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Thought for Food: First Use of Home Pizza Maker—A Random Recipe, A Savory Success - IMRAN®
"I hate cooking" is my mantra. But I love experimenting with gadgets that let me create without the mess or the fuss. So, I got myself a pizza maker and gathered a few ingredients last Sunday, and gave it a go.
You won’t catch me kneading dough or laboring over a stove. Instead, I started with fresh, ready-to-bake dough folded like a pie, placed it in the pizza maker, and added my mix of flavors: pizza sauce, cheese, sliced mushrooms, chopped onions, bell peppers, and shredded chicken. A sprinkle of black pepper and cayenne—combined in my signature (read: random!) way—and I let the machine work its magic.
The collage of photos walks you through every step. I actually doubled the recommended cooking time for two reasons. First, the ingredients had plenty of moisture to cook and steam away. Second, I loathe doughy textures and only love ultra-thin, biscuit-crunchy crust.
The final result? An absolute delight—a savory success!
© 2025 IMRAN®
Canon EOS 7D
Used
Refurbished* General überholt by Geissler, Gönningen
CANON CPS MITGLIEDSCHAFT
Garantie - Fachwerkstatt:
Canon Sony Panasonic Metz Tamron Samsung etc.
Firma Herbert Geissler GmbH
Lichtensteinstraße 75
72770 Reutlingen
Tel.: 07072 / 9297-0
Heute beschäftigt die Herbert Geissler GmbH über 90 Mitarbeiter und ist Vertragswerkstatt für namhafte Foto-, Video- und HiFi-Hersteller.
Wir stellen unsere Qualifikation zur Verfügung, damit Ihre Foto-, Video- und Hifi-Geräte schnellstens repariert werden.
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Refurbishing bezeichnet die qualitätsgesicherte Überholung und Instandsetzung von Produkten zum Zweck der Wiederverwendung und -vermarktung.
Camera Finder / All / Canon / EOS 7D/
EF-S18-135mm f/3.5-5.6 IS
-
Hier 3.5x Zoom
von 7 5x Zoomobjektiv
VERY First portrait shot with this new gear in my Portfolio
========================================
Lens Model - EF-S18-135mm f/3.5-5.6 IS
The Semi Professional DSLR
Camera Type - semi profesional Digital SLR
B-Segment
When owning a semi professional DSLR camera, you can start to think about taking better photos.
Artist changed now too:
Artist - Thomas Welker
to Erwin Effinger
Scene Capture Type - Standard
C-Auto
presets
Exposure Bias - -1/3 EV
Metering Mode - Multi-segment
The 7D is lacking slightly in image quality when compared to the 5D Mark III range
(understandable since the 5D’s have larger, full frame sensors)
but the features of the 7D are incredible!
7D nach 2012
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Free Update Increases Buffer Capacity to 25 RAW Images, Adds In-Camera RAW Processing and Many Other New Features
LAKE SUCCESS, N.Y., June 28, 2012 - Canon U.S.A., Inc., a leader in digital imaging solutions, announced a firmware update for the EOS 7D Digital SLR camera that adds new functionality to improve its performance for serious photographers and semi-professional users.
The update, free to all EOS 7D owners, gives the camera more advanced shooting options, including an increase in the maximum number of burst images taken in the RAW file format (from 15i frames to 25ii frames) as well as the ability to process RAW image files directly in the camera and the option to set a maximum ISO setting in ISO Auto mode.
The firmware also adds the ability to adjust up to 64 audio levels manually prior to recording video, supports custom file naming, and allows for compatibility with Canon’s newly introduced, optional GPS Receiver GP-E2.
Using the same name JEEP makes the GLADIATOR NAME resurface only on a smaller CJ based platform.............
our 1964 like one above just rotted out but the drivetrain was bulletproof
WATCH..........
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem. According to traditions dating back to the 4th century, it contains the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus was crucified, at a place known as Calvary or Golgotha, and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is believed by Christians to have been buried and resurrected. Each time the church was rebuilt, some of the antiquities from the preceding structure were used in the newer renovation. The tomb itself is enclosed by a 19th-century shrine called the Aedicule. The Status Quo, an understanding between religious communities dating to 1757, applies to the site.
Within the church proper are the last four stations of the Cross of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of the Passion of Jesus. The church has been a major Christian pilgrimage destination since its creation in the 4th century, as the traditional site of the resurrection of Christ, thus its original Greek name, Church of the Anastasis ('Resurrection').
Control of the church itself is shared, a simultaneum, among several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic, and to a lesser degree the Coptic, Syriac, and Ethiopian Orthodox churches.
Following the siege of Jerusalem in AD 70 during the First Jewish–Roman War, Jerusalem had been reduced to ruins. In AD 130, the Roman emperor Hadrian began the building of a Roman colony, the new city of Aelia Capitolina, on the site. Circa AD 135, he ordered that a cave containing a rock-cut tomb be filled in to create a flat foundation for a temple dedicated to Jupiter or Venus. The temple remained until the early 4th century.
After allegedly seeing a vision of a cross in the sky in 312, Constantine the Great began to favor Christianity, signed the Edict of Milan legalising the religion, and sent his mother, Helena, to Jerusalem to look for Christ's tomb. With the help of Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius and Bishop of Jerusalem Macarius, three crosses were found near a tomb; one which allegedly cured people of death was presumed to be the True Cross Jesus was crucified on, leading the Romans to believe that they had found Calvary. Constantine ordered in about 326 that the temple to Jupiter/Venus be replaced by a church. After the temple was torn down and its ruins removed, the soil was removed from the cave, revealing a rock-cut tomb that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus. A shrine was built, enclosing the rock tomb walls within its own.
In 327, Constantine and Helena separately commissioned the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem to commemorate the birth of Jesus.
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, planned by the architect Zenobius, was built as separate constructs over the two holy sites: a rotunda called the Anastasis ("Resurrection"), where Helena and Macarius believed Jesus to have been buried, and across a courtyard to the east, the great basilica, an enclosed colonnaded atrium (the Triportico, sometimes called the Martyrium) with the traditional site of Calvary in one corner. The church was consecrated on 13 September 335. The Church Of The Holy Sepulchre site has been recognized since early in the 4th century as the place where Jesus was crucified, buried, and rose from the dead.
This building was destroyed by a fire in May of AD 614, when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius rebuilt the church after recapturing the city. After Jerusalem came under Islamic rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction or use as living quarters. A story reports that the caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony, but at the time of prayer, turned away from the church and prayed outside. He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius of Alexandria adds that Umar wrote a decree saying that Muslims would not inhabit this location. The building suffered severe damage from an earthquake in 746.
Early in the 9th century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas I. In 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent to the Church. In 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, a riot broke out, which was followed by reprisals. The basilica was burned again. The doors and roof were burnt, and Patriarch John VII was murdered.
On 18 October 1009, Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the complete destruction of the church as part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt. The damage was extensive, with few parts of the early church remaining, and the roof of the rock-cut tomb damaged; the original shrine was destroyed. Some partial repairs followed. Christian Europe reacted with shock and expulsions of Jews, serving as an impetus to later Crusades.
In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–28, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the church. The rebuilding was finally completed during the tenures of Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople in 1048. As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was reopened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name. Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the renunciation of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under al-Hakim's persecutions. In addition, the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by al-Hakim and the reestablishment of a patriarch in Jerusalem. Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made. Still, "a total replacement was far beyond available resources. The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins."
The rebuilt church site consisted of "a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it." The chapels were east of the court of resurrection (when reconstructed, the location of the tomb was under open sky), where the western wall of the great basilica had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the city streets. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as 'a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature'... since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the 11th century found much of the sacred site in ruins." Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the Crusaders' arrival in 1099.
Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Turkish invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was also of concern, if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abassids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.
The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. The classical theory is that Crusader leader Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first Latin ruler of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri ("Protector [or Defender] of the Holy Sepulchre"). By the Crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; the cistern later became the Chapel of the Invention of the Cross, but there is no evidence of the site's identification before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th-century repairs by Monomachos.
According to the German priest and pilgrim Ludolf von Sudheim, the keys of the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre were in hands of the "ancient Georgians", and the food, alms, candles and oil for lamps were given to them by the pilgrims at the south door of the church.
Eight 11th- and 12th-century Crusader leaders (Godfrey, Baldwin I, Baldwin II, Fulk, Baldwin III, Amalric, Baldwin IV and Baldwin V — the first eight rulers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem) were buried in the south transept and inside the Chapel of Adam. The royal tombs were destroyed by the Greeks in 1809–1810. It is unclear if the remains of those men were exhumed; some researchers hypothesize that some of them may still be in unmarked pits under the church.
William of Tyre, chronicler of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, reports on the renovation of the Church in the mid-12th century. The Crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they transformed this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena, widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase. The Crusaders began to refurnish the church in Romanesque style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the holy places under one roof for the first time. The church became the seat of the first Latin patriarchs and the site of the kingdom's scriptorium. It was lost to Saladin, along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed Christian pilgrims to visit the site. Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century while under a ban of excommunication, with the curious consequence that the holiest church in Christianity was laid under interdict. The church seems to have been largely in the hands of Greek Orthodox patriarch Athanasius II of Jerusalem (c. 1231–47) during the Latin control of Jerusalem. Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244.
There was certainly a recognisable Nestorian (Church of the East) presence at the Holy Sepulchre from the years 1348 through 1575, as contemporary Franciscan accounts indicate. The Franciscan friars renovated the church in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an antechamber. A marble shrine commissioned by Friar Boniface of Ragusa was placed to envelop the remains of Christ's tomb, probably to prevent pilgrims from touching the original rock or taking small pieces as souvenirs. A marble slab was placed over the limestone burial bed where Jesus's body is believed to have lain.
After the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable firman from the "Sublime Porte" at a particular time, often through outright bribery. Violent clashes were not uncommon. There was no agreement about this question, although it was discussed at the negotiations to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. During the Holy Week of 1757, Orthodox Christians reportedly took over some of the Franciscan-controlled church. This may have been the cause of the sultan's firman (decree) later developed into the Status Quo.
A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–10 by architect Nikolaos Ch. Komnenos of Mytilene in the contemporary Ottoman Baroque style.[citation needed] The interior of the antechamber, now known as the Chapel of the Angel, was partly rebuilt to a square ground plan in place of the previously semicircular western end.
Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and solidified the Status Quo for arrangements to "remain in their present state", requiring consensus to make even minor changes.
The dome was restored by Catholics, Greeks and Turks in 1868, being made of iron ever since.
By the time of the British Mandate for Palestine following the end of World War I, the cladding of red marble applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos had deteriorated badly and was detaching from the underlying structure; from 1947 until restoration work in 2016–17, it was held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities.
In 1948, Jerusalem was divided between Israel and Jordan and the Old City with the church were made part of Jordan. In 1967, Israeli forces captured East Jerusalem in the Six Day War, and that area has remained under Israeli control ever since. Under Israeli rule, legal arrangements relating to the churches of East Jerusalem were maintained in coordination with the Jordanian government. The dome at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was restored again in 1994–97 as part of extensive modern renovations that have been ongoing since 1959. During the 1970–78 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan bazaar, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white meleke limestone was struck.
East of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a second-century[dubious – discuss] drawing of a Roman pilgrim ship, two low walls supporting the platform of Hadrian's second-century temple, and a higher fourth-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica. After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena.
After seven decades of being held together by steel girders, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) declared the visibly deteriorating Aedicule structure unsafe. A restoration of the Aedicule was agreed upon and executed from May 2016 to March 2017. Much of the $4 million project was funded by the World Monuments Fund, as well as $1.3 million from Mica Ertegun and a significant sum from King Abdullah II of Jordan. The existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule was confirmed, and a window was created to view this from the inside. The presence of moisture led to the discovery of an underground shaft resembling an escape tunnel carved into the bedrock, seeming to lead from the tomb. For the first time since at least 1555, on 26 October 2016, marble cladding that protects the supposed burial bed of Jesus was removed. Members of the National Technical University of Athens were present. Initially, only a layer of debris was visible. This was cleared in the next day, and a partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved was revealed. By the night of 28 October, the original limestone burial bed was shown to be intact. The tomb was resealed shortly thereafter. Mortar from just above the burial bed was later dated to the mid-fourth century.
On 25 March 2020, Israeli health officials ordered the site closed to the public due to the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the keeper of the keys, it was the first such closure since 1349, during the Black Death. Clerics continued regular prayers inside the building, and it reopened to visitors two months later, on 24 May.
During church renovations in 2022, a stone slab covered in modern graffiti was moved from a wall, revealing Cosmatesque-style decoration on one face. According to an IAA archaeologist, the decoration was once inlaid with pieces of glass and fine marble; it indicates that the relic was the front of the church's high altar from the Crusader era (c. 1149), which was later used by the Greek Orthodox until being damaged in the 1808 fire.
The courtyard facing the entrance to the church is known as the parvis. Two streets open into the parvis: St Helena Road (west) and Suq ed-Dabbagha (east). Around the parvis are a few smaller structures.
South of the parvis, opposite the church:
Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—stand opposite the church, at the top of a short descending staircase stretching over the entire breadth of the parvis. In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids.
The Gethsemane Metochion, a small Greek Orthodox monastery (metochion).
On the eastern side of the parvis, south to north:
The Monastery of St Abraham (Greek Orthodox), next to the Suq ed-Dabbagha entrance to the parvis.
The Chapel of St John the Evangelist (Armenian Orthodox)
The Chapel of St Michael and the Chapel of the Four Living Creatures (both are disputed between the Copts and Ethiopians), giving access to Deir es-Sultan (also disputed), a rooftop monastery surrounding the dome of the Chapel of St Helena.
North of the parvis, in front of the church façade or against it:
Chapel of the Franks (Chapel of Our Lady of Sorrows): a blue-domed Roman Catholic Crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary. The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus's garments).
Oratory of St. Mary of Egypt: a Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, directly beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt.
The tomb (including a ledgerstone) of Philip d'Aubigny aka Philip Daubeney (died 1236), a knight, tutor, and royal councilor to Henry III of England and signer of the Magna Carta—is placed in front of, and between, the church's two original entrance doors, of which the eastern one is walled up. It is one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Khwarizmian capture of Jerusalem in 1244. In the 1900s, during a fight between the Greeks and Latins, some monks damaged the tomb by throwing stones from the roof. A stone marker[clarification needed] was placed on his tomb in 1925, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor that hides it from view.[citation needed]
A group of three chapels borders the parvis on its west side. They originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinian church. The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex. Now they are dedicated as (from south to north)
The Chapel of St. James the Just (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of St. John the Baptist (Greek Orthodox),
The Chapel of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Greek Orthodox; at the base of the bell tower).
The 12th-century Crusader bell tower is just south of the Rotunda, to the left of the entrance. Its upper level was lost in a 1545 collapse. In 1719, another two storeys were lost.
The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved arched doors. Today, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right doorway has long since been bricked up. The entrance to the church leads to the south transept, through the crusader façade in the parvis of a larger courtyard. This is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa by way of a souq in the Muristan. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.
According to their own family lore, the Muslim Nuseibeh family has been responsible for opening the door as an impartial party to the church's denominations already since the seventh century. However, they themselves admit that the documents held by various Christian denominations only mention their role since the 12th century, in the time of Saladin, which is the date more generally accepted. After retaking Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187, Saladin entrusted the Joudeh family with the key to the church, which is made of iron and 30 centimetres (12 in) long; the Nuseibehs either became or remained its doorkeepers.
The 'immovable ladder' stands beneath a window on the façade.
Just inside the church entrance is a stairway leading up to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus's crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The exit is via another stairway opposite the first, leading down to the ambulatory. Golgotha and its chapels are just south of the main altar of the catholicon.
Calvary is split into two chapels: one Greek Orthodox and one Catholic, each with its own altar. On the left (north) side, the Greek Orthodox chapel's altar is placed over the supposed rock of Calvary (the 12th Station of the Cross), which can be touched through a hole in the floor beneath the altar. The rock can be seen under protective glass on both sides of the altar. The softer surrounding stone was removed when the church was built. The Roman Catholic (Franciscan) Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (the 11th Station of the Cross) stretches to the south. Between the Catholic Altar of the Nailing to the Cross and the Orthodox altar is the Catholic Altar of the Stabat Mater, which has a statue of Mary with an 18th-century bust; this middle altar marks the 13th Station of the Cross.
On the ground floor, just underneath the Golgotha chapel, is the Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. According to some, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill Adam's skull. Through a window at the back of the 11th-century apse, the rock of Calvary can be seen with a crack traditionally held to be caused by the earthquake that followed Jesus's death;[78] some scholars claim it is the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.
Behind the Chapel of Adam is the Greek Treasury (Treasury of the Greek Patriarch). Some of its relics, such as a 12th-century crystal mitre, were transferred to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Museum (the Patriarchal Museum) on Greek Orthodox Patriarchate Street.
Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition holds to be where Jesus's body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea, though this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.
The wall behind the stone is defined by its striking blue balconies and taphos symbol-bearing red banners (depicting the insignia of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre), and is decorated with lamps. The modern mosaic along the wall depicts the anointing of Jesus's body, preceded on the right by the Descent from the Cross, and succeeded on the left by the Burial of Jesus.
The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the catholicon, sits on top of four of the now empty and desecrated Crusader graves and is no longer structurally necessary. Opinions differ as to whether it is to be seen as the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and located between the 11th and 12th stations on Calvary.
The lamps that hang over the Stone of Unction, adorned with cross-bearing chain links, are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins.
Immediately inside and to the left of the entrance is a bench (formerly a divan) that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring. To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing the staircase leading to Golgotha. Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.
The rotunda is the building of the larger dome located on the far west side. In the centre of the rotunda is a small chapel called the Aedicule in English, from the Latin aedicula, in reference to a small shrine. The Aedicule has two rooms: the first holds a relic called the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second, smaller room contains the tomb of Jesus. Possibly to prevent pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, by 1555, a surface of marble cladding was placed on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb. In October 2016, the top slab was pulled back to reveal an older, partially broken marble slab with a Crusader-style cross carved in it. Beneath it, the limestone burial bed was revealed to be intact.
Under the Status Quo, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire led by the Greek Orthodox patriarch (with the participation of the Coptic and Armenian patriarchs). To its rear, in the Coptic Chapel, constructed of iron latticework, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox. Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.
To the right of the sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.
In the central nave of the Crusader-era church, just east of the larger rotunda, is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox catholicon. Its dome is 19.8 metres (65 ft) in diameter, and is set directly over the centre of the transept crossing of the choir where the compas is situated, an omphalos ("navel") stone once thought to be the center of the world and still venerated as such by Orthodox Christians (associated with the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection).
Since 1996 this dome is topped by the monumental Golgotha Crucifix, which the Greek Patriarch Diodoros I of Jerusalem consecrated. It was at the initiative of Israeli professor Gustav Kühnel to erect a new crucifix at the church that would not only be worthy of the singularity of the site, but that would also become a symbol of the efforts of unity in the community of Christian faith.
The catholicon's iconostasis demarcates the Orthodox sanctuary behind it, to its east. The iconostasis is flanked to the front by two episcopal thrones: the southern seat (cathedra) is the patriarchal throne of the Greek Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem, and the northern seat is for an archbishop or bishop. (There is also a popular claim that both are patriarchal thrones, with the northern one being for the patriarch of Antioch — which has been described as a misstatement, however.)
South of the Aedicule is the "Place of the Three Marys", marked by a stone canopy (the Station of the Holy Women) and a large modern wall mosaic. From here one can enter the Armenian monastery, which stretches over the ground and first upper floor of the church's southeastern part.
West of the Aedicule, to the rear of the Rotunda, is the Syriac Chapel with the Tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, located in a Constantinian apse and containing an opening to an ancient Jewish rock-cut tomb. This chapel is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays.
The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus. On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass. It is accessed from the Rotunda, by a door west of the Aedicule.
On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to an almost complete first-century Jewish tomb, initially holding six kokh-type funeral shafts radiating from a central chamber, two of which are still exposed. Although this space was discovered relatively recently and contains no identifying marks, some believe that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here. Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, the presence of this tomb seems to prove that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion.
The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel, an open area, indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.
The Franciscan Chapel of the Apparition (Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament), directly north of the above – in memory of Jesus's meeting with his mother after the Resurrection, a non-scriptural tradition. Here stands a piece of an ancient column, allegedly part of the one Jesus was tied to during his scourging.
The Arches of the Virgin are seven arches (an arcade) at the northern end of the north transept, which is to the catholicon's north. Disputed by the Orthodox and the Latin, the area is used to store ladders.
In the northeast side of the complex, there is the Prison of Christ, alleged to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox are showing pilgrims yet another place where Jesus was allegedly held, the similarly named Prison of Christ in their Monastery of the Praetorium, located near the Church of Ecce Homo, between the Second and Third Stations of the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation at the Second Station of the Via Dolorosa as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins beneath the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu on Mount Zion is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ. To reconcile the traditions, some allege that Jesus was held in the Mount Zion cell in connection with his trial by the Jewish high priest, at the Praetorium in connection with his trial by the Roman governor Pilate, and near the Golgotha before crucifixion.
The chapels in the ambulatory are, from north to south: the Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus (named after Longinus), the Armenian Chapel of the Division of Robes, the entrance to the Chapel of Saint Helena, and the Greek Chapel of the Derision.
Chapel of Saint Helena – between the Chapel of the Division of Robes and the Greek Chapel of the Derision are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena. The Armenians, who own it, call it the Chapel of St. Gregory the Illuminator, after the saint who brought Christianity to the Armenians.
Chapel of St Vartan (or Vardan) Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan. The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are open only on request.
Chapel of the Invention of the Cross (named for the Invention (Finding) of the Holy Cross) – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found.
An Ottoman decree of 1757 helped establish a status quo upholding the state of affairs for various Holy Land sites. The status quo was upheld in Sultan Abdülmecid I's firman (decree) of 1852/3, which pinned down the now-permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.
The primary custodians are the Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic churches. The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox also acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building.
None of these controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nusaybah family. The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors. The Joudeh al-Goudia (al-Ghodayya) family were entrusted as custodian to the keys of the Holy Sepulchre by Saladin in 1187. Despite occasional disagreements, religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is generally peaceful. An example of concord between the Church custodians is the full restoration of the Aedicule from 2016 to 2017.
The establishment of the modern Status Quo in 1853 did not halt controversy and occasional violence. In 1902, 18 friars were hospitalized and some monks were jailed after the Franciscans and Greeks disagreed over who could clean the lowest step of the Chapel of the Franks. In the aftermath, the Greek patriarch, Franciscan custos, Ottoman governor and French consul general signed a convention that both denominations could sweep it. On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fight. In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.
On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers. On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.
In February 2018, the church was closed following a tax dispute over 152 million euros of uncollected taxes on church properties. The city hall stressed that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and all other churches are exempt from the taxes, with the changes only affecting establishments like "hotels, halls and businesses" owned by the churches. NPR had reported that the Greek Orthodox Church calls itself the second-largest landowner in Israel, after the Israeli government.
There was a lock-in protest against an Israeli legislative proposal which would expropriate church lands that had been sold to private companies since 2010, a measure which church leaders assert constitutes a serious violation of their property rights and the Status Quo. In a joint official statement the church authorities protested what they considered to be the peak of a systematic campaign in:
a discriminatory and racist bill that targets solely the properties of the Christian community in the Holy Land ... This reminds us all of laws of a similar nature which were enacted against the Jews during dark periods in Europe.
The 2018 taxation affair does not cover any church buildings or religious related facilities (because they are exempt by law), but commercial facilities such as the Notre Dame Hotel which was not paying the municipal property tax, and any land which is owned and used as a commercial land. The church holds the rights to land where private homes have been constructed, and some of the disagreement had been raised after the Knesset had proposed a bill that will make it harder for a private company not to extend a lease for land used by homeowners. The church leaders have said that such a bill will make it harder for them to sell church-owned lands. According to The Jerusalem Post:
The stated aim of the bill is to protect homeowners against the possibility that private companies will not extend their leases of land on which their houses or apartments stand.
In June 2019, a number of Christian denominations in Jerusalem raised their voice against the Supreme Court's decision to uphold the sale of three properties by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate to Ateret Cohanim – an organization that seeks to increase the number of Jews living in the Old City and East Jerusalem. The church leaders warned that if the organization gets to control the sites, Christians could lose access to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In June 2022, the Supreme Court upheld the sale and ended the legal battle.
The site of the church had been a temple to Jupiter or Venus built by Hadrian before Constantine's edifice was built. Hadrian's temple had been located there because it was the junction of the main north–south road with one of the two main east–west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (now the location of the Muristan, which is smaller than the former forum). The forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north–south road with the other main east–west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east–west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the Russian Mission in Exile).
From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall of the temple itself would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.
Other archaeologists have criticized Corbo's reconstructions. Dan Bahat, the former city archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known temple of Aphrodite (Venus) matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the temple building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda was not based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site.
The New Testament describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall,[l] as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean. Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem. It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church. In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus's time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.
The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early first century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.[citation needed]
The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem.
The Christian Quarter and the (also Christian) Armenian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem are both located in the northwestern and western part of the Old City, due to the fact that the Holy Sepulchre is located close to the northwestern corner of the walled city. The adjacent neighbourhood within the Christian Quarter is called the Muristan, a term derived from the Persian word for hospital – Christian pilgrim hospices have been maintained in this area near the Holy Sepulchre since at least the time of Charlemagne.
From the ninth century onward, the construction of churches inspired by the Anastasis was extended across Europe. One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.
Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been wholly or partially modeled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. They include the Heiliges Grab ("Holy Tomb") of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504, the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.
Author Andrew Holt writes that the church is the most important in all Christendom.
Jerusalem is an ancient city in West Asia, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the oldest cities in the world, and is considered holy to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Both Israel and Palestine claim Jerusalem as their capital; Israel maintains its primary governmental institutions there, and the State of Palestine ultimately foresees it as its seat of power. Neither claim, however, is widely recognized internationally.
Throughout its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed at least twice, besieged 23 times, captured and recaptured 44 times, and attacked 52 times. The part of Jerusalem called the City of David shows first signs of settlement in the 4th millennium BCE, in the shape of encampments of nomadic shepherds. During the Canaanite period (14th century BCE), Jerusalem was named as Urusalim on ancient Egyptian tablets, probably meaning "City of Shalem" after a Canaanite deity. During the Israelite period, significant construction activity in Jerusalem began in the 10th century BCE (Iron Age II), and by the 9th century BCE, the city had developed into the religious and administrative centre of the Kingdom of Judah. In 1538, the city walls were rebuilt for a last time around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire. Today those walls define the Old City, which since the 19th century has been divided into four quarters – the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage Site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Since 1860, Jerusalem has grown far beyond the Old City's boundaries. In 2022, Jerusalem had a population of some 971,800 residents, of which almost 60% were Jews and almost 40% Palestinians. In 2020, the population was 951,100, of which Jews comprised 570,100 (59.9%), Muslims 353,800 (37.2%), Christians 16,300 (1.7%), and 10,800 unclassified (1.1%).
According to the Hebrew Bible, King David conquered the city from the Jebusites and established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son, King Solomon, commissioned the building of the First Temple. Modern scholars argue that Jews branched out of the Canaanite peoples and culture through the development of a distinct monolatrous—and later monotheistic—religion centred on El/Yahweh. These foundational events, straddling the dawn of the 1st millennium BCE, assumed central symbolic importance for the Jewish people. The sobriquet of holy city (Hebrew: עיר הקודש, romanized: 'Ir ha-Qodesh) was probably attached to Jerusalem in post-exilic times. The holiness of Jerusalem in Christianity, conserved in the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which Christians adopted as their own "Old Testament", was reinforced by the New Testament account of Jesus's crucifixion and resurrection there. In Sunni Islam, Jerusalem is the third-holiest city, after Mecca and Medina. The city was the first qibla, the standard direction for Muslim prayers (salah), and in Islamic tradition, Muhammad made his Night Journey there in 621, ascending to heaven where he speaks to God, according to the Quran. As a result, despite having an area of only 0.9 km2 (3⁄8 sq mi), the Old City is home to many sites of seminal religious importance, among them the Temple Mount with its Western Wall, Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, West Jerusalem was among the areas captured and later annexed by Israel while East Jerusalem, including the Old City, was captured and later annexed by Jordan. Israel captured East Jerusalem from Jordan during the 1967 Six-Day War and subsequently effectively annexed it into Jerusalem, together with additional surrounding territory.[note 6] One of Israel's Basic Laws, the 1980 Jerusalem Law, refers to Jerusalem as the country's undivided capital. All branches of the Israeli government are located in Jerusalem, including the Knesset (Israel's parliament), the residences of the Prime Minister (Beit Aghion) and President (Beit HaNassi), and the Supreme Court. The international community rejects the annexation as illegal and regards East Jerusalem as Palestinian territory occupied by Israel.
Etymology
The name "Jerusalem" is variously etymologized to mean "foundation (Semitic yry' 'to found, to lay a cornerstone') of the pagan god Shalem"; the god Shalem was thus the original tutelary deity of the Bronze Age city.
Shalim or Shalem was the name of the god of dusk in the Canaanite religion, whose name is based on the same root S-L-M from which the Hebrew word for "peace" is derived (Shalom in Hebrew, cognate with Arabic Salam). The name thus offered itself to etymologizations such as "The City of Peace", "Abode of Peace", "Dwelling of Peace" ("founded in safety"), or "Vision of Peace" in some Christian authors.
The ending -ayim indicates the dual, thus leading to the suggestion that the name Yerushalayim refers to the fact that the city initially sat on two hills.
Ancient Egyptian sources
The Execration Texts of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called rwšꜣlmm or ꜣwšꜣmm, variously transcribed as Rušalimum, or Urušalimum, may indicate Jerusalem. Alternatively, the Amarna letters of Abdi-Heba (1330s BCE), which reference an Úrušalim, may be the earliest mention of the city.
Hebrew Bible and Jewish sources
The form Yerushalem or Yerushalayim first appears in the Bible, in the Book of Joshua. According to a Midrash, the name is a combination of two names united by God, Yireh ("the abiding place", the name given by Abraham to the place where he planned to sacrifice his son) and Shalem ("Place of Peace", the name given by high priest Shem).
Oldest written mention of Jerusalem
One of the earliest extra-biblical Hebrew writing of the word Jerusalem is dated to the sixth or seventh century BCE and was discovered in Khirbet Beit Lei near Beit Guvrin in 1961. The inscription states: "I am Yahweh thy God, I will accept the cities of Judah and I will redeem Jerusalem", or as other scholars suggest: "Yahweh is the God of the whole earth. The mountains of Judah belong to him, to the God of Jerusalem". An older example on papyrus is known from the previous century.
In extra-biblical inscriptions, the earliest known example of the -ayim ending was discovered on a column about 3 km west of ancient Jerusalem, dated to the first century BCE.
Jebus, Zion, City of David
An ancient settlement of Jerusalem, founded as early as the Bronze Age on the hill above the Gihon Spring, was, according to the Bible, named Jebus. Called the "Fortress of Zion" (metsudat Zion), it was renamed as the "City of David", and was known by this name in antiquity. Another name, "Zion", initially referred to a distinct part of the city, but later came to signify the city as a whole, and afterwards to represent the whole biblical Land of Israel.
Greek, Roman and Byzantine names
In Greek and Latin, the city's name was transliterated Hierosolyma (Greek: Ἱεροσόλυμα; in Greek hieròs, ἱερός, means holy), although the city was renamed Aelia Capitolina for part of the Roman period of its history.
Salem
The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1QapGen 22:13) equates Jerusalem with the earlier "Salem" (שלם), said to be the kingdom of Melchizedek in Genesis 14. Other early Hebrew sources, early Christian renderings of the verse and targumim, however, put Salem in Northern Israel near Shechem (Sichem), now Nablus, a city of some importance in early sacred Hebrew writing. Possibly the redactor of the Apocryphon of Genesis wanted to dissociate Melchizedek from the area of Shechem, which at the time was in possession of the Samaritans. However that may be, later Rabbinic sources also equate Salem with Jerusalem, mainly to link Melchizedek to later Temple traditions.
Arabic names
In Arabic, Jerusalem is most commonly known as القُدس, transliterated as al-Quds and meaning "the holy" or "the holy sanctuary", cognate with Hebrew: הקדש, romanized: ha-qodesh. The name is possibly a shortened form of مدينة القُدس Madīnat al-Quds "city of the holy sanctuary" after the Hebrew nickname with the same meaning, Ir ha-Qodesh (עיר הקדש). The ق (Q) is pronounced either with a voiceless uvular plosive (/q/), as in Classical Arabic, or with a glottal stop (ʔ) as in Levantine Arabic. Official Israeli government policy mandates that أُورُشَلِيمَ, transliterated as Ūrušalīm, which is the name frequently used in Christian translations of the Bible into Arabic, be used as the Arabic language name for the city in conjunction with القُدس, giving أُورُشَلِيمَ-القُدس, Ūrušalīm-al-Quds. Palestinian Arab families who hail from this city are often called "Qudsi" (قُدسي) or "Maqdasi" (مقدسي), while Palestinian Muslim Jerusalemites may use these terms as a demonym.
Given the city's central position in both Jewish nationalism (Zionism) and Palestinian nationalism, the selectivity required to summarize some 5,000 years of inhabited history is often influenced by ideological bias or background. Israeli or Jewish nationalists claim a right to the city based on Jewish indigeneity to the land, particularly their origins in and descent from the Israelites, for whom Jerusalem is their capital, and their yearning for return. In contrast, Palestinian nationalists claim the right to the city based on modern Palestinians' longstanding presence and descent from many different peoples who have settled or lived in the region over the centuries. Both sides claim the history of the city has been politicized by the other in order to strengthen their relative claims to the city, and that this is borne out by the different focuses the different writers place on the various events and eras in the city's history.
Prehistory
The first archaeological evidence of human presence in the area comes in the form of flints dated to between 6000 and 7000 years ago, with ceramic remains appearing during the Chalcolithic period, and the first signs of permanent settlement appearing in the Early Bronze Age in 3000–2800 BCE.
Bronze and Iron Ages
The earliest evidence of city fortifications appear in the Mid to Late Bronze Age and could date to around the 18th century BCE. By around 1550–1200 BCE, Jerusalem was the capital of an Egyptian vassal city-state, a modest settlement governing a few outlying villages and pastoral areas, with a small Egyptian garrison and ruled by appointees such as king Abdi-Heba. At the time of Seti I (r. 1290–1279 BCE) and Ramesses II (r. 1279–1213 BCE), major construction took place as prosperity increased. The city's inhabitants at this time were Canaanites, who are believed by scholars to have evolved into the Israelites via the development of a distinct Yahweh-centric monotheistic belief system.
Archaeological remains from the ancient Israelite period include the Siloam Tunnel, an aqueduct built by Judahite king Hezekiah and once containing an ancient Hebrew inscription, known as the Siloam Inscription; the so-called Broad Wall, a defensive fortification built in the 8th century BCE, also by Hezekiah; the Silwan necropolis (9th–7th c. BCE) with the Monolith of Silwan and the Tomb of the Royal Steward, which were decorated with monumental Hebrew inscriptions; and the so-called Israelite Tower, remnants of ancient fortifications, built from large, sturdy rocks with carved cornerstones. A huge water reservoir dating from this period was discovered in 2012 near Robinson's Arch, indicating the existence of a densely built-up quarter across the area west of the Temple Mount during the Kingdom of Judah.
When the Assyrians conquered the Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE, Jerusalem was strengthened by a great influx of refugees from the northern kingdom. When Hezekiah ruled, Jerusalem had no fewer than 25,000 inhabitants and covered 25 acres (10 hectares).
In 587–586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II of the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered Jerusalem after a prolonged siege, and then systematically destroyed the city, including Solomon's Temple. The Kingdom of Judah was abolished and many were exiled to Babylon. These events mark the end of the First Temple period.
Biblical account
This period, when Canaan formed part of the Egyptian empire, corresponds in biblical accounts to Joshua's invasion, but almost all scholars agree that the Book of Joshua holds little historical value for early Israel.
In the Bible, Jerusalem is defined as lying within territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin though still inhabited by Jebusites. David is said to have conquered these in the siege of Jebus, and transferred his capital from Hebron to Jerusalem which then became the capital of a United Kingdom of Israel, and one of its several religious centres. The choice was perhaps dictated by the fact that Jerusalem did not form part of Israel's tribal system, and was thus suited to serve as the centre of its confederation. Opinion is divided over whether the so-called Large Stone Structure and the nearby Stepped Stone Structure may be identified with King David's palace, or dates to a later period.
According to the Bible, King David reigned for 40 years and was succeeded by his son Solomon, who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went on to play a pivotal role in Jewish religion as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant. On Solomon's death, ten of the northern tribes of Israel broke with the United Monarchy to form their own nation, with its kings, prophets, priests, traditions relating to religion, capitals and temples in northern Israel. The southern tribes, together with the Aaronid priesthood, remained in Jerusalem, with the city becoming the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.
Classical antiquity
In 538 BCE, the Achaemenid King Cyrus the Great invited the Jews of Babylon to return to Judah to rebuild the Temple. Construction of the Second Temple was completed in 516 BCE, during the reign of Darius the Great, 70 years after the destruction of the First Temple.
Sometime soon after 485 BCE Jerusalem was besieged, conquered and largely destroyed by a coalition of neighbouring states. In about 445 BCE, King Artaxerxes I of Persia issued a decree allowing the city (including its walls) to be rebuilt. Jerusalem resumed its role as capital of Judah and centre of Jewish worship.
Many Jewish tombs from the Second Temple period have been unearthed in Jerusalem. One example, discovered north of the Old City, contains human remains in a 1st-century CE ossuary decorated with the Aramaic inscription "Simon the Temple Builder". The Tomb of Abba, also located north of the Old City, bears an Aramaic inscription with Paleo-Hebrew letters reading: "I, Abba, son of the priest Eleaz(ar), son of Aaron the high (priest), Abba, the oppressed and the persecuted, who was born in Jerusalem, and went into exile into Babylonia and brought (back to Jerusalem) Mattathi(ah), son of Jud(ah), and buried him in a cave which I bought by deed." The Tomb of Benei Hezir located in Kidron Valley is decorated by monumental Doric columns and Hebrew inscription, identifying it as the burial site of Second Temple priests. The Tombs of the Sanhedrin, an underground complex of 63 rock-cut tombs, is located in a public park in the northern Jerusalem neighbourhood of Sanhedria. These tombs, probably reserved for members of the Sanhedrin and inscribed by ancient Hebrew and Aramaic writings, are dated to between 100 BCE and 100 CE.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Achaemenid Empire, Jerusalem and Judea came under Macedonian control, eventually falling to the Ptolemaic dynasty under Ptolemy I. In 198 BCE, Ptolemy V Epiphanes lost Jerusalem and Judea to the Seleucids under Antiochus III. The Seleucid attempt to recast Jerusalem as a Hellenized city-state came to a head in 168 BCE with the successful Maccabean revolt of Mattathias and his five sons against Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and their establishment of the Hasmonean Kingdom in 152 BCE with Jerusalem as its capital.
In 63 BCE, Pompey the Great intervened in a struggle for the Hasmonean throne and captured Jerusalem, extending the influence of the Roman Republic over Judea. Following a short invasion by Parthians, backing the rival Hasmonean rulers, Judea became a scene of struggle between pro-Roman and pro-Parthian forces, eventually leading to the emergence of an Edomite named Herod. As Rome became stronger, it installed Herod as a client king of the Jews. Herod the Great, as he was known, devoted himself to developing and beautifying the city. He built walls, towers and palaces, and expanded the Temple Mount, buttressing the courtyard with blocks of stone weighing up to 100 tons. Under Herod, the area of the Temple Mount doubled in size. Shortly after Herod's death, in 6 CE Judea came under direct Roman rule as the Iudaea Province, although the Herodian dynasty through Agrippa II remained client kings of neighbouring territories until 96 CE.
Roman rule over Jerusalem and Judea was challenged in the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), which ended with a Roman victory. Early on, the city was devastated by a brutal civil war between several Jewish factions fighting for control of the city. In 70 CE, the Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Second Temple. The contemporary Jewish historian Josephus wrote that the city "was so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation." Of the 600,000 (Tacitus) or 1,000,000 (Josephus) Jews of Jerusalem, all of them either died of starvation, were killed or were sold into slavery. Roman rule was again challenged during the Bar Kokhba revolt, beginning in 132 CE and suppressed by the Romans in 135 CE. More recent research indicates that the Romans had founded Aelia Capitolina before the outbreak of the revolt, and found no evidence for Bar Kokhba ever managing to hold the city.
Jerusalem reached a peak in size and population at the end of the Second Temple Period, when the city covered two km2 (3⁄4 sq mi) and had a population of 200,000.
Late Antiquity
Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Emperor Hadrian combined Iudaea Province with neighbouring provinces under the new name of Syria Palaestina, replacing the name of Judea. The city was renamed Aelia Capitolina, and rebuilt it in the style of a typical Roman town. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death, except for one day each year, during the holiday of Tisha B'Av. Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially "secularized" the city. Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.
The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.
Jerusalem.
In the 5th century, the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire, ruled from the recently renamed Constantinople, maintained control of the city. Within the span of a few decades, Jerusalem shifted from Byzantine to Persian rule, then back to Roman-Byzantine dominion. Following Sassanid Khosrau II's early 7th century push through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem (Persian: Dej Houdkh) aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.
In the Siege of Jerusalem of 614, after 21 days of relentless siege warfare, Jerusalem was captured. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This episode has been the subject of much debate between historians. The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until the Byzantine emperor Heraclius reconquered it in 629.
Middle Ages
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant, Byzantine Jerusalem was taken by Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638 CE. Among the first Muslims, it was referred to as Madinat bayt al-Maqdis ("City of the Temple"), a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city "was called Iliya, reflecting the Roman name given the city following the destruction of 70 CE: Aelia Capitolina". Later the Temple Mount became known as al-Haram al-Sharif, "The Noble Sanctuary", while the city around it became known as Bayt al-Maqdis, and later still, al-Quds al-Sharif "The Holy, Noble". The Islamization of Jerusalem began in the first year A.H. (623 CE), when Muslims were instructed to face the city while performing their daily prostrations and, according to Muslim religious tradition, Muhammad's night journey and ascension to heaven took place. After 13 years, the direction of prayer was changed to Mecca. In 638 CE the Islamic Caliphate extended its dominion to Jerusalem. With the Muslim conquest, Jews were allowed back into the city. The Rashidun caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab signed a treaty with Christian Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius, assuring him that Jerusalem's Christian holy places and population would be protected under Muslim rule. Christian-Arab tradition records that, when led to pray at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, one of the holiest sites for Christians, the caliph Umar refused to pray in the church so that Muslims would not request conversion of the church to a mosque. He prayed outside the church, where the Mosque of Umar (Omar) stands to this day, opposite the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. According to the Gaullic bishop Arculf, who lived in Jerusalem from 679 to 688, the Mosque of Umar was a rectangular wooden structure built over ruins which could accommodate 3,000 worshipers.
When the Arab armies under Umar went to Bayt Al-Maq
Taken at the 2019 Piedmont Founder's Day celebration
Capturing her daughter on the stage playing drums
No usar esta imagen en sitios web, blogs u otros medios sin mi permiso explícito. © Todos los derechos reservados.
Please don't use this image on websites, blogs or other media without my explicit permission. © All rights reserved.
This bridge is used for the Pennsylvania Turnpike (I-76) interchange ramp crossing Big Beaver Boulevard (SR 18) at exit 13. The National Bridge Inventory listed this bridge as being built in 1950. It was built BEFORE Big Beaver Boulevard was even constructed and it appears this bridge was built at least a year or two before it was put into use. This bridge handles 2,000 to 5,000 vehicles a day. It appears the unusual steel truss design was built so that the bridge could cross five lanes of traffic without having columns in the middle. The nearby bridge the Turnpike uses to cross-over Big Beaver is a concrete arched-top design.
The original interchange connected to Norwood Drive (the main road in the area prior to Big Beaver Boulevard opening in the early 1950s) in an unusually long ramp that continued north beside the current Big Beaver Boulevard and looped back around at the current location of Westgate Drive. Eastwood Drive was part of the original ramp for the Pennsylvania Turnpike. We can also see part of the original ramp abandoned now that the trees are cleared out east of Big Beaver Boulevard.
Exit 13 bridge at I-76 and SR 18 - Homewood, Pennsylvania
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this place is still used by the creatures and by creature i do not mean jim!!
there were deer,and bunny tracks and others all going towards the house. i took this from everest
I used the 100mm with a 25mm tube and 1.4x extender. There was a bit of wind causing some movement.
This is the first time I seen a Leafhopper emit bubbles.
This species is commonly found on bushes and on the flowers and leaves of plants. They can cause some damage to these plants by sucking the juices from them. After enough meals, the Leafhopper can emit bubbles of liquid waste from its abdomen. This liquid retains some of the sweetness from the plant's juice and is very attractive to a variety of other insects like wasps and flies.
Photo used by kind permission of Trevor Ermel. His caption reads:
"63346 (Class Q6) heading west at Derwenthaugh (between Dunston and Blaydon) with a coal train for Stella South power station on 20th May 1967. I think it was recovering from a signal stop, hence the steam from the cylinder drains cocks. The bridge is over the River Derwent, flowing into the Tyne on the left. The buffer stop on the right was part of the NCB's Derwenthaugh system, which I got to know once steam on BR had finished in this part of the country in September 1967."
Derwenthaugh signal box can be seen on the right just after the bridge over the River Derwent. The engine has just passed signal no. 58 and the fine array of signals in the area can be seen in the distance.
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Reached Flickr Explore on Feb 4, 2008 #26
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Story about this shot
It has been a long time again. I planned to continue working on this project at the beginning of october, but things turned out differently - as always. This is the second out of two strangers I did during the last three days … and in this month. And it's the first stranger I did in Berlin, Friedrichshain to be exact. I met our stranger yesterday after having a break from an extensive bike trip with a friend.
About dog holder in this project
I wanted to do a dog holder from the very beginning of this series. I had three attempts … #Fail. #Fail. #Fail.
Because three out of four dogs take their masters for a walk - they never obeyed.
I talked to these two because of the fact that this dog was taking out off leash in a very crowded area. A small hint of a classic division of roles between dog and master ;-)
Dog holder - check!
About this stranger
Meet Basti, 32 years old - from Munich. He has been living in Berlin for about three years now. It was nice talking to him - he was very open and has a wonderful dry sense of humour.
Basti loves to cook and is probably the best guy to be guest at a dinner. No matter what you are: Vegetarian, vegan or carnivore.
He is a qualified business man and owned a bike shop for about 9 years. But he now works as a snowboard teacher. Munich might be the better spot to live as a snowboard teacher. But Munich is Munich and Berlin is Berlin. My choice would be Berlin, too.
Unfortunately with every season he has to take leave … the next working period of three months starts in just two weeks. Goodbye Berlin ...
Is there a someone who has to deal with all this? He met a girl a couple of weeks ago … both are really excited and looking forward to what happens next. That's all he could say about it.
He did a lot during the last years - not only job related? But there has been a constant in his life through all these years. A dog he took 10 years ago from a spanish animal shelter. Named simply after what the dog is to him: Amigo.
The secret star of triptych #24 must be Basti's best friend and center of his life: Amigo.
Who else could he be than "The Constant Friend"
-- ---
sets Berlin, Triptychs of Strangers or People | follow flickr, google+, tumblr or twitter
Using the gardens at the Victoria Inn, Holkham, Norfolk to grab a creative portrait shot for Alex & Chad
Withdrawn artic 10170 has found a new use as a static test centre for checking visitors to the depots temperature before they enter. Seen here parked up at the depot entrance.
USES: Sage has a strong flavour and should be used judiciously. It is traditionally used in stuffings for meats, especially pork and poultry, but is also used in a range of vegetable, fish and cheese dishes. It complements onion well. The plant has a long history of both cosmetic and medicinal use. Both the Ancient Egyptians and the Chinese believed it improved brain function. It has antiseptic properties.
I belong to this set - Herbal Essence.
© All rights reserved
Use PC version of flickr to download full files. Credit www.instagram.com/waterbloggged -- photos are for athletes, parents, coaches, schools
using a swinging motion with the camera, set on manual, viewing coloured fabric over a lamp...
Kinetic photography (kinetic meaning “caused by motion” is an experimental photographic technique in which the photographer uses movement resulting from physics to create an image. This typically involves the artist not directly holding the camera, but allowing the camera to react to forces applied to it in order to make a photograph. This can include, but is not limited to; holding and shaking the wrist strap of the camera while taking a picture, dropping the camera off of objects while taking a picture, throwing or spinning the camera up in the air while taking a picture (called a camera toss), or rigorously moving the camera while taking a picture, etc. As the photographer has surrendered control over the camera to physical forces, this technique tends to produce abstract, random or blurred-motion photographs.
Wikipedia
I've used what is called 'Exposure Lock' in this shot. This is something I don't usually need in my general Landscape photography.
Usually, if you compose the above shot & press the shutter button, you will get a rounded sun & completely underexposed foreground. This is because when the camera does the average metering process, the foreground(camels) will be ignored because they occupy little part of the frame(maybe 15% only). So for this shot I pointed the camera for the foreground only and pressed the 'Exposure Lock' button on the cam. Kept pressing it while I re-Compose the shot and point the cam up to the sky, and finally press the shutter button down to take the shot.
You could find a Youtube tutorial explaining what I've just explained: The Second Most Important Button On Your DSLR
Technical Specs:
DSLR: Canon 600D
Lens: Tamron SP 10-24mm 1:3.5-4.5
Exposure: 1/160 seconds.
Aperture: f/9.0
Focal Length: 10 mm
ISO Speed: 100
Filters: Polarizer
All photos are exclusive property and may not be copied, downloaded, manipulated or used in any way without my expressed, written permission.
My Photostream | My Profile | Oman Set | Facebook | View My most interesting photos on flickr
Press "L" for better view . . .
إضغط على "م" بلوحة المفاتيح لعرض أكبر للصوره.
Runa Photography © 2012
© All rights reserved, don´t use this image without my permission.
En septiembre de 1942 se instaló en la montaña de Chacaltaya una de las estaciones de la red meteorológica, por el Dr. Ismael Escobar que posteriormente fue designado catedrático de la UMSA.
Al finalizar la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el físico brasileño Cesar Lattes se unió al grupo de investigación en Bristol (Gran Bretaña) dirigido por Cecil Powell, del que formaba parte también Giuseppe Occhialini, y fueron de la idea de llevar las emulsiones nucleares a sitios elevados.
En 1947 llega a Bolivia el profesor Lattes, trae consigo las emulsiones nucleares que expone en Chacaltaya, las placas al revelarse muestran trazos de mesones dobles, dando lugar al descubrimiento del mesón Pi predicho teóricamente por Yukawa en los años 30. El descubrimiento hace al profesor Hideki Yukawa del Japón acreedor al Premio Nobel de Física en 1949 y al Profesor Cecil Powell acreedor al mismo premio en 1950. Los trabajos científicos publicados en la prestigiosa revista Nature, bajo la autoría de Lattes, Occhialini y Powell hacen conocer Chacaltaya a todo el mundo.
Chacaltaya ocupa una situación geográfica ventajosa, por su altitud de 5200 msnm, en la que se encuentran las instalaciones del laboratorio y su posición justo al frente del centro de la Galaxia, asimismo Chacaltaya está situado sobre el ecuador geomagnético, lugar ideal para estudiar las variaciones temporales de la radiación cósmica y observar fuentes puntuales de rayos cósmicos en ambos hemisferios.
En 1951 el Rector de la UMSA y el Consejo Universitario aprobaron oficialmente la creación del Laboratorio de Física Cósmica de Chacaltaya, su primer director fue el Dr. Ismael Escobar.
Entre 1952 y 1954 llegan a Bolivia expediciones científicas de todas partes del mundo: EE.UU., Brasil, Gran Bretaña, Japón, India, Italia, Francia, Argentina, URSS, etc. Entre 1960 y 1962 se inician en Chacaltaya los Proyectos BASJE y la colaboración Brasil-Japón, el grupo inicial estaba compuesto por los destacados científicos Hasegawa, Koshiba, Nishimura, Niu, Oda, Suga y Fujimoto. Entre 1970 y 1973 la UMSA decidió convertir el Laboratorio en Instituto de Investigaciones Físicas, al mismo tiempo se agregan dos nuevos grupos de Investigación, el primero de la Universidad de Saitama encabezado por el Profesor Tsuneo Matano, el segundo de la Universidad de Torino dirigido por el Profesor Gianni Navarra.
Durante los años 80 y hasta la fecha, los grupos de investigación BASJE y SYS estuvieron dedicados al estudio de los rayos cósmicos y rayos gamma de energías mayores a los 10^14 eV y a la estructura de cascadas de los chubascos atmosféricos extensos con un equipo combinado de emulsiones nucleares y detector de chubascos. Tanto desde la perspectiva de la astrofísica como de la física nuclear, queda aún un importante potencial de investigación en la materia de rayos cósmicos, en este marco Chacaltaya puede aún contribuir de manera sustanciosa.
Meet button-
A small Land hermit crab using plastic as a protective home
(Coenobita cavipes)
* All Coenobita species in Okinawa are recognized as a Living Natural Monument.
"Crabs with beach trash homes"
Found by Dave Orr on a local beach in Onna village ,Okinawa.
TEDX OIST talk on subject by Shawn Miller www.youtube.com/watch?v=l6FWCyVQcNA
My series has been featured on-
www.businessinsider.com/hermit-crabs-using-trash-as-homes...www.nationalgeographic.nl/galerij/10x-krabben-in-huisjes-...
petapixel.com/2016/08/30/photos-hermit-crabs-beach-trash-...
www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-trash-homes-of-hermit-c...
www.news.com.au/technology/science/animals/crabs-are-reso...
www.thedodo.com/hermit-crabs-trash-shells-2001062931.html
www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/oceans-so-polluted-crabs...
www.plethorist.com/crabs-adapt-and-uses-plastic-caps-as-h...
www.dailytelegraph.com.au/technology/science/crabs-living...
www.hypedojo.com/you-wont-believe-what-these-hermit-crabs...
Frankreich / Elsass - Hohkönigsburg
The Château du Haut-Koenigsbourg (French: [ʃɑto dy o kœniɡsbuʁ]; German: Hohkönigsburg), sometimes also Haut-Kœnigsbourg, is a medieval castle located in the commune of Orschwiller in the Bas-Rhin département of Alsace, France. Located in the Vosges mountains just west of Sélestat, situated in a strategic area on a rocky spur overlooking the Upper Rhine Plain, it was used by successive powers from the Middle Ages until the Thirty Years' War when it was abandoned. From 1900 to 1908 it was rebuilt at the behest of the German kaiser Wilhelm II. Today it is a major tourist site, attracting more than 500,000 visitors a year.
History
The Buntsandstein cliff was first mentioned as Stofenberk (Staufenberg) in a 774 deed issued by the Frankish king Charlemagne. Again certified in 854, it was then a possession of the French Basilica of St Denis and the site of a monastery.
Middle Ages
It is not known when the first castle was built. However, a Burg Staufen (Castrum Estufin) is documented in 1147, when the monks complained to King Louis VII of France about its unlawful construction by the Hohenstaufen Duke Frederick II of Swabia. Frederick's younger brother Conrad III had been elected King of the Romans in 1138, to be succeeded by Frederick's son Frederick Barbarossa in 1152, and by 1192 the castle was called Kinzburg (Königsburg, "King's Castle").
In the early thirteenth century, the fortification passed from the Hohenstaufen family to the dukes of Lorraine, who entrusted it to the local Rathsamhausen knightly family and the Lords of Hohenstein, who held the castle until the fifteenth century. As the Hohensteins allowed some robber barons to use the castle as a hideout, and their behaviour began to exasperate the neighbouring rulers, in 1454 it was occupied by Elector Palatine Frederick I and in 1462 was set ablaze by the unified forces of the cities of Colmar, Strasbourg, and Basel.
In 1479, the Habsburg emperor Frederick III granted the castle ruins in fief to the Counts of Thierstein, who rebuilt them with a defensive system suited to the new artillery of the time. When in 1517 the last Thierstein died, the castle became a reverted fief and again came into the possession of the Habsburg emperor of the day, Maximilian I. In 1633, during the Thirty Years' War in which Catholics forces fought Protestants, the Imperial castle was besieged by Protestant Swedish forces. After a 52-day siege, the castle was burned and looted by the Swedish troops. For several hundred years it was left unused, and the ruins became overgrown by the forest. Various romantic poets and artists were inspired by the castle during this time.
19th century renovation
The ruins had been listed as a monument historique of the Second French Empire since 1862 and were purchased by the township of Sélestat (or Schlettstadt) three years later. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871 the region was incorporated into the German Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine, and in 1899 the citizens granted what was left of the castle to the German emperor Wilhelm II. Wilhelm wished to create a castle lauding the qualities of Alsace in the Middle Ages and more generally of German civilization stretching from Hohkönigsburg in the west to (likewise restored) Marienburg Castle in the east. He also hoped the restoration would reinforce the bond of Alsatians with Germany, as they had only recently been incorporated into the newly established German Empire. The management of the restoration of the fortifications was entrusted to the architect Bodo Ebhardt, a proven expert on the reconstruction of medieval castles. Work proceeded from 1900 to 1908. On May 13, 1908, the restored Hohkönigsburg was inaugurated in the presence of the Emperor. In an elaborate re-enactment ceremony, a historic cortege entered the castle, under a torrential downpour.
Ebhart's aim was to rebuild it, as near as possible, as it was on the eve of the Thirty Years' War. He relied heavily on historical accounts but, occasionally lacking information, he had to improvise some parts of the stronghold. For example, the Keep tower is now reckoned to be about 14 metres too tall. Wilhelm II, who regularly visited the construction site via a specially built train station in nearby Saint-Hippolyte, also encouraged certain modifications that emphasised a Romantic nostalgia for Germanic civilization. For example, the main dining hall has a higher roof than it did at the time, and links between the Hohenzollern family and the Habsburg rulers of the Holy Roman Empire are emphasized. The Emperor wanted to legitimise the House of Hohenzollern at the head of the Second Empire, and to assure himself as worthy heir of the Hohenstaufens and the Habsburgs.
The castle today
After World War I, the French state confiscated the castle in accordance with the 1919 Treaty of Versailles.
It has been listed since 1862 and classified since 1993 as a monument historique by the French Ministry of Culture. In 2007, ownership was transferred to the Bas-Rhin département. Today, it is one of the most famous tourist attractions in the region.
For many years it was considered fashionable in France to sneer at the castle because of its links to the German emperor. Many considered it to be nothing more than a fairy tale castle similar to Neuschwanstein. However, in recent years many historians have established that, although it is not a completely accurate reconstruction, it is at least interesting for what it shows about Wilhelm II's romantic nationalist ideas of the past and the architect's work. Indeed, Bodo Ebhardt restored the castle following a close study of the remaining walls, archives and other fortified castles built at the same period.
Parts of the 1937 film La Grande Illusion by Jean Renoir were shot at Haut-Koenigsbourg.
Château de l'Oedenbourg
Located just below Château du Haut-Koenigsbourg is the ruin of Château de l'Oedenbourg, which is also known as Petit-Koenigsbourg and is a historical monument in its own right. Construction of Château de l'Oedenbourg was started somewhere in the middle of the thirteenth century.
Copy in Malaysia
A copy of the castle has been built in the Berjaya Hills, 60 km north-east of Kuala Lumpur 3.404167°N 101.839155°E. A copy of the historic Alsatian city of Colmar is located next to it.
(Wikipedia)
Le château du Haut-Koenigsbourg — parfois Haut-Kœnigsbourg — est un château fort alsacien du XIIe siècle, profondément remanié au XVe siècle et restauré avant la Première Guerre mondiale sous le règne de Guillaume II. Le château se dresse sur le ban de la commune française d'Orschwiller, dans la circonscription administrative du Bas-Rhin et sur le territoire de la collectivité européenne d'Alsace.
Dénomination
Le nom actuel — le château du Haut-Koenigsbourg — est le résultat de l'adaptation du nom allemand Hohkönigsburg qui se traduit par « haut-château du roi ».
Situation géographique
Le château est situé dans le massif des Vosges à une altitude de 757 m à 12 km à l'ouest de Sélestat d'où il est visible. Il se trouve également à 26 km au nord de Colmar d'où il est également visible par temps clair et à 55 km au sud de Strasbourg.
Historique
Les Hohenstaufen
En 774, Charlemagne fait don du Stophanberch ou Staufenberg (nom du col où le Haut-Koenigsbourg a été construit) et des terres attenantes au prieuré de Lièpvre, dépendant de la basilique Saint-Denis.
En 1079, Frédéric Ier de Souabe — dit Frédéric l'Ancien — est nommé duc de Souabe par l'Empereur du Saint-Empire romain germanique Henri IV. Il fait construire le château Stauf sur le mont Hohenstaufen près de Göppingen, d'où le nom de la famille.
Afin de renforcer le pouvoir des Hohenstaufen en Alsace, Frédéric le Borgne crée une ligne de défense et pour cela, il fait construire de nombreux châteaux et certains d'entre eux sur des terres qui ne lui appartiennent pas. On dit de lui qu'il a constamment un château accroché à la queue de son cheval. Il aurait fait construire en toute illégalité le château du Haut-Koenigsbourg sur les terres confiées aux moines de l'abbaye de Lièpvre.
En 1147, Eudes de Deuil, moine de Saint-Denis, presse Louis VII d'intervenir auprès du roi Conrad III de Hohenstaufen afin de réparer cette injustice. C'est la première mention du château dans un document écrit. À cette date, le site comportait déjà deux tours permettant de surveiller la route d'Alsace du nord au sud, l'une appartenant à Conrad III de Hohenstaufen, l'autre à son neveu Frédéric Ier de Hohenstaufen, futur empereur du Saint-Empire romain germanique. Le nom de Königsburg (château du roi) apparaît dès 1157.
Les ducs de Lorraine
Dans la première moitié du XIIIe siècle, profitant de l'affaiblissement des Hohenstaufen, les ducs de Lorraine auraient pris possession du château. Celui-ci est confié aux sires de Rathsamhausen puis aux Hohenstein qui y règnent jusqu'au XVe siècle.
Devenu un repaire de chevaliers brigands, le château est conquis et incendié en 1462 par une coalition regroupant les villes de Colmar, Strasbourg et Bâle, fortes de 500 hommes et de pièces d'artillerie.
Les Thierstein
Les restes du Haut-Koenigsbourg sont alors confiés à la famille de Thierstein. Ils font bâtir, sur le côté ouest, un bastion formé de deux tours d'artillerie et d'un mur-bouclier, dotés de murs puissants. La basse cour est protégée par deux tours en fer à cheval et des courtines avec des murs épais. Le château est entouré d'un premier mur de protection afin de gêner la mise en batterie de l'artillerie ennemie.
En 1517, le dernier des Thierstein, croulant sous les dettes, s'éteint. La famille n'ayant pas de descendance, Maximilien Ier rachète le château. Ni l'empereur ni les propriétaires successifs ne feront face aux coûts d'entretien, d'autant que le premier ne finance pas les seconds pour ces réalisations.
Destruction
En 1633, durant la guerre de Trente Ans, qui a vu, entre autres, les Suédois opposés à l'Autriche, l'Alsace est ravagée. En juillet, les Suédois assiègent le Haut-Koenigsbourg qui n'est plus qu'une forteresse délabrée, est commandée par le capitaine Philippe de Liechtenau. Forts de canons et de mortiers, ils prennent le château après cinquante-deux jours de siège. Peu de temps après, la forteresse est détruite par un incendie. Le château est alors laissé à l'abandon.
Acquisition par la commune de Sélestat
Classé monument historique en 1862, le site et ses ruines sont rachetés trois ans plus tard à divers propriétaires par la commune de Sélestat.
Cadeau au Kaiser et reconstruction
Depuis 1871 et le traité de Francfort, l'Alsace est devenue allemande. Le 4 mai 1899, le château, alors en ruine, et les terres sommitales l'entourant sont offerts par la ville de Sélestat à l'empereur Guillaume II de Hohenzollern. Il souhaite y créer un musée promouvant la germanité de l'Alsace et, plus généralement, le monde germanique. La municipalité conserve la centaine d’hectares de forêt, économiquement rentables.
La direction de la restauration de ce château fort est confiée en 1900 à Bodo Ebhardt, architecte et archéologue berlinois âgé de 35 ans. Il commence par le déblaiement du site et les relevés des anciennes constructions. La restauration s'étalera de 1901 à 1908. L'objectif de Bodo Ebhardt est de le restaurer tel qu'il se présentait aux alentours de l'an 1500. En l’absence d’indices archéologiques, d’archives ou d’éléments de comparaison avec d’autres monuments contemporains, « la part d’interprétation, inévitable en pareille circonstance a été réduite au minimum et elle n’est en aucune façon l’objet d’un quelconque détournement ludique » (François Loyer, cf. bibliographie ci-dessous). Guillaume II vient régulièrement visiter le chantier, il est logé dans la gare de Saint-Hippolyte reconstruite spécialement pour l'accueillir en 1903.
Le nouvel édifice du Haut-Koenigsbourg est inauguré le 13 mai 1908, mais les finitions et achats de collections se poursuivirent jusqu'en 1918.
Pour le Kaiser, ce château marquait la limite occidentale de l'Empire allemand, comme le château de Marienbourg, aujourd'hui en Pologne, en marquait la limite oriental.
De nos jours
À l'issue de la Première Guerre mondiale en 1919, le château, bien privé de l'ancien empereur assimilé à une propriété de l'Empire allemand, entre en possession de l'État français lors de la restitution de l'Alsace-Lorraine, en application de l'article 56 du traité de Versailles.
Cependant, le blason de Guillaume II est toujours visible au sein du château. Il reste ainsi un des symboles en Alsace de la présence allemande entre 1871 et 1918, partagé entre la restauration majoritairement crédible de l'architecte et la vision romantique du Moyen Âge de Guillaume II.
Bâtiment civil - palais national en 1919, ses abords sont classés par arrêté du 16 février 1930. Mais alors que les ruines avaient été classées dès 1862, il faudra attendre le 10 septembre 1991 pour voir l’inscription de la station de pompage (ou pavillon de la source) construite en 1903, puis le 11 février 1993 pour qu’un arrêté ministériel procède au classement au titre des monuments historiques de l'intégralité du monument, y compris les parties restituées. Les ruines du château de l'Oedenbourg ou Petit-Koenigsbourg bénéficieront, elles aussi, d’une inscription puis du classement aux mêmes dates.
Dans le même temps, une attention particulière était portée à l’amélioration de l’accueil du public au château du Haut-Koenigsbourg, dont la priorité a été l’assainissement et l’alimentation en eau.
La propriété du château du Haut-Koenigsbourg est transférée de l'État au conseil général du Bas-Rhin en janvier 2007. Il s'agit du premier bien patrimonial transféré par l'État à une collectivité territoriale parmi une liste de 176 biens transférables arrêtée en 2004.
Le 16 décembre 2011, la toiture du château du Haut-Koenigsbourg subit des dommages lors du passage de la tempête Joachim.
Ce monument historique bénéficie d'une très forte fréquentation touristique, avec près de 550 000 visiteurs annuel.
Controverse sur une restauration
Cette cession historique à Guillaume II et les intentions de ce dernier — se légitimer comme successeur des Hohenstaufen et des Habsbourg et montrer la germanité de l'Alsace — sont sans doute, en partie, à l'origine des polémiques autour de cette restauration engagée sous la direction de Bodo Ebhardt.
Si aujourd'hui la reconstitution de Bodo Ebhardt est admise comme plausible, la rénovation du château était néanmoins sujette à polémique à l'époque. Les détracteurs de la reconstruction, préférant de loin le charme des ruines au château reconstruit, notèrent que certains éléments furent imaginés par l'architecte, car ils étaient complètement détruits. De nombreux ensembles étaient alors considérés comme fantaisistes :
le donjon carré. En effet dans une gravure ancienne, il est présenté comme rond mais les fondations prouvent bien que la vision de l'architecte était exacte ;
la salle du Kaiser et ses dimensions originelles non restituées. En effet, l'architecture en pierre et la présence du poêle et de la cheminée montrent qu'à l'origine cette pièce était composée de deux étages et plusieurs pièces. L'état actuel de cette pièce était une exigence de Guillaume II pour montrer la force et l'importance de l'État allemand ;
l'escalier d'honneur hexagonal — avec ses sculptures —, considéré comme trop décoré pour un élément du Moyen Âge ;
la porte d'honneur, entrée du château, et ses bas-reliefs. Lors de la restauration du château, cette porte était complètement détruite et absente ;
la présence du moulin à vent sur une tour d'artillerie et de la forge dans la cour basse.
Cependant, aujourd'hui, on considère que Bodo Ebhardt, au travers de cette restauration « est en tout cas resté dans les limites de la vraisemblance, ayant toujours eu le souci de s'inspirer des nombreux édifices qu'il avait étudiés avant d'élaborer son projet ».
Les caricaturistes de l'époque s'en donnèrent à cœur joie comme Henri Zislin ou Jean-Jacques Waltz qui réalisa plusieurs planches sur ce sujet. Elles sont actuellement visibles au musée de Hansi à Riquewihr.
Il y a cent ans, le restaurateur se permettait de traiter un monument comme une œuvre d’imagination, et il pouvait rêver d’un Moyen Âge idéal et d’une pureté de style tout à fait théorique. Dès lors s’affrontaient déjà deux conceptions. D’une part celle de Viollet-le-Duc, imprimant la marque de l’architecte-artiste à l’édifice, qui devait recevoir un fini parfait et « si nécessaire être corrigé et complété », quitte à être falsifié. D’autre part celle de Luca Beltrami, au château des Sforza à Milan, Bodo Ebhardt, au château impérial de Haut-Koenigsbourg, Conrad Steinbrecht, au château du grand-maître des chevaliers teutoniques à Malborg (Forteresse teutonique de Marienbourg). Cette seconde démarche constituait un pas décisif vers la restauration scientifique. Elle est plus proche des conceptions d’Arcisse de Caumont, qui demandait déjà au milieu du XIXe siècle que soit respecté le monument, que soit définie une doctrine scientifique. Si les nouveaux restaurateurs vers 1900 cherchent à intégrer toutes les époques, ils ne résistent pas à l’envie de remonter tous les murs même si certains de ceux-ci avaient été détruits anciennement lors de transformations intentionnelles.
Cependant, malgré ces critiques, on peut considérer, comme François Loyer que «… le souci archéologique est bien réel, la reconstitution crédible et les détails fondés. C’est même, probablement, la plus exacte des restitutions qui aient été jamais tentées ».
On regrette beaucoup de ne pas pouvoir distinguer plus aisément les parties reconstituées. Cependant, Bodo Ebhardt marque les parties restaurées par un signe distinctif ou travaille la pierre différemment. De plus, il faut louer ce restaurateur et ses contemporains d’avoir œuvré pour une très grande lisibilité et la plus exacte possible des plans généraux, de l’articulation des volumes et de la fonction des détails.
Visite
Le château a été construit sur un éperon rocheux orienté ouest-est. Les murailles, qui épousent les formes des rochers, ont une structure irrégulière. D'ouest en est, on trouve successivement :
les bastions - dont l'énorme grand bastion - destinés à protéger le château contre des tirs d'artillerie à partir d'emplacements plus à l'ouest sur l'éperon rocheux ;
le jardin supérieur, qui masque le logis plus à l'est de ces éventuels tirs d'artillerie ;
le logis avec les pièces d'habitation et le donjon ;
le bastion en étoile aux murs moins hauts protège le château seulement contre des tirs d'artillerie à partir d'emplacements plus à l'est, donc obligatoirement en contrebas de l'éperon rocheux.
Entrée
L'entrée est située en contrebas. La porte est surmontée d'un bas relief avec le blason de la famille Thierstein. Sur la droite se trouve un mur d'enceinte de faible épaisseur (XVe – XXe siècle) et, sur l'éperon rocheux à gauche, le logis sud (XIIe – XXe siècle).
Porte principale
On débouche sur une petite cour, où la porte principale équipée d'une herse donne accès au château. Au-dessus de la porte d'entrée, on trouve les armoiries des Hohenzollern et de Charles-Quint, rappelant que le château fut restauré par l'empereur Guillaume II. Sur le site avaient été retrouvés des restes d'armoiries originales dont il s'estimait l'héritier.
Cour basse
La cour basse est entourée de communs et de locaux de service (écurie). Un bâtiment attenant est surmonté d'un moulin à vent. Elle comprend en son milieu la copie d'une fontaine du XVe siècle conservée à Eguisheim, la forge et une maison alsacienne.
Un four à pain est attesté dans la basse-cour.
Entrée dans le logis et porte des Lions
Un escalier avec de grandes marches irrégulières permettent d'accéder au logis. Une dernière défense est constituée d'un pont-levis au niveau de la porte des Lions.
Cour intérieure et escalier hexagonal
Au sommet, une cour intérieure est surmontée de galeries en bois, ainsi qu'une citerne avec une margelle carrée et un toit surmonté d'une sculpture de sirène.
Un escalier hexagonal en hélice permet d'accéder aux étages supérieurs ; chaque étage a un balcon décoré de fresques de chevaliers donnant sur la cour.
Le puits, profond de 62,50 mètres, a été fortifié pour ne pas se trouver séparé du logis par une attaque d'artillerie.
Par la galerie, on accède aux cuisines et au cellier, dont la longueur indique la largeur de l'éperon rocheux sur lequel est construit le château.
Donjon
Le donjon repose sur une base carrée préexistante de 17 mètres. Il a été exhaussé d'autant lors de la restauration et protégé par une toiture.
Salle du Kaiser
La salle du Kaiser est la salle d'honneur du château. Pour disposer d'une grande hauteur de plafond, l'étage supérieur présent au Moyen Âge n'a pas été restauré afin d'en faire une salle de prestige pour son usage moderne. Il n'est visible que dans la mezzanine des musiciens. La principale décoration est une peinture d'aigle impériale au plafond, réalisée par Léo Schnug, avec la devise Gott mit uns (Dieu avec nous). Sur les ailes se trouvent les armoiries des électeurs du Saint-Empire romain germanique et sur son cœur celles des Hohenzollern. Sur le mur, de chaque côté de la cheminée, se trouve représentée une joute entre deux chevaliers. Les convives pouvaient prendre part à une réception autour d'une grande table surmontée de lustres décorés.
Chambre lorraine
Créée pour rappeler l'annexion de la Moselle, dénommée alors Lorraine, comme part de la région historique éponyme, elle présente une décoration et un mobilier typiquement lorrains : le plafond boisé et la cheminée de pierre rappellent l'architecture médiévale de la ville de Metz, reconstituée au musée de la Cour d'Or. Dans cette même idée, un Graoully, dragon du folklore de Metz, est suspendu au milieu de la pièce. Il est inspiré de celui présent dans la crypte de la cathédrale de Metz.
Jardin supérieur
Le jardin supérieur fait le lien entre le logis situé au centre et le Grand Bastion situé à l'ouest. Il est entouré par un chemin de ronde couvert et comporte un puits. C'est dans cette partie du château que se situaient les bains. La pièce était chauffée par un poêle.
L'existence d'un four à pain dans ce secteur est également attestée.
Grand bastion
Le grand bastion est la partie la plus fortifiée : il devait pouvoir s'opposer à de l'artillerie installée plus à l'ouest sur l'éperon rocheux et il est séparé du jardin par un pont-levis. Y sont conservés des copies de canons des XVIe et XVIIe siècles. Il était dépourvu de toit au XVIe siècle.
Dans la fiction
Roman et bande dessinée
En hommage au cinéma et par fascination pour le lieu, Jacques Martin a choisi d'installer le décor de la première série des aventures de Guy Lefranc autour du château. Cette bande-dessinée s'intitule : La Grande Menace, et aussi dans le 4e opus des voyages de Jhen avec Yves Plateau au dessin (ISBN 9782203066588)
L'illustrateur canadien John Howe s'est inspiré du château du Haut-Koenigsbourg pour illustrer la citadelle de Minas Tirith dans le livre Le Seigneur des anneaux écrit par Tolkien, plus tard adapté en film.
Philippe Matter, Mini-Loup et le château fort, Éditions Hachette Jeunesse, 2008 (ISBN 978-2-01-224411-5)
Jacques Fortier, Sherlock Holmes et le mystère du Haut-Koenigsbourg, Le Verger éditeur, 2009, 192 pages
Roger Seiter (scénariste) et Giuseppe Manunta (dessinateur), Sherlock Holmes et le mystère du Haut-Koenigsbourg, bande dessinée d'après le roman de Jacques Fortier, Le Verger éditeur, 2013, 54 planches
Cinéma et animation
Certaines scènes du film Le Petit Roi de Julien Duvivier ont été tournées au château du Haut-Koenigsbourg en 1933.
Le film La Grande Illusion de Jean Renoir a été tourné, pour les extérieurs, au château du Haut-Koenigsbourg en 1937.
Le château a également servi de décor au film Les Aventures d'Arsène Lupin de Jacques Becker (1956) et à Agent trouble de Jean-Pierre Mocky (1987).
Dix films ont été réalisés en 1991 à l’initiative du Conseil régional pour la promotion de l’Alsace. Ils portent sur la cathédrale de Strasbourg, le château du Haut-Koenigsbourg, les Ribeaupierre, les châteaux et les mines d’argent, le musée Unterlinden de Colmar ; mais ils abordent aussi des thèmes comme : les musées techniques de Mulhouse, la Décapole, les routes militaires, romanes, des châteaux et des orgues.
Le château du Haut-Koenigsbourg a également inspiré le réalisateur Hayao Miyazaki pour son film d'animation Le Château ambulant sorti en 2004.
(Wikipedia)
Die Hohkönigsburg (früher auch sowie umgangssprachlich Hochkönigsburg, französisch Château du Haut-Koenigsbourg – manchmal auch Haut-Kœnigsbourg – [okønɪgzˈbuʀ]) ist eine zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts rekonstruierte Burg bei Orschwiller (Orschweiler) im Elsass (Département Bas-Rhin), gut 10 km westlich von Sélestat (Schlettstadt). Sie ist mit jährlich etwa 500.000 Besuchern die meistbesuchte Burg der Region und einer der am häufigsten frequentierten Touristenorte ganz Frankreichs.
Lage
Die 260 m lange Anlage thront als Kammburg in 757 m Höhe am Ostrand der Vogesen auf einem mächtigen Buntsandsteinfelsen hoch über der Oberrheinischen Tiefebene und ist eine der höchstgelegenen Burgen im Elsass. Zusammen mit der am gegenüberliegenden Ende des Bergrückens gelegenen, etwa 200 m entfernten Ruine der Ödenburg (Petit-Kœnigsbourg) bildet sie eine Burgengruppe.
Der Ausblick reicht weit über die Rheinebene bis zum Kaiserstuhl und auf mehrere benachbarte Burgruinen (unter anderem Ortenberg, Ramstein, Frankenburg, Kintzheim, Hohrappoltstein). Bei günstigen Sichtverhältnissen sind im Süden die knapp 200 Kilometer entfernten und rund vier Kilometer hohen Berner Alpen zu sehen, deren Gipfel wegen der Erdkrümmung ungefähr auf dem geometrischen Horizont von Hohkönigsburg liegen.
Geschichte
Mittelalter
Der Stophanberch (Staufenberg), auf welchem die Burg liegt, wird bereits 774 (als Schenkung Karls des Großen) und 854 beurkundet und befand sich ursprünglich im Besitz der Abtei Saint Denis.
Die Burg wurde in der ersten Hälfte des 12. Jahrhunderts als staufische Reichsburg erbaut und 1147 als Castrum Estufin erstmals urkundlich erwähnt. Von der Burg aus konnten die Orte und Handelswege in diesem Teil des Oberrheingrabens beherrscht werden. 1147 tauchte erstmals der Name Burg Staufen auf, die von Herzog Friedrich, dem Vater des deutschen Königs Friedrich Barbarossa, gegründet sein soll. Aus staufischer Zeit sind unter anderem eine vermauerte Fensterarkade und ein Löwenrelief erhalten. Ab 1192 wurde der Name Kinzburg (Königsburg) verwendet.
Im 13. Jahrhundert wurde der Herzog von Lothringen Eigentümer der Burg, der sie als Lehen den Grafen von Werd gab. 1359 verkauften die Grafen von Oettingen die Burg an den Bischof von Straßburg. 1454 eroberte der pfälzische Kurfürst Friedrich der Siegreiche die Burg, 1462 wurde sie wegen Raubritterei zerstört. 1479 gab Kaiser Friedrich III. die Burg als Lehnsgut an den Schweizer Grafen Oswald von Thierstein († 1488) und dessen Bruder Wilhelm.
Niedergang in der Neuzeit
1517 starben die Grafen von Thierstein aus; deshalb fiel die Burg an Kaiser Maximilian I. und somit an die Habsburger zurück. Während des Dreißigjährigen Krieges wurde sie 52 Tage von den Schweden belagert, am 7. September 1633 erobert und in Brand gesetzt. Zwischen 1648 und 1865 hatte die Ruine verschiedene Eigentümer. 1865 wurde sie Eigentum der Stadt Schlettstadt. In der Romantik wurde die Ruine wiederentdeckt. Christian Moritz Engelhardt beschrieb sie in seinen Reiseskizzen durch die Vogesen (1821). Ludwig Adolf Spach, der Präsident der Gesellschaft zur Erhaltung der historischen Monumente des Elsass, schlug schon eine Restaurierung vor.
Neuaufbau 1901 bis 1908
Infolge des Deutsch-Französischen Krieges wurde das Elsass, das zwischenzeitlich zu Frankreich gehört hatte, 1871 an das Deutsche Reich abgetreten. Im Jahre 1899 schenkte die Stadt Schlettstadt die Burg Kaiser Wilhelm II., der sie in den Jahren 1901–1908 durch den Berliner Architekten und Burgenforscher Bodo Ebhardt restaurieren ließ. Der Bau kostete über zwei Millionen Mark, die zum großen Teil von Elsass-Lothringen bezahlt werden mussten. Der Kaiser selbst finanzierte die ersten Arbeiten mit 100.000 Mark aus seiner Privatschatulle. Die Arbeiten wurden mit modernsten Mitteln durchgeführt. Vom Steinbruch zur Ruine wurde die ca. 2 km lange Feldbahn der Hohkönigsburg gebaut, die Lokomotive musste mit Pferden den Berg empor gezogen werden. Eine Dampfmaschine trieb einen Generator an, der elektrischen Strom für die Beleuchtung und zwei elektrische Kräne erzeugte.
Am 13. Mai 1908 fand im Rahmen einer großen Feier mit festlicher Musik und historischen Kostümen bei Regenwetter die Einweihung statt. Viktoria Luise von Preußen, die Tochter Kaiser Wilhelms II., schilderte von dieser in ihren Lebenserinnerungen:
„Die Hohkönigsburg, an der zahlreiche Erinnerungen deutscher Geschichte haften, war meinem Vater bei einem Besuch von Schlettstadt vom Bürgermeister als Geschenk geboten worden. Er hatte es angenommen und eine umfassende Restaurierung in die Wege geleitet. Rund zehn Jahre danach standen wir dann an einem Maitag zur Einweihung an der mächtigen Burg. Unser Blick glitt über die weite Ebene des Rheintals, hinüber zu den langgestreckten Höhen des Schwarzwaldes und bis zu der in der Ferne schimmernden Alpenkette. In seiner Ansprache wies mein Vater auf die ereignisreiche Vergangenheit hin: ‚Die Geschichte nennt uns eine ganze Reihe von Namen aus erlauchten Fürstenhäusern und edlen Geschlechtern als Eigentümer, Pfandbesitzer und Lehensträger, zuvörderst die Kaiser aus dem Hause Hohenstaufen und dem Hause Habsburg, dann die Herzöge von Lothringen und Unterelsaß, die Landgrafen von Werd, die Herren von Rathsamhausen, von Oettingen und von Berckheim, die Grafen von Thierstein, deren großartiger Bau nun wieder erstanden ist, die Ritter von Sickingen, deren Einzug in die Burg uns heute so trefflich vorgeführt ist, und die Freiherren von Bollweiler und Fugger. Nun ist die Burg wieder Eigentum des Deutschen Kaisers geworden.‘ Dann sagte er: ‚Möge die Hohkönigsburg hier im Westen des Reiches, wie die Marienburg im Osten, als ein Wahrzeichen deutscher Kultur und Macht bis in die fernsten Zeiten erhalten bleiben.‘“
Zwei Jahre später wurden an der Grenze zu Polen das Residenzschloss Posen sowie im Norden Deutschlands, nahe der Grenze zu Dänemark, die nach dem symbolträchtigen Vorbild der Marienburg geschaffene Marineschule Mürwik, das sogenannte Rote Schloss am Meer, vom Kaiser eingeweiht.
Der elsässische Künstler Jean-Jacques Waltz, der als frankophiler Elsässer kein Freund der deutschen Vereinnahmung der elsässischen Geschichte war, veröffentlichte kurze Zeit nach der Einweihung der Hohkönigsburg eine Serie von Bildern Die Hohkönigsburg im Wasgenwald und ihre Einweihung, die sich über den deutschtümelnden Pomp lustig machte, die Texte dazu soll ein Prof. Dr. Knatsche (Waltz selbst), verfasst haben.
Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg bis heute
Seit 1919 ist die Hohkönigsburg Eigentum des französischen Staates, seit Januar 2007 des Départements Bas-Rhin. Heute gilt sie als die bedeutendste Burg der Region und ist das einzige im Elsass gelegene französische Nationaldenkmal (Monument national).
Anlage
Der Wiederaufbau durch Bodo Ebhardt ging mit der erhaltenen Bausubstanz für die damalige Zeit relativ rücksichtsvoll um, sodass sich die Burg immer noch als eine über die Jahrhunderte gewachsene Anlage zu erkennen gibt. Die verhältnismäßig kleine stauferzeitliche Kernburg mit unregelmäßigem Grundriss auf höchster Stelle des Felsplateaus hat einen durch Ebhardt wiederaufgemauerten quadratischen Bergfried (Donjon) mit südlich anschließendem Palas (Logis Seigneurial), an dem sich eine bereits im Spätmittelalter vermauerte Rundbogenarkade mit Würfelkapitellen erhalten hat. Nach 1479 wurde die Burg zu einer starken Festung ausgebaut. Westlich und östlich wurde die Kernburg gegen die aufkommende Artillerie durch mächtige Bollwerke verstärkt, die in Anlehnung an die stauferzeitliche Anlage in Buckelquadern ausgeführt wurden. Die von Ebhardt über alten Kragsteinen aufgemauerten Wehrgänge waren ursprünglich wahrscheinlich in Holz ausgeführt; nur an einem Turm im östlichen Burghof hat Ebhardt einen hölzernen Wehrgang rekonstruiert. Um die Hauptburg zieht sich eine Zwingermauer mit elf halbrunden Schalentürmen. An der Ostseite ist eine Vorburg (Tiergarten) mit zackenförmigem Abschluss vorgelagert. Von Ebhardt durch Weglassung einer Zwischendecke neu geschaffen wurde der repräsentative Festsaal, an dessen Kamingitter der Kommentar Wilhelms II. zum Ersten Weltkrieg zu lesen ist: „Ich habe es nicht gewollt!“ Ein eigens eingerichteter Saal zeigt kaiserliche Jagdtrophäen.
Hoch über dem Eingangsportal und unter dem Schutz des Adlers prangt das Wappen der letzten Herren der Burg.
Das eigentliche Schloss erreicht man über die Zugbrücke, der bewohnte Bereich kann durch das Löwentor betreten werden. Die Gemächer der Schlossherrin und der Ritter, die Schlosskapelle und der Rittersaal sind heute noch mit Möbeln aus dem 15–17. Jahrhundert ausgestattet und können besichtigt werden.
Etwa 200 m westlich liegt die Ruine der Ödenburg aus dem 13. Jahrhundert. Erhalten sind vor allem die Schildmauer aus Buckelquadern und die Fassade des Wohnbaues. Im Dreißigjährigen Krieg nahmen die Schweden von hier aus die Nachbarburg unter Artilleriebeschuss.
Rezeption
In Malaysia, 60 km nordöstlich von Kuala Lumpur, steht in den Berjaya Hills eine – sehr freie – Nachbildung der Burg als Luxushotel. Nicht weit entfernt wurde ein Teil der Colmarer Altstadt nachgebaut.
Bodo Ebhardts phantasiereiche Rekonstruktion der Burganlage inspirierte John Howe in seiner Arbeit als Illustrator der Werke J. R. R. Tolkiens.
(Wikipedia)
We are really trying to do our part to reduce plastic use. I got these bags for the grocery store and Anna bought some bags for lunches so we can phase out our Ziploc use.
Used to harvest winter ice which was stored in an underground building for summer use.
Gunby Hall, Skegness, Lincolnshire, UK
McDonnell Douglas MD83 of Bravo Airways in the grass of Kyiv Zhulyany after a fail at landing. The aircraft is out of use :(
XJ494 was used as a trials aircraft and has an undernose camera mounting and a cable running down the port boom, leading to what may be a transponder or beacon fairing of some kind on the tailfin. She took part in Red Beard and Martel missile trials, some details of which are still classified. After retirement she survived many years out in the open (formerly with the 'Trout Lake Air Force' at Kings Langley) with minimal deterioration. The cockpits are in excellent condition, with the non-standard instrument fit also indicating her use as a trials aircraft. There is an ongoing effort to restore her to taxiable condition so that XJ494 can take part in Bruntingthorpe's regular open days, and to that end she has had her starboard engine replaced with a 'new' one (the old one had suffered FOD damage of the first stage compressor blades) and has now run both engines.
Used to see these lil critters on the Torquay beach by the thousands 20 years ago sadly not so many of them Nowa days.
Soldier crab
light-blue soldier crab, Mictyris longicarpus, is a species of crab found on sandy beaches from the Bay of Bengal to Australia; with other members of the genus Mictyris, it is "one of the most loved crabs in Australia".[2] Adults are 25 mm (1 in) across, white, with blue on their backs, and they hold their claws vertically. They feed on detritus in the sand, leaving rounded pellets of discarded sand behind them. The males may form into large "armies" which traverse the beach at low tide, before the crabs dig into the sand to wait for the next low tide.
The light-blue soldier crab is nearly spherical, with an upright body.[3] Its carapace is powder blue, with the rest of the body being white except for purple patches on the joints of the legs.[3] The chelae are slim and curve downwards, and are held vertically in front of the crab.[3] Given the crab's upright posture, the eyestalks are short.[3] The body is up to 25 mm (0.98 in) across,[2] or "about the size of a cherry".[3]
Distribution[edit]
M. longicarpus is found from Singapore and the Bay of Bengal to New Caledonia and Australia, reaching as far south as Perth, Western Australia in the west,[4] and around the coast of Queensland and New South Wales to Wilsons Promontory, Victoria.[2]
Ecology[edit]
Examination of the gut contents of M. longicarpus showed the crabs mostly feed on detritus, and any small organisms in the sand, such as diatoms, gastropod eggs, or nematodes.[4]
Predators of adults include Threskiornis spinicollis (straw-necked ibis), Todiramphus chloris (mangrove kingfisher), Egretta alba (white crane), Tetractenos hamiltoni (common toadfish) and Metopograpsus messor (a grapsid crab).[4] The soldier crabs are also attacked by the ghost crab Ocypode ceratophthalma and the moon snail Conuber sordidum.
Behaviour
This crab spends much of its time buried in the sand. They emerge to the surface a few hours before low tide, although some individuals may remain submerged for the entire tidal cycle.[4] The first sign a crab may emerge is the development of "hummocks" which appear on the surface of the sand and increase in size over a period of 10–30 minutes. The number of crabs which emerge is influenced by temperature, wind, and rainfall, with the sexes responding differently, such that one day, nearly all the emerged crabs will be male, while the next day may have a mixture of males and females.[4] Emergence of a population from the sand may take up to an hour, or be completed in five minutes, with the adults generally appearing before the juveniles.[4] Upon emergence, the crab performs "the most aerobatic grooming mechanism recorded from the Brachyura";[6] in less than a second, the crab falls onto its back, thus removing any sand it has accumulated on the carapace, and then flips upright again in a "half somersault".[6]
Initially, the crabs feed only tentatively, and within 15 minutes of emergence, they begin the "trek", where large numbers of crabs walk simultaneously towards the water in an almost straight line.[4] Mictyrisspecies are among the few crabs adapted to walking forwards, rather than sideways.[3] Juveniles only proceed about 50 m towards the water, and feed at that level of the beach.[4]
An "army" of M. longicarpus at Labrador, Queensland
Having reached a suitable moist area, the crabs begin to feed rapidly, working transversely across the beach. Feeding comprises raising scoops of sand to the mouthparts, with inedible material accumulating at the base of the third maxillipeds, and drop off the crabs as round pellets.[4] Feeding may last one to 2.5 hours, with the crabs spending less and less time feeding as they aggregate into armies.[4] The armies are generally composed solely of males, with the largest individuals at the front, probably because their longer legs mean they walk faster.[4] The army as a whole progresses at a speed of 10 m/min (0.34 mph or 0.55 km/h), continuing for 0.5–2.0 hours.[4]
Eventually, the army breaks up and the individual crabs travel up the shore, and dig themselves into the sand in a unique corkscrew motion.[4] The crabs dig down with the legs on one side of their bodies, while the legs on the other side walk backwards.[3] They then leave this burrow, and dig another. During this period, encounters between adult males result in both males adopting the threat display (rearing up onto the last one of two pairs of legs, and stretching the other limbs out as wide as possible), after which the loser – generally the smaller crab – backs down.[4] Eventually, the crabs remain in one of the burrows and await the next falling tide.[4]
Michael Tweedie considered crabs of the genera Mictyris and Scopimera to show types of behaviour also seen in human society. While Scopimera crabs were caricatures of the middle class, Mictyris crabs were "cheerful bohemians, living crowded together and out-doing in unrepressed and irresponsible behaviour even those human communities which aspire most strenuously towards this ideal".[3]
wikipedia
Yes, I actually scored a copy of the extremely scarce Faith Tones LP from 1964! I was walking the dog a couple weeks ago and ran into my pal Jeff B., who whipped the record out of his satchel and gave it to me on the spot because he knows I collect such things-- He had just purchased it for a buck at the thrift store-- Praise the Lord! (This record sold recently on eBay for $1000.00!)
Démonstration technologique avec casque de réalité virtuelle et joystick aux côtés de Megan. 2e session de cette expérience (appelée Pilote, comment aurais-je pu refuser d’y participer 😊) cette semaine. L’intérêt de la réalité virtuelle dans l’espace, c’est de bloquer des sens qui pourraient nous perturber (et normalement pas de mal des transports qu’on peut avoir sur Terre avec un casque… parce qu’ici le conflit sensoriel est permanent, estomacs sensibles s’abstenir 😬). Ici l’objectif c’est de simuler des opérations de robotique à distance, pour qu’on mette au point les systèmes les plus pertinents possibles dont on aura besoin pour explorer la 🌑 ou Mars…
A session of the experiment Pilote with Megan, where we use a Virtual Reality headset to operate a robotic arm or fly spacecraft (simulated for the moment, this is a technology demonstration). VR headsets are an interesting addition to spaceflight as they can be used for experiments to block out other senses or as in this case to enhance our awareness and allow us to use our heads instead of hands to move the camera, freeing up our hands for actually moving the robotic arm. Many of the problems with VR on Earth are not a factor in space, we don't get motion sickness and as long as we float in the virtual world, the immersion is more believable!
Credits: ESA/NASA–T. Pesquet
607C5935
Usei:
- 01 camada da base reestruturadora e fortalecedora DNA Nails Technology, da Risqué
- 01 camada do esmalte preto Black Jack, da Jade
- 02 camadas do glitter holográfico indie Edward, da Esmaltes da Kelly
- 01 camadas do top coat especial pra glitter Base Glitter, da 5Cinco
- 01 camada da Cobertura Intensificadora da Cor, da Colorama
Que loucura fotografar essa belezinha, hein... Brilha tanto que as fotos tendem a ficarem desfocadas. Mas acho que consegui mostrar um pouquinho da beleza do Edward.
Usei uma camadinha do preto cremoso da Jade. Mto bom, por sinal! Ótima pigmentação, fácil de esmaltar, seca rápido e o brilho é lindão! Mas só usei o bonito como cor de base para o glitter Edward.
Esse é um dos lindos lançados recentemente pela Esmaltes da Kelly, Lindooooo, brilha demais!!! São glitters holográficos em uma base jelly escura. Mas quis usar um esmalte cremoso por baixo, pra que o potencial do glitter ficasse fiel. Usei 2 camadas do Edward por exagero. Mas confesso que ficou lindo! Ele não seca lisinho, nem mto rápido. Mas top coat é pra isso, né?
Posso dizer que amei esse glitter! Mta gente elogiou mto!
Used a tripod, umbrella lights, and a remote. It’s been over five years since I made a new headshot, so it was time. I’m happy with it!
Turimetta Beach
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