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Slaking v. Disaggregation
As footnoted in the Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils (FBDSS), disaggregation is or equals “slaking”. However, at one time a distinction was made between materials that disaggregated as opposed to those that slaked. The term "slakes" was limited to fragments that exhibited a violent rupture as the fragments break down (a popping off of the materials as opposed to simply sloughing away). This is a common characteristic of fragments taken from a fragipan and is used by many to identify fragic soil properties.
Currently, slaking is defined as the breakdown of soil aggregates into smaller microaggregates when the aggregates are immersed in water. The slake test provides a measure of soil stability when soil aggregates are exposed to rapid wetting. No distinction is now made as to how the material reacts as it disaggregates.
Only air-dry soil fragments or aggregates should be tested by the slaking procedure. Large intact samples are separated into fist size aggregates <75-mm in size. Care should be taken not to destroy naturally cemented aggregates (e.g., potential plinthite nodules) as the material is separated. Submersion is for a minimum of one hour, but overnight (about 8 hours) is preferred.
For a complete discussion, visit:
Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual
Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 2
Issued 2014
3.7 Soil Stability, Dispersion, and Slaking (pp.148-162)
3.7.5 Slaking (Disaggregation) for Identification and Semiquantification of Cemented Materials
John Kelley and Michael A. Wilson, United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff
Citation: Soil Survey Staff. 2014. Soil Survey Field and Laboratory Methods Manual. Soil Survey Investigations Report No. 51, Version 2.0. R. Burt and Soil Survey Staff (ed.). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service.
Soil profile: A representative profile of the Cieneba series. A paralithic contact is at a depth of 40 centimeters.
Landscape: An area of Cieneba soil with chaparral, along the shoulder of a spur ridge next to the Las Flores Motorway in Glendale. (Supplement to the Soil Survey of Los Angeles County, California, Southeastern Part; by Randy L. Riddle, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Cieneba series consists of very shallow and shallow, somewhat excessively drained soils that formed in material weathered from granitic rock. Cieneba soils are on hills and mountains and have slopes of 9 to 85 percent. The mean annual precipitation is about 635 mm (25 inches) and the mean annual air temperature is about 16 degrees C (60 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, mixed, superactive, nonacid, thermic, shallow Typic Xerorthents
Soil moisture: Soil below a depth of about 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) usually is moist all of the time after November until sometime in May and is dry the remainder of the year.
Mean Annual Soil Temperature: 15 to 18 degrees C (59 to 65 degrees F).
Rock fragments: 0 to 35 percent by volume
Depth to paralithic contact: 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 inches)
Reaction: neutral to strongly acid, dominantly slightly or medium acid
Clay content: less than 18 percent throughout the profile
Textures: coarse sandy loam, sandy loam, loam or has a gravelly modifier
Sand fraction: 15 to 25 percent coarse and very coarse sand
Organic matter: less than 1 percent below a depth of 2 to 10 cm (1 to 4 inches)
USE AND VEGETATION: Used for wildlife, recreation, watershed, and incidental grazing. Vegetation is mainly chaparral and chemise with widely spread foothill pine or oak tree. There are small area of thin annual grasses and weeds.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Coastal mountain ranges in central and southern California and foothills of the Sierra Nevada, MLRAs 15, 18 and 20. The soil is extensive.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
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The Hazleton series consists of deep and very deep, well drained soils formed in residuum of acid gray, brown or red sandstone on uplands. Slope ranges from 0 to 80 percent. Permeability is moderately rapid to rapid. Mean annual precipitation is about 48 inches. Mean annual air temperature is about 51 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy-skeletal, siliceous, active, mesic Typic Dystrudepts
Solum thickness ranges from 25 to 50 inches. Depth to lithic contact ranges from 40 to 80 inches . Rock fragments of angular sandstone, dominantly less than 10 inches in size, range from 5 to 70 percent in individual horizons of the solum and from 35 to 80 percent in the C horizon. Boulders, stones, flags and channers cover about 5 to 60 percent of the surface of some pedons. The control section averages less than 18 percent clay. Reaction ranges from strongly acid through extremely acid throughout where unlimed.
USE AND VEGETATION: Most Hazleton soils are in woodland of mixed oaks, maple, cherry and occasional conifers. Some areas have been cleared for pasture and cropland.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Kentucky, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia and possibly Ohio. MLRA's 124, 126, 127, 147, 148.
The series is of large extent.
Soil profile: A representative soil profile (Typic Dystrudept) in Xinxing County, Guangdong Province, China (PRC-11).
Landscape: These soil are on strongly sloping to steep sideslopes. They are used mostly for woodland; however, small areas are cleared and used for pasture and rarely as terraced cropland.
The central concept or Typic subgroup of Dystrudepts is fixed on soils that are moderately deep or deep to hard rock, are freely drained and acid, have an ochric epipedon. In addition, the percentage of organic carbon of Holocene age decreases regularly with increasing depth and is very low at a depth of 125 cm. They are widely distributed. The largest concentration is in the Northeast in the United States. The native vegetation consists mostly of mixed forest. Most of these soils are used as forest. Many of the less sloping soils have been cleared and are used as cropland or pasture.
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The Crider series consists of very deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils on uplands. They formed in a loess mantle and the underlying residuum from limestone. Slopes range from 0 to 30 percent. Near the type location, the mean annual precipitation is 48 inches and the mean annual temperature is 57 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-silty, mixed, active, mesic Typic Paleudalfs
Thickness of the solum ranges from 60 to more than 100 inches. Depth to bedrock ranges from 60 to more than 160 inches; commonly more than 100 inches. Fragments of chert ranges from 0 to about 15 percent; in some pedons it ranges 0 to 35 percent below the lithologic discontinuity. Reaction is from neutral to strongly acid to a depth of 40 inches, and from moderately acid to very strongly acid below 40 inches.
USE AND VEGETATION: Nearly all of the soil is used for growing crops and pasture. The chief crops are corn, small grains, soybeans, tobacco,and hay; truck crops are grown in a few places. The original vegetation was mixed hardwood forest, chiefly of oaks, maple, hickory, elm, ash, and hackberry.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: The Pennyroyal and the western Outer Bluegrass of Kentucky; the northern part of the Highland Rim of Tennessee, Illinois and southern Indiana and eastern Missouri. The soil is of large extent.
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Soil profile: The Quetico series consists of very shallow, well drained soils.(Soil Survey of Voyageurs National Park, Minnesota; by Peter Weikle, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: These soils formed in loamy noncalcareous glacial drift on uplands with relief controlled by the underlying bedrock. These soils have bedrock beginning at depths ranging from 4 to 10 inches. The saturated hydraulic conductivity is moderate in the loamy mantle. Slopes range from 2 to 90 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 28 inches and mean annual air temperature is about 37 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, isotic, acid, frigid Lithic Udorthents
Thickness of solum and depth to bedrock range from 4 to 10 inches. Texture of the material above the rock contact is loam, silt loam, sandy loam, fine sandy loam or gravelly and cobbly analogues. Content of gravel by volume ranges from 3 to 35 percent. Stones and boulders within or on the soil range from 0 to 3 percent. The gravel is dominantly granite or gabbro, but sandstone is included in a few places. Reaction is very strongly acid or strongly acid.
USE AND VEGETATION: These soils mostly are in mixed deciduous and coniferous forest. Dominant trees are jack pine, red pine, white pine, quaking aspen, paper birch, balsam fir and mountain ash. Major resource uses are recreation, timber, watershed, and wildlife habitat.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: MLRA's 88, 90, 93 and 142. The Laurentian Shield region of northeastern Minnesota and in New York. Moderately extensive.
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Dothan soil series (with nodular plinthite) GA
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults
The Dothan series consists of very deep, well drained soils that formed in thick beds of unconsolidated, medium to fine-textured marine sediments. Dothan soils are on interfluves. Slopes range from 0 to 15 percent.
Most areas of Dothan soils have been cleared and are used for the production of corn, cotton, peanuts, vegetable crops, hay, and pasture. Forested areas are in longleaf pine, loblolly pine, sweetgum, southern red oak, and hickory.
The series is extensive through the Southern Coastal Plain, but it also occurs to a lesser extent in the Atlantic Coast Flatwoods (AL, FL, GA, NC, SC, and VA).
A representative soil profile of a Typic Dystrocryept in Idaho.
The central concept or the Typic subgroup of Dystrocryepts is fixed on deep, more or less freely drained soils that have an ochric epipedon. Typic Dystrocryepts are of large extent in the United States. They are mostly in the mountains of the Western States and in Alaska. The vegetation is mostly coniferous forest. The soils are used mainly for timber production and wildlife habitat.
The soils are used for timber-production, wildlife habitat, recreation, and watershed. A few areas are used for limited livestock grazing. Natural vegetation is mainly western hemlock, western redcedar, western larch, and western white pine with understory of big blueberry, common beargrass, myrtle pachystima and northern twinflower.
For additional information about Idaho soils, please visit:
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Soil profie: A representative soil profile of the Quinlan series. (Soil Survey of Harper County, Oklahoma; by Troy Collier and Steve Alspach, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscpe: Typical landscape in an area of Quinlan-Rock outcrop-Yomont complex, 0 to 45 percent slopes. Quinlan soils are on the interfluves. Rock outcrop is on steep side slopes and at the head of drains. Yomont soils are in the drainageways in the foreground.
The Quinlan series consists of shallow, well drained, moderately rapid to moderately permeable soils that formed in loamy residuum weathered from noncemented, calcareous sandstone bedrock of Permian age. These soils occur on nearly level to very steep interfluves and side slopes of hillslopes, ridges, and escarpments in the Central Rolling Red Plains. Slope ranges from 1 to 50 percent. Mean annual precipitation is 635 mm (25 in) and mean annual temperature is 16.1 degrees C (61 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic, shallow Typic Haplustepts
Soil moisture: A typic-ustic soil moisture regime.
Thickness of the ochric epipedon: 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in)
Depth to densic bedrock: 25 to 50 cm (10 to 20 in)
Note: At the time of publication of the Harper County soil survey, Quinlan soils were shallow to root limiting and cemented, paralithic materials (Cr). After study, the underlying parent material was revised to root limiting and noncemented, densic materials.
Particle-size control section (weighted average):
Total clay content: 10 to 30 percent
USE AND VEGETATION:
Major uses: mostly livestock grazing but a considerable acreage on lesser slopes is used for crop production
Native vegetation: mainly little bluestem and grama grasses
Ecological sites assigned to phases and components of this series are listed below. Current ecological site assignments are in Web Soil Survey. Components of this series include the following ecological sites: Shallow, Shallow Upland, Loamy Breaks
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
General area: Western Oklahoma, a few counties in southern Kansas, and northwestern Texas
Land Resource Region: H - Central Great Plains Winter Wheat and Range Region
MLRA 78B & 78C - Central Rolling Red Plains, Western and Eastern Parts
Extent: Large
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/oklahoma/OK059...
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The Orangeburg series consists of red, very deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils on uplands of the Southern Coastal Plain (MLRA 133A). They formed in loamy and clayey marine sediments. Near the type location, the average annual temperature is about 65 degrees F., and the average annual precipitation is about 52 inches. Slopes range from 0 to 25 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Typic Kandiudults
Most areas of Orangeburg soils are used for growing cotton, corn, tobacco and peanuts. Some areas are in pasture and woodland. Forest species include longleaf pine, shortleaf pine, loblolly pine, various oaks, hickory and dogwood.
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Typic Petrocalcids, sandy, carbonatic, hyperthermic, shallow (Soil AD106) are shallow or very shallow sand overlying calcium carbonate-rich cemented hardpan within 50cm. These soils occur mainly on the eastern coastline areas and also in older deflation plain locations. The soils are disturbed through human activity and are under heavy pressure from excavation. The soils are well drained or moderately well drained above the hardpan. The hardpans are very slow or moderately slow in permeability.
The soils are under heavy pressure from excavation, and the habitats are heavily disturbed. No vegetation has been recorded. The soils are not common in distribution. They have been observed in elevated parts of the northeastern coastal plain and in scattered deflation plains throughout the Emirate.
Plate 6: Typical soil profile and associated landscape for Typic Petrocalcids, sandy, carbonatic, hyperthermic, shallow (Soil AD106).
A typical profile of Alpin fine sand, 0 to 5 percent slopes. (Soil Survey of Suwannee County, Florida; by Robert L. Weatherspoon, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Alpin series consists of very deep, excessively drained, moderately rapidly permeable soils on uplands and river terraces of the Coastal Plain. They formed in thick beds of sandy eolian or marine deposits. Near the type location, the mean annual precipitation is about 55 inches and the mean annual temperature is about 68 70 degrees F. Slopes range from 0 to 15 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Thermic, coated Lamellic Quartzipsamments
Thickness of sand is 80 inches or more. Reaction ranges from very strongly acid to slightly acid throughout. Depth to lamellae ranges from 40 to 78 inches but most commonly is 50 to 70 inches. Cumulative thickness of lamellae ranges from 1 cm to 15 cm. Content of silt plus clay in the 10 to 40-inch control section ranges from 5 to 10 percent.
USE AND VEGETATION: Many areas are planted to pine. Some small areas have been cleared and are used for tobacco, peanuts, watermelons, and tame pasture. The native vegetation consists of scattered slash pine and longleaf pine, turkey oak, post oak, blackjack oak, and bluejack oak. The understory is dominated by bluestem, low panicums, fringeleaf paspalum, and native annual forbs.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain including Texas. The series is of large extent.
These soils were formerly mapped in the Lakeland series. This concept provides for sandy soils that have lamellae that total less than 6 inches thick within depths of 80 inches. Depth to seasonal water table is more than 80 inches. Some low terraces flood occasionally for brief periods.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/florida/FL121/...
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Gypsic Aquisalids in United Arab Emirates (UAE).
(Classification by UAE Keys to Soil Taxonomy)
For more information about soil classification in the UAE, visit:
www.biosaline.org/publications/united-arab-emirates-keys-...
Gypsic Aquisalids are the Aquisalids that have a gypsic or petrogypsic horizon with an upper boundary within 100 cm of the soil surface.
Gypsic horizons are an illuvial horizon in which secondary gypsum has accumulated to a significant extent. Most gypsic horizons occur in arid environments where the parent materials are rich in gypsum. In soils that have ground water near the surface, capillary rise and evaporation plus transpiration can result in significant accumulations of gypsum. Gypsum may accumulate uniformly throughout a matrix of sand and finer textured material or as masses or clusters of crystals. In gravelly or stony material, it may accumulate in pendants below the rock fragments. Because of its solubility, gypsum can dissolve in soils and cause damage to buildings, roads, irrigation delivery systems, earthen dams, and other structures.
Aquisalids are the Salids that are saturated with water in one or more layers within 100 cm of the mineral soil surface for 1 month or more in normal years. These salty soils are in wet areas in the deserts where capillary rise and evaporation of water concentrate the salts near the surface. Some of these soils have redoximorphic depletions and concentrations. In other soils redoximorphic features may not be evident because of a high pH and the associated low redox potential, which inhibit iron and manganese reduction. These soils occur dominantly in depressional areas where ground water saturates the soils at least part of the year. The vegetation on these soils generally is sparse, consisting of salt-tolerant shrubs, grasses, and forbs. Although these soils may hold water at a tension less than 1500 kPa, the dissolved salt content makes the soils physiologically dry.
Salids are most common in depressions (playas) in the deserts or in closed basins in the wetter areas bordering the deserts. In North Africa and in the Near East, such depressions are referred to as Sabkhas depending on the presence or absence of surface water for prolonged periods. Under the arid environment and hot temperatures, accumulation of salts commonly occurs when there is a supply of salts and a net upward movement of water in the soils. In some areas a salic horizon has formed in salty parent materials without the presence of ground water. The most common form of salt is sodium chloride (halite), but sulfates (thenardite, mirabilite, and hexahydrite) and other salts may also occur. Salids are Aridisols that are unsuitable for agricultural use, unless the salts are leached out. Leaching the salts is an expensive undertaking, particularly if there is no natural outlet for the drainage water.
Aridisols, as their name implies, are soils in which water is not available to mesophytic plants for long periods. During most of the time when the soils are warm enough for plants to grow, soil water is held at potentials less than the permanent wilting point or has a content of soluble salts great enough to limit the growth of plants other than halophytes, or both. The concept of Aridisols is based on limited soil moisture available for the growth of most plants. In areas bordering deserts, the absolute precipitation may be sufficient for the growth of some plants. Because of runoff or a very low storage capacity of the soils, or both, however, the actual soil moisture regime is aridic.
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Soil profile: Andic Dystrudepts are the Inceptisols that have, throughout one or more horizons with a total thickness of 18 cm or more within 75 cm of the mineral soil surface, a fine-earth fraction with both a bulk density of 1.0 g/cm3 or less, measured at 33 kPa water retention, and Al plus 1/2 Fe percentages (by ammonium oxalate) totaling more than 1.0.
Landscape: These soils have some andic soil properties in a layer in the upper part that is 18 cm or more thick. Some of the soils contain a significant amount of volcanic ash. Some have an umbric epipedon. Thee soils are moderately extensive in the Northwestern United States. The native vegetation consists mostly of coniferous forest. Most of these soils support their native vegetation and are used as forest. A few of the less sloping soils have been cleared and are used as cropland or pasture.
The central concept of Inceptisols is that of soils that are of cool to very warm, humid and subhumid regions and that have a cambic horizon and an ochric epipedon. The order of Inceptisols includes a wide variety of soils. In some areas Inceptisols are soils with minimal development, while in other areas they are soils with diagnostic horizons that merely fail the criteria of the other soil orders. Inceptisols have many kinds of diagnostic horizons and epipedons. They can have an anthropic, histic, mollic, ochric, plaggen, or umbric epipedon.
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The Foxcreek series consists of very deep, poorly drained soils that formed in mixed, stratified alluvium. These soils form on flood plains, drainageways that cross fan remnants, terraces, or valley floors on slopes 0 to 8 percent. The mean annual precipitation is about 406 mm and the mean annual air temperature is about 5 degrees C.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy over sandy or sandy-skeletal, mixed, superactive Typic Cryaquolls
Mollic epipedon thickness: 25 to 50 cm
Depth to calcic horizon (when present): 50 to 91 cm
Depth to redoximorphic features (iron concentrations/depletions): 0 to 12 cm
Depth to sandy-skeletal material: 50 to 91 cm
Rock fragments (weighted average): 0 to 30 percent in the upper part of the control section and 35 to 85 percent in the lower part of the control section
Clay content: 18 to 35 percent in the upper part of the control section and 1 to 10 percent in the lower part of the control section
Soil reaction: Neutral to strongly alkaline
Mean annual soil temperature: 1.7 to 7.2 degrees C.
Mean summer soil temperature: 4.4 to 12.8 degrees C. (the o horizon is not always present) cryic temperature regime
Some pedons have an A horizon that lacks redoximorphic features.
USE AND VEGETATION:
Major uses: Pasture and hay
Range/ecological site: R013XY038ID
Dominant native vegetation: Sedges, baltic rush, wiregrass, white dutch clover, red top, timothy and willows
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
Distribution: Eastern Idaho, MLRA 13
Extent: The series is not extensive.
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Soil profile: A soil profile of Lazarus loam, 1 to 8 percent slopes. This soil has a thick loam mollic epipedon and a clay loam argillic horizon. The parent material is alluvium from the surrounding hills and mountains. (Soil Survey of Guadalupe Mountains National Park, Texas; by Alan L. Stahnke, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: Blue grama, finestem needlegrass, wolftail, cholla, and agarito growing on an area of Lazarus loam, 2 to 9 percent slopes map unit. The Lazarus soil is in the Loamy ecological site, MLRA 70C—Central New Mexico Highlands.
The Lazarus series consists of very deep, well drained soils that formed in alluvium derived from sandstone, limestone, and shale. Lazarus soils are on drainageways of hillslopes and fan peidmonts. Slopes are 0 to 3 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 13 inches and mean annual temperature is about 50 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-silty, mixed, superactive, mesic Pachic Argiustolls
Soil moisture - The soil moisture control section (SMCS) is intermittently moist in some part from July to October and December to March. The soils are driest in May and June. The soil moisture regime is ustic aridic.
Soil temperature - 52 to 54 degrees F.
Depth to base of mollic epipedon - greater than 20 inches
Depth to base of argillic horizon - greater than 40 inches
Particle-size control section weighted averages:
Silicate clay content: 27 to 35 percent
Sand content: 7 to 24 percent
Fine sand or coarser content: 3 to 5 percent
Rock fragment content: less than 1 percent
USE AND VEGETATION: Lazarus soils are used for livestock grazing and farming. Present vegetation is blue grama, galleta, and alkali sacaton.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Lazarus soils are of small extent in the north-western part of the Estancia Basin in the Mexican Highland section of the Basin and Range physiographic province in northcentral New Mexico, MLRA 70C.
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A profile of Calvin channery silt loam. Siltstone bedrock is at a depth of 70 centimeters. (Soil survey of Bland County, Virginia; by Robert K. Conner, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Calvin series consists of moderately deep, well drained soils formed in residuum of red non-calcareous shale, siltstone, and sandstone on summits, hillslopes and side slopes of ridges. Permeability is moderately rapid. Slope ranges from 0 to 80 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 41 inches, and the mean annual air temperature is about 52 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy-skeletal, mixed, active, mesic Typic Dystrudepts
The depth to bedrock ranges from 20 to 40 inches. Thickness of the solum ranges from 12 to 35 inches. Illite is the dominant clay mineral with moderate amounts of vermiculite and chlorite. Percent coarse fragments range from 5 to 25 percent in the A and BA horizons, 25 to 55 percent in the Bw and BC horizons, and 40 to 80 percent in the C horizon, with the particle size control section averaging more than 35 percent. Fragments are generally channers or cobbles of reddish siltstone, fine-grained sandstone or shale. Reaction ranges from moderately acid to very strongly acid.
USE AND VEGETATION: Soils on favorable topography are used to cropland, pasture, or are idle. Stony and steep slopes are largely in woodland of mixed hardwoods, mainly oaks, with some maple and Virginia pine.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: MLRA 125, 126, 127, 128, 147 and 148. In Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland and Virginia. The soils are of large extent.
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Depth Class: Very deep
Drainage Class: Moderately well drained
Permeability: Moderate
Surface Runoff: Slow
Parent Material: Loamy fluvial sediments
Slope: 0 to 10 percent
Mean Annual Air Temperature (type location): 61 degrees F.
Mean Annual Precipitation (type location): 48 inches
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, mixed, semiactive, thermic Aquic Hapludults
Solum Thickness: 30 to more than 60 inches
Depth to Bedrock: Greater than 60 inches
Depth to Seasonal High Water Table: 18 to 30 inches, December to April
Soil Reaction: Extremely acid to moderately acid except where the surface has been limed
Gravel Content: 0 to 5 percent in the A and B horizons and 0 to 35 percent in the C horizon
Other Features: Flakes of mica range from none to common in the B and C horizons
USE AND VEGETATION:
Major Uses: Mostly cultivated
Dominant Vegetation: Where cultivated--corn, cotton, small grain, soybeans, tobacco, peanuts, and truck crops. Where wooded--loblolly, sweetgum, red maple, yellow-poplar, white oak, southern red oak, water oak, American beech, and hickory. Common understory plants include flowering dogwood, blueberry, sassafras, eastern redbud, eastern redcedar, winged elm, greenbrier, sourwood, southern bayberry (waxmyrtle), inkberry (bitter gallberry), summersweet clethra, honeysuckle, and poison ivy
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
Distribution: Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and Virginia. Altavista soils were correlated in older surveys in Pennsylvania, but those survey areas are outside the MLRA range.
Extent: Large
Altavista soils are restricted to fluvial terraces. The 05/06 revision refined the textures of the C and Cg in the range of characteristics. The 03/06 revision dropped MLRA 153B.
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The Biltmore series consists of very deep, well drained soils that formed in recent alluvium on flood plains in the Southern Appalachian Mountains and mesic areas of the Southern Piedmont. Slopes range from 0 to 5 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Mixed, mesic Typic Udipsamments
The sandy sediments range from 40 to 80 inches or more in thickness. In some pedons below a depth of 40 inches, there are strata of loamy material, or deposits of cobbles and gravel that are stratified with sandy or loamy material. Thin loamy layers are within the upper 40 inches in some pedons, but have a combined thickness of less than 6 inches. Coarse fragments range from 0 to 10 percent by volume in the upper 40 inches. Underlying beds of gravel and cobbles are in many pedons within a 40 to 80 inch depth. Flakes of mica range from few to many throughout. The soil ranges from strongly acid through slightly alkaline.
USE AND VEGETATION: Most of the acreage of this soil is cleared of forest and used for pasture and crops. Important crops grown are corn for grain and silage, small grains, truck crops, burley tobacco, and pasture. Native forest species include white pine, yellow-poplar, northern red oak, black oak, white oak, black walnut, American Sycamore, red maple, river birch, American beech, white ash, black locust, hickory, basswood, and blackgum. Rhododendron and blueberry are common understory plants.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Southern Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina, Georgia, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia; mesic areas of the Southern Piedmont in North Carolina and Virginia. The series is of moderate extent.
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/B/BILTMORE.html
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The Flomaton series consists of very deep, excessively drained, rapidly permeable soils on uplands of the Southern Coastal Plain Major Land Resource Area (MLRA 133A). They formed in gravelly sandy marine sediments. Near the type location, the mean annual temperature is about 67 degrees F., and the mean annual precipitation is about 62 inches. Slopes range from 2 to 45 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Sandy-skeletal, siliceous, thermic Lamellic Paleudults
Solum thickness is more than 60 inches. The combined thickness of the A horizon above the zone of lamellae is 25 to 50 inches. Pebbles and cobbles range from 20 to 70 percent, by volume, in the A horizon and from 35 to 70 percent, by volume, in the E, the E&Bt and the Bt horizons. Reaction ranges from very strongly acid to moderately acid throughout except where the surface has been limed.
USE AND VEGETATION: Most areas of Flomaton soils are in forest that consists of mixed hardwoods, loblolly pine and shortleaf pine. A few cleared areas are used for row crops, special crops and pasture.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: The Southern Coastal Plain of Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Tennessee, and possibly Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina and South Carolina. Flomaton soils are of moderate known extent.
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/F/FLOMATON.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
Agricultural development in Liwa Oasis area of the UAE.
Most of the UAE's cultivated land is taken up by date palms, which in the early 1990s numbered about 4 million. They are cultivated in the arc of small oases that constitute the Al Liwa Oasis. Both federal and amirate governments provide incentives to farmers. For example, the government offers a 50 percent subsidy on fertilizers, seeds, and pesticides. It also provides loans for machinery and technical assistance. The amirates have forty-one agricultural extension units as well as several experimental farms and agricultural research stations. The number of farmers rose from about 4,000 in the early 1970s to 18,265 in 1988.
Lack of arable land, intense heat, periodic locust swarms, and limited water supplies are the main obstacles to agriculture. The drive to increase the area under cultivation has resulted in the rapid depletion of underground aquifers, resulting in precipitous drops in water tables and serious increases in soil and water salinity in some areas.
For more information about soil classification in the UAE, visit:
vdocument.in/united-arab-emirates-keys-to-soil-taxonomy.h...
For more information about describing and sampling soils, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/guides-and-instructions/field...
or Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey manual:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/The-Soil-Su...
For additional information on "How to Use the Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils" (video reference), visit:
The Alcovy series consists of very deep, moderately well drained soils that formed in old valley fill material and in the underlying residuum on uplands in the Piedmont province. Permeability is moderately rapid in the surface and subsurface layers, and slow in the lower part of the subsoil. Slopes are 2 to 10 percent. Near the type location, the mean annual temperature is about 63 degrees F. and the mean annual precipitation is about 47 inches.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, siliceous, thermic Oxyaquic Kanhapludults
The Btx horizons with (30) 40 to 60 percent brittleness would key out as a member of the Fragic as well as the Oxyaquic subgroups of Kanhapludults. The low acreage (less than 1000 acres) does not warrant a dual subgroup proposal.
Thickness of the solum ranges from 40 to more than 60 inches. Depth to the horizons with brittle properties is 20 to 36 inches. Reaction is very strongly acid or strongly acid throughout except where the surface has been limed. Some pedons may contain few to common flakes of mica throughout the solum.
USE AND VEGETATION: Much of these soils have been cleared and used for growing cotton, small grain, corn, hay, and pasture. Most of the acreage has reverted to forests, chiefly loblolly pine. The original forest type is oak-pine.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Piedmont area of Georgia and possibly Alabama, South Carolina, and North Carolina. This series is of small extent; less than 2000 acres.
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/A/ALCOVY.html
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The Lloyd series consists of very deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils on uplands in the Southern Piedmont. The soils formed in residuum derived from intermediate and mafic, igneous and high-grade metamorphic rocks.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, kaolinitic, thermic Rhodic Kanhapludults
Most areas are cleared and used for cultivated crops or pasture. Principal crops are corn, small grain, hay and pasture grasses. Common trees in forested areas are loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, Virginia pine, northern red oak, southern red oak, white oak, post oak, hickory, and red maple. Understory plants include dogwood, winged elm, eastern hophornbeam, eastern redbud, eastern red cedar, and sassafras.
These soils are of large extent in the Southern Piedmont in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, and possibly Alabama, and Virginia.
These soils were combined with Hiwassee in 1969. Hiwassee series was originally established on high stream terraces. This revision separates the soils formed in residuum as Lloyd on the basis of parent material and depth of Rhodic colors. Terrace Hiwassee soils are dominantly value 3 or less throughout. A proposal to amend the 1996 Keys to Soil Taxonomy involves changing the thickness of the part of the kandic horizon with value of 3 or less to include more soils in the Rhodic subgroup.
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/L/LLOYD.html
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Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Miami series; the State Soil of Indiana.
Landscape: . No-till corn planted into a cover crop mix on Miami soils on a rolling till plain. Steeper side slopes remain forested.
In 1900, when the Miami series was established, soil units were differentiated by surface texture alone. In 1904, the Miami Series was called one of the “four or five great series of uniform characteristics” in the Ohio and Mississippi River basins. The Miami soils have been studied in detail. In 1986, the Indiana Association of Professional Soil Scientists (IAPSC) voted to designate Miami as their state soil.
The Miami series consists of very deep, moderately well drained soils that are moderately deep to dense till. Miami soils formed in as much as 46 cm (18 inches) of loess or silty material and in the underlying loamy till. They are on till plains. Slope ranges from 0 to 60 percent. Mean annual precipitation is 1016 mm (40 inches), and mean annual temperature is 11.1 degrees C (52 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, mixed, active, mesic Oxyaquic Hapludalfs
Thickness of the loess or silty material: 0 to 46 cm (0 to 18 inches)
Depth to the base of the argillic horizon: 61 to 102 cm (24 to 40 inches)
Depth to densic contact: 61 to 102 cm (24 to 40 inches)
Depth to carbonates: 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 inches)
Depth to bedrock: greater than 203 cm (80 inches)
USE AND VEGETATION: Most areas are used to grow corn, soybeans, small grain, and hay. Much of the more sloping part is in permanent pasture or forest. Native vegetation is deciduous forest.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Indiana, southern Michigan, central and northern Illinois, southeastern Wisconsin, and western Ohio; mainly in MLRAs 111A and 111D, and lesser extents in MLRAs 95B, 97, 98, 108A, 110, 114A, and 115C. The type location is in MLRA 111A. The series is of large extent, about 1 million acres.
For additional information about this state soil, visit:
www.soils4teachers.org/files/s4t/k12outreach/in-state-soi...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/M/MIAMI.html
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A soil profile of a Haplotorrox in Hawaii. This soil formed in residuum from a basaltic lava flow. (Soil Survey Staff. 2015. Illustrated guide to Soil Taxonomy. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska)
Haplotorrox have a low base saturation in one or more subhorizons within a depth of 125 cm. Torrox are the Oxisols of arid regions. They have an aridic moisture regime, and, due to limited leaching, many of them have a higher base saturation than other Oxisols. Unless they are irrigated, Torrox are unsuitable for growing common agronomic crops. However, they are well suited to a variety of crops if irrigation water and fertilizer are applied. Torrox are known to occur only in Hawaii in the United States and perhaps in some areas of Australia.
For additional information about soil classification, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/cla...
A representative soil profile of Kimberson gravelly loam, 0 to 3 percent slopes, showing the dark gravelly surface horizon and indurated caliche layer below. (Soil Survey of Deaf Smith County, Texas; by Thomas C. Byrd, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Kimberson series consists of soils that are very shallow or shallow, well drained, and moderately permeable above a very slowly permeable petrocalcic horizon. These gravelly or cobbly soils formed in a thin mantle of calcareous, loamy eolian deposits from the Blackwater Draw Formation of Pleistocene age over indurated caliche of Pliocene age. These soils are on nearly level and very gently sloping plains. Slope ranges from 0 to 3 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 483 mmm (19 in), and the mean annual air temperature is about 16 degrees C (61 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, mixed, superactive, thermic, shallow Petrocalcic Calciustolls
Soil moisture: An ustic moisture regime bordering on aridic. The soil moisture control section is dry in some or all parts for more than 180 but less than 220 days, cumulative, in normal years. July through August and December through
February are the driest months. These soils are intermittently moist in September through November and March through June.
Mean annual soil temperature: 15 to 18 degrees C (59 to 64 degrees F).
Depth to petrocalcic horizon: 10 to 51 cm (4 to 20 in).
Solum thickness: 10 to 51 cm (4 to 20 in).
Particle-size control section (weighted average): 15 to 30 percent silicate clay
Coarse fragments: 5 to 35 percent
CEC/clay ratio: more than 0.60
USE AND VEGETATION: These soils are used nearly exclusively for livestock grazing. Climax vegetation includes sideoats grama, little bluestem, buffalograss, hairy grama, slim tridens, purple and wright threeawns, bushsunflower, gray goldaster, daleas, gayfeather, plains blackfoot, sundrops,
catclaw, ephedra, hackberry, and javelinabrush. This soil has been correlated to the Very Shallow (R077CY037TX) ecological site in MLRA-77C.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Southern High Plains, Southern Part (MLRA 77C in LRR H) of western Texas and eastern New Mexico. The series is extensive.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/texas/TX117/0/...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/K/KIMBERSON.html
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A representative soil profile of the Lenberg series. (Kentucky Soil Atlas; by Anastasios D. Karathanasis, University of Kentucky)
The Lenberg series consists of moderately deep well drained soils formed in residuum of acid clayey shale which is often interbedded with thin strata of siltstone, sandstone, or shale. Permeability is moderately slow. Slopes range from 6 to 45 percent. Average annual precipitation is 47 inches. Average annual temperature is 56 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, mixed, semiactive, mesic Ultic Hapludalfs
The solum thickness and depth to a paralithic contact ranges from 20 to 40 inches. Reaction ranges from neutral to very strongly acid in the upper part of the solum and from strongly acid to very strongly acid in the lower part. Sandstone, siltstone, and shale fragments mostly 1/2 inch to 6 inches across, range from 0 to 30 percent by volume in the solum, and 5 to 60 percent in the C horizon.
USE AND VEGETATION: Most of this soil is forested. Species of trees include upland oaks, hickory, beech, elm, black walnut, and maple. Some areas have been cleared and used for cultivated crops. Many of these areas are now idle and growing young hardwoods of the above species, and sassafras, persimmon, sumac, or redcedar. A few areas are used for hay or pasture.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Pennroyal and Western Coal Field Regions of Kentucky. The extent is moderate, over 150,000 acres..
For additional information about Kentucky soils, visit:
uknowledge.uky.edu/pss_book/4/
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/L/LENBERG.html
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A representative soil profile of the Pinnacles series. (Soil Survey of Pinnacles National Monument, California; by Ken Oster, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Pinnacles soils have light brownish gray, medium acid, sandy loam A horizons, brown, strongly acid, sandy clay B2t horizons, and light yellowish brown, sandy clay loam C horizons over sandstone at depth of about 25 inches.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: fine, smectitic, thermic Ultic Palexeralfs
Depth to a paralithic contact is 25 to 40 inches. The mean annual soil temperature is about 60 degrees F. to 65 degrees F. and the soil temperature usually is not below 47 degrees F. at any time. Soil between depths of about 6 and 20 inches usually is dry all the time from April until early December and usually is moist in some or all parts all the rest of the year. Rock fragments, mostly smaller than 3 inches, usually make up 3 to 6 percent of all horizons and may be as much as 35 percent. The soil has some angular and subangular coarse and very coarse sand and has a "gritty" feel.
USE AND VEGETATION: The soils are used for range and watershed. Vegetation on less steep areas generally consists of annual grasses and forbs. Steeper areas are covered with chaparral.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Coast Range, San Benito and Monterey Counties, California. The soil is moderately extensive.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/california/CA7...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/P/PINNACLES.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
Aguilita soil profile in naturalized pastureland in an area of Aguilita silty clay loam, 5 to 20 percent slopes (Soil Survey of San Germán Area, Puerto Rico by Jorge L. Lugo-Camacho, Natural Resources Conservation Service).
Landscape: Hills and uplands
Landform: Ridges and hillslopes
Major uses: Hayland and pasture
Elevation: 80 to 1,312 feet
Composition
Aguilita and similar soils: 90 percent
Dissimilar soils: 10 percent
Typical Profile
Surface layer:
0 to 6 inches—brown silty clay loam
Subsoil:
6 to 18 inches—brown silty clay loam that has soft masses of calcium carbonate
18 to 23 inches—brown clay loam that has soft masses of calcium carbonate
Substratum:
23 to 32 inches—pale brown loam that has soft masses and concretions of calcium
carbonate
32 to 60 inches—pale brown loam that has soft masses and concretions of calcium
carbonate
Minor Components
Dissimilar:
• Duey and San Germán soils, which are shallow to fractured limestone bedrock
Similar:
• Pozo Blanco soils, which have a finer textured profile than the Aguilita soil
Soil Properties and Qualities
Depth class: Very deep
Depth to bedrock: More than 80 inches
Parent material: Colluvium and residuum that weathered from soft limestone bedrock
Surface runoff: Medium
Drainage class: Well drained
Permeability: Moderate
Available water capacity: Low or moderate
Flooding: None
Hazard of water erosion: Moderate
Rock fragments in the surface layer: Less than 25 percent, by volume
Shrink-swell potential: Moderate
Natural fertility: Moderate
Content of organic matter in the surface layer: Moderate
Reaction: Slightly alkaline or moderately alkaline
Land Use
Dominant uses: Naturalized pastureland
Other uses: Hayland; pasture
Agricultural Development
Cropland
Suitability: Poorly suited
Management concerns: Erosion; slope
Pasture and hayland
Suitability: Moderately suited
Commonly grown crops: Kleberg’s bluestem
Management concerns: Erosion; slope; available water capacity
Management measures and considerations:
• Erosion is a concern in unprotected areas.
• The moderately steep slopes increase the difficulty of management.
• The low available water capacity may result in lower yields.
• Including grasses and legumes in the cropping system helps to control further erosion.
• Returning crop residue to the soil helps the soil to retain moisture.
• Overgrazed pastures should be reestablished and then protected from further overgrazing.
Naturalized pastureland
Suitability: Moderately suited
Management concerns: Erosion; slope
Management measures and considerations:
• Erosion is a concern in unprotected areas.
• The moderately steep slopes increase the difficulty of management.
• Overgrazed areas should be reestablished and then protected from further overgrazing.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/puerto_rico/PR...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/A/AGUILITA.html
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Soil profile: Weesatche sandy clay loam, 1 to 3 percent slopes. The depth to secondary carbonates typically occurs within a depth of 45 to 100 centimeters (18 to 40 inches). (Soil Survey of Goliad County, Texas; by Jonathan K. Wiedenfeld, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: Good quality hay will provide nutrition for livestock in the winter. This field is on an area of Weesatche sandy clay loam, 1 to 3 percent slopes. Weesatche soils are mainly used for livestock grazing and wildlife habitat.
The Weesatche series consists of very deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils that formed in calcareous loamy residuum weathered from sandstone of Pliocene age. These soils are on nearly level to gently sloping summits, backslopes, and footslopes of interfluves. Slopes range from 0 to 5 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 711 mm (28 in) and the mean annual air temperature is about 22.2 degrees C (72 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, mixed, superactive, hyperthermic Typic Argiustolls
Soil moisture: A typic-ustic moisture regime. The soil moisture control section is dry in some or all parts for more than 90 days but less than 180 cumulative days in normal years. June through August and December through February are the driest months. These soils are intermittently moist in September through November and March through May.
Mean annual soil temperature: 22 to 23 degrees C (72 to 74 degrees F)
Depth to argillic: 15 to 76 cm (6 to 30 in)
Depth to calcic: 64 to 203 cm (25 to 80 in)
Depth to secondary carbonates: 51 to 203 cm (20 to 80 in)
Coarse fragments: 0 to 15 percent siliceous gravels
Particle-size control section (weighted average): clay content: 20 to 32 percent
USE AND VEGETATION: Mostly used for livestock grazing and wildlife habitat. The native plants are sideoats grama, little bluestem, threeawn, Texas wintergrass, and broomweed. Woody species are blackbrush, agarito, live oak, mesquite, and huisache. Some areas are used for crop production with crops being grain sorghum and corn. Minor areas are used for forage production.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Northern and Central Rio Grande Plain, Texas; LRR I; MLRA 83A; large extent. This is a benchmark series.
These soils were formerly included in the Goliad series.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/texas/goliadTX...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/W/WEESATCHE.html
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The Tonka series consists of very deep, poorly drained, slowly permeable soils that formed in local alluvium over till or glaciolacustrine deposits. These soils are in closed basins and depressions on till and glacial lake plains and have slopes of 0 to 1 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, smectitic, frigid Argiaquic Argialbolls
Tonka soils are widely distributed on the glaciated plains of North Dakota, northeastern South Dakota, and western Minnesota. The series is extensive and is used mainly for small grains, hay and pasture. Native vegetation is tall grasses, sedges and rushes.
For a detailed description, please visit:
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A representative soil profile of the Al Ain series. These soils are very deep and formed in gravelly alluvial deposits. (NE003) UAE.
Taxonomic classification: Typic Torriorthents, sandy-skeletal, mixed, hyperthermic
Diagnostic subsurface horizon described in this profile is: Calcic horizon from 115 to 200 cm.
Typic Torriorthents are fixed on the driest Torriorthents. Typic Torriorthents are extensive soils in the intermountain States of the United States. Most of them have moderate or strong slopes and are used only for grazing. Others that have gentle slopes are irrigated. The gently sloping soils are mostly on fans or piedmont slopes where the sediments are recent and have little organic carbon.
Rock fragments in the particle-size control section are predominantly gravel, with less than 15% cobbles and stones. Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) is less than 15% in layers above 100 cm. The particle-size control section has less than 30% particles that are very fine sand and finer. The pH (1:1) ranges from 7.0 to 8.6 throughout the profile. The EC (1:1) is generally less than 1.0 dS/m in all horizons, but may be higher in some areas that have been irrigated. A desert pavement of fine and medium gravel in many areas covers 5 to 65% of the soil surface. A few areas may have a thin eolian sand mantle up to about 25 cm thick. The size of the rock fragments on and in the soil is predominantly gravel, but may have a few cobbles and stones, especially in areas close to the mountains. The size of rock fragments generally decreases as distance from the mountains increases.
Profile of Altuda very cobbly silt loam, in an area of Altuda-Rock outcrop complex, 20 to 70 percent slopes. The parent material is coarsely fractured limestone bedrock. (Soil Survey of Big Bend National Park, Texas by James Gordon, Soil Scientist, James A. Douglass, Soil Scientist, and Dr. Lynn E. Loomis, Soil Scientist, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Altuda-Rock outcrop complex, 20 to 70 percent slopes
Map Unit Setting
Major land resource area (MLRA): MLRA 42—Southern Desertic Basins, Plains, and Mountains
Elevation: 4,645 to 5,835 feet
Mean annual precipitation: 14 to 20 inches
Mean annual air temperature: 59 to 61 degrees F
Frost-free period: 180 to 220 days
Map Unit Composition--
Altuda and similar soils: 60 percent
Rock outcrop: 30 percent
Dissimilar minor components: 10 percent
Minor components:
Cienega soils—5 percent; not hydric
Crossen soils—5 percent; not hydric
Description of Altuda soils
Soil taxonomic classification: Loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, thermic Lithic Calciustolls
Setting--
Landscape: Mountains
Landform: Mountain slopes, ridges
Landform position (two-dimensional): Summit, shoulder, backslope
Slope: 20 to 70 percent
Down-slope shape: Linear
Across-slope shape: Convex
Representative aspect: Southeast
Aspect range: All aspects
Soil temperature class: Thermic
Soil temperature regime: Thermic
Soil moisture class: Ustic
Properties and Qualities--
Runoff class: Very high
Parent material: Colluvium and residuum weathered from limestone bedrock
Depth to restrictive feature: 6 to 19 inches to lithic bedrock
Frequency of flooding: None
Frequency of ponding: None
Depth to water table: More than 72 inches
Drainage class: Well drained
Shrink-swell potential: Moderate (about 4.5 LEP)
Salinity maximum: Not saline
Sodicity maximum: Not sodic
Calcium carbonate maximum: 55
Available water capacity: Very low (about 0.9 inches)
Gypsum maximum: None
Interpretive Groups--
Land capability subclass (nonirrigated): 7s
Hydric soil rating: No
Hydrologic soil group: D
Ecological site name and identification: Limestone Hill and Mountain, Mixed Prairie (R042XE278TX)
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/texas/bigbendT...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/A/ALTUDA.html
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Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Morley soil series. (Soil Survey of Delaware County, Indiana; by Gary R. Struben, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: A hay field in an area of Morley silt loam, 5 to 10 percent slopes, eroded, on a side slope.
The Morley series consists of very deep, moderately well drained soils that are moderately deep to dense till. Morley soils formed in as much as 46 cm (18 inches) of loess and in the underlying clay loam or silty clay loam till. They are on till plains and moraines. Slope ranges from 1 to 18 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 940 mm (37 inches), and mean annual temperature is about 10.6 degrees C (51 degrees F).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, illitic, mesic Oxyaquic Hapludalfs
Depth to the base of the argillic horizon: 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 inches)
Depth to carbonates: 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 inches)
Depth to densic contact: 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 inches)
Thickness of the loess: 0 to 46 cm (0 to 18 inches)
Particle-size control section: averages 35 to 50 percent clay, 15 to 25 percent sand, and 1 to 5 percent rock fragments
USE AND VEGETATION: Most areas are used to grow corn, soybeans, and small grain. Some areas are used for hay and pasture, and a few areas are used for woodland. Native vegetation is mixed deciduous hardwood forest.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Northern Indiana, southern Michigan, northwestern Ohio, eastern Illinois, and southeastern Wisconsin; mainly in MLRAs 111B, 110, and 99, and less extensively in MLRAs 95A, 95B, 97, 98, 108A, 111A, 111C, 111D, 111E, and 115C. The type location is in MLRA 111B. The series is of large extent.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/indiana/IN035/...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/M/MORLEY.html
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Soil profile: A representative soil profile of the Tuborcio series. (Soil Survey of Pinnacles National Monument, California; by Ken Oster, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Tuborcio series consists of deep to soft bedrock, well drained soils that formed in residuum weathered from granite. The Tuborcio soils are on backslopes of hills. Slopes range from 2 to 50 percent. The mean annual precipitation is about 17 inches (432 millimeters) and the mean annual air temperature is about 61 degrees F (16 degrees C).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, mixed, superactive, thermic Ultic Palexerolls
Depth to bedrock: more than 60 inches (150 centimeters).
Mean annual soil temperature: 60 to 63 degrees F (16 to 17 degrees C).
Soil moisture control section: dry in all parts from about June 15 to November 15 (150 days), and moist in all parts from about January 15 to May 1 (105 days).
Particle size control section: 45 to 55 percent clay, 5 to 35 percent rock fragments from granite. .
Base saturation by ammonium acetate: 90 to 100%
USE AND VEGETATION: This soil is used for watershed, wildlife habitat and recreation. Vegetation is blue oak with an understory of grasses or chamise chaparral.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: San Benito and Monterey Counties, California in MLRA 15 -- Central California Coast Range. These soils are of small extent.
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/california/CA7...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/T/TUBORCIO.html
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Lab sampling for NSSC South side of the Big Snowy Mountians, north of Ryegate, Montana. June 16, 2004.
A representative soil profile of Arenisco fine sand, in an area of Lopeno-Potrero-Arenisco complex, 0 to 5 percent slopes. A krotovina, or animal burrow, is located at a depth of 150 centimeters. . (Soil Survey of Kenedy and Kleberg Counties, Texas; by Nathan I. Haile, and Dennis N. Brezina, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
The Arenisco series consists of very deep, excessively drained, rapidly permeable soils that formed in sandy eolian sediments of Holocene age. These soils are on nearly level to gently undulating, vegetated lag dunes on the south Texas coastal plain. Slope ranges from 0 to 5 percent. Mean annual air temperature is about 22 degrees C (72 degrees F), and mean annual precipitation is about 686 mm (27 in).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Mixed, hyperthermic Typic Ustipsamments
Soil Moisture: An Ustic moisture regime. The Soil Moisture Control Section (SMCS) is dry in some or all parts for more than 90 days cumulative in normal years. The SMCS is also either moist in some or all parts for 180 cumulative days or more or moist for 90 or more consecutive days in normal years. June through September are the driest months.
A water table is present in most pedons at depths of 102 to 203 cm (40 to 80 in) in most years from October to May.
Depth to redox concentrations: 102 to 203 cm (40 to 80 in)
Particle-size control section (weighted average)
Clay content: 1 to 5 percent
Sand content: 91 to 97 percent
USE AND VEGETATION: Used for livestock grazing and wildlife habitat. Vegetation consists mostly of short to mid grasses such as sand bur, hairy grama, seacoast bluestem, gulfdune paspalum and threeawn. Forbs such as partridge pea, croton, ragweed, beebalm, false indigo, also many yellow and white flowered asteraceae of an unknown species at this time. The ecolocical site is Coastal Sand, PE 31-44 (150BY648TX).
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Gulf Coast Saline Prairies (MLRA 150B in LRR T) of south Texas. The series is of moderate extent. This soil was formerly included in the Falfurrias series. The Arenisco series was separated based on the occurrence of a water table at 102 to 203 cm (40 to 80 inches).
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/texas/kenedykl...
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/A/ARENISCO.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
Soil profile: A representative profile of Dothan loamy sand. The Dothan series consists of very deep, well drained, loamy soils. (Soil Survey of Lee County, South Carolina; by Charles M. Ogg, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: Dothan soils formed in thick beds of unconsolidated, medium to fine-textured marine sediments. They are commonly on interfluves with slopes of 0 to 15 percent. Most areas of Dothan soils have been cleared and are used for the production of corn, cotton, peanuts, vegetable crops, hay, and pasture. Forested areas are in longleaf pine, loblolly pine, sweetgum, southern red oak, and hickory.
Mean annual temperature is about 18 degrees C (65 degrees F), and the mean annual precipitation is about 1360 millimeters (53 inches).
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine-loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Plinthic Kandiudults
Plinthite: Depth to horizons that contain 5 percent or more plinthite ranges from 60 to 152 centimeters (24 to 60 inches).
Silt content is less than 20 percent.
Clay content is between 18 to 35 percent in the upper 51 centimeters (20 inches) of the Bt horizon.
Depth to Redox features: Predominantly greater than 102 centimeters (40 inches), but some pedons have iron depletions below a depth of 76 centimeters (30 inches).
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
Major Land Resource Areas (MLRA): The series occurs primarily in the Southern Coastal Plain (MLRA 133A), but it also occurs to a lesser extent in the Atlantic Coast Flatwoods (MLRA 153A).
Extent: large extent
For a detailed soil description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/D/DOTHAN.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
The Altaby series consists of very deep, well drained soils that formed in mixed alluvium with loess influence. Altaby soils are on fan remnants. Slopes are 0 to 8 percent. The mean annual precipitation is about 406 mm and the mean annual air temperature is about 5 degrees C.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Coarse-loamy over sandy or sandy-skeletal, mixed, superactive, frigid Calcic Haploxerolls
USE AND VEGETATION: Major uses: irrigated areas are used primarily for small grains, seed potatoes, hay and pasture; nonirrigated areas are used for pasture and range. Range/ecological site: R013XY001ID. Dominant native vegetation: mountain big sagebrush, bluebunch wheatgrass, antelope bitterbrush, western wheatgrass, eriogonum.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
Distribution: Southeastern Idaho, MLRA 13
Extent: the series is not extensive
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/A/ALTABY.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
A plinthic horizon contains a significant amount of plinthite. This is an example of continuous phase plinthite (interconnectivity).
If the concretions and nodules of the plinthic horizon harden (strongly or more cemented) and reach ≥ 40% of the volume, the plinthic horizon becomes a pisoplinthic horizon.
Plinthite (Gr. plinthos, brick) is an iron-rich, humus-poor mixture of clay with quartz and other highly weathered minerals. It commonly occurs as reddish redox concentrations in a layer that has a polygonal (irregular), platy (lenticular), or reticulate (blocky) pattern. Plinthite irreversibly hardens upon exposure to repeated wetting and drying, especially if exposed to heat from the sun.
Other morphologically similar iron-rich materials that do not progressively harden upon repeated wetting and drying are not considered plinthite. The horizon in which plinthite occurs commonly has 2.5 percent (by mass) or more citrate dithionite extractable iron in the fine-earth fraction and a ratio between acid oxalate extractable Fe and citrate-dithionite extractable Fe of less than 0.10.
For more information about a plinthic horizon, visit;
www.researchgate.net/publication/242649722_Rationale_for_...
For more information about describing and sampling soils, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/guides-and-instructions/field...
or Chapter 3 of the Soil Survey manual:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-09/The-Soil-Su...
For additional information on "How to Use the Field Book for Describing and Sampling Soils" (video reference), visit:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_hQaXV7MpM
For more information about the Brazilian Soil Classification system, visit:
www.embrapa.br/en/busca-de-publicacoes/-/publicacao/10940...
For additional information about soil classification using USDA-NRCS Soil Taxonomy, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/guides-and-instructions/keys-...
or;
www.nrcs.usda.gov/resources/guides-and-instructions/soil-...
Soil profile: Profile of Eufaula loamy fine sand. Lamellae begin to occur at a depth of about 90 centimeters. The Bt part (lamellae) of the E&Bt horizon is strong brown, yellowish red, or red. Texture is fine sand or fine sandy loam. The lamellae are thin, wavy, and generally horizontally continuous. (Soil Survey of Robertson County, Texas; by Harold W. Hyde, Natural Resources Conservation Service)
Landscape: Horses grazing on improved bermudagrass in an area of Eufaula loamy fine sand, 1 to 5 percent slopes. Eufaula soils are dominantly used for range. Considerable amounts of Eufaula soils with a the loamy fine sand surface on lesser slopes are cropped to sorghums, small grains, and peanuts; or used for tame pastures. Native vegetation is post oak and blackjack oak with an understory of mid and tall grasses.
SETTING:
Landform: Stream terrace
Landscape position: Broad, smooth areas
Slope: Very gently sloping or gently sloping; convex surfaces
Shape of areas: Elongated or irregular
Size of areas: 20 to 200 acres
Typical Profile
Surface layer:
0 to 7 inches—brown, moderately acid loamy fine sand
Subsurface layer:
7 to 15 inches—pale brown, moderately acid loamy fine sand
15 to 31 inches—very pale brown, moderately acid loamy fine sand
Subsoil:
31 to 80 inches—very pale brown, strongly acid loamy fine sand that has lamellae of strong brown fine sandy loam
Soil Properties
Depth: Very deep
Drainage class: Somewhat excessively drained
Water table: None within a depth of 6 feet
Flooding: None
Runoff: Negligible
Permeability of most restrictive layer within a depth of 60 inches: Rapid
Available water capacity: Low
Root zone: Very deep
Natural soil fertility: Low
Shrink-swell potential: Low
Hazard of water erosion: Moderate
Composition
Eufaula soil and similar inclusions: 80 to 90 percent
Contrasting inclusions: 10 to 20 percent
Use and Management
Major land use: Rangeland
Other land uses: Pastureland and cropland
Pasture
Major limitations:
• The low available water capacity limits the growth of improved grasses during periods of drought.
• Because of the rapid permeability of the soil, there is a high rate of leaching and a more costly fertilization program is required.
• Seepage is a problem for livestock ponds, and construction is not recommended.
Minor limitations:
• Water erosion is a moderate hazard during seedbed preparation for improved grasses.
Cropland
Major limitations:
• Because of the low available water capacity, this soil poorly is suited to most crops. The soil, however, is suited to the production of watermelons and peanuts.
Minor limitations:
• Water erosion is a moderate hazard when this soil is cultivated.
• When dry, the soil is loose and provides poor traction for farm machinery.
Rangeland
Major limitations:
• The low available water capacity limits the growth of native plants during periods of drought.
• The low natural fertility limits the yield potential of native plants.
• Seepage is a problem for livestock ponds, and construction is not recommended.
Interpretive Groups
Land capability classification (nonirrigated areas): 4s
Ecological site: Deep Sand
Pasture management group: Very Deep Sandy
For additional information about the survey area, visit:
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_MANUSCRIPTS/texas/TX395/0/...
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/E/EUFAULA.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
A soil profile of the Ailey soil series from the upper coastal plain of South Carolina.
Depth Class: Moderately deep or deep to fragic soil properties and (where present) deep or very deep to densic materials
Drainage Class (Agricultural): Well drained or somewhat excessively drained
Internal Free Water Occurrence: Very deep or deep, common, thin
Flooding Frequency and Duration: None
Ponding Frequency and Duration: None
Index Surface Runoff: Negligible to very high
Slowest Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity: Moderately low
Shrink-swell Potential: Low
Landscape: Middle and upper coastal plain, sandhills
Landform: Marine terraces, low hills
Geomorphic Component: Interfluves, side slopes
Hillslope Profile Position: Summits, shoulders, backslopes
Parent Material: Fluviomarine deposits, marine deposits
Slope: 0 to 25 percent
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Arenic Kanhapludults
Ailey series were formerly classified as Fragiudults. The pedogenic firmness and brittleness of the Btx horizon is not as extensive as in a fragipan. Depth to fragic soil properties is 26 to 60 inches. The dense and compact properties of the Cd horizon are root-restrictive but are not thought to be pedogenic. Reclassification to Hapludults was recommended by the Coastal Plains-Dense Soils Properties Study, February 23, 1982. Classification was changed to Kanhapludults as agreed to October 29, 1987 at the SNTC State Soil Scientist meeting. The volume of brittleness was revised (2005) from 10 to 40 percent to 30 to 60 percent to reflect the range common to the fragic subgroup.
The central concept of Ailey soils, are to have significant fragic soil properties as to affect water movement and root penetration but not as significant to classify as a fragipan. It is anticipated with the next revision to Soil Taxonomy the series Great group will be changed to Arenic "Fragic" Kanhapludults if or when this subgroup is recognized. The present range in soil properties allows for Ailey soils to have a perched seasonal water table from four to six feet or below six feet. Additional study is needed to determine if these soils are interpretatively similar and have the same basic soil properties.
Ultimately, it is anticipated Ailey soils will be split into two series; one with densic materials for the Sand Hills area and one without the Cd layer for the Coastal Plain area. The series is extensive, over 700,000 acres.
Depth Class: Very deep
Drainage Class (Agricultural): Poorly drained
Internal Free Water Occurrence: Very shallow, persistent
Flooding Frequency and Duration: Frequent or occasional for brief to very long periods
Ponding Frequency and Duration: None
Index Surface Runoff: Negligible
Permeability: Slow
Landscape: Lower to upper coastal plain river valley
Landform: Flood plains
Geomorphic Component: Treads
Parent Material: Alluvium
Slope: 0 to 2 percent
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, mixed, semiactive, acid, thermic Fluvaquentic Endoaquepts
Depth to Seasonal High Water Table: 0 to 12 inches, November to May
USE AND VEGETATION:
Major Uses: Where cultivated--pasture. Where wooded--tupelo and cypress are common in the ponded or frequently flooded areas, areas that are not ponded or frequently flooded are typically green ash, cottonwood, sweetgum, water oak, willow oak, and cherry-bark oak.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT:
Distribution: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia
Extent: Large
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/C/CHASTAIN.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
A soil profile of the Ailey soil series from the upper coastal plain of South Carolina.
Depth Class: Moderately deep or deep to fragic soil properties and (where present) deep or very deep to densic materials
Drainage Class (Agricultural): Well drained or somewhat excessively drained
Internal Free Water Occurrence: Very deep or deep, common, thin
Flooding Frequency and Duration: None
Ponding Frequency and Duration: None
Index Surface Runoff: Negligible to very high
Slowest Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity: Moderately low
Shrink-swell Potential: Low
Landscape: Middle and upper coastal plain, sandhills
Landform: Marine terraces, low hills
Geomorphic Component: Interfluves, side slopes
Hillslope Profile Position: Summits, shoulders, backslopes
Parent Material: Fluviomarine deposits, marine deposits
Slope: 0 to 25 percent
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Loamy, kaolinitic, thermic Arenic Kanhapludults
Ailey series were formerly classified as Fragiudults. The pedogenic firmness and brittleness of the Btx horizon is not as extensive as in a fragipan. Depth to fragic soil properties is 26 to 60 inches. The dense and compact properties of the Cd horizon are root-restrictive but are not thought to be pedogenic. Reclassification to Hapludults was recommended by the Coastal Plains-Dense Soils Properties Study, February 23, 1982. Classification was changed to Kanhapludults as agreed to October 29, 1987 at the SNTC State Soil Scientist meeting. The volume of brittleness was revised (2005) from 10 to 40 percent to 30 to 60 percent to reflect the range common to the fragic subgroup.
The central concept of Ailey soils, are to have significant fragic soil properties as to affect water movement and root penetration but not as significant to classify as a fragipan. It is anticipated with the next revision to Soil Taxonomy the series Great group will be changed to Arenic "Fragic" Kanhapludults if or when this subgroup is recognized. The present range in soil properties allows for Ailey soils to have a perched seasonal water table from four to six feet or below six feet. Additional study is needed to determine if these soils are interpretatively similar and have the same basic soil properties.
Ultimately, it is anticipated Ailey soils will be split into two series; one with densic materials for the Sand Hills area and one without the Cd layer for the Coastal Plain area. The series is extensive, over 700,000 acres.
www.biosaline.org/multimedia/now-open-emirates-soil-museu...
The Museum is a unique facility in the Gulf region offering an opportunity to visitors to learn about the soil story. What we see above the ground is only a fraction of that story: we see the buildings, but not the foundations, we see the beauty of the landscape with a diversity of plants, but not how the roots are distributed in the soil to support those plants by providing water and nutrients from the underground. The Museum has both external and internal exhibits that allow visitors to immerse themselves in the world of soil.
www.emiratessoilmuseum.org/about
The history of the museum goes back to 19 May 2010 when ICBA’s Senior Soil Scientist Dr. Shabbir Shahid as Chairman of the Recommendation Committee of the International Conference on Soil Classification and Reclamation of Degraded Lands in Arid Environments, held in Abu Dhabi, recommended the establishment of a soil museum, which was unanimously endorsed by the participants. The conference was jointly organized by the Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi and ICBA under the patronage of H.H. Sheikh Hamdan Bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the Ruler’s Representative in the Western Region Abu Dhabi, and Chairman of the Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi.
The Emirates Soil Museum was officially opened on 8 December 2016. Since its launch, the museum benefitted students, researchers, professionals, scientists, environmentalists, decision and policy makers, and land use planners in the common pursuit of sustainable national development.
For more information about soil classification in the UAE, visit:
The Badin series consists of moderately deep, well drained, moderately permeable soils that formed in residuum weathered from fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks of the Carolina Slate Belt. These soils are on gently sloping to steep uplands in the Piedmont. Slopes range from 2 to 55 percent.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Fine, mixed, semiactive, thermic Typic Hapludults
Solum thickness is 20 to 40 inches. Depth to weathered bedrock is 20 to 40 inches. Depth to hard bedrock is 40 inches or more. Reaction ranges from strongly acid to extremely acid in all horizons except where the surface has been limed. Limed soils are typically moderately acid or slightly acid in the A horizon. Rock fragment content is commonly 5 to 35 percent by volume in the A, E, BE, BA, and Bt horizons, and 20 to 60 percent in the BC and C horizons. Some pedons have individual horizons that have 0 to 5 percent rock fragments by volume. Fragments are dominantly channers.
Used mainly for growing corn, small grain, soybeans, grain sorghum, mixed hay, and pasture. The remainder is in woodlands of oaks, hickory, loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, Virginia pine, and yellow-poplar. Common understory species are American holly, flowering dogwood, sourwood, and American hornbeam.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: Piedmont Plateau of North Carolina and Virginia. The series is of moderate extent.
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/B/BADIN.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
The Furlong series consists of moderately deep, somewhat excessively drained soils formed in sandy deposits underlain by limestone on ground moraines and outwash plains. Permeability is rapid. Slopes range from 0 to 6 percent. Mean annual precipitation is about 32 inches, and mean annual temperature is about 43 degrees F.
TAXONOMIC CLASS: Sandy, mixed, frigid Typic Haplorthods
(Unless otherwise stated the depths mentioned in the following paragraph are measured from the mineral soil surface.) The depth to limestone bedrock ranges from 20 to 40 inches. Gravel content ranges from 0 to 10 percent and cobble content ranges from 0 to 5 percent throughout. Rock fragments are mainly limestone, but include some igneous and metamorphic fragments.
USE AND VEGETATION: Most of this soil is in second growth woodland. Quaking aspen, red maple, and sugar maple are the dominant tree species.
DISTRIBUTION AND EXTENT: The eastern and southeastern part of the Upper Peninsula and the northern part of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan.
For a detailed description, visit:
soilseries.sc.egov.usda.gov/OSD_Docs/F/FURLONG.html
For acreage and geographic distribution, visit:
A monolith, or vertical slice from topsoil down to subsoil, preserves a soil’s colors and layered horizons in position. Scientists make monoliths of the important soils in their region and use them in teaching. In the field, scientists dig a pit about 6 feet deep, keeping one face a flat vertical plane.
www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_002455...