'll be able to visit your beautiful photostreams consistently for awhile. I'll miss seeing all your beautiful photos and talking with you all. Thanks everyone!
Uncropped
© All rights reserved.Use without permission is illegal.
2018 03 18
"Lady Nature"
This is one of my artwork about Tgirls that i called Paper Dolls!!! I love to make them!!! It's a so relax time!!!! I hope that you like it!!! Kisses!!! :) (subscribe my new Art Work Group on Flickr www.flickr.com/groups/2401176@N24/pool/ )
"Paper Dolls ... as I felt many times in front of the mirror, after i have finished go lipstick on my lips and i can attend again the miracle to become once again, but at the same time for a beat of a butterfly's wings reminding me that ... ... ... ... ... ... all this won't last very long unfortunately, like butterfly life ... like paper ... but despite this, who can say to remain absolutely indifferent to charm the flight of a butterfly .... ♥♥♥ so here I draw my paper Dolls! With Love!!!
XxX Gabry"
Boquillas Canyon, Big Bend National Park, Texas. View large on black
Horses are such amazing creatures. Here's the story. At Boquillas Canyon in Big Bend National Park, Mexican Nationals try and earn a living by selling souvenirs at three times less than they sell for in the BBNP shops. They sit across the Rio Grande while their souvenirs sit unattended at the overlook.
When a "customer" comes, this guy mounts his horse, crosses the Rio Grande and risks arrest by Border Patrol. The horse, knowing what is to come, stops to take a drink in mid-river and the "cowboy" grabs a branch off of one of the shrubs to use as a switch. Then the horse races up a near-vertical cliff side to reach the selling ground. Without question, this steed takes his rider to the top, not missing a beat.
Devils Parchment texture thanks to SkeletalMess.
Pinhole/Camera Obscura /Lensfree/Loch camera/Lensless / Without Lens/Sténope/Estenopeica/Lyukkamera Photography
Author : IMRE BECSI
© All rights reserved
Thank you for help : Péter Reisz
Location of shoot :
Háros,
Budapest
Hungary,
Europe
Time of shoot :
2016.05.27.
Info of Shooting :
Film : Fuji Fp-100c (new)
Filter : Polar + Orange + 81EF
Calculated expo.: 600 second
( I use my reciprocity compensation value chart to Fuji Color Instant film)
Dev.: 120 sec. (25° C)
Film : Fuji FP-100C Color Instant
Format: 3.25 x 4.25 in. (8.5 x 10.8 cm) "Regular Size" pack film
Image Area: 2.88 x 3.75 in. (7.3 x 9.5 cm)
The camera :
Body is a Film Back Adapter Plate from a Polaroid 203 camera
- focus : 33 mm
- pinhole : 0,25 mm (Lenox Laser)
- diaphragm : 132
Film back from my Polaroid 600se camera.
Shutter and Pinhole holder is a "pu(s)h" from Dr. Kai Fuhrmann with filter thread (homemade).
Picture from the camera :
www.flickr.com/photos/jonespointfilm/2837193476/in/set-72...
The parameters of camera :
(when I use 95x73 mm format instant film)
- Angle of view : 110°
- Light falloff at the corners [f/stops] : 1,8
- Resolution [lines/diagonal] : 959
Post work : (2016.05.28-29.)
Scanner : Epson Perfection 3200 Photo (300 dpi)
Scanner software : SilverFast SE
Final work : PS
Important note:
This images are copyright protected. No reproduction in any way,
no copies, no editing, no publishing, no screenshots, no posting,
no blogging, no transmitting downloading or uploading
without my written permission!
Thank you !
Thanks for looking !
Comments very much welcome !
Copyright
©All my photographic images are copyright. All rights are reserved. Do not use, copy or edit any of my photographs without my written permission.
If you want to use my photo for private use, please contact me:
Continued from Tag, I’m ‘It’ and Playing Tag
www.flickr.com/photos/suemoffett_savingmemoriesphotograph...
www.flickr.com/photos/suemoffett_savingmemoriesphotograph...
14.My drink of choice is a martini. A real martini (note that the photo above is not a martini, but, as the lid was off of the bottle of the last photo, and someone had to drink it!…). Made with Bombay Blue Sapphire gin, 3-5 olives (a tad ‘dirty’), a small amount of vermouth (5-8 drops is fine—in fact, scaring the glass with the vermouth bottle would probably suffice). It can be shaken or stirred with ice (but remove the ice immediately so as not to dilute it—I prefer to cheat and simply keep the gin in the freezer!). The perfect martini! =^D “Cheers!”
15.My ‘around the campfire’ drink of choice, while camping, is a martini. Not because I am trying to be some highbrow camper or anything (lol! Me! Highbrow! Lol). No. The reason is simple. It is a LONG walk to the bathroom in the middle of the night!
16.Ummmmm… I have one brother and two sisters.
17.I am the only female in my family without red hair (when I say ‘family’ I mean, like sisters and mother… and grandmother… and I think her mother…). My hair is dark and even in my ancient age, I have yet to need hair dye! I assure you this is out of necessity and fear as my mother keeps insisting that I go red.
18.This is so hard!... Oh, my decorating choice is ‘casual elegance’. Um, I said ‘choice’. ‘Choice’ and reality are two totally different things… remember? I live in a hovel!
19.I really don’t think that I can come up with 2 more… hmmm!!! As a child, my family moved EVERY TWO YEARS! You’d think that my Dad worked for the army. He didn’t.
20.I made it! 20! But I can’t think of anything… ok, I’ve got it. I got my camera to go on a trip. I chaperoned a school trip to Europe. Yes, I’ve travelled to Italy, France and England! A far cry from a World Traveler, but hey! …hmmm, I’ll have to dig out those photos…
So, there are my 20 things that you didn’t know about me, 10 for Rowena and 10 for Magda. Check out their streams if you get a chance. They both have some amazing, yet very different styles of photography.
www.flickr.com/photos/rowenar/
www.flickr.com/photos/magdaataustin/
Here are the 10 Contacts that I am tagging (don’t hate me, it is all in fun! If you have already done your list of 10, …Ha! Ha! Too bad! I know that, at least, I haven’t seen any list from any of you Guys!):
Kathy: www.flickr.com/photos/hotestrinkets/
Matt: www.flickr.com/photos/35311483@N06/
Dave: www.flickr.com/photos/16255541@N07/
Mike: www.flickr.com/photos/mike-bensalem/
Alex: www.flickr.com/photos/rattlesnail/
Mlk6615: www.flickr.com/photos/30675595@N08/
Angelina: www.flickr.com/photos/vela76/
Kevin: www.flickr.com/photos/phantomshockey/
Lee:http://www.flickr.com/photos/felt_tip_felon/
Graffiti (plural; singular graffiti or graffito, the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from simple written words to elaborate wall paintings, and has existed since ancient times, with examples dating back to ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and the Roman Empire (see also mural).
Graffiti is a controversial subject. In most countries, marking or painting property without permission is considered by property owners and civic authorities as defacement and vandalism, which is a punishable crime, citing the use of graffiti by street gangs to mark territory or to serve as an indicator of gang-related activities. Graffiti has become visualized as a growing urban "problem" for many cities in industrialized nations, spreading from the New York City subway system and Philadelphia in the early 1970s to the rest of the United States and Europe and other world regions
"Graffiti" (usually both singular and plural) and the rare singular form "graffito" are from the Italian word graffiato ("scratched"). The term "graffiti" is used in art history for works of art produced by scratching a design into a surface. A related term is "sgraffito", which involves scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another beneath it. This technique was primarily used by potters who would glaze their wares and then scratch a design into them. In ancient times graffiti were carved on walls with a sharp object, although sometimes chalk or coal were used. The word originates from Greek γράφειν—graphein—meaning "to write".
The term graffiti originally referred to the inscriptions, figure drawings, and such, found on the walls of ancient sepulchres or ruins, as in the Catacombs of Rome or at Pompeii. Historically, these writings were not considered vanadlism, which today is considered part of the definition of graffiti.
The only known source of the Safaitic language, an ancient form of Arabic, is from graffiti: inscriptions scratched on to the surface of rocks and boulders in the predominantly basalt desert of southern Syria, eastern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. Safaitic dates from the first century BC to the fourth century AD.
Some of the oldest cave paintings in the world are 40,000 year old ones found in Australia. The oldest written graffiti was found in ancient Rome around 2500 years ago. Most graffiti from the time was boasts about sexual experiences Graffiti in Ancient Rome was a form of communication, and was not considered vandalism.
Ancient tourists visiting the 5th-century citadel at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka write their names and commentary over the "mirror wall", adding up to over 1800 individual graffiti produced there between the 6th and 18th centuries. Most of the graffiti refer to the frescoes of semi-nude females found there. One reads:
Wet with cool dew drops
fragrant with perfume from the flowers
came the gentle breeze
jasmine and water lily
dance in the spring sunshine
side-long glances
of the golden-hued ladies
stab into my thoughts
heaven itself cannot take my mind
as it has been captivated by one lass
among the five hundred I have seen here.
Among the ancient political graffiti examples were Arab satirist poems. Yazid al-Himyari, an Umayyad Arab and Persian poet, was most known for writing his political poetry on the walls between Sajistan and Basra, manifesting a strong hatred towards the Umayyad regime and its walis, and people used to read and circulate them very widely.
Graffiti, known as Tacherons, were frequently scratched on Romanesque Scandinavian church walls. When Renaissance artists such as Pinturicchio, Raphael, Michelangelo, Ghirlandaio, or Filippino Lippi descended into the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea, they carved or painted their names and returned to initiate the grottesche style of decoration.
There are also examples of graffiti occurring in American history, such as Independence Rock, a national landmark along the Oregon Trail.
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic campaign of Egypt in the 1790s. Lord Byron's survives on one of the columns of the Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sounion in Attica, Greece.
The oldest known example of graffiti "monikers" found on traincars created by hobos and railworkers since the late 1800s. The Bozo Texino monikers were documented by filmmaker Bill Daniel in his 2005 film, Who is Bozo Texino?.
In World War II, an inscription on a wall at the fortress of Verdun was seen as an illustration of the US response twice in a generation to the wrongs of the Old World:
During World War II and for decades after, the phrase "Kilroy was here" with an accompanying illustration was widespread throughout the world, due to its use by American troops and ultimately filtering into American popular culture. Shortly after the death of Charlie Parker (nicknamed "Yardbird" or "Bird"), graffiti began appearing around New York with the words "Bird Lives".
Modern graffiti art has its origins with young people in 1960s and 70s in New York City and Philadelphia. Tags were the first form of stylised contemporary graffiti. Eventually, throw-ups and pieces evolved with the desire to create larger art. Writers used spray paint and other kind of materials to leave tags or to create images on the sides subway trains. and eventually moved into the city after the NYC metro began to buy new trains and paint over graffiti.
While the art had many advocates and appreciators—including the cultural critic Norman Mailer—others, including New York City mayor Ed Koch, considered it to be defacement of public property, and saw it as a form of public blight. The ‘taggers’ called what they did ‘writing’—though an important 1974 essay by Mailer referred to it using the term ‘graffiti.’
Contemporary graffiti style has been heavily influenced by hip hop culture and the myriad international styles derived from Philadelphia and New York City Subway graffiti; however, there are many other traditions of notable graffiti in the twentieth century. Graffiti have long appeared on building walls, in latrines, railroad boxcars, subways, and bridges.
An early graffito outside of New York or Philadelphia was the inscription in London reading "Clapton is God" in reference to the guitarist Eric Clapton. Creating the cult of the guitar hero, the phrase was spray-painted by an admirer on a wall in an Islington, north London in the autumn of 1967. The graffito was captured in a photograph, in which a dog is urinating on the wall.
Films like Style Wars in the 80s depicting famous writers such as Skeme, Dondi, MinOne, and ZEPHYR reinforced graffiti's role within New York's emerging hip-hop culture. Although many officers of the New York City Police Department found this film to be controversial, Style Wars is still recognized as the most prolific film representation of what was going on within the young hip hop culture of the early 1980s. Fab 5 Freddy and Futura 2000 took hip hop graffiti to Paris and London as part of the New York City Rap Tour in 1983
Commercialization and entrance into mainstream pop culture
Main article: Commercial graffiti
With the popularity and legitimization of graffiti has come a level of commercialization. In 2001, computer giant IBM launched an advertising campaign in Chicago and San Francisco which involved people spray painting on sidewalks a peace symbol, a heart, and a penguin (Linux mascot), to represent "Peace, Love, and Linux." IBM paid Chicago and San Francisco collectively US$120,000 for punitive damages and clean-up costs.
In 2005, a similar ad campaign was launched by Sony and executed by its advertising agency in New York, Chicago, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, and Miami, to market its handheld PSP gaming system. In this campaign, taking notice of the legal problems of the IBM campaign, Sony paid building owners for the rights to paint on their buildings "a collection of dizzy-eyed urban kids playing with the PSP as if it were a skateboard, a paddle, or a rocking horse".
Tristan Manco wrote that Brazil "boasts a unique and particularly rich, graffiti scene ... [earning] it an international reputation as the place to go for artistic inspiration". Graffiti "flourishes in every conceivable space in Brazil's cities". Artistic parallels "are often drawn between the energy of São Paulo today and 1970s New York". The "sprawling metropolis", of São Paulo has "become the new shrine to graffiti"; Manco alludes to "poverty and unemployment ... [and] the epic struggles and conditions of the country's marginalised peoples", and to "Brazil's chronic poverty", as the main engines that "have fuelled a vibrant graffiti culture". In world terms, Brazil has "one of the most uneven distributions of income. Laws and taxes change frequently". Such factors, Manco argues, contribute to a very fluid society, riven with those economic divisions and social tensions that underpin and feed the "folkloric vandalism and an urban sport for the disenfranchised", that is South American graffiti art.
Prominent Brazilian writers include Os Gêmeos, Boleta, Nunca, Nina, Speto, Tikka, and T.Freak. Their artistic success and involvement in commercial design ventures has highlighted divisions within the Brazilian graffiti community between adherents of the cruder transgressive form of pichação and the more conventionally artistic values of the practitioners of grafite.
Graffiti in the Middle East has emerged slowly, with taggers operating in Egypt, Lebanon, the Gulf countries like Bahrain or the United Arab Emirates, Israel, and in Iran. The major Iranian newspaper Hamshahri has published two articles on illegal writers in the city with photographic coverage of Iranian artist A1one's works on Tehran walls. Tokyo-based design magazine, PingMag, has interviewed A1one and featured photographs of his work. The Israeli West Bank barrier has become a site for graffiti, reminiscent in this sense of the Berlin Wall. Many writers in Israel come from other places around the globe, such as JUIF from Los Angeles and DEVIONE from London. The religious reference "נ נח נחמ נחמן מאומן" ("Na Nach Nachma Nachman Meuman") is commonly seen in graffiti around Israel.
Graffiti has played an important role within the street art scene in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), especially following the events of the Arab Spring of 2011 or the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19. Graffiti is a tool of expression in the context of conflict in the region, allowing people to raise their voices politically and socially. Famous street artist Banksy has had an important effect in the street art scene in the MENA area, especially in Palestine where some of his works are located in the West Bank barrier and Bethlehem.
There are also a large number of graffiti influences in Southeast Asian countries that mostly come from modern Western culture, such as Malaysia, where graffiti have long been a common sight in Malaysia's capital city, Kuala Lumpur. Since 2010, the country has begun hosting a street festival to encourage all generations and people from all walks of life to enjoy and encourage Malaysian street culture.
The modern-day graffitists can be found with an arsenal of various materials that allow for a successful production of a piece. This includes such techniques as scribing. However, spray paint in aerosol cans is the number one medium for graffiti. From this commodity comes different styles, technique, and abilities to form master works of graffiti. Spray paint can be found at hardware and art stores and comes in virtually every color.
Stencil graffiti is created by cutting out shapes and designs in a stiff material (such as cardboard or subject folders) to form an overall design or image. The stencil is then placed on the "canvas" gently and with quick, easy strokes of the aerosol can, the image begins to appear on the intended surface.
Some of the first examples were created in 1981 by artists Blek le Rat in Paris, in 1982 by Jef Aerosol in Tours (France); by 1985 stencils had appeared in other cities including New York City, Sydney, and Melbourne, where they were documented by American photographer Charles Gatewood and Australian photographer Rennie Ellis
Tagging is the practice of someone spray-painting "their name, initial or logo onto a public surface" in a handstyle unique to the writer. Tags were the first form of modern graffiti.
Modern graffiti art often incorporates additional arts and technologies. For example, Graffiti Research Lab has encouraged the use of projected images and magnetic light-emitting diodes (throwies) as new media for graffitists. yarnbombing is another recent form of graffiti. Yarnbombers occasionally target previous graffiti for modification, which had been avoided among the majority of graffitists.
Theories on the use of graffiti by avant-garde artists have a history dating back at least to the Asger Jorn, who in 1962 painting declared in a graffiti-like gesture "the avant-garde won't give up"
Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of public art. According to many art researchers, particularly in the Netherlands and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social emancipation or, in the achievement of a political goal
In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically, or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus, of addressing cleavages in the long run. The Berlin Wall was also extensively covered by graffiti reflecting social pressures relating to the oppressive Soviet rule over the GDR.
Many artists involved with graffiti are also concerned with the similar activity of stenciling. Essentially, this entails stenciling a print of one or more colors using spray-paint. Recognized while exhibiting and publishing several of her coloured stencils and paintings portraying the Sri Lankan Civil War and urban Britain in the early 2000s, graffitists Mathangi Arulpragasam, aka M.I.A., has also become known for integrating her imagery of political violence into her music videos for singles "Galang" and "Bucky Done Gun", and her cover art. Stickers of her artwork also often appear around places such as London in Brick Lane, stuck to lamp posts and street signs, she having become a muse for other graffitists and painters worldwide in cities including Seville.
Graffitist believes that art should be on display for everyone in the public eye or in plain sight, not hidden away in a museum or a gallery. Art should color the streets, not the inside of some building. Graffiti is a form of art that cannot be owned or bought. It does not last forever, it is temporary, yet one of a kind. It is a form of self promotion for the artist that can be displayed anywhere form sidewalks, roofs, subways, building wall, etc. Art to them is for everyone and should be showed to everyone for free.
Graffiti is a way of communicating and a way of expressing what one feels in the moment. It is both art and a functional thing that can warn people of something or inform people of something. However, graffiti is to some people a form of art, but to some a form of vandalism. And many graffitists choose to protect their identities and remain anonymous or to hinder prosecution.
With the commercialization of graffiti (and hip hop in general), in most cases, even with legally painted "graffiti" art, graffitists tend to choose anonymity. This may be attributed to various reasons or a combination of reasons. Graffiti still remains the one of four hip hop elements that is not considered "performance art" despite the image of the "singing and dancing star" that sells hip hop culture to the mainstream. Being a graphic form of art, it might also be said that many graffitists still fall in the category of the introverted archetypal artist.
Banksy is one of the world's most notorious and popular street artists who continues to remain faceless in today's society. He is known for his political, anti-war stencil art mainly in Bristol, England, but his work may be seen anywhere from Los Angeles to Palestine. In the UK, Banksy is the most recognizable icon for this cultural artistic movement and keeps his identity a secret to avoid arrest. Much of Banksy's artwork may be seen around the streets of London and surrounding suburbs, although he has painted pictures throughout the world, including the Middle East, where he has painted on Israel's controversial West Bank barrier with satirical images of life on the other side. One depicted a hole in the wall with an idyllic beach, while another shows a mountain landscape on the other side. A number of exhibitions also have taken place since 2000, and recent works of art have fetched vast sums of money. Banksy's art is a prime example of the classic controversy: vandalism vs. art. Art supporters endorse his work distributed in urban areas as pieces of art and some councils, such as Bristol and Islington, have officially protected them, while officials of other areas have deemed his work to be vandalism and have removed it.
Pixnit is another artist who chooses to keep her identity from the general public. Her work focuses on beauty and design aspects of graffiti as opposed to Banksy's anti-government shock value. Her paintings are often of flower designs above shops and stores in her local urban area of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Some store owners endorse her work and encourage others to do similar work as well. "One of the pieces was left up above Steve's Kitchen, because it looks pretty awesome"- Erin Scott, the manager of New England Comics in Allston, Massachusetts.
Graffiti artists may become offended if photographs of their art are published in a commercial context without their permission. In March 2020, the Finnish graffiti artist Psyke expressed his displeasure at the newspaper Ilta-Sanomat publishing a photograph of a Peugeot 208 in an article about new cars, with his graffiti prominently shown on the background. The artist claims he does not want his art being used in commercial context, not even if he were to receive compensation.
Territorial graffiti marks urban neighborhoods with tags and logos to differentiate certain groups from others. These images are meant to show outsiders a stern look at whose turf is whose. The subject matter of gang-related graffiti consists of cryptic symbols and initials strictly fashioned with unique calligraphies. Gang members use graffiti to designate membership throughout the gang, to differentiate rivals and associates and, most commonly, to mark borders which are both territorial and ideological.
Graffiti has been used as a means of advertising both legally and illegally. Bronx-based TATS CRU has made a name for themselves doing legal advertising campaigns for companies such as Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Toyota, and MTV. In the UK, Covent Garden's Boxfresh used stencil images of a Zapatista revolutionary in the hopes that cross referencing would promote their store.
Smirnoff hired artists to use reverse graffiti (the use of high pressure hoses to clean dirty surfaces to leave a clean image in the surrounding dirt) to increase awareness of their product.
Graffiti often has a reputation as part of a subculture that rebels against authority, although the considerations of the practitioners often diverge and can relate to a wide range of attitudes. It can express a political practice and can form just one tool in an array of resistance techniques. One early example includes the anarcho-punk band Crass, who conducted a campaign of stenciling anti-war, anarchist, feminist, and anti-consumerist messages throughout the London Underground system during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In Amsterdam graffiti was a major part of the punk scene. The city was covered with names such as "De Zoot", "Vendex", and "Dr Rat". To document the graffiti a punk magazine was started that was called Gallery Anus. So when hip hop came to Europe in the early 1980s there was already a vibrant graffiti culture.
The student protests and general strike of May 1968 saw Paris bedecked in revolutionary, anarchistic, and situationist slogans such as L'ennui est contre-révolutionnaire ("Boredom is counterrevolutionary") and Lisez moins, vivez plus ("Read less, live more"). While not exhaustive, the graffiti gave a sense of the 'millenarian' and rebellious spirit, tempered with a good deal of verbal wit, of the strikers.
I think graffiti writing is a way of defining what our generation is like. Excuse the French, we're not a bunch of p---- artists. Traditionally artists have been considered soft and mellow people, a little bit kooky. Maybe we're a little bit more like pirates that way. We defend our territory, whatever space we steal to paint on, we defend it fiercely.
The developments of graffiti art which took place in art galleries and colleges as well as "on the street" or "underground", contributed to the resurfacing in the 1990s of a far more overtly politicized art form in the subvertising, culture jamming, or tactical media movements. These movements or styles tend to classify the artists by their relationship to their social and economic contexts, since, in most countries, graffiti art remains illegal in many forms except when using non-permanent paint. Since the 1990s with the rise of Street Art, a growing number of artists are switching to non-permanent paints and non-traditional forms of painting.
Contemporary practitioners, accordingly, have varied and often conflicting practices. Some individuals, such as Alexander Brener, have used the medium to politicize other art forms, and have used the prison sentences enforced on them as a means of further protest. The practices of anonymous groups and individuals also vary widely, and practitioners by no means always agree with each other's practices. For example, the anti-capitalist art group the Space Hijackers did a piece in 2004 about the contradiction between the capitalistic elements of Banksy and his use of political imagery.
Berlin human rights activist Irmela Mensah-Schramm has received global media attention and numerous awards for her 35-year campaign of effacing neo-Nazi and other right-wing extremist graffiti throughout Germany, often by altering hate speech in humorous ways.
In Serbian capital, Belgrade, the graffiti depicting a uniformed former general of Serb army and war criminal, convicted at ICTY for war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide and ethnic cleansing in Bosnian War, Ratko Mladić, appeared in a military salute alongside the words "General, thank to your mother". Aleks Eror, Berlin-based journalist, explains how "veneration of historical and wartime figures" through street art is not a new phenomenon in the region of former Yugoslavia, and that "in most cases is firmly focused on the future, rather than retelling the past". Eror is not only analyst pointing to danger of such an expressions for the region's future. In a long expose on the subject of Bosnian genocide denial, at Balkan Diskurs magazine and multimedia platform website, Kristina Gadže and Taylor Whitsell referred to these experiences as a young generations' "cultural heritage", in which young are being exposed to celebration and affirmation of war-criminals as part of their "formal education" and "inheritance".
There are numerous examples of genocide denial through celebration and affirmation of war criminals throughout the region of Western Balkans inhabited by Serbs using this form of artistic expression. Several more of these graffiti are found in Serbian capital, and many more across Serbia and Bosnian and Herzegovinian administrative entity, Republika Srpska, which is the ethnic Serbian majority enclave. Critics point that Serbia as a state, is willing to defend the mural of convicted war criminal, and have no intention to react on cases of genocide denial, noting that Interior Minister of Serbia, Aleksandar Vulin decision to ban any gathering with an intent to remove the mural, with the deployment of riot police, sends the message of "tacit endorsement". Consequently, on 9 November 2021, Serbian heavy police in riot gear, with graffiti creators and their supporters, blocked the access to the mural to prevent human rights groups and other activists to paint over it and mark the International Day Against Fascism and Antisemitism in that way, and even arrested two civic activist for throwing eggs at the graffiti.
Graffiti may also be used as an offensive expression. This form of graffiti may be difficult to identify, as it is mostly removed by the local authority (as councils which have adopted strategies of criminalization also strive to remove graffiti quickly). Therefore, existing racist graffiti is mostly more subtle and at first sight, not easily recognized as "racist". It can then be understood only if one knows the relevant "local code" (social, historical, political, temporal, and spatial), which is seen as heteroglot and thus a 'unique set of conditions' in a cultural context.
A spatial code for example, could be that there is a certain youth group in an area that is engaging heavily in racist activities. So, for residents (knowing the local code), a graffiti containing only the name or abbreviation of this gang already is a racist expression, reminding the offended people of their gang activities. Also a graffiti is in most cases, the herald of more serious criminal activity to come. A person who does not know these gang activities would not be able to recognize the meaning of this graffiti. Also if a tag of this youth group or gang is placed on a building occupied by asylum seekers, for example, its racist character is even stronger.
By making the graffiti less explicit (as adapted to social and legal constraints), these drawings are less likely to be removed, but do not lose their threatening and offensive character.
Elsewhere, activists in Russia have used painted caricatures of local officials with their mouths as potholes, to show their anger about the poor state of the roads. In Manchester, England, a graffitists painted obscene images around potholes, which often resulted in them being repaired within 48 hours.
In the early 1980s, the first art galleries to show graffitists to the public were Fashion Moda in the Bronx, Now Gallery and Fun Gallery, both in the East Village, Manhattan.
A 2006 exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum displayed graffiti as an art form that began in New York's outer boroughs and reached great heights in the early 1980s with the work of Crash, Lee, Daze, Keith Haring, and Jean-Michel Basquiat. It displayed 22 works by New York graffitists, including Crash, Daze, and Lady Pink. In an article about the exhibition in the magazine Time Out, curator Charlotta Kotik said that she hoped the exhibition would cause viewers to rethink their assumptions about graffiti.
From the 1970s onwards, Burhan Doğançay photographed urban walls all over the world; these he then archived for use as sources of inspiration for his painterly works. The project today known as "Walls of the World" grew beyond even his own expectations and comprises about 30,000 individual images. It spans a period of 40 years across five continents and 114 countries. In 1982, photographs from this project comprised a one-man exhibition titled "Les murs murmurent, ils crient, ils chantent ..." (The walls whisper, shout and sing ...) at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris.
In Australia, art historians have judged some local graffiti of sufficient creative merit to rank them firmly within the arts. Oxford University Press's art history text Australian Painting 1788–2000 concludes with a long discussion of graffiti's key place within contemporary visual culture, including the work of several Australian practitioners.
Between March and April 2009, 150 artists exhibited 300 pieces of graffiti at the Grand Palais in Paris.
Spray paint has many negative environmental effects. The paint contains toxic chemicals, and the can uses volatile hydrocarbon gases to spray the paint onto a surface.
Volatile organic compound (VOC) leads to ground level ozone formation and most of graffiti related emissions are VOCs. A 2010 paper estimates 4,862 tons of VOCs were released in the United States in activities related to graffiti.
In China, Mao Zedong in the 1920s used revolutionary slogans and paintings in public places to galvanize the country's communist movement.
Based on different national conditions, many people believe that China's attitude towards Graffiti is fierce, but in fact, according to Lance Crayon in his film Spray Paint Beijing: Graffiti in the Capital of China, Graffiti is generally accepted in Beijing, with artists not seeing much police interference. Political and religiously sensitive graffiti, however, is not allowed.
In Hong Kong, Tsang Tsou Choi was known as the King of Kowloon for his calligraphy graffiti over many years, in which he claimed ownership of the area. Now some of his work is preserved officially.
In Taiwan, the government has made some concessions to graffitists. Since 2005 they have been allowed to freely display their work along some sections of riverside retaining walls in designated "Graffiti Zones". From 2007, Taipei's department of cultural affairs also began permitting graffiti on fences around major public construction sites. Department head Yong-ping Lee (李永萍) stated, "We will promote graffiti starting with the public sector, and then later in the private sector too. It's our goal to beautify the city with graffiti". The government later helped organize a graffiti contest in Ximending, a popular shopping district. graffitists caught working outside of these designated areas still face fines up to NT$6,000 under a department of environmental protection regulation. However, Taiwanese authorities can be relatively lenient, one veteran police officer stating anonymously, "Unless someone complains about vandalism, we won't get involved. We don't go after it proactively."
In 1993, after several expensive cars in Singapore were spray-painted, the police arrested a student from the Singapore American School, Michael P. Fay, questioned him, and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty to vandalizing a car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the 1966 Vandalism Act of Singapore, originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in jail, a fine of S$3,500 (US$2,233), and a caning. The New York Times ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called on the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for clemency, Fay's caning took place in Singapore on 5 May 1994. Fay had originally received a sentence of six strokes of the cane, but the presiding president of Singapore, Ong Teng Cheong, agreed to reduce his caning sentence to four lashes.
In South Korea, Park Jung-soo was fined two million South Korean won by the Seoul Central District Court for spray-painting a rat on posters of the G-20 Summit a few days before the event in November 2011. Park alleged that the initial in "G-20" sounds like the Korean word for "rat", but Korean government prosecutors alleged that Park was making a derogatory statement about the president of South Korea, Lee Myung-bak, the host of the summit. This case led to public outcry and debate on the lack of government tolerance and in support of freedom of expression. The court ruled that the painting, "an ominous creature like a rat" amounts to "an organized criminal activity" and upheld the fine while denying the prosecution's request for imprisonment for Park.
In Europe, community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti, in some cases with reckless abandon, as when in 1992 in France a local Scout group, attempting to remove modern graffiti, damaged two prehistoric paintings of bison in the Cave of Mayrière supérieure near the French village of Bruniquel in Tarn-et-Garonne, earning them the 1992 Ig Nobel Prize in archeology.
In September 2006, the European Parliament directed the European Commission to create urban environment policies to prevent and eliminate dirt, litter, graffiti, animal excrement, and excessive noise from domestic and vehicular music systems in European cities, along with other concerns over urban life.
In Budapest, Hungary, both a city-backed movement called I Love Budapest and a special police division tackle the problem, including the provision of approved areas.
The Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation. In August 2004, the Keep Britain Tidy campaign issued a press release calling for zero tolerance of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing "on the spot" fines to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to anyone under the age of 16. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in music videos, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed "cool" or "edgy'" image.
To back the campaign, 123 Members of Parliament (MPs) (including then Prime Minister Tony Blair), signed a charter which stated: "Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem."
In the UK, city councils have the power to take action against the owner of any property that has been defaced under the Anti-social Behaviour Act 2003 (as amended by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005) or, in certain cases, the Highways Act. This is often used against owners of property that are complacent in allowing protective boards to be defaced so long as the property is not damaged.
In July 2008, a conspiracy charge was used to convict graffitists for the first time. After a three-month police surveillance operation, nine members of the DPM crew were convicted of conspiracy to commit criminal damage costing at least £1 million. Five of them received prison sentences, ranging from eighteen months to two years. The unprecedented scale of the investigation and the severity of the sentences rekindled public debate over whether graffiti should be considered art or crime.
Some councils, like those of Stroud and Loerrach, provide approved areas in the town where graffitists can showcase their talents, including underpasses, car parks, and walls that might otherwise prove a target for the "spray and run".
Graffiti Tunnel, University of Sydney at Camperdown (2009)
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities in Australia have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffitists. One early example is the "Graffiti Tunnel" located at the Camperdown Campus of the University of Sydney, which is available for use by any student at the university to tag, advertise, poster, and paint. Advocates of this idea suggest that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or trespassing.[108][109] Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere. Some local government areas throughout Australia have introduced "anti-graffiti squads", who clean graffiti in the area, and such crews as BCW (Buffers Can't Win) have taken steps to keep one step ahead of local graffiti cleaners.
Many state governments have banned the sale or possession of spray paint to those under the age of 18 (age of majority). However, a number of local governments in Victoria have taken steps to recognize the cultural heritage value of some examples of graffiti, such as prominent political graffiti. Tough new graffiti laws have been introduced in Australia with fines of up to A$26,000 and two years in prison.
Melbourne is a prominent graffiti city of Australia with many of its lanes being tourist attractions, such as Hosier Lane in particular, a popular destination for photographers, wedding photography, and backdrops for corporate print advertising. The Lonely Planet travel guide cites Melbourne's street as a major attraction. All forms of graffiti, including sticker art, poster, stencil art, and wheatpasting, can be found in many places throughout the city. Prominent street art precincts include; Fitzroy, Collingwood, Northcote, Brunswick, St. Kilda, and the CBD, where stencil and sticker art is prominent. As one moves farther away from the city, mostly along suburban train lines, graffiti tags become more prominent. Many international artists such as Banksy have left their work in Melbourne and in early 2008 a perspex screen was installed to prevent a Banksy stencil art piece from being destroyed, it has survived since 2003 through the respect of local street artists avoiding posting over it, although it has recently had paint tipped over it.
In February 2008 Helen Clark, the New Zealand prime minister at that time, announced a government crackdown on tagging and other forms of graffiti vandalism, describing it as a destructive crime representing an invasion of public and private property. New legislation subsequently adopted included a ban on the sale of paint spray cans to persons under 18 and increases in maximum fines for the offence from NZ$200 to NZ$2,000 or extended community service. The issue of tagging become a widely debated one following an incident in Auckland during January 2008 in which a middle-aged property owner stabbed one of two teenage taggers to death and was subsequently convicted of manslaughter.
Graffiti databases have increased in the past decade because they allow vandalism incidents to be fully documented against an offender and help the police and prosecution charge and prosecute offenders for multiple counts of vandalism. They also provide law enforcement the ability to rapidly search for an offender's moniker or tag in a simple, effective, and comprehensive way. These systems can also help track costs of damage to a city to help allocate an anti-graffiti budget. The theory is that when an offender is caught putting up graffiti, they are not just charged with one count of vandalism; they can be held accountable for all the other damage for which they are responsible. This has two main benefits for law enforcement. One, it sends a signal to the offenders that their vandalism is being tracked. Two, a city can seek restitution from offenders for all the damage that they have committed, not merely a single incident. These systems give law enforcement personnel real-time, street-level intelligence that allows them not only to focus on the worst graffiti offenders and their damage, but also to monitor potential gang violence that is associated with the graffiti.
Many restrictions of civil gang injunctions are designed to help address and protect the physical environment and limit graffiti. Provisions of gang injunctions include things such as restricting the possession of marker pens, spray paint cans, or other sharp objects capable of defacing private or public property; spray painting, or marking with marker pens, scratching, applying stickers, or otherwise applying graffiti on any public or private property, including, but not limited to the street, alley, residences, block walls, and fences, vehicles or any other real or personal property. Some injunctions contain wording that restricts damaging or vandalizing both public and private property, including but not limited to any vehicle, light fixture, door, fence, wall, gate, window, building, street sign, utility box, telephone box, tree, or power pole.
To help address many of these issues, many local jurisdictions have set up graffiti abatement hotlines, where citizens can call in and report vandalism and have it removed. San Diego's hotline receives more than 5,000 calls per year, in addition to reporting the graffiti, callers can learn more about prevention. One of the complaints about these hotlines is the response time; there is often a lag time between a property owner calling about the graffiti and its removal. The length of delay should be a consideration for any jurisdiction planning on operating a hotline. Local jurisdictions must convince the callers that their complaint of vandalism will be a priority and cleaned off right away. If the jurisdiction does not have the resources to respond to complaints in a timely manner, the value of the hotline diminishes. Crews must be able to respond to individual service calls made to the graffiti hotline as well as focus on cleanup near schools, parks, and major intersections and transit routes to have the biggest impact. Some cities offer a reward for information leading to the arrest and prosecution of suspects for tagging or graffiti related vandalism. The amount of the reward is based on the information provided, and the action taken.
When police obtain search warrants in connection with a vandalism investigation, they are often seeking judicial approval to look for items such as cans of spray paint and nozzles from other kinds of aerosol sprays; etching tools, or other sharp or pointed objects, which could be used to etch or scratch glass and other hard surfaces; permanent marking pens, markers, or paint sticks; evidence of membership or affiliation with any gang or tagging crew; paraphernalia including any reference to "(tagger's name)"; any drawings, writing, objects, or graffiti depicting taggers' names, initials, logos, monikers, slogans, or any mention of tagging crew membership; and any newspaper clippings relating to graffiti crime.
Without peace, all other dreams vanish and are reduced to ashes.
© Luís Campillo 2015
Model Vanesa García. www.facebook.com/vanesagarcia.artistavisual
MUA Sergio Rada-Castilla. www.facebook.com/sergioradacastilla/info?tab=page_info
Estilist by Pilar Curiel. Special thanks to Jorge Abril.
luiscampillo.tumblr.com/
instagram.com/luiscampillo/
Oddly, the bus has route branding for the 102 yet no fleetname to show its ownership by New Adventure Travel (or now just Adventure Travel). Optare MetroCity YN65EOZ is seen with Pontypridd police station in the background.
❆ Se riuscirai ad aspettare senza stancarti di aspettare!
❆ If you can wait long enough, without getting tired of waiting...
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❆ Osservare tutto questo è un dono, innAMÒRarsene una ricchezza!
❆ observing Nature is a rare gift. for sure, falling in Love with it is a treasure worth even more!
❆ Avoir le don d’observer la Nature est un immense cadeau.
En tomber amoureux représente une richesse encore bien plus grande!
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❆ preoccupiamoci della Natura, il nostro futuro dipende da
essa!
❆ let's take good care of Nature, because our future depends
on it!
❆ préoccupons-nous de la Nature, notre avenir en dépend!
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❆ prendetevi del tempo per Sognare, ogni immagine racconta una lunga storia...
❆ take some time to dream, every image tells a long story...
❆ prenez le temps de Rêver, car chaque image raconte une
longue histoire...
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❆ ho cercato in ogni passo ciò che più desideravo!
❆ at each step I search what I most desire!
❆ À chaque pas que je fais, je cherche ce que je souhaite le plus trouver!
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❆ in vendita - on sale - à vendre - zum
Verkauf
❆ la Natura che si fa Poesia - scattare foto sembrava quasi diminuire tempo all'esigenza, alla necessità e alla passione di ammirare ciò che mi circondava!
esultanza di Bellezza e Serenità, un tripudio di perfezione e pienezza.
non avrei voluto essere altrove
❆ Magica Terra, sei il simbolo della perfezione, sei il mio canto della Vita, sei il mio buongiorno di ogni di, non ho contato i miei passi sul tuo suolo poiché infinite sono le tue bellezze.
Mia terra, amare è assai poco, tu sei beneficiare di tutte le creature, tu sei una madre eccellente.
❆ ci sono giorni che la senti dentro la Natura...
❆ Le Montagne vivono solo dell' amore dell' uomo.
Dove le abitazioni, poi gli Alberi, poi l erba sono esaurite, nasce il regno sterile, selvaggio, minerale.
Tuttavia, nella sua estrema povertà, nella sua nudità, dispensa una ricchezza che non ha prezzo: la felicità che si scopre negli occhi di chi la frequenta.
❆ Testi e Immagini di Troise Carmine - Washi - si prega di non copiare (qualcuno l ha già fatto più volte che squallido) e di non riprodurre salvo esplicita autorizzazione del sottoscritto!
❆ Dietro ogni scatto ci sono sempre fatiche e attese!
Zaino carico e pesante (quasi sempre) e, quando trasporti la
Fotocamera con obiettivo, la Sera avverti un dolore al
collo - Ma le Passioni, è noto, comportano sempre sacrifici!
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Follow me:
su JuzaPhoto
www.juzaphoto.com/me.php?p=5040&pg=allphotos&srt=...
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❆ il Cielo non racconta mai la stessa storia...
❆ farei qualsiasi cosa per un'Alba...
❆ In Natura non esistono malintesi esistono solo in ciò che l'uomo chiama ragione!
❆ ProteggiAMO tutto questo!
❆ Meravigliosa Natura!
❆ Privilèges de Montagne...
❆ InnAMÒRati della NATURA anche tu!
❆ Il mio tempo in Montagna!
La Vallée d'Aoste à ma guise - La Valle d'Aosta a modo mio - Aosta Valley in my own way
Vivre en Montagne, au quotidien, pour satisfaire la Curiosité de la Photographie de la Nature...
Valle d'Aosta - Vallée d'Aoste
(Une Montagne d'émotions...)
Clickalps Photography - Troise Carmine - Washi
I miei Video amatoriali su:
www.youtube.com/user/Washi59/videos
www.linkedin.com/in/troisecarminewashi?trk=nav_responsive...
e
❆ Fotocamera:
Canon EOS R5
❆ Obiettivi:
Canon RF 100-500mm f/4.5-7.1 L IS USM
Canon RF 100mm F2.8L Macro IS USM
Canon RF 24-70mm f/2.8 L IS USM
Accessori:
Treppiede Manfrotto 190 X Prob
Testa Manfrotto a sfera compact nera con attacco rapido 496RC2 con frizione
Piastra a sgancio rapido 200PL
Telecomando infrarossi Canon RC-6
Telecomando Rollei Schermo LCD e Retroilluminazione
Zaino serie Mountain 50 lt - F Stop Tilopa v3 Aloe (Verde drab) - peso 1,9 Kg
Dimensioni LxAxP - 35,6 x 59,7 x se 30,5 cm
INaturalist:
www.inaturalist.org/people/501356
❆ Estote parati commoveri Naturā - Siate pronti a lasciarvi emozionare dalla Natura
© 2004-2010 Servalpe. Photos are copyrighted. All rights reserved. Pictures can not be used without explicit permission by the creator.
Localization:
Picture taken at Ronda (Málaga, Spain)
Ronda is a city in the Spanish province of Málaga. It is located about 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the city of Málaga, within the autonomous community of Andalusia. Its population is 35,515.
Ronda is situated in a very mountainous area about 750 m above mean sea level. The Guadalevín River runs through the city, dividing it in two and carving out the steep, 100 plus meters deep El Tajo canyon upon which the city perches. The Spanish Fir (Abies pinsapo) is endemic to the mountains surrounding Ronda.
Around the city are remains of prehistoric settlements dating to the Neolithic Age, including the rock paintings of Cueva de la Pileta. Ronda was however first settled by the early Celts, who, in the 6th century BC, called it Arunda. Later Phoenician settlers established themselves nearby to found Acinipo, known locally as Ronda la Vieja, Arunda or Old Ronda. The current Ronda is however of Roman origins[1], having been founded as a fortified post in the Second Punic War, by Scipio Africanus. Ronda received the title of city at the time of Julius Caesar.
In the 5th century AD Ronda was conquered by the Suebi, led by Rechila, being reconquered in the following century by the Eastern Roman Empire, under whose rule Acinipo was abandoned. Later the Visigoth king Leovigild captured the city. Ronda was part of the Visigoth reign until 713, when it fell to the Arabs, who named it Izn-Rand Onda ("city of the castle") and made it the capital of the Takurunna province.
After the disintegration of the caliphate of Córdoba, Ronda became the capital of a small kingdom, the taifa of Ronda. During this period Ronda received most of its islamic architectural heritage. In 1065 Ronda was conquered by the taifa of Seville led by Abbad II al-Mu'tadid. Both the poet Salih ben Sharif al-Rundi (1204-1285) and the Sufi scholar Ibn Abbad al-Rundi (1333-1390) were born in Ronda.
The islamic domination of Ronda ended in 1485, when it was conquered by the Marquis of Cádiz after a brief siege. Subsequently, mostly of the city's old edifices were renewed or adapted to Christian roles, while numerous others were built in newly-created quarters such as the Mercadillo and the San Francisco ones. The Real Maestranza de Caballería de Ronda was founded in the town in 1572, with military finalities.
In the early 19th century, the Napoleonic invasion and the subsequent Peninsular War caused much sufference in Ronda, whose inhabitants reduced from 15,600 to 5,000 in three years. Ronda's area became the base first of guerrila warriors, then of numerous bandits, whose deeds inspired artists such as Washington Irving, Prosper Mérimée and Gustave Doré. In the 19th century the economy of Ronda was mainly rural. In 1918 the city was the seat of the Assembly of Ronda, in which the Andalusian flag, coat of arms and anthem were designed.
Ronda was heavily affected by the Spanish Civil War, after which much of the population emigrated elsewhere.
Three bridges, Puente Romano ("Roman Bridge", also known as the Puente San Miguel), Puente Viejo ("Old Bridge", also known as the Puente Arabe or "Arab Bridge") and Puente Nuevo ("New Bridge"), span the canyon. The term "nuevo" is a bit of a misnomer, as the building of this bridge commenced in 1751 and took until 1793 to complete. The Puente Nuevo is the tallest of the bridges, towering 120 metres (390 ft) above the canyon floor, and all three serve as some of the city's most impressive features.
Another important site in Ronda is the Plaza de toros de Ronda, the oldest bullfighting ring in Spain that is still used, albeit infrequently. It was built in 1784 in the Neoclassical style by the architect José Martin de Aldehuela, who also designed the Puente Nuevo.
The partially intact Baños árabes ("Arab baths") are found below the city and date back to the 13th and 14th centuries.
The former town hall, which sits next to the Puente Nuevo, is the site of a parador, and has a view of the Tajo canyon.
American artists Ernest Hemingway and Orson Welles spent many summers in Ronda as part-time residents of Ronda's old town quarter called La Ciudad. Both wrote about Ronda's beauty and famous bull-fighting traditions. Their collective accounts have contributed to Ronda's popularity over time.
Hemingway's novel For Whom the Bell Tolls describes the murder of Nationalist sympathizers early in the Spanish Civil War. The Republicans murder the Nationalists by throwing them from cliffs in an Andalusian village, and Hemingway allegedly based the account on killings that took place in Ronda at the cliffs of El Tajo.
Orson Welles said he was inspired by his frequent trips to Spain and Ronda (e.g. Welles' unfinished film about Don Quixote). After Welles died in 1985, his ashes were scattered in a Ronda bull-ring.
English writer George Eliot's book Daniel Deronda ("Daniel of Ronda") tells the story of Spanish Jew brought up as an Englishman. There have been some speculation that Eliot's ancestors may have lived in Ronda prior to the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492.
Exif Data:
Canon Ixus 400 @ 12.9 mm, f3.5, 1/640s , ISO100
Processing:
Lightroom for catalog > Color adjusments + Topaz Adjust and Detail + Noiseware + Sharpening at PS.
The old Bacon Creek School House near Cascade, ID. This sunrise was a burner, lasting a while as the light illuminated from cold blue and gray into shimmering pink, orange, red and yellow, reaching out across the sky towards me. The still calm interrupted by two robins perched on the chimney, warning all of my presence.
This is my first serious foray into the wild with my new Nikon Z8 and Z glass, in this case the 24-120 f/4 S. I spent the week working up in Spokane and had some time outside of work to chase the light all around the Palouse. The Z8 makes it effortless to take photos, many many photos- I have 2500 images to cull through, and what a way to start it off. To say that I am absolutely thrilled is an understatement. The results I am seeing on the back of the Z8, and later in editing is inspiring and motivating for me to get out and shoot, as well as really take my time to squeeze out every bit of data I can when editing. When handled correctly, the Z8 files are resplendent!
This is a single edited image taken +1 stop over center matrix metering on the brightest part of the sky. I used a custom Z8 linear camera profile in Lightroom and finished editing in Photoshop using Adobe Lossless RAW layers.
Copyright 2023 Chris Ross Photography. All Rights Reserved. Do not copy, share, link, or use this image in any form- print, digital, or otherwise- on blogs, personal or professional websites or any other media form. This work is protected by international copyright laws and agreements. No part of this photo stream may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without my permission.
It would not be Christmas without an update from the most famous reindeer of all. As you will recall, Rudolph has been on the Dakotas/Manitoba route as he tries to work his way back up the hierarchy and one day get back to the North Pole and a premium sleigh ride on 24 (Christmas to us-the sleigh creatures call it the "Big 24" or "24"). Here is what what Rudolph told when I last spoke with him about this year's sleigh ride and his personal life. (Rudolph) I have gotten a couple of calls from mid-level Santas and there is a chance I could get a new ride next year in a middle market like Atlanta or Chicago. That would put me on the brink of a North Pole route and away from this grassland purgatory. I can say that I have seen enough camouflage overalls, John Deere caps and tractors to last even an immortal lifetime. You were right though, this was the perfect place to plan my come back. The humans here are friendly and forgiving. They have no idea I can't wait to get back to the bright lights and big city parties. I have smiled so often in these small town department stores and middle of nowhere malls. You were right about fake empathy being as good as the real thing. Smile at the kids in line and listen to the adults talk about what a great movie the Rudolph special was. Training was brutal this year because we cannot have a repeat of last year when that stupid cow almost killed us all. The cow is gone. She can go flying in a pasture someplace or join the circus. I did just like you said before the Santa review committee. I said it was an accident and could have happened to any of us when I really wanted to state the obvious-that cow had no business being on a 24 ride. You were right again, the word got out that I took up for one of the team, and the cow still got booted so the result was perfect. I have been working on my leadership skills though the only place I want to lead this team is out of my life. That annoying pig still wears those "When Pigs Fly" tee shirts and still thinks I am wonderful. I keep reminding myself that I need allies just like you said and just keep encouraging all the sleigh team. This year we have the two young reindeer from last year, a horse to replace the pig, an new reindeer, a sheep, a deer from last year, the pig and me. The two reindeer have been promised a promotion after this year so the ride next year will probably have more useless newcomers. As for the hostess at the restaurant, I have not given her the "I'm immortal and you're not speech", but when I get that next sleigh ride I don't need any baggage following me on my climb back up the ladder. You were right to advise me to give this a chance though, my laundry gets done, my dry cleaning gets picked up and I have someone encouraging me to train hard for the future. I get treated like a celebrity everywhere again which is annoying and gratifying at the same time. It's a struggle to feign interest in their local charities and sporting events, but like you said, it's important to connect with those most affected by the Christmas spirit. The plan to look good in front of the Santa review committee is working. We are doing the last minute planning for the flight, and I will let you know how it goes.
Rudolph
Del Monte Land Transport Bus (DLTB) Comany 578
Hino RK1JST Del Monte DM12
Location: A Arnaiz Ave cor EDSA, Makati City
You cannot use this picture without my permission. If you want to use this picture, please ask me first, it´s very simple. If you want this picture for anti-captivity purposes, then, don´t waste your time trying to convince me because I won´t give you authorization. If I let you use my content, you need to give me FULL credits (DFN it´s ok).
If I see this picture posted in another social media without credits and used for complaining about captivity, then I´ll report you and block you.
Hi everyone!
After more than two years of work, I finally started a crowdfounfing campaign to giving shape to the project PLACES WITHOUT NOISE. It's been a long, but too a intense and exciting time, that has taught me a lot. This project is nothing more than a visual reflection of a journey. How something as mundane as traveling on a highway can open us countless worlds, and how the speed in which we are immersed in our daily life, sometimes does not let us see what we is in front of us. The result of this journey, is a book and an exhibition that I hope to share with you.
Thanks a lot for your support! And thank you for sharing !!
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Luluwh Al Omari photography 2011©Copyright . Images may not be copied, downloaded, or used in any way without the expressed, written permission of the photographer.
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Photo taken at: San Jorge Eco-lodge Quito
The best birdwatching and bird photo trips in Ecuador:
“I love you without knowing how, or when, or from where. I love you simply, without problems or pride: I love you in this way because I do not know any other way of loving but this, in which there is no I or you, so intimate that your hand upon my chest is my hand, so intimate that when I fall asleep your eyes close.”
― Pablo Neruda, 100 Love Sonnets
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I just love visiting the ruins of Corfe Castle - if only those walls could talk!
Corfe Castle, Dorset.
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Maulbronn Monastery (German: Kloster Maulbronn) is a former Roman Catholic Cistercian Abbey and Protestant seminary located at Maulbronn in the German state of Baden-Württemberg.[3] The 850 year old, mostly Romanesque monastery complex, one of the best preserved examples of its kind in Europe,[4] is one of the very first buildings in Germany to use the Gothic style.[5] In 1993, the abbey was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[6]
The complex, surrounded by turreted walls and a tower gate, today houses the Maulbronn town hall and other administrative offices, a police station, and several restaurants. The monastery itself contains an Evangelical seminary in the Württemberger tradition.
Contents
1 History
1.1 Founding
2 Notes
2.1 Footnotes
2.2 Citations
3 References
4 External links
History
Founding
Under the auspices of the Saint Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, the Cistercians began major expansion into southern Germany. A knight named Walter von Lomersheim became interested in this, and donated some of his land to the Cistercian order. In 1147, the monastery was founded by 12 monks who traveled from Alsace.[3] The main church, built in a style transitional from Romanesque to Gothic, was consecrated in 1178 by Arnold, Bishop of Speyer. A number of other buildings — infirmary, refectory, cellar, auditorium, porch, south cloister, hall, another refectory, forge, inn, cooperage, mill, and chapel — followed in the course of the 13th century. The west, east and north cloisters date back to the 14th century, as do most fortifications and the fountain house or lavatorium.
After the Reformation began in the year 1517, Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg, seized the monastery in 1504,[dubious – discuss] later building his hunting lodge and stables there. The monastery was pillaged repeatedly: first by the knights under Franz von Sickingen in 1519, then again during the German Peasants' War six years later. In 1534, Duke Ulrich secularised the monastery, but the Cistercians regained control — and Imperial recognition — under Charles V's Augsburg Interim. In 1556, Christoph, Duke of Württemberg, built a Protestant seminary, with Valentin Vannius becoming the first abbot two years later, odd, because the Reformation banned religious orders and abbots; Johannes Kepler studied there 1586–89.
In 1630, the abbey was returned to the Cistercians by force of arms, with Christoph Schaller von Sennheim becoming abbot. This restoration was short-lived, however, as Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden forced the monks to leave again two years later, with a Protestant abbot returning in 1633; the seminary reopened the following year, however the Cistercians under Schaller also returned in 1634. Under the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, the confession of the monastery was settled in favour of Protestantism; with abbot Buchinger withdrawing in process. A Protestant abbacy was re-established in 1651, with the seminary reopening five years later. In 1692, the seminarians were removed to safety when Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac, torched the school, which remained closed for a decade.
The monastery was secularised by Frederick I, King of Württemberg, in the course of the German Mediatisation in 1807, forever removing its political quasi-independence; the seminary merged with that of Bebenhausen the following year, now known as the Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren.
The monastery, which features prominently in Hermann Hesse's novel Beneath the Wheel, was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1993. The justification for the inscription was as follows: "The Maulbronn complex is the most complete survival of a Cistercian monastic establishment in Europe, in particular because of the survival of its extensive water-management system of reservoirs and channels". Hesse himself attended the seminary before fleeing in 1891 after a suicide attempt, and a failed attempt to save Hesse from his personal religious crisis by a well-known theologian and faith healer.[7]
To represent Baden-Württemberg, an image of the Abbey appears on the obverse of the German 2013 €2 commemorative coin.[8]
Das Kloster Maulbronn ist eine ehemalige Zisterzienserabtei in der Ortsmitte von Maulbronn. Kleinstadt und Kloster liegen am Südwestrand des Strombergs, der sich im südlich des Odenwalds und nördlich des Schwarzwalds gelegenen Kraichgau erhebt. Die nächste Großstadt ist das baden-württem-bergische Pforzheim. Maulbronn gilt als die am besten erhaltene mittelalterliche Klosteranlage nördlich der Alpen. Hier sind alle Stilrichtungen und Entwicklungsstufen von der Romanik bis zur Spätgotik vertreten.
Die Anlage, die von einer Mauer umschlossen ist, beherbergt heute unter anderem mehrere Restaurants, die Polizei, das Rathaus von Maulbronn und andere Verwaltungsämter. In den Klostergebäuden befindet sich auch ein evangelisches Gymnasium mit Internat (Evangelische Seminare Maulbronn und Blaubeuren).
Das Kloster Maulbronn ist seit Dezember 1993 Weltkulturerbe der UNESCO.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Geschichte
1.1 Gründung
1.2 Weitere Entwicklung
2 Vertreibung des Konvents im Zuge der Reformation
3 Wirtschafts- und Besitzgeschichte
4 Klosterterritorium und Klosteramt Maulbronn
5 Klosterschule
6 Filialklöster
7 Chronologische Eckdaten
8 Heutige Bedeutung des Klosters
9 Architektur
9.1 Klostertor
9.2 Klosterhof
9.3 Paradies
9.4 Der Meister des Maulbronner Paradieses
9.5 Klosterkirche
9.6 Weitere Räume im inneren Bereich
9.7 Orgeln
10 Sondermarken und Sondermünzen
11 Legenden
12 Einzelnachweise
13 Literatur
14 Weblinks
Geschichte
Gründung
Unter der Ägide des Abtes Bernhard von Clairvaux erhielt der Zisterzienserorden auch im heutigen Deutschland großen Zulauf. In Südwest-deutsch-land ließ sich der Edelfreie Walter von Lomersheim von der Begeisterung anstecken. Er stiftete sein Erbgut Eckenweiher zwischen Mühlacker und Lienzingen zur Gründung eines Zisterzienserklosters, in das er selbst als Laienbruder einzutreten gedachte. Zu diesem Zweck entsandte das Kloster Neuburg im Elsass einen Abt und zwölf Mönche – wie es heißt nach der Zahl der Apostel.
Mit der Neugründung dieses Klosters betraute man Abt Dieter von der Primarabtei Morimond, der am 24. März 1138 eintraf. Die Lage der gestifteten Ländereien scheint jedoch der Klostergründung wenig förderlich gewesen zu sein. Unter anderem scheint es an Wasser gefehlt zu haben.
Um 1146 nahm sich der zuständige Bischof von Speyer Günther von Henneberg persönlich der Sache an. Er erklärte den Ort für untauglich und schenkte dem Kloster das Bischofslehen zu Mulenbrunnen in einem abgeschiedenen Waldtal. Vermutlich im Sommer des Jahres 1147 wurde es dorthin verlegt.
Weitere Entwicklung
Die Anlage entwickelte sich schnell zu einem wirtschaftlichen, gesellschaftlichen und politischen Zentrum der Region.
Das Kloster stand ab 1156 unter kaiserlicher Schirmvogtei. Im Jahr 1232 wurde die kaiserliche Vogtei bestätigt. Der Konvent wählte dann jedoch den Bischof von Speyer zum Beschützer der Abtei. Dieser scheint die Vogtei als Untervogtei seinem Ministerialen Heinrich von Enzberg verliehen zu haben, der ab 1236 als Schirmer der Abtei urkundlich fassbar wird. Über die folgenden Jahrzehnte kam es dann immer wieder zu teilweise gewaltsamen Streitigkeiten mit den Herren von Enzberg, die versuchten, ihre Vogtei über das Kloster zum Ausbau der eigenen Position zu nutzen. Ab 1325 wurden die Pfalzgrafen bei Rhein mit der Schirmvogtei betraut.
Während des bayerisch-pfälzischen Erbfolgekrieges belagerte im Jahr 1504 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg das Kloster, das nach siebentägiger Belagerung fiel.
Im Deutschen Bauernkrieg 1525 wurde das Kloster von aufständischen Bauern geplündert. Der Böckinger Bauernführer Jäcklein Rohrbach hielt sich damals in Maulbronn auf und beklagte sich bei Hans Wunderer über die Unordnung unter den Aufständischen, die sich nicht darauf einigen konnten, ob das Kloster verbrannt, abgerissen oder verkauft werden solle. Der Einmischung Rohrbachs ist es zu verdanken, dass die Gebäude letztlich erhalten blieben.
Innenhof der Klosteranlage
Plan der Klausur
Ansicht von Osten (Rekonstruktionszeichnung von 1891)
Marstall (heute Rathaus der Stadt Maulbronn), links die Klosterschmiede
Pfisterei
Briefmarke von 1998
Klosterkirche (Innenansicht)
Herrenrefektorium, Speisesaal der Mönche
Laienrefektorium, Speisesaal der Laienbrüder, Konzertstätte
Vertreibung des Konvents im Zuge der Reformation
Da das Herzogtum Württemberg protestantisch wurde, wurden die Mönche des Klosters von der politischen Autorität im Lande nicht geduldet. Das Kloster war zunächst als Sammelkloster für renitente Mönche aus allen Männerklöstern Württembergs vorgesehen. Abt und Konvent übersiedelten 1537 in ihr Priorat Pairis ins Elsass, der Abt starb 1547 in Einsiedeln. Nach der Niederlage im Schmalkaldischen Krieg musste der Herzog das Kloster im Jahr 1546/47 dem Konvent zurückgeben.
Der 1555 beschlossene Augsburger Religionsfrieden gab dem Herzog das Recht, das Bekenntnis seiner Untertanen zu bestimmen. Im Jahr 1556 erließ er die Klosterordnung, die den Grundstein für ein geregeltes Schulwesen in allen verbliebenen Männerklöstern Württembergs legen sollte. Die Umwandlung des Klosters in eine Schule blieb vom juristischen Standpunkt noch lange umstritten. Es gab zwei Versuche des Kaisers, die Entwicklung in Maulbronn rückgängig zu machen. Während des Interims in den Jahren 1548 bis 1555 und von 1630 bis 1649 aufgrund des kaiserlichen Restitutionsedikts konnten Mönche aufgrund der zeitweilig gegebenen Machtverhältnisse wieder in das Kloster einziehen.
Wirtschafts- und Besitzgeschichte
Der Besitz des Klosters wuchs anfangs insbesondere durch fromme Schenkungen und Stiftungen des edelfreien Adels und der Ministerialität. Im 14. und 15. Jahrhundert erfolgte eine planmäßige Arrondierung und Verdichtung des Besitzes durch Güterkäufe. Am Ende der Entwicklung stand ein geschlossenes Klosterterritorium mit über zwanzig Dörfern, den sogenannten „Klosterflecken“ (siehe nächstes Kapitel).
Neben der Eigenbewirtschaftung der unmittelbar um das Kloster gelegenen Güter mit dem Elfinger Hof gab es Eigenbetriebe auch in Illingen, Knittlingen und Unteröwisheim. Außerdem wurden insgesamt etwa 2500 Hektar klösterlichen Waldes, verteilt auf etwa 25 Ortschaften, bewirtschaftet.
Im Übrigen wurden Güter und Privilegien verpachtet, was dem Kloster gemeinsam mit den Zehnteinnahmen erhebliche Einkünfte brachte. Darüber gibt die Größe des erhaltenen klösterlichen Fruchtkastens ein beredtes Zeugnis. Zur Verwaltung der Einkünfte aus den Klostergütern richtete der Konvent mehrere sogenannte Klosterpflegen ein. Insgesamt besaß das Kloster sieben Pfleghöfe, und zwar in Illingen, Kirchheim am Neckar, Knittlingen, Ötisheim, Speyer, Unteröwisheim und Wiernsheim.
Klosterterritorium und Klosteramt Maulbronn
Das zwischen dem 12. und 15. Jahrhundert entstehende Herrschaftsgebiet des Klosters Maulbronn kam im 14. Jahrhundert unter pfälzische Schutzherrschaft und 1504 unter württembergische Hoheit. Dies und das Folgende gilt für das geschlossene maulbronnische Kernterritorium, nicht für die eine Sonderrolle spielende, etwa 15 km nordwestlich des Kernterritoriums liegende Exklave Unteröwisheim (siehe unten). Im Gefolge der Säkularisation des Klosters 1535 wurde sein Gebiet 1557 in das württembergische Klosteramt Maulbronn umgewandelt. Es hatte eine maximale Nord-Süd-Ausdehnung von etwa 25 km (Knittlingen im Norden und Flacht im Süden) und eine maximale West-Ost-Ausdehnung von etwa 15 km (Ötisheim im Westen und Gündelbach im Osten).
Die Enz teilte das Territorium in eine Nord- und eine Südhälfte. Maulbronn lag im Zentrum der Nordhälfte, die geographische Mitte der Südhälfte wird in etwa von Wiernsheim eingenommen. Einzige Enklave war Mühlhausen an der Enz, welches ein eigenständiges württembergisches Kammerschreibereiamt bildete. Beinahe-Enklaven bildeten die Gemarkungen von Mönsheim (württembergisches Oberamt Leonberg) und Obermönsheim (baden-durlachischer landsässiger Adel). Über die Gemarkungen Freudenstein und Diefenbach hatte Maulbronn nicht die volle Ortsherrschaft erworben – das ebenfalls württembergische Klosteramt Herrenalb besaß jeweils 3/8 dieser beiden Orte.
Nachbarterritorien waren insbesondere: im Osten und Süden die württembergischen Ämter Güglingen, Vaihingen, Leonberg, Heimsheim und Hirsau, im Westen das badische Amt Pforzheim und das pfälzische Amt Bretten sowie im Norden das Stabsamt Derdingen des württembergischen Klosteramts Herrenalb.
Aufgrund seiner Größe sowie seiner besonderen geopolitischen und geographischen Lage am Übergang vom Neckarbecken zum Kraichgau und an der wichtigen Reichsstraße von Ulm nach Speyer stellte das Klosteramt Maulbronn eine strategisch äußerst bedeutende Bastion Württembergs nach Westen und in Richtung der dort liegenden oberrheinischen Staaten (Pfalz, Baden, Fürstbistum Speyer) dar. Bereits zu pfälzischer Zeit, als das Klosterterritorium Maulbronn die südöstliche Speerspitze der Pfalz bildete, wurden Maulbronn und viele Klosterorte befestigt, wovon dann später auch Württemberg profitierte.
Im Folgenden eine Liste der 25 Altgemarkungen des Klosteramts Maulbronn. Davon bilden 24 Gemarkungen das geschlossene Kernterritorium. Viele der in Klammern genannten Teilorte sind Waldenserorte, die erst 1699 hinzukamen, und deren Neugemarkungen – sofern welche gebildet wurden – oft aus mehreren Altgemarkungen zusammengesetzt wurden – zugeordnet sind sie im Folgenden derjenigen Gemeinde, auf deren Gemarkung sie hauptsächlich zu liegen kamen.
Knittlingen (mit dem Südteil von Großvillars), maulbronnisch seit dem 12./13. Jh.
Freudenstein (mit Hohenklingen), seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch (5/8) und herrenalbisch (3/8)
Diefenbach (mit Füllmenbacher Hof und Burrainhof), seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch (5/8) und herrenalbisch (3/8)
Ruit, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, 1810 badisch
Ölbronn (mit Kleinvillars), seit 1270/85 maulbronnisch
Maulbronn (1147 war das 1138 gegründete Kloster von Eckenweiher – heute Teil von Mühlacker – nach Maulbronn verlegt worden)
Zaisersweiher, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Schützingen, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, nach dem 30-jährigen Krieg von österreichischen Protestanten neubesiedelt
Gündelbach (mit Steinbachhof), seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Schmie, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Lienzingen, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Illingen, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Roßwag, seit 1394 maulbronnisch
Lomersheim, seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Dürrmenz (mit Eckenweiher, heute Mühlacker), seit 14./15. Jh. maulbronnisch
Ötisheim (mit Corres, Erlenbach und Schönenberg), seit 12. Jh. maulbronnisch
Großglattbach, wohl seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Öschelbronn, seit 14. Jh. maulbronnisch, 1810 badisch
Wiernsheim (mit Pinache und Serres), seit 12./13. Jh. maulbronnisch
Iptingen, seit 1194 maulbronnisch
Wurmberg (mit Neubärental), seit 12./13. Jh. maulbronnisch
Wimsheim, seit 1232 maulbronnisch
Weissach, seit 12. Jh. maulbronnisch
Flacht, seit 13./14. Jh. maulbronnisch
Unteröwisheim, seit 13./15. Jh. maulbronnisch, seit 16. Jh. württembergische Ortsherrschaft, seit 1747 württembergische Landeshoheit
Naturräumlich können vier landschaftliche Schwerpunkte ausgemacht werden:
Die Nordhälfte wird vom relativ stark bewaldeten, durch den Keuper gezeichneten Hügelland zwischen Stromberg und Enz dominiert, wobei westliche und nordwestliche Randbereiche bereits leicht in den fruchtbaren Kraichgau hineinreichen.
Die Südhälfte hingegen wird dominiert von den offenen Landschaften des hochgelegenen Heckengäus.
Dazwischen bildet das hier oft tief eingeschnittene Enztal eine eigenständige, vom Weinbau geprägte Landschaft.
Die Exklave Unteröwisheim liegt am Westrand des Kraichgaus, nur etwa vier Kilometer vom Beginn der Oberrheinebene entfernt.
1806 wurde das württembergische Klosteramt Maulbronn in das württembergische Oberamt Maulbronn umgewandelt. Öschelbronn und Ruit wurden 1810 von Württemberg an Baden abgetreten. Das Oberamt Maulbronn wurde 1936 Teil des Landkreises Vaihingen, und 1972 kamen die meisten Gemeinden zum Enzkreis.
Klosterschule
Im Januar 1556 nahm Abt Heinrich wie die anderen Prälaten des Landes die neue Klosterordnung an. Außer Maulbronn wurden gemäß dieser Regelungen noch zwölf weitere Männerkloster im württembergischen Herrschaftsbereich in evangelische Klosterschulen umgewandelt, um dort den Nachwuchs an evangelischen Pfarrern heranzubilden.[1] In Maulbronn existiert die Schule bis heute; mehrere bekannte Absolventen sind aus ihr hervorgegangen, unter ihnen Johannes Kepler, Friedrich Hölderlin und Hermann Hesse. Maulbronn ist eines der wenigen Seminare, das bis heute erhalten blieb. 1807 wurde die Schule in ein evangelisch-theologisches Seminar umgewandelt. Das Seminar ist heute ein staatliches Gymnasium mit Internat ab der 9. Klasse bis zum Abitur in Klasse 12. Circa 100 Schülerinnen und Schüler sind dort.
Filialklöster
Kloster Bronnbach, um 1150
Kloster Schöntal, 1157
Chronologische Eckdaten
Panorama Innenhof
1138 Klosterbau zu Eckenweiher durch Abt Dieter und 12 Mönche aus dem Zisterzienserkloster Neuburg im Elsass
1146 Hl. Bernhard von Clairvaux in Speyer
1147 Bischof Günther von Speyer übergibt sein Lehen „Mulenbrunnen“ dem Abt Dieter, der das Kloster nach Maulbronn verlegt
1148 Papst Eugen III. verleiht dem neuen Kloster einen Schutzbrief
1153 Graf Ludwig von Württemberg schenkt dem Kloster das Dorf Elfingen
1156 Kaiser Barbarossa nimmt das Kloster in den Schutz des Reichs
1178 Erzbischof Arnold von Trier weiht die Klosterkirche
1201 Bau der Klosterfront (Keller und Laienrefektorium)
Um 1210 Bau der Vorhalle (Paradies)
Um 1215 Bau der Südhalle des Kreuzgangs
Um 1225 Bau des Herrenrefektoriums und des Kapitelsaals
Um 1300 Bau der Westhalle des Kreuzgangs
Um 1350 Bau der Nordhalle des Kreuzgangs mit Brunnenkapelle, der Osthalle mit Kapitelsaal und Johanneskapelle
1361 Johann I. von Rottweil wird Abt und ummauert das Kloster
1424 gotischer Umbau der Kirche
1430 Bau des Pfrundhauses
1441 Pfalzgraf als Schirmvogt befestigt das Kloster mit Mauern, Türmen und Zinnen
1479 Bau der Vorhalle des Klosters
1493 Bau des Parlatoriums
1495 Vollendung des Oratoriums
1501 Errichtung des Steinbaldachins im Mittelschiff der Laienkirche
1504 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg besetzt das Kloster
1512 Johannes VIII. Entenfuß von Unteröwisheim wird Abt und entwickelt rege Bautätigkeit
1516 Johann Georg Faust soll vom Abt Entenfuß zum Goldmachen berufen worden sein
1517 Umbau des Herrenhauses mit der Wendeltreppe beendet
1518 Abt Entenfuß abgesetzt
1519 Ritter Franz von Sickingen brandschatzt das Kloster
1521 Pfisterei erbaut
1525 aufständische Bauern plündern das Kloster
1534 Herzog Ulrich von Württemberg säkularisiert das Kloster
1537 Abt Johann IX. verlegt nach seiner Flucht nach Speyer die Abtei nach Kloster Pairis im Elsass
1547 Durch das Augsburger Interim Kaiser Karls V. kommt das Kloster vorübergehend wieder in den Besitz der Zisterzienser. Abt Heinrich III. führt die katholische Religion und Ordensregel wieder ein und erlangt erneut die Anerkennung der Reichsunmittelbarkeit.
1550 Bau des Gesindehauses
1556 Herzog Christoph von Württemberg errichtet eine evangelische Klosterschule
1558 Valentin Vannius wird erster evangelischer Abt
1580 Erweiterung des Fruchtkastens
1586–1589 Johannes Kepler von Weil der Stadt wird Schüler im Kloster
1588 Bau des Herzoglichen Jagdschlosses
Um 1600 Bau des Hörsaals über der Brunnenkapelle
1630 Rückgabe des Klosters mit Waffengewalt an die Zisterzienser – Christoph Schaller von Sennheim wird Abt
1632 Infolge der Siege des Schwedenkönigs Gustav Adolf verlassen die Mönche das Kloster wieder
1633 Neueinsetzung eines evangelischen Abts
1634 Wiederherstellung der evangelischen Klosterschule – Rückkehr von Abt Schaller mit den Zisterziensern
1648 Im Westfälischen Frieden wird Maulbronn dem Protestantismus zugesprochen
1649 Abt Buchinger zieht unter Protest ab
1651 Wiedereinsetzung eines evangelischen Abts
1656 Wiederherstellung der evangelischen Klosterschule
1692 Klosterschüler werden vor dem Mordbrenner Ezéchiel de Mélac in Sicherheit gebracht
1702 Wiedereröffnung der Klosterschule
1751 Abbruch des Abtshauses
1786–1788 Friedrich Hölderlin Schüler in der Maulbronn Klosterschule
1806 König Friedrich I. von Württemberg säkularisiert das Kloster
1807 Zusammenlegung der Klosterschule Maulbronn mit Bebenhausen
1818 Maulbronn wird „Evangelisch-theologisches Seminar“
1823 Verlegung der Generalsuperintendenz von Maulbronn nach Ludwigsburg
1892 Brand des Pfrundhauses
1893–1899 Abbruch des Professorhauses vor der Klosterfront und des so genannten Schlösschens (Famulus-Wohnung)
1928 Evangelisch-theologisches Seminar Maulbronn geht in den Besitz der Evangelischen Seminarstiftung über
1941 Beschlagnahme des Klosters und Schließung der Seminarschule durch nationalsozialistische Regierung
1945 Wiedereröffnung des Evangelisch-theologischen Seminars
Heutige Bedeutung des Klosters
Die Klosteranlage ist heute fast ausschließlich im Besitz des Landes Baden-Württemberg und wird von der Einrichtung Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg betreut. Die Stadt Maulbronn nutzt den ehemaligen Marstall als Rathaus. Durch die Aufnahme in die UNESCO-Liste Weltkulturerbe zieht die Bauanlage Besucher aus aller Welt an.
Regelmäßig werden Klosterkonzerte veranstaltet, die die Akustik der Klosterbauten zur Geltung bringen.[2]
Architektur
Klostertor
Vor dem Haupteingang befand sich früher der Klostergraben, über den an Stelle der festen Steinbrücke ursprünglich eine hölzerne Zugbrücke führte. An der Westfront des Torturms sind noch die Öffnungen zu sehen, durch welche die Ketten zum Aufziehen der Brücke liefen.
In einer Zelle neben dem Klostereingang lebte der Pförtner, der Fremde in seiner Zelle Platz nehmen ließ und sie dann dem Abt meldete. Ordensbrüder durfte er sofort einlassen, Frauen überhaupt nicht. Gegen Männer war Gastfreundschaft heilige Pflicht: Arme und Kranke sollten empfangen werden, als ob Christus selbst käme.
Frühmesserhaus (heute Klostermuseum)
Klosterhof
Der Klosterhof zeichnet sich durch sein geschlossenes Bild aus. Gleich hinter dem Tor, an der Stelle der Apotheke, befand sich die Klosterherberge. An die Apotheke schließt sich das Frühmesserhaus an, die Wohnung der Ordensgeistlichen, die in der gegenüber liegenden Kapelle die Messe zu lesen hatten. Diese Torkapelle hatte den Zweck, Frauen, die keinen Zutritt zum Kloster hatten, die Beteiligung am Gottesdienst zu ermöglichen.
Vor dem Renaissance-Rathaus steht eine alte Linde. Hinter der Klosterküferei ragt der Klosterspeicher, der so genannte Fruchtkasten, auf, der auf alten Fundamenten im Jahr 1580 in seiner jetzigen Größe errichtet wurde. Das Fachwerkhaus in der Mitte des Platzes ist die alte Klosterverwaltung. Ursprünglich war der Klosterhof entweder kleiner oder durch eine Mauer in einen äußeren und inneren Teil geschieden. Er wird heute im Osten von der Front des Klosters begrenzt.
Paradies
Vorhalle von Dijon (Notre-Dame) und Maulbronn im Vergleich
Die Vorhalle der Klosterkirche hat ihren Namen „Paradies“ von der Sitte, den Vorraum der Kirche mit der Geschichte des Sündenfalls auszumalen. Die letzte Bemalung stammt aus dem Jahr 1522, ist aber bis auf geringe Reste abgefallen.
Das Paradies des Klosters Maulbronn markiert – wie viele Teile der dortigen Architektur – die Übergangszeit von der Romanik zur Gotik und zeigt burgundische Einflüsse. In der Kombination sind hohe, lichte Fenster und weite Gewölbe bereits deutlich gotisch, wohingegen noch keine Spitzbögen, sondern romanische Rundbögen die Fenster zieren. Teilweise werden auch Spitz- und Rundbögen miteinander arrangiert. Diese Form der Kombination ist in Deutschland einzigartig. Der Baumeister ist nicht namentlich bekannt, er wird daher nach dem Maulbronner Paradies Paradies-Baumeister genannt.
Der Meister des Maulbronner Paradieses
Ein in der Frühgotik Nordfrankreichs, z. B. in der Bauhütte von Laon, 1160/70 geschulter Meister erhielt den Auftrag, die Vorkirche, den neuen Kreuzgang und den Speisesaal der Herrenmönche zu bauen. Dieser Baumeister kam über Burgund, das Ursprungsland der Zisterzienserbewegung, nach Maulbronn. Zunächst versah er den Speisesaal der Konversen mit Doppelstützen, um den Raum, wie nach Ausweis der Wandspuren schon von seinem Vorgänger vorgesehen, mit Kreuzrippen zu wölben. Dann errichtete er vor der Westseite der Kirche das sogenannte „Paradies“ (daher sein Name) und den Kreuzgang-Südflügel sowie das Herrenrefektorium mit dem für den spätromanisch-frühgotischen Übergangsstil bezeichnenden sechsteiligen Kreuzrippengewölbe. Er begann auch den West- und den Ostflügel des Kreuzgangs mit jeweils dem ersten Joch von Süden und legte damit die Breiten- und Höhenmaße des im übrigen hochgotischen Kreuzgangs fest. Er zerlegte statische Funktionen in Einzelglieder. Typisch für seine Arbeit sind die Summierung der röhrenförmigen, verschieden hohen Dienste und die „Lochform“ der Fenster (Vorformen des Maßwerkes der Hochgotik). Alle Rippen des Gewölbes folgen dem Halbkreis.
Der „Maulbronner Paradiesmeister“ hat später in Magdeburg am Bischofsgang des Domchores und in Halberstadt gewirkt.
Bemerkenswert sind auch die Portale, die das Paradies mit dem Kirchenschiff verbinden. Die Türblätter stammen aus dem 12. Jahrhundert und sind original erhalten. Selbst der ehemalige Lederbezug (siehe Detail-Bild) ist noch gut sichtbar.
Portal der Klosterkirche vom Paradies aus gesehen.
Detail: Lederbezug des Kirchenportals. (12. Jahrhundert)
Blick vom Paradies nach draußen
Paradies, Innenansicht
Klosterfront
Klosterkirche (Innenansicht)
Klosterkirche
Am Deckengewölbe konnte Joseph Victor von Scheffel noch die Buchstaben „A. v. k. l. W. h.“ (= All voll, keiner leer (oder – wahrscheinlicher – Kanne leer), Wein her!) lesen. Dies inspirierte ihn zu seiner Maulbronner Fuge[3]:
Im Winterrefektorium zu Maulbronn in dem Kloster,
Da geht was um den Tisch herum, klingt nicht wie Paternoster.
Die Martinsgans hat wohlgethan, Eilfinger blinkt im Kruge,
Nun hebt die nasse Andacht an, und alles singt die Fuge:
All Voll, Keiner Leer, Wein Her! Complete pocula!
…
Die Kirche ist eine dreischiffige Basilika, die in den Jahren 1147 bis 1178 zunächst in romanischem Stil erbaut wurde. Sie ist ungewöhnlich lang, da das Langschiff zwei Kirchen, die Laien- und die Mönchskirche, vereinigt. Ein romanischer Lettner trennt die Laienkirche, den so genannten Bruderchor, von der Mönchskirche, dem so genannten Herrenchor. Eine Besonderheit ist dabei das Kruzifix: Das Kruzifix und der Körper des Heilands sind aus einem einzigen Steinblock herausgemeißelt. Es ist dabei exakt so ausgerichtet, dass an den längsten Tagen im Jahr nach zehn Uhr die Sonnenstrahlen die Dornenkrone Christi aufleuchten lassen.
Weitere Räume im inneren Bereich
Ab etwa 1200 wurde, beginnend mit dem Westtrakt, innerhalb von 10 bis 20 Jahren die Klausur um den Kreuzgang nördlich der Kirche errichtet.
Das Laienrefektorium (erb. um 1201) ist nach der Kirche der umfangreichste überwölbte Raum im Kloster.
Die Tür gegenüber der Brunnenkapelle führt ins Herrenrefektorium (erb. um 1220–1225), dem Speiseraum für die Mönche.
Im Kapitelsaal (13. Jh.) wurden in täglicher Versammlung allen Mönchen Kapitel aus der Ordensregel vorgelesen und eingeschärft. Diesem Zweck dienend war der Saal an allen vier Seiten mit Steinbänken versehen.
Die Brunnenkapelle aus dem 14. Jahrhundert springt südwärts ins Kreuzgärtchen vor. Der Waschraum im Kreuzgang ist von der Ordensregel vorgeschrieben. Die unterste Brunnenschale ist so alt wie die gotische Kapelle. Die beiden oberen Schalen wurden erst in neuerer Zeit hierher gesetzt.
Das Calefactorium ist ein backofenartiges Gewölbe, dessen Steine noch Spuren von Feuer tragen. Es ist der Raum, von dem aus die darüber liegende Wärmestube der Mönche geheizt wurde, der, abgesehen von der Klosterküche, einzige heizbare Raum im ganzen Kloster.
Das Parlatorium (um 1493), der Sprechsaal des Klosters, war der Ort, wo die Mönche untereinander und mit den Oberen des Ordens die nötigsten Worte wechseln durften.
Erwähnenswert ist die Einzeigeruhr.
In der Parkanlage südöstlich außerhalb der Klostermauern wurde 2012 eine Stauferstele eingeweiht, die u.a. daran erinnert, dass Friedrich I. Barbarossa das Kloster ab 1156 als kaiserliche Schirmvogtei unter seinen Schutz gestellt hat.[4]
Blick vom Kreuzgang auf das Brunnenhaus mit Fachwerkaufsatz
Pfisterei (Klosterbäckerei), links
Klostermühle (heute Internatsgebäude des Evang. Seminars), rechts
Wachhaus
Stauferstele (2012 eingeweiht) mit Faustturm im Hintergrund
Faustturm
Orgeln
Grenzing-Orgel in der Klosterkirche
Im Kloster Maulbronn befinden sich zwei Orgeln. Bis zum Jahre 1972 befand sich in der Klosterkirche eine Orgel des Orgelbauers Eberhard Friedrich Walcker aus dem Jahre 1849. Das Kegelladen-Instrument hatte 21 Register auf zwei Manualen und Pedal. Die Trakturen waren mechanisch. Im Jahre 1972 wurde diese Orgel durch ein neues Instrument der Fa. Walcker (Ludwigsburg) ersetzt, welches 38 Register auf drei Manualen und Pedal hatte. Das Instrument erwies sich bald als derart anfällig, dass bereits im Jahre 2002 mit den Vorüberlegungen für einen Neubau begonnen wurde. Im Jahre 2010 wurde die Walcker-Orgel abgebaut.[5]
Die heutige Hauptorgel der Klosterkirche wurde 2013 von dem Orgelbauer Gerhard Grenzing (Barcelona) erbaut. Das Schleifladen-Instrument hat 35 Register auf drei Manualen und Pedal.[6]
I Hauptwerk C–a3
1. Principal 16′
2. Viola di Gamba 8′
3. Principal 8′
4. Rohrflöte 8′
5. Octave 4′
6. Spitzflöte 4′
7. Superoctave 2′
8. Cornett III 2 2⁄3′
9. Mixtur maior IV-V 2′
10. Trompete 8′
II Positiv C–a3
11. Lieblich Gedackt 8′
12. Salicional 8′
13. Rohrflöte 4′
14. Principal 4′
15. Quinte 2 2⁄3′
16. Doublette 2′
17. Terz 1 3⁄5′
18. Mixtur minor III 1 1⁄3′
19. Klarinette 8′
Tremulant
III Schwellwerk C–a3
20. Lieblich Gedackt 16′
21. Flöte 8′
22. Viola 8′
23. Schwebung 8′
24. Fugara 4′
25. Traversflöte 4′
26. Flageolet 2′
27. Oboe 8′
28. Trompette harmonique 8′
Tremulant
Pedal C–f1
29. Principalbass 16′
30. Subbass 16′
31. Octavbass 8′
32. Violoncello 8′
33. Choralbass 4′
34. Posaune 16′
35. Trompete 8′
Koppeln: II/I, III/I, III/II, III/III (Suboktavkoppel); I/P, II/P, III/P (Normal- und Superoktavkoppel)
Im heizbaren Winterspeisesaal, der auch als „Winterkirche“ bezeichnet wird, befindet sich eine Orgel der Orgelbaufirma Claudius Winterhalter (Oberharmersbach) aus dem Jahr 2000. Das Instrument hat 20 Register auf zwei Manualen und Pedal.[7]
I Hauptwerk C–a3
1. Principal 8′
2. Holzflöte 8′
3. Oktave 4′
4. Spitzflöte 4′
5. Doublette 2′
6. Quinte 1 1⁄3′
7. Mixtur III-V 1 1⁄3′
II Nebenwerk C–a3
8. Salicional 8′
9. Gedeckt 8′
10. Fugara 4′
11. Rohrflöte 4′
12. Quinte 2 2⁄3′
13. Terz 1 3⁄5′
14. Principal 2′
15. Quinte 1 1⁄3′
16. Oboe 8′
Tremulant
Pedalwerk C–f1
17. Subbass 16′
18. Octavbass 8′
19. Bassoctave 4′
20. Fagott 16′
Koppeln: II/I (auch als Suboktavkoppel); I/P, II/P (auch als Superoktavkoppel)
Sondermarken und Sondermünzen
Deutschland 2013
Zur Erhebung des Klosters Maulbronn zum UNESCO-Kultur- und -Naturerbe der Menschheit erschien am 22. Januar 1998 eine Sondermarke der Deutschen Bundespost, auf dem die Klosterkirche und der Grundriss des Klosters gezeigt werden.
Ab 2013 ist das Kloster auf der Rückseite einer 2-Euro-Gedenkmünze zu sehen (Bundesländer-Serie) [8]. Das Motiv wurde vom Pforzheimer Flachgraveur Eugen Ruhl (Kürzel er) entworfen und zeigt die Vorhalle der Klosterkirche Maulbronn (Paradies) von 1220 und den dreischaligen Waschbrunnen.[9]
Legenden
Darstellung der Gründungslegende im Gewölbe des Brunnenhauses
Ein Maultier findet den Ort für die Klostergründung
Ein Wappen an der Quellennische zeigt die Gründungslegende, in der es heißt, dass die Mönche unentschlossen waren, wo sie das Kloster bauen sollten. Sie beluden deshalb ein Maultier mit den Klosterschätzen und ließen es laufen. Das Maultier blieb an der Stelle des heutigen Brunnens (= Bronn) stehen, warf den Klosterschatz ab und scharrte mit dem Huf. Dort schoss sogleich eine Wasserfontäne empor, die die Mönche im Brunnen und später im Brunnenhaus fassten. So habe das Kloster Standort und den Namen Maulbronn erhalten.
Erfindung der Maultasche durch die Maulbronner Mönche
Eine von mehreren Theorien, wie die schwäbische Maultasche erfunden wurde, verweist auf das Kloster Maulbronn. Eine Legende erzählt, dass gewitzte Ordensbrüder des Klosters Maulbronn – als diese in der Fastenzeit Fleisch geschenkt bekommen hatten – dieses als gute Schwaben nicht verkommen lassen wollten. Um das Verbot zu umgehen, freitags und in der Fastenzeit Fleisch zu essen, hackten sie das Fleisch ganz klein und vermengten es mit Kräutern. So sah es nach Gemüsebrei aus. Zudem wurde es noch in Taschen aus Nudelteig versteckt, damit es der Herrgott vom Himmel nicht sehen könnte. Der „liebe Gott“ soll dabei augenzwinkernd zugesehen haben. Im Volksmund wurde dieses Gericht nach dem Klosternamen als "Maul"tasche bezeichnet und wird auch scherzhaft „Herrgottsbscheißerle“ genannt.
Einzelnachweise
Martin Ehlers: Ortsgeschichte im Überblick, in: Maulbronn Heimatbuch. Maulbronn 2012, ISBN 978-3-933486-75-2, S. 77
Internetseite der „Klosterkonzerte Maulbronn“, abgerufen am 20. Dezember 2015
de.wikisource.org/wiki/Allgemeines_Deutsches_Kommersbuch:318
Stauferstele Kloster Maulbronn auf stauferstelen.net. Abgerufen am 22. März 2014.
Umfassende Informationen zu den Orgeln der Klosterkirche
Informationen zur Grenzing-Orgel
Nähere Informationen zur Orgel der Winterkirche
Bundesbank Übersicht 2-Euro-Gedenkmünzen
Susanne Roth: Maulbronn-Motiv mit Auflage von 30 Millionen. Zeitungsartikel von ca. 2013
Literatur
Marga Anstett-Janßen: Kloster Maulbronn, Deutscher Kunstverlag München/Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-422-03084-0
Friedl Brunckhorst: Maulbronn: Zisterzienserabtei – Klosterschule – Kulturdenkmal, Schimper-Verlag Schwetzingen 2002, ISBN 3-87742-171-7
Karl Klunzinger: Urkundliche Geschichte der vormaligen Cisterzienser-Abtei Maulbronn. Stuttgart 1854.
Ulrich Knapp: Das Kloster Maulbronn. Geschichte und Baugeschichte. Stuttgart 1997.
Katinka Krug, Peter Knoch, Matthias Untermann: Giebelarchitekturen: Neue Beobachtungen zur frühen Baugeschichte der Zisterzienserkirchen in Maulbronn und Bronnbach. In: INSITU. Zeitschrift für Architekturgeschichte 3 (2/2011), S. 161–172.
Peter Rückert / Dieter Planck (Hrsg.): Anfänge der Zisterzienser in Südwestdeutschland. Politik, Kunst und Liturgie im Umfeld des Klosters Maulbronn. Oberrheinische Studien 16, Stuttgart 1999.
Maulbronn: Zur 850jährigen Geschichte des Zisterzienserklosters. Herausgegeben vom Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Württemberg. Stuttgart 1997. ISBN 3-8062-1283-X
Kloster Maulbronn 1178–1978. Ausstellungskatalog. Maulbronn 1978.
Carla Mueller / Karin Stober: Kloster Maulbronn., Hrsg.: Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Staatsanzeiger-Verlag, Stuttgart, Schriftenreihe: Führer Staatliche Schlösser und Gärten Baden-Württemberg, Deutscher Kunstverlag München/Berlin 2006, ISBN 978-3-422-02053-5
Eduard Paulus: Die Cisterzienser-Abtei Maulbronn. Herausgegeben vom Württembergischen Alterthums-Verein, 2. Auflage, Bonz, Stuttgart 1882 (Digitalisat HAAB Weimar); 3., erweiterte Auflage 1889
Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Baden-Württemberg (Hrsg.): UNESCO-Welterbe. Kloster Maulbronn in Baden-Württemberg. Esslingen am Neckar, 2013.