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1:72 Type 99 ‘To-Ra’ (SdKfz. 181 Panzer VI Ausf. E ‘Tiger I’); vehicle ‘ケ-1 (Ke-Ichi) / A259' of the Imperial Japanese Army 14th Independent Company; Kagoshima region (Kyushu), Japan, summer 1945 (What-if/Hasegawa kit) by Dizzyfugu

Spiral 935: The Holy Grail Spiral of Life by Prince Blake

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A theory of the function of prime numbers in spiral formation and in life in general.

The Spiral of Life is a number spiral which forms a cross in the form of a vertical and horizontal axis of numbers. Emerging from a set of alignments 1, 2, and 3 enter like Magi bearing gifts.

Before I continue, I should explain that I am describing a 3-dimensional object in largely two dimensions - as a tetraskele of overlapping spirals - so there is some distortion in this simplified description. The graphic highlights the sequences involved in expansion and does not layout an exact physical pathway. Alignments along the south column extend to the finial circle and give rise to a new spiral whose West arm values retrace the steps of the parent spiral's south column. In other words, West describes where the new spiral emerges from the south column after the parent spiral has been rotated 90 degrees clockwise.

Viewed in three dimensions, 1, 2 and 3 enter from above as a stem joins an apple; 2 and 3 are so tightly bound they share virtually Identical shaped paths like those of twin stars. Because they share the same location and shape at the spiral center their values are combined to 5 only when considering the spiral's southbound formula for once applied at the start it is felt at every subsequent location. 3 and 4 are the respective centered numbers of the column and the crossbar. They exist one above the other with the interval path of 4 shaped like a near circular spiral staircase.

Like the journey of the Magi, the path on which they embark requires them to return along a different route to avoid a collision with the powers that be. Two essential paths emerge. The first path is the spiraling set of natural numbers which may either expand as a disc or move along as a helix.

The second path is the straight sequence on a Southern heading which gives birth to the spiraling natural numbers; she is a master chef and more formulaic than the flowing set she spawns. This straight path can be described using two recursive sequences - the Golden Egg sequence and the Fibonacci sequence. Upon reaching the finial circle, her offspring's arm returns in the direction she came but on a different route. The labyrinth offers a visual aid if we can imagine the straight path to her center being connected to a return path at a different elevation. Those are the two ways of describing the paths: one as rotation, and the other as ray. Taken altogether, what appears from the West are the stepping stones to a spiral which begins as a tight central ring and emerges with two more rings before finishing off with the Finial Circle.

Spiraling from the center loop at 3 and 4, a pattern of growth is reached in each compass direction by incrementally summing two terms along each axis and adding one. It should be noted that when the formula x + y + 1 = z is reached in one axis it is guaranteed to exist in the other three axes. As a result, four rays of whole number sequences extend outwards from center. Multiply this equation by three and twelve alternating radii of whole number sequences result. (For a look at the six-fold symmetry resulting from this model, explore the purple image "The Pillars of the Holy Cross" in this photo set.)

From this arrangement, a Fibonacci sequence (times six) emerges alongside the South column: 6, 12, 18, 30, 48, 78....

The Golden Egg Sequence defines the Spiral of Life's path of origin. She is born from the West near the spiral's center and returns Westward (on a different plane) to 88 at the Finial Circle.

The formula for the spiral's path of origin, the Golden Egg Sequence, begins with two zeros or "goose eggs" (0 + 0 + 1 = 1 ). (0, 0, 1, 2, 4, 7, 12, 20, 33, 54, 88...) The rays headed East and West form the composite crossbar of Spiral 935. The North and South constitute her prime column. In each compass direction the rays follow the formula x + y + 1 = z.

Prime numbers dominate the vertical column between finials 77 and 99. Composite numbers dominate the horizontal crossbar between finials 88 and 112. 7 is the only prime on the crossbar and 9 is the sole composite on the column. Their product (63) marks the start of the second half of the Spiral of Life; 1 to 62 marks her first half. Altogether the two halves underscore a rhythm of 124 intervals punctuated by sets of 76 and 48.

The South Column marks the location of key triple composites 77 and 125. The spiral gives rise to successive generations born from a unique relationship among the cross numbers leading to a specific location of regeneration as the South Column passes through the Finial Circle. Triple composite 125 marks this interval; it is an odd composite integer which when divided into two parts separated by one, yields an even part and a composite odd part. Therefore, all three properties - her obvious value and her two parts when separated by one, are all composite. Even-odds are odd numbers which can be divided into an even number and the same even number plus one. The first several triple composites among the even-odds are as follows:

49 = 24 + 25

65 = 32 + 33

69 = 34 + 35

77 = 38 + 39

125* = 62 + 63

Of these triple composites only 69, 77 and 125 are cross numbers. They are distinguishable by an additional composite feature; the sum of their respective digits are composite since 6 + 9 = 15; 7 + 7 = 14; and 1 + 2 + 5 = 8. Because they possess four composite qualities it seems appropriate to shorten their name from cross-number-triple composites to tetra-composites. (Use Ctrl F "framework" to read more about the triple composites.)

* 125 has the property of being in position 1 of 124 in a second generation spiral. A new spiral emerges 90 degrees offset from the previous one. Thus 496 intervals are required to complete one full gyration of the Spiral of Life's wave motion viewed in cross-section as a tetraskele of overlapping spirals.

From 77 to 125 the spire known as the Finial Circle has 48 intervals. Presuming a circle (in cross-section) is formed by this arrangement - for instance, by particles arriving at an orbit - there would be a very slight shift to the left of cross and crossbar with the South interval 77 remaining stable. 101 would emerge as the North column finial and 89 and 113 would mark the new East and West crossbar finials. 77 and 125 would emerge one above the other. The point of this is to demonstrate that if we sum the values of the intervals which form two distinct religious symbols - the Star of David, and the Cross of Lorraine - (particularly as shown on the tampion of the submarine Rubis) we find their values both equal 707. In fact, any two bars horizontally crossing the circle at any height will satisfy this result. I include both 77 and 125 in both calculations of 707. A cross with a single crossbar (at any height) will produce a value of 505. The trinity of the sole finial primes 89, 101, and 113 sum to 303.

I'd like to stress first and foremost that this spiral is meant to demonstrate mathematical relationships, not mere curiosities. However, if this model can lead to increased pattern recognition then I would be remiss not to point out areas of similitude with real-world objects and symbols. Furthermore, like viewing celebrity look alikes, it may not only provide entertainment but serve to improve memory and perception skills.

Mathematics also stands to benefit from this model particularly in the area of sums. The sum of 1 - 100 was a problem which the young Carl Friedrich Gauss found a solution to by adding 1 to 100, then dividing 100 by 2 and finally multiplying 101 x 50 to reach 5050. In the spiral we find this sum is equal to the sum of the finial circle plus 101. Finial circle 77 ~ 125 = 4949 + North finial 101 = 5050. It is also the value of the cross (505) x 10. When Descartes invented the Cartesian coordinate system it opened a new chapter in the history of mathematics. The Spiral of Life is poised to do the same.

In ascribing values to symmetric shapes like the cross or the Star of David the end values not only come together but exist one above the other. I refer to this type of sum as a k-sum, or knotted sum since the ends are not unlaced but overlap to form a node, or knot.

Are the k-sums of symmetrical points along a spire mathematically relevant? I would argue they are. When we count our fingers, for example, we do not count every joint making up our fingers. If our ancestors had considered the radius and ulna as the two parts of a node at our wrists then they may have counted to 7 using each hand. for a total of 14, the sum of which (1 - 14) would be 3 x 5 x 7 or 77 in base 14. We could easily have ended up with a base 14 system! And yet when you examine your hand, you soon realize all the five digits extend through the palm to form an aligned node of parts, most especially the thumb and pinky.

The good news is that considering this model in a different base system would have little but cosmetic impact. A key position marker of the Finial Circle, for instance, does not rely on the "prettiness" of having double digits but in reaching the same ratio of 8/13 in the un-shifted spiral model at each end of the crossbar in relation to the next spire (88/143 and 112/182). Furthermore all the key characteristics of a number such as primality or compositeness remain despite their conversion to any base system. In other words, the numbers representing the Spiral of Life's intervals might look different in a new base but their function and properties would remain exactly the same.

Goose eggs and knotted sums. Later in this essay I will be describing the goose eggs as the points of equivalence along the south column where it meets the Finial Circle. I have explained the concept of knotted sums where the ends of sums form a knot or a node along the South column. I have pointed out that if we add 101 to the sum of the Finial Circle (from 77 ~ 125) it equals the sum of 1 ~ 100. However I have not yet given an explanation as to how adding 101 to the sum of the Finial Circle may occur. From a symmetric standpoint it stands to reason if one considers 77/125 as a knot whose sum totals to 202 then an opposite node of a circle connecting them would have the same sum value, 202. We already find 101 at the North but where specifically might an additional 101 come from? One possibility is that it might come from a shared electron path, or another spiral model up-side down in orientation to the first thereby creating a situation where the sum of 1 ~ 100 would be equal to the double-knotted sum of the Finial Circle (sum of 77 ~ 125 plus 101).

Introducing the Pythagorean Localization - a Method for Justifying Migration of Cross bar Finial Values to 89 and 113 from 88 and 112.

(This method is also called the Pythagorean Shift.) Below we consider column values expressed as an interval of 3 (for example: 36~38 or 37 x 3). Summing two, stacked, column-centered, three-interval arcs and dividing by 2 identifies matches (shown in parenthesis) with the cross bar values on the right. Averaging the localized values with the spiral values leads to the precise adjustment (to 89 and 113) at the exact moments where the cross bar meets the Finial Circle.

(37 x 3 + 23 x 3) / 2 = 90 -- 88 (average 89)

(23 x 3 + 13 x 3) / 2 = (54) -- 54 match

(13 x 3 + 9 x 3) / 2 = (33) --- 33 match

(9 x 3 + 3 x 3) / 2 = 18 -----------

(3 x 3 + 5 x 3) / 2 = (12) ------ sum of 3~5; product of center knot 3 & 4.

(5 x 3 + 11 x 3) / 2 = 24 -----------

(11 x 3 + 17 x 3) / 2 = (42) ---- 42 match

(17 x 3 + 29 x 3) / 2 = (69) -- 69 match

(29 x 3 + 47 x 3) / 2 = 114 ----112 (average 113)

54, 33 and 42, 69 are the symmetric cross bar values leading to the Finial Circle. I have also marked the value 12 which in this chart lies midway between the four intersecting crossbar values. Perhaps not coincidentally 12 is also the value of the product of column 3 and crossbar 4, the knot at the center of the spiral. It is also the sum of the first three cross values: 3, 4 and 5 - a Pythagorean triple. The values separating 33, 42, 54, and 69 are 9, 12, and 15 also a Pythagorean triple.

Holy Pythagoras!

Mapping out Pythagorean triplets on the Spiral of Life produces either right triangles or straight lines. Here are some examples of right triangles:

3, 4*, 5

5, 12*, 13

7, 24*, 25

8, 15*, 17

9, 40*, 41

11, 60*, 61

12, 35*, 37

13, 84, 85

15, 112*, 113

33, 56*, 75

36, 77, 85*

39, 80*, 89

48*, 55, 73

The Pythagorean triplet values are mapped out such that each value represents the location of an angle formed by a triangle connecting the values. An asterisk is used to mark the location of the right angle. We find that most Pythagorean triplets produce an additional right triangle but of different dimensions. In the case of mapping spiral values 8, 15*, and 17 on the Spiral of Life the resulting shape is a 3-4-5 right triangle. Is this an illusion based on a differing perspective? These values promise to be very useful for bringing the shape of the Spiral of Life into clearer focus.

For example the cross values seem to indicate nodes and near-circular orbits at the spiral center. 1|2|3|4, 5|11, 7|12, 9|13, and 17|29 are locations where overlap may occur if we consider the three circular knotted spires: one at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; another at 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and the third at 17, 20, 23, 26, 29. One Pythagorean triplet - 20, 21, and 29 stands out because it does not appear to form a square triangle on a flattened out Spiral of Life. Two explanations emerge: the shape of the spire at that location might be different as highly indicated by the cross numbers; or not every Pythagorean triplet forms a right triangle on the Spiral of Life.

The justification for the Pythagorean Localization lies in the circular spires and nodes which appear at spiral center. It was a surprise to find the values from 33 to 69 were unaffected by considering the 3-interval column-centered arcs where the overlapping nodes appear. The localization is so-named because it preserves the Pythagorean Triple between intervals 33 and 69.

Passion Flower

Comparing the Spiral of Life to the string-petaled Passion Flower: the flower has an anchor petal where the south column meets the Finial Circle at 77 and 125 marking the highly composite zone of the spiral. Upon inspection of the flower (in a method and location described below) three grooves may be observed: north, one appears between two petals; east, marking an offset location of the East petal; and west where a notch exactly bifurcates one petal. The notches exist in only 3 of the 4 compass directions while a unique "anchor" petal exists South where there is no visible groove. I will demonstrate mathematically how the south column is a special location of The Holy Grail Spiral of Life, capable of blending, birthing, and other neat stuff. It is the most likely location for a central anchor petal to emerge. On the passion flower it is one of five green leafy petals and is the sole petal which has what can best be described as the flower's eyelash. It is easy to overlook because the eyelash structure is surrounded by a full ring of lashes which we may call her brow. This feature may only be seen after cutting the stem from bottom and clipping the stamen on top; applying pressure to the cut stem from the bottom will invert the bulb revealing the eyelash.

A memorable moment of David LaPoint's Primer Fields occurs when he presses a metallic Ping-Pong ball through the hole in his magnetic bowl causing it to shoot out the other end. It was a surprise to find that the flower's hard stamen popped in and out in a similar manner but not completely unexpected as the mathematics of the cross indicates strong congruence when values near center are flipped. Adjacent petals along the horizontal crossbar form a strong triangle. The flower's axis runs above the right petal's midpoint (bottom-view) which corresponds to the gradual counterclockwise shift in Spiral 935's axes with each generation of 124 intervals. Two more petals are located symmetrically on each side of the North Column making a total of five symmetric petals in a strong triangular base. Of course, to view the leafy petals, one must turn the blossom upside-down since her top-view is dominated by a profusion of white and purple strings numbering 88.

The Goose that laid the Golden Egg

The Spiral of Life's path of origin begins with two goose eggs. These goose eggs represent key points of equivalence. And what we find is that from these two goose eggs emerges a spiral. And from this spiral a column of primes. And on this column sets of equivalent points emerge - one highly overlapping pair at 17 and 23 and a second mature, divided set at 47 and 77.

How it works: The sets may be thought of as stages of an emerging wave where division occurs as expansion unfolds. The first sets are immature and overlap considerably and don't precisely align along the column but the final sets are where alignment on the south column occurs and it's here we find our goose eggs. The sets share but one number - 47. Let's take a closer look at these sets and The Rule of Five Cross Numbers.

High Five: The Rule of Five Cross Numbers

Each of the final two sets along the south column share one mathematical property: The sum of four consecutive cross numbers is equal to the fifth consecutive cross number times three. This is the Rule of Five Cross Numbers where the Cross Numbers in question represent the five digits of a hand. The sum of four consecutive cross values is represented by the four fingers and is equal to the thumb - or fifth cross value - times three. In fact, the sum of the length of all four fingers from tip to knuckle matches the length of one's entire thumb times three.

Also try this. Use your hands to separate the 10 digits into two groups, the low five and the high five. First count the low five then count only the four fingers of the high five, "6, 7, 8, and 9." Now add these four numbers together and divide by three - the result is 10 which satisfies the Rule of Five Cross Numbers, As an expression of a successful alignment we might imagine the satisfying of the rule of five - the appearance of the goose eggs - as being celebrated with a "thumbs up" or a "high five". The sets demonstrate how shape is maintained and copied as expansion unfolds uniformly along a central column. The model itself may shed light on how quantum science influences everything - from our language to our biology.

An Important Organizing Principle

The location where the Rule of Five Cross Numbers applies among the cross values is marked by start and end values along the prime column. Off-column matches of the rule are not shown.

(11 + 12 + 13 + 15 = 17 x 3) South Column

(23 + 26 + 29 + 33 = 37 x 3) North Column

The final two sets leading to the Finial Circle are the first contiguous sets of the column having starting points of 29 and 47. This contiguity will continue forever beyond the Finial Circle if and only if one condition is met which we will discuss shortly. At this stage, it is worth noting how proportion is maintained as expansion drives the process of individuation.

(29 + 33 + 37 + 42 = 47 x 3) South Column

(47 + 54 + 61 + 69 = 77 x 3) South Column

This rule of the Cross Numbers is also called the Rule of Five Executives and it highlights points of equivalence directed in a path along the south column as she crosses through the Finial Circle. At 47 the sum of the preceding 4 cross values is equal to the value of 47 repeated 3 times. That's the first point of equivalence or "goose egg". And the same holds true for 77 since 47 + 54 + 61 + 69 = 77 x 3 which brings us to the second goose egg after which a new spiral emerges with a value of 1 at location 125.

Additional observations: The values of the new spiral along the south column do not replace the south column values from 125 onward; they exist on a different plane. However the regenerating or motion part of spiral 935 always takes this path. Therefore 124 times the number of generations passed is added to each spiral value. The spiral values which emerge South at location 125 follow the Golden Egg Sequence 1, 2, 4... Most interestingly, subtracting the terms of the Golden Egg Sequence (starting with 1) from the south column values beyond the Finial Circle (from 125) results in a sequence which satisfies the Rule of Five Executives thereafter to infinity. When I first observed this, it was a thrilling moment. I had already known about the "goose eggs" which gave rise to the Golden Egg Sequence; I had known about the smooth prime ring at the Finial Circle (Cntrl F "distribution") broken only by a highly composite opening at 77 / 125. The evidence pointing to the birth of a new Golden Egg Sequence was gathering momentum.

The center of the new spiral emerges from above the finial circle's 77th interval as interval 125 comes very close to full circle. Under certain circumstances as when rotations come together at this location a spin is produced and a new spiral emerges. One wave motion of The Spiral of Life requires four generations. Here what I am describing is a basic, ironed-out representation of a cross-section. The kinds of forms that she can take range from the plate to the cone to the cylinder to the Mexican hat and as far as one's imagination can conceive. It is a symbolic representation which nevertheless highlights - by means of measure or sequence - mathematical and physical symmetries. What kind of physical reality does it describe? Rotation.

The Spiral of Life gives rise to another ray of origin (and a new spiral) starting from the South column's 125 and this process repeats ad infinitum creating a gyration or wave motion observed in cross-section. In number theory these progressive terms along the axes are called Lucas numbers and are similar to the Fibonacci Sequence with the exception being that a set amount is also added to the previous term. In the illustration, this value is '1'; however, since Spiral-935 is a dynamic model, values other than one will also be explored particularly as the point of origin ebbs and wanes. Spiral 935 is a significant breakthrough in our understanding of life's origin and sheds light on the occurence of tantalizing patterns among the prime numbers. Within this model, symmetry after symmetry ties intimately with the properties of the integers themselves to reveal not only an architecture of all natural numbers but an exceptional understanding of the concepts of zero and one. I invite you to bookmark this page as I will be adding and editing it regularly. The organization of this essay is somewhat spiral. I have placed newer information up top and pushed back previous findings. So you may find areas which repeat or that have been changed.

Vertically, there are eleven numbers between 77 and 99 on the above column and ten are prime. The ten prime numbers I refer to as cross primes. The remaining number, 9 is a cross prime square. The ten cross primes and 1 square form pairs opposite each other on the column with the exception of center 3 at the core of the spiral's engine.. The first cross pair are 5, 9 followed by 11, 13, and 17, 23 and 29, 37; finishing with 47, 61. Numbers 77 and 99 I refer to as column finials. 77 is a biprime and 99 is a square prime repdigit which mark the end of the sequence of cross primes. When the column pairs are set as fractions or divisors are being multiplied the finial pair prove themselves to be a very useful set.

Horizontally, there exists an eleventh cross prime on Spiral 935's crossbar between finials 88 and 112. It is number 7 and lies just to the left of column center 3. The crossbar has her own centered number - 4 - which one may visualize as being very close to column center 3. Seven is the only prime number on the crossbar. For a more complete understanding of how Spiral-935 evolved please explore Spiral-31 and other images within this photoset.

The engine driving Spiral-935 needs priming and an energy source To get it started we simply add the value of 2 to the centered 3 to give it a total value of 5. Then we put the formula to work.

The formula is x + y + 1 = z.

x, y, and z are 3 numbers on a column segment ascending in value with x equal to or nearest to center 3.

Spiral-935 takes its shape from a centered 3-number column segment having values of 9, 3, and 5 from top to bottom - notated as 9-3-5. Starting at the center number 3, we can calculate the next number set (z) in the column using the formula since we are given the initial values for x and y in both directions, namely, 3, 9 moving upward and 3(+2), 5 moving downward.. .

moving down the column from center:

(2) +3 + 5 + 1 = 11

5 + 11 + 1 = 17

11 + 17 + 1 = 29

17 + 29 + 1 = 47

29 + 47+ 1 = 77

moving up the column from center:

3 + 9 + 1 = 13

9 + 13 + 1 = 23

13 + 23 + 1 = 37

23 + 37 + 1 = 61

37 + 61 + 1 = 99

how to create Spiral 935 from zero

It is also possible to create Spiral 935 using the formula by starting with '0' for values x and y. This method establishes values for Spiral 935's horizontal axis, or crossbar starting from center and extending right when spiraling counterclockwise, the preferred viewpoint for reasons explained at the end of this essay; (The illustration above spirals clockwise.) Using the formula with starting values of x and y at zero, the progressive values attained are 1, 2, 4, 7, 12, 20, 33, 54, 88, 143, 232, 376, 609, 986, etc. I refer to this series created by the spiral formula, as the Golden Egg sequence as it begins with two "goose eggs" one for x, the other for y.

0 + 0 (+1) = 1

0 + 1 (+1) = 2

1 + 2 (+1) = 4

2 + 4 (+1) = 7

.....

Zero Origin relates to the model for "priming" the spiral by adding '2' to the centered 3. The spiral owes her start to a force of attraction between two objects which combine regularly with three to reach a point of equivalence (with five) allowing the spiral to form. The zero/zero start of x and y is thus reflected in the priming formula of (3+2) + 5 + 1 = 11 at column center. The concept of equivalence lies at the heart of Zero. The Fibonacci sequence starts with two equivalent numbers, 1 and 1. In Spiral 935 many Fibonacci sequences are found including the double eleven sequence beginning with 11 and 11

The Golden Key

Starting from center ANY three consecutive numbers on Spiral 935's column or crossbar may be reduced to one by subtracting the smallest two numbers from the largest. The symmetry of Spiral 935 reaches to the core and through it. Following the formula in reverse reveals other sequences such as the Golden Key sequence linked to the North Column.

From Cross to The Golden Key

South : 11 - 05 - 01 = 05 ------05 + 05 + 01 = 11-----05 + 11 + 01 = 17

+East : 10 - 04 - 01 = 05 ----->04 + 05 + 01 = 10-----05 + 10 + 01 = 16-----10 + 16 + 01 = 27,

North : 09 - 03 - 01 = 05 ----->03 + 05 + 01 = 09 ---- 05 + 09 + 01 = 15----09 + 15 + 01 = 25<

+West : 07 - 04 - 01 = 02 ----- 04 + 02 + 01 = 07-----02 + 07 + 01 = 10

South : 05 - 03 - 01 = 01------- 03 + 01 + 01 = 05-----01 + 05 + 01 = 07

The formula creating the column and crossbar loops through the core to create new sequences intersecting but not on the cross. Associated with the North Column and moving from 9-3-5-9- to 15 the Golden Key sequence forms the triangular shape of a key before straightening and dividing the Finial Circle at her golden mean. The sequence of the Golden Key is

9, 3, 5, 9, 15. 25, 41, 67, 109, 177, 287, 465, 753, 1219...

At 15 the key sequence makes her final appearance on the cross and at 25 diverges, taking a course close to but moving gradually away from the crossbar. At 109 the hidden sequence intersects the Finial Circle at 111 degrees, dividing the spiral arm exactly at 16 / 26ths.

125 - 109 = 16

125 - 099 = 26

-------------->16 / 26

This is the precise ratio (0.615384 or 8/13) both crossbar finials reach in relation to their larger cross number. (88/143 and 112/182) This fraction may be expressed as a ratio of the sum of the first two cross numbers + 1 divided by the sum of the first three cross numbers + 1. An interesting relationship with between the golden finial fractions of the crossbar and column has been observed. Subtracting the crossbar finial's 8/13 from the south column finial's 77/125 (.616) and multiplying by 1,000 yields 8/13. .616 divided by crossbar finials 88 and 112 yields exactly .007 and .0055, respectively. These are important Golden Relationships.

(.616 - (8/13)) x 1,000 = 8/13

.616 / 88 = .007

.616 / 112 = .0055

.616 = (29 x 08) / 100 x .05 + 1/2 (similar to a formula found on Professor Steven J. Finch's page on the determination of critical value)

Astounding Symmetry: Crossbar Squares and the Golden Ratio .616

There is one set of 5 crossbar numbers between Finial 88 and Cross Center. We'll call this set A. And another set of 5 crossbar numbers between Finial 112 and Cross Center we'll call set B. If we take the sum of the square values of each set and add to each set the column value 99 located above and directly between each set, then the ratio between set A and B will equal the South Column Finial Ratio of 77/125 or .616.

Set A: 7^2 + 12^2 + 20^2 + 33^2 + 54^2 + 99 = 4697

Set B: 10^2 + 15^2 + 26^2 + 42^2 + 69^2 + 99 = 7625

4697 / 7625 = 77 / 125 = .616

Not only does the hidden Golden Key of Spiral-935 form the shape of a key, it is the master key linking Spiral 935 to the Fibonacci sequence. From 25 onward, one need only subtract the hidden key numbers from the nearest crossbar number to arrive at the Fibonacci sequence.

Crossbar values - 15, 26, 42, 69, 112, 182, 295, 478...

The Golden Key - 15, 25, 41, 67, 109, 177, 287, 465...

Fibonacci values - 00, 01, 01, 02, 003, 005, 008, 013...

Golden Key Sequence Essentials: Dividing the Spiral in Halves, Thirds, and The Golden Mean

1.) The Golden Key divides the Finial Circle at 111 /180 degrees, the Golden Mean.

2.) The Golden Key and the Golden Egg sequences divide Spiral-93 in half. Golden Egg 54, for example, divides 109 into two whole integers separated by 1: 54 and 55.

3.) The Golden Key divides the spiral rotation into thirds. At the finial circle the rotation is 48 along spiral values (125 - 77 = 48).

125 - Golden Key 109 = 16

16 / 48 = 1 / 3

The Lost Fibonacci Sequence

Comparing opposite sides of the Spiral we find an inverse relationship between Fibonacci and Golden Key formulas. They swap roles. Where the Fibonacci sequence defined the "altitude" lifting off from the crossbar that role belongs to the spiral values, or 'golden egg' values of crossbar 88. Instead of adding the golden egg sequence to the opposite crossbar we subtract it creating a descending ray starting at cross bar values 20 and 33 where the initial values are 0 and 0; then we begin descent with value 1 reducing 54 to 53, The sequence of the Golden Egg is the same spiral formula - only starting with x and y at Zero. Subtracting the Golden Egg sequence from the Crossbar values reveals the Lost Fibonacci Sequence.

++88 Crossbar: 20, 33, 54, 88. 143, 232, 376 ,609 ...

++Golden Egg: 00, 00, 01, 02, 004, 007, 012, 020 ...

Lost Fibonacci: 20, 33, 53, 86, 139, 225, 364, 589 ...

The Lost Fibonacci Sequence is as much a part of the Fibonacci Sequence as the North Column is a part of The Golden Key Sequence: they are one path having two parts which come together at the core and connect at the cross. To recover the Lost Fibonacci Sequence we backtrack through the Fibonacci sequence using the same rule that applies to cross values between 3 and 5 at the cross center . We add 2 to 3 going out from center and subtract 2 from 3 going in. So 8 - 5 = 3 (-2) = 1. After we've subtracted 2 we have crossed the threshold and may begin adding again with '1' as the new core number: 5 + 1 = 6: 6 + 1 = 7; 7 + 6 = 13; and so on.

The Lost Fibonacci Sequence is:

1, 6, 7, 13, 20, 33, 53, 86, 139, 225, 364, 589, 953, 1542, 2495, 4037, 6532, 10569, 17101..

Fibonacci sequences and Golden sequences are paired. Where the Golden Key divides one side of the spiral at her golden mean, Lost Fibonacci divides the other. Where Fibonacci defines the "ascent" of the Golden Key on one side, a Golden sequence will define the "descent" on the other. It demonstrates how corresponding formulas may achieve an effect dependent on their location. When placed at opposite locations their roles may reverse.

Valentine's Day, Mega-Fibonacci, and The Tressarian Twins Sequence

On Valentine's Day 2013 Tressa Montalvo gave birth in Houston, Texas to two sets of identical twins - Ace, Blaine, Cash, and Dylan. The odds of such a birth are said to be one in several million...and to occur on Valentine's Day must make the odds astronomically small.

For awhile I've been debating what to call the two sets of twin Fibonacci sequences formed by the cross. Quadronacci or Tetranacci might be nice but they are in current use for sequences having four terms added.. The sequence formed by the cross divides every full rotation into two halves - left and right - one slightly larger than the other however with each half having two equal parts. This unique sequence is the direct product of the cross - representing the organizing forces of attraction.

Due to the timing of contemplation I first considered naming it the Beligyre Sequence, an anagram of Lee Rigby, the UK police officer slain by a follower of an evil man whose fantasy to torture and murder his questioning aunt and uncle made its way to nauseating posterity in Surah 111. However, wishing for a more jubilant association, I decided to name the twin set of integers the Tressarian Sequence since it alludes to a double set of twin Fibonacci sequences. I also refer to it as the Tressacci Twin or TT sequence for short recognizing that in shape TT resembles Pi and in name - a sports car from Audi. However if one is willing to part with $700,000 or more then a sports car can be yours that will go from 0 to 60mph in Pi (3.14) seconds - the Ferrari Enzo. Only 400 were made so they are very hard to find.. But every now and then they are abandoned - particularly in countries with stiff debt laws like Dubai.

Starting with center 3 and moving to crossbar center 4 establishes the first digit - 1. Moving to South Column 5 offers the second digit - 1. From 5 to Crossbar 7 we arrive at 2 and another 2 brings us to the North Column's 9. From that point forward we continue along the spiral in same manner, making note of the count from one cross value to the next with each one-quarter rotation. The Tressarian Sequence is:

1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7, 7, 8, 8, 11, 11, 13, 13, 16, 16, 21, 21, 29, 29, 34, 34, 47, 47, 55, 55, 76, 76, 89, 89...

The Tressarian Sequence will help explain how the Fibonacci Sequence works in the growth patterns we see in nature. When we observe the sequence in petals, pinecones, or even in the bracts of pineapples we may infer a pattern of twin sequences at work - one for each half of the petal. Once the concept of a twin sequence emerges based on natural forces it is possible to fathom a multiple of twin sequences at work in the creation of a single cone. And that's just the beginning. Spiral-935 has also demonstrated how the Fibonacci Sequence not only appears in spiral shapes but also as a rate of elevation marking successive points of equal division. The implications are that the twin Fibonacci Sequences found imbedded within the Tressarian Sequence may open the door to the discovery of a variety of other growth patterns that have previously been thought unrelated to Fibonacci.

Column and Crossbar Center

Four represents the centered number in Spiral 935's crossbar as three represents the centered number in the cross column. It is likely the first centered number was two and the center shifted as more numbers gravitated. Spiral-935 differs from other spiral representations which typically use "0" as both the point of origin and centered number of the spiral. My purpose is to describe a spiral of numbers in motion, dynamic, and living. The crossbar values from center to right are: 4, 10, 15, 26, 42, 69, 112, 182, 295, 478, 774, 1253, etc. By lining the columns of values side by side we may extrapolate the vertical column numbers and cross primes by the following method:

(4 + 7 - 10) x 2 + 1 = 3

(7 + 12 - 15) x 2 + 1 = 9

(12 + 20 - 26) x 2 + 1 = 13

(20 + 33 - 42) x 2 + 1 = 23

(33 + 54 - 69) x 2 + 1 = 37

(54 + 88 - 112) x 2 + 1 = 61

(88 + 143 - 182) x 2 + 1 = 99

(143 + 232 - 295) x 2 + 1 = 161

(232 + 376 - 478) x 2 + 1 = 261

circle versus spiral values at the finial circle The illustration represents a hypothetical tightening of the belt at 77 with the foreshortening of the Finial Circle from 125 to 121. With the discovery of equivalent fractions at the crossbar finials along spiral values I find it useful to consider a compression/expansion model of the belt at the Finial Circle in keeping with spiral values. UPDATE: Continue reading through "evening the odds" for a more complete explanation of the Finial Circle's creation and properties.

circle values (77, 88, 99, 110, 121)

(for measuring circle properties between column or crossbar pairs)

121 - 99 = 22 (the count of numbers at 180 degrees of this spire)

22 + 99 = 121 (adding the same amount to form a 360 degree circle)

121 - 77 = 44 (the total count of numbers forming the circle's circumference)

spiral values (77, 88, 99, 112, 125)

125 - 99 = 26

26 + 99 = 125

125 - 77 = 48 (the total count of numbers forming the spiral's finial circumference

evening the odds at the finial circle

Prime symmetry found between the even-odds of the finial circle. First observed in Spiral-935's column, the symmetry of prime numbers occurs at the finial circle in her sum values. Odd numbers may be thought of as the sum of two numbers with a difference of 1 between them. If the lowest of these two numbers is an even number then the inspected number is called an even-odd number. If the lowest number is odd, it's an odd-odd number. From 77 to 125 there are 13 even-odds but only the middle 11 - centered precisely around 101 - share a characteristic which solves the mystery of the finial circle. Between 9 squared and 11 squared lie the eleven even-odds: 81, 85, 89, 93, 97, 101, 105, 109, 113, 117, and 121. Five of the eleven are prime numbers outright and contain no primes in their pairings. The remaining six are each paired with prime numbers. Considering the count in this way (important when translating mathematics to chemistry and biology) brings the even-odd count of prime numbers between 9 squared and 11 squared to 11.

If a circle can be created from a spiral one would anticipate the point at which the circle is formed to have weaker bonds which can unlock and join with an adjacent arc to form a circle. The weaker bonds may appear not only in the divisible even numbers (which, in many cases, may have strong bonds) but in the important even-odds. Of course not all even-odds have necessarily weak bonds; however 77 and 125 - nonprimes which are both the sum of consecutive nonprime integers - stand out in their neighborhood.

the Holy Grail

The numbers below illustrate the framework around which the creation of a circle from a spiral occurs around the stronger bonds between nine squared (81) and eleven squared (121). By viewing the Finial Circle through the lens of her even-odds it reveals a smooth distribution of prime numbers:

77 = 38 + 39

81 = 40 + 41prime

85 = 42 + 43prime

89 = 44 + 45 (prime sum)

93 = 46 + 47prime

97 = 48 + 49 (prime sum)

101 = 50 + 51 (prime sum)

105 = 52 + 53prime

109 = 54 + 55 (prime sum)

113 = 56 + 57 (prime sum)

117 = 58 + 59prime

121 = 60 + 61prime

125 = 62 + 63

The above represents a close-up of Spiral-935's Finial Circle as seen through the even-odds. 77 and 125 are triple composites. They are actually tetra composites if we consider that each of their digit sums is also composite. In stark contrast, every even-odd number between 77 and 125 either 1.) has a prime part in one of her two parts separated by one (we may call these partial primes) ; or 2.) is a prime number outright. It is worth noting that none of the prime number even-odds along the Finial Circle has a prime part - each one being comprised of two composite parts separated by one. This property gives the Finial Circle her "smoothness" in terms of the distribution of primes.

The sum value is 1111. (11 * 101) for the even-odds. (81 - 121)

The sum value is 1212 (12 * 101) for the odd-odds.

The sum value is 1313 (13 * 101) for the even-odds (77 - 125)

The sum of all primes is 813 (271 * 3)

The sum of all 6 non-primes is 298 (81-121)

The sum of all 8 non-primes is 500 (77 - 125)

What makes the even-odds and odd-odds relevant?

Symmetric patterns are created around them throughout the spiral making adding, dividing, and multiplying much easier - key to making replicas and creating life. The Golden Key Sequence, for example, not only divides the spiral along her Golden Mean but also serves to divide the entire spiral length in nearly equal portions (like a coiled tape measure) - from point of origin 1 (near spiral center 3) to her mid-way point (along the Golden Egg Sequence) and ending at her Golden Key (a ray rising just north of the opposite crossbar).

Odd numbers appear every third number on the crossbar extending through the core. A similar pattern exists along the column (comprised exclusively of odd numbers) with odd-odd numbers occurring at every third value from North and through the Golden Key Sequence.) The crossbar center is flanked by odd-odd 7 and odd-even 10. Extending outward odd numbers occur at every third interval, alternating between even-odds and odd-odds.

To refresh, the Golden Egg Sequence is the crossbar from Center to 88 and beyond (4, 7, 12, 20, 33, 54, 88, 143, etc.) The Golden Key originates from the North but loops through the center and forms a ray, lifting off from the opposite crossbar at a rate of elevation equal to the ascending Fibonacci Sequence. It is located on the opposite side of the spiral towards 110/112.

Dividing the length of Spiral 935 is accomplished by dividing the Golden Key values into two whole integers separated by one. For example Golden Key value 67 divides to 33 (Golden Egg) and 34. Golden Key 109 divides to 54 (Golden Egg) and 55. This organization gives Spiral 935 flexibility and deeply ties the Golden Mean to the ability to grow spiraling structures into nearly equal parts.

Most of us are accustomed to counting in ten increments of ten numbers. However, from the start we can see numbers are easily divided between odd and evens. And taking it one step further, between even-odds, odd-evens, odd-odds and even-evens (such as 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.) Even-odds start at 1 and may be thought of as the primordial numbers - meaning they reflect back to the original '1' ; they are always the first number - of each successive four-number grouping. The first 43 even-odds are:

001, 005, 009, 013, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 37, 41, 45, 49, 53, 57, 61, 65, 69, 73, 77, 81, 85, 89, 93, 97

101, 105, 109, 113, 117, 121, 125, 129, 133, 137, 141, 145, 149, 153, 157, 161, 165, 169...

There are several possible ways of counting the sum of all numbers at the Finial Circle yet whichever method we pick - one number - a factor of every combination of finial sums - stands out - and that number is 41.

sum of even-odds -81-121 ---1111

sum of odd-evens- 81-121 ---1000

sum of odd-odds--- 81-121----1010

sum of even-evens-81-121----1020

Total ---------------------------------4141----(41 * 101)

41 and prime-hunting

Her symmetric properties make 41 a major player in the world of prime-hunting. There are several formulas involving 41 perhaps the least complicated of which is that if you start with any two integers totaling 41; squaring one of them and adding to it the value of the other integer,will most likely result in a prime number - or else a multiple of five (4+1).

To commemorate the latest discoveries at the finial circle, I went prime hunting using the above formula with a twist. Instead of two integers summing to 41 I used two integers summing to 4141 (41 x 101). Only 7 of 22 were prime using only the above formula. However I was able to predict primality with 100% accuracy by considering the number of prime numbers that appeared after dividing the last two-digits of the two integers (un-squared) into either two equal parts (odd-evens or even-evens) or two parts separated by 1 (odd-odds or even-odds) If 2 or 3 prime numbers appeared In these parts, the result was prime but If less than 2 prime numbers appeared, the result was not prime.

Choosing integers for use in the above formula with sum values of the form 41 x 10101, or 41 x 1010101... has shown positive results in terms of prime prediction. 271 - a prime factor of 813 (271 * 3) - has demonstrated even greater reliability. 813, as you may recall, is the sum total of the prime even-odd numbers and the nonprime even-odd' numbers' prime offspring at the finial circle. Engaging in his recreational exercise allowed me to see that 271 x 41 = 11111, The sum of all even odds at the finial circle is 1111. An early Christmas present. Thank you for being there to observe the mysteries of the finial circle come to light.

3.1415, 23, 41, and 8,888

Since this area ties in with the Finial Circle I thought to mention another aspect which ties into today's calendar day - Pi Day or 3.14. The Finial Circle is formed around an arc of primes and prime parts between 9 and 11 squared. The place where the circle starts and ends is in an area with a higher degree of compositeness compared with the other numbers at the finial circle. Notably 77 and 125 mark the composite area where the circle forms. If we sum the four numbers from 77 to 80 (1 prior to nine-squared) we arrive at 314, the first three digits of Pi and - due to the compositeness of the location - what I call the "mouth" of the Finial Circle. For a hungry circle, Pi is the perfect order! Happy Pi Day, everybody!

Since we have reached a milestone in 8,888 views I wish to explore some properties of this fascinating number in relation to Spiral 935. Pi quite nicely divides 8888 in the following cross number multiples of Pi.

8888 / 23 Pi = 123.00 = 3 x 41

8888 / 69 Pi = 41.00

No other multiples of PI - cross or otherwise - dvides 8888 so precisely as do the pi multiples of 23. In a related property of Spiral 935 so far it appears that prime column pairings (prime numbers at opposite sides of the column) occur at multiples of 23 of the column height. However testing primality for column pairs at height multiples of 23 requires greater computing power than my laptop offers.

Factors of 8888 include 88 and 101 - both located on the Finial Circle.

11 x 808 = 8888

88 x 101 = 8888

8888 / 70* Pi = 40.41 While 70 is one-off from cross number 69 the resulting fraction is nonetheless pattern-forming; and we see a similar re-occurrence in cross number 112.

8888 / 112 Pi = 25.26

About 8888 and 41. I recommend using the search function on this page and noting all the occurrences of 41....in the even-odds for example...or at the finial circle it's in the Finial Circle's upper-bound breakdown of 9 squared, (40 and 41) 81's prime 41. (Compare to the upper-bound breakdown of Finial Circle's 11 squared...121's prime 61.)

When multiplied by 77/125 (.616), 8888 yields ((11+11)^2 x 1414 ) / 125

Pi The Golden Ratio, zero and the core of spiral-935

The circumference of the Finial Circle is 48 along spiral value 112. The foreshortening of the Finial Circe to 44 occurs when ending the spiral formula by adding a half arc equal to the preceding 22-count arc between 77 and 99. 44 divided by pi yields 14 (which is exactly equal to the column height of 14 between spiral numbers 100-124.) The Finial Circle is the only location along the entire column where Pi equals the circumference divided by the diameter when the diameter is defined by the column count . At the core the diameter is compressed and pulsing (not static) and beyond the finials it is rapidly expanding. For the count of column numbers to be equal to the diameter well beyond the finial circle would require Spiral-935's numbers to be moving very fast (creating a helix) and for their speed to be increasing. Also if the numbers represent objects which are very tiny relative to the space between this may alter our perception of the spiral's shape.

The Finial Circle itself may be thought of as the "Zero" of Spiral-935. Zero, in this sense, does not mean the absence of anything but rather reaching a point of equivalence. For example at the finials, the Golden Ratio of .61 (and 1.61) is fully reached. Now imagine for a moment we divided every number in Spiral 935 by 100. Everything would essentially be the same - albeit smaller - but notice how the finial circle as It crosses the column would exist between column numbers .61 and 1.61 - phi and PHI, the two ratios of the Divine Proportion.

Golden convergence begins at 26/42 on the crossbar and 29/47 on the column. However it fails to fully converge until reaching the finials. (I define the point of golden convergence to be when the first two digits of the mean appear in decimal form .61 at both ends of crossbar and column.) As a rule, all additive sequences resolve to the Golden Ratio except one. The question of convergence then becomes a matter of how and when not if. That is why the location of total golden convergence between column numbers 61 and 161 coupled with Pi at the finials (44/pi = column height 14) presents a memorable confluence of form and event. The only explanation I may provide for this is the unique center of Spiral 935. Among the competing ratios at the core, 3/5 stands out as the centerpiece and at .60 is as close to the Divine Proportion as can be formed by single digits. Indeed, the whole of Spiral 935, with its Finial Circle and vertical column resembles the very symbol of Phi.

Subtracting the ratios at the two crossbar finials 88/143 and 112/182 leaves a remainder of zero as both are represented by the repeat decimal .615384. Unique symmetry at the finials can also be found in square calculations. Each set of three square numbers lie on the cross (within both column and crossbar) and end at the finials.

4.4121 x 42^2 + 69^2 = 112^2

4.4233 x 29^2 + 47^2 = 77^2

4.4334 x 33^2 + 54^2 = 88^2

4.4411 x 37^2 + 61^2 = 99^2

Whole numbers 3, 4, and 5 (3+2) comprise the spiral center. Since the decimal values above all fall within the range of these core numbers I thought to investigate what the core would look like as an initial cube value in the formula. To my surprise, the decimal values converge to a whole number. Spiral 935's inner core may be represented (in formula) by the following three decimal fractions before reaching 5 (the cube root of 5 cubed) at the completion of the spiral's first fifteen digits. ( 5^3 + 10^2 = 15^2) 5 emerges at the center as the relation completes at 15, a location where - in perfect symmetry - the Fibonacci sequence begins at zero.

4.44796^3 + 9^2 = 13^2 (column values from center north)

4.56290^3 + 7^2 = 12^2 (cross bar values from center west)

4.57885^3 + 5^2 = 11^2 (column values from center south)

5.00000^3 + 10^2=15^2 (crossbar values from center east)

When the value of 5 is reached near the column center it creates a point of equivalency tipped by the addition of 1 to reach 11, the first column number beyond the inner core. (3+2) + 5 + 1 = 11. This may symbolically be represented as two open hands with the 3 longer fingers of each hand curving inward to meet the tips of the shorter fingers to become 5. As the compressed fingertips of both hands meet it expands into a ball of space and energy between them before turning into the symbol for '11' as the hands compress, palms together.

88 and the piano numbers

The piano numbers appear from 03 to 23 and are of two basic kinds. Those which lie on the cross form the notes of the cross scales while those numbers between the cross (against the field) form the notes of the field scales. Thru 10 all crossbar numbers are counted as field numbers except 7.

The cross scales include numbers 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, and 20 [ A, A#, B, C#, D#, F# ]

A five-tone cross scale may be comprised of numbers 13, 15, 17, 20, transitional [ 23 (A) ]

The field scales include numbers 14, 16, 18, 19, 21, and 22 [ C, D, E, F, G, (and G#) ]

Most scales can be broadly categorized into these two basic divisions. One interesting feature of both cross and field scales is how they resolve respectively to B Major, C Major, E Major, or alternately, to the chromatic scale. The cross and field scales divide the 88 keys of the piano in the most elegant way possible. Different nuances are imparted when descending versus ascending so be sure to try the scales in both directions. If there exists a more beautiful way than the cross and field scales to bifurcate the 88 piano keys then I am eager to hear it.

Alternating between the cross and field scales brings to mind Dizzy Gillespie and Frank Paparellli's "A Night In Tunisia" (lyrics below) given the song's use of half-step up and half-step down chord changes. Written in Texas, it was originally entitled, Interlude after Dizzy noticed the melody he laid down lie at the crossroad of Asiatic and Western scales. It was written during a break from making a short film. Using the bottom of a trash bin as a makeshift table, stool or drum perhaps Dizzy wrote it at a time when the lights of the heavens were just starting to make their appearance.

lyrics to 'A Night In Tunisia'

The moon is the same moon above you

Aglow with its cool evening light

But shining at night, in Tunisia

Never does it shine so bright

The stars are aglow in the heavens

But only the wise understand

That shining at night in Tunisia

They guide you through the desert sand

Words fail, to tell a tale

Too exotic to be told

Each nights a deeper night

In a world, ages old

The cares of the day seem to vanish

The ending of day brings release

Each wonderful night in Tunisia

Where the nights are filled with peace

There are thousands of other songs matching the cross and field scales. The reason I've brought attention to this one is that Dizzy himself recognized that there was something special about this song that had raised it from "the vicissitude of the contingent" to its exalted place "in the realm of metaphysics."

Below are a few examples of some highly matching scales.

cross scales: (group one) B Major; A# Harmonic Minor; A Prometheus Neopolitan (group two ) D major, E major, A major, E melodic minor, B natural minor and A major pentatonic

field scales: C Major; F dim Lydian; D Blues; F Kumoi; D Locrian 2; C Mixolydian flat 6

Piano numbers are so-named because the sum of the six-note cross scale numbers is 88 -- a common number of keys on a piano; Interestingly, the sum of the five-note cross scale is also 88. The sum of the field numbers is 110. Subtracting the G# (22, a highly transitional tone) from the field scales, yields a remainder of 88.

Eleven through twenty-two (11 - 22) correspond to the 12 tones of the chromatic scale. In the illustration the spiral formula breaks down to allow for a tightening circular ring between 77 and 99 (as opposed to a spiral ring around 125). The result is that 110 appears as a finial at one end of the crossbar (instead of 112) and 88 appears at the other, reflecting the two sums of the piano series represented horizontally, both cross and field.

defining attributes and symmetry of the 9-3-5 column)

13 - 9 = sum of 3 and 5 divided by 2

11 - 5 = sum of 3 and 9 divided by 2

37 - 23 = sum of 11 and 17 divided by 2

29-17 = sum of 9 and 13 divided by 2

99 - 61 = sum of 29 and 47 divided by 2

77 - 47 = sum of 23 and 37 divided by 2

9 - 3 - 1 = 5

5 + 3 + 1 = 9

reaching for the stars

The column of Spiral 9-3-5 reaches indefinitely upwards and downwards still forming pairs at each end only one pair of which are known prime numbers and the others being odd numbers that can be factored into prime numbers. The occurrence in terms of location and timing of these divisors form patterns that not only are very useful in terms of prediction but also interesting in terms of how they originate. The column numbers can get quite large so to make it easier to put them into categories and discuss them I've given them names in addition to the column height value I have assigned them. The first pair of non-primes appear at a column height of 13 and are 99 and 77. The pair of divisor sets are 3,3,11 and 7,11; 99 and 77 are called trizor 11 and bizor 11 respectively. Of course, 1 is also a divisor, but for the sake of efficiency, I've decided not to reflect that fact in the names since it is well-understood that 1 is a divisor of all integers. Therefore bizor is a number having two divisors (excluding '1") A trizor is a number having three divisors (exluding 1). Other terms are quadzor, pentzor, hexzor and so on. A number following these terms may either be the lowest divisor of that number or the common divisor when describing a set of numbers. For brevity, numbers such as 77 and 99 may both be referred to as zor-11's as they share a common divisor in 11.

other attributes of the cross primes and finials

93 = The square root of (112^2 - 88^2 + 99^2 - 77^2 - 23).

93 = The sum of every other cross column prime (starting on 37 and ending on 29 which includes center cross prime 3. The remaining column numbers total 162 or 9^2*2 or 161 plus 1. Eliminating the square 9 results in 153 or 3*51; matching nicely with 3*31 or 93. The sum of prime column numbers is thus 3*31 + 3*51 = 6*41. Subtracting the sum of the South column's alternating primes, 93, from the sum of the North Column's alternating primes, 153, yields 60 which is equal to the repeating cycle of 60 digits on the column in the one's place. So while not evident at first glance, intervals of 10 turn up very significantly from calculations Involving Spiral-935' prime column. Subtracting the lower alternating prime sum 93 from the higher prime sum of 153 plus square 9 yields 69 or 23*3 - equal to the final cross value of Spiral-935 prior to reaching the first finial, 77, at the South Column.

93 = The sum of the first three cross primes from the bottom, 47, 29, and 17.

93 = The centered number of the sole trinity of consecutive composite odds - 91, 93, 95 - (bounded by prime numbers 89 and 97.)

48 = The count of integers at the Finial Circle (77 - 124)

76 = The count of integers up to the Finial Circle (1 - 76)

`124 = The total count of the primary integers of Spiral 93 comprising one generation.

41 = The sum of the first five column numbers - (3, 5, 9, 11, and 13.)

31 = The sum of four consecutive cross numbers beginning with 5. ( 5, 7, 9, 10)

42 = The sum of five consecutive cross numbers beginning with 5. (5, 7, 9, 10, 11)

28 = The sum of the first 5 cross numbers - (3, 4, 5, 7, 9)

19 = The sum of the first 4 cross numbers - (3, 4, 5, 7)

121 = The sum of the first three cross primes from the top: 61, 37, and 23.

The cross primes (and square) 9, 3, 5, 11, 17 appear to express that the sum of 9, 3, and 5 is equal ( | | ) to 17 which is a true statement. Apparently God has a sense of humor.

255 = The sum of all cross numbers including 9 on the column. In mathematics, 255 is the tenth perfect Totient number the first two Totients being cross prime 3 and cross square 9.

85/255 = 1/3 The numerator, 85, is the sum of all five sexy prime quintuplets: 5, 11, 17, 23, and 29. The denominator, 255, is the sum of all 11 cross numbers on the column (10 primes and one square).

256 = 2^8 The sum of all cross column numbers inside the finial circle including 1. (2 and 4 are a part of the cross bar; 1 and 3 belong to the column.) 1, 2, 3 and 4 form a stem at spiral center which is an extension of the knot at 3 and 4. As a power of 8, 256 is the first zenzizenzizenzic number greater than 1.

priming the center to achieve the spiral effect.

Priming the center occurs when moving from center 3 to the next column number, 5. We add 2 to center 3 for a total value of 5. Priming and an adequate energy supply are key in allowing spirals to form their shape. From nine to thirteen the numbers appear to rotate with greater distance between them as if being propelled at a higher speed. It is conceivable that by mirroring the rotation of spiral galaxies using numbers it could yield results which reflect the properties of spiral galaxies whose rotation speeds are higher near the center. Some argue the black holes thought to be at the center of spiral galaxies do not exist but are better classified as neutron stars having a magnetic pole with a force of debatable consequence. It has also been proposed that spiral galaxies form from the inside out and begin with a large compressed core which fragments over time. It's helpful to think of the generated numbers of this spiral as intervals marking moments in time like a clock. The prime column produces Fibonacci-like sequences of numbers that mirror real life spirals. The advantage of these cross primes is they describe a sequence that has a beginning, a middle, an ending and can replicate so long as there is an energy source.

sign of the cross

Going up from center 3 we do not need to add 2 to center 3 because the center has already been "primed" and has added the '2' on its journey south to 5 before heading north to 9. The value of an engine car may be '3' but the added energy output is consumed as it passes through each car and doesn't skip cars. At 77 and 99 Spiral-935 reaches a column height of 13 numbers allowing for the formation of a circular frame around the 10 primes and 1 squared number. I was amazed that after completing its prime column with a pair of twin-digit numbers, the shape of Spiral-935 could either continue spiraling to column number 125 (5 cubed) or alternately - by duplicating her previous half-spire count - converge into a circle at 121 (with 77), at exactly 11 squared! 77 and 99 appear to act as finials for the column marking the end of prime progression in harmony with crossbar finials 88 and 112 (or 110 for the circle) If a strobe were to flash in turns at every multiple of 11 (11, 22, 33, 44....) one may observe how closely the pattern resembles the tradition of the sign of the cross.

Merging the spiral with the circle yields a circumference of 44. Continuing hypothetically with the spiral formula (without circle convergence) will reveal other primes and semi-primes but the next pair of prime numbers (one at top and one at the bottom of the column) will occur at a column height of 23 numbers and at a height of 31 numbers we find a prime number on top and a semi-prime below, bizor-31 with a property unique to all column numbers known at this time of correspondence.

sexy primes

Outside the Finial Circle, prime column pairs are scarce. At a column height of 23 the prime pairs are 863 and 1,109. Another prime pair is located at a column height of 69 (23*3). Within the bounds of the Finials, 23 is also noteworthy for being the last of only two cross primes which are the average of two other cross primes: 11 (5 and 17) and 23 (17 and 29). 11 and 23 are the co-anchors for sexy prmes 5, 11, 17, 23 and 29. Sexy primes are prime numbers separated by 6. They are named after the Latin word for six which is 'sex'. (Nos 1 - 11 in Latin are unum, duae or duo, tres, quattuor, quinque, sex, septem, octo, novem, decem, and undecim.) Remarkably, the five, sexy prime quintuplets are also cross primes given all five of them reside on the cross column. They comprise 50% of all cross primes (excluding cross square 9) and their sum (85) comprises 33.33% of the sum of all column numbers between the fnials (255).

At a height of 31 we find the only semi-prime whose divisor 31 matches the column height its circle forms with column numbers 5,921 and 7,607. No perfect prime pair beyond height 23 has ever been found. (Important Update: At a column hei

2

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

Some background:

As an island nation, Japan’s highest priorities for research in World War II were its navy and aviation industries. The army was large, but its military equipment could not match rival European counterparts who had stronger ground forces. Japan did not use heavy tanks, and an examination of the most advanced mass-produced Japanese vehicle—the Type 97 Chi-Ha—shows it lighter, smaller and with worse armament than its contemporaries: the Soviet T-34, German Pz.Kpfw IV and US M4 Sherman.

The reason that Japan did not develop heavier tanks was not the result of military incompetence, but rather of logistics: Japan was fighting for control of small Pacific islands. All vehicles and equipment had to be transported by sea, onto island terrain not suitable for using heavy vehicles; where designs were concerned, lighter was better! At the time, China, the only major mainland rival of Japan, did not have good armor or anti-armor capabilities, so the existing Japanese vehicles were deemed acceptable for the task at hand. Additionally, except for battle ships, the Japanese industry did not have much experience with the production of heavier tanks, and the respective tools were also not present.

On December 7, 1941, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor and went to war with the USA. They achieved several early victories, invading the Philippines, multiple islands of Oceania, and part of New Guinea. The Allies were hard-pressed to keep up.
During their domination in the Pacific region, the Japanese created a defensive perimeter using islands as strongholds. The Americans and other allied forces began to hit back. In June 1942, the Japanese lost four aircraft carriers during the Battle of Midway, and US forces slugged it out for six months during the Battle of Guadalcanal before emerging victorious in February 1943. Similar to Stalingrad in the East these two battles deprived Japan of the strategic initiative, and their defensive perimeter fell under attack, island by island. The Allied forces were nearing the Japanese Home Islands.

In June 1943, Japan's ambassador visited one of the Wehrmacht's heavy tank detachments. He was very impressed by the huge tiger. Germany and the Kaiserreich made a deal. Allies help each other. Anyone who has a particularly effective new weapon passes information about it to the army of the country that is fighting at least one common enemy. This is exactly what happened in the Third Reich between June 1943 and autumn 1944. The Japanese embassy in Berlin had concluded from press reports about the unsuccessful battles by German troops in Tunisia, which ultimately ended with a surrender, that the Wehrmacht had a new super tank. So, Ambassador General Hiroshi Oshima asked to see this new weapon - after all, the Japanese Empire was fighting against the USA, if not against Stalin's Soviet Union. On June 7, 1943, he personally visited the German front in front of Leningrad with a few adjutants. That was unusual; Actually, such a mission would have been more the task of a military attaché - although Oshima had already been in Berlin from 1934 to 1938. He also spoke perfect German and was friends with Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop.

The Wehrmacht had had a stranglehold on the former Russian capital since autumn 1941; conquering them was one of the main goals of Army Group North, especially of 18th Army. This is one of the reasons why the 1st Company of the 502nd Heavy Tank Battalion remained in Siewersi, around 70 kilometers south of Leningrad city center. It was one of the detachments with the new Tiger tanks. Commanded by Oberleutnant Klaus Diehls, the 1st company had only one Tiger ready for action after heavy fighting around Schlüsselburg in January 1943, but by the beginning of June they received new vehicles as supplies, so that the unit again had 14 Panzer VIs at its disposal - the was the nominal strength after the regrouping to a pure Tiger company. A day after the arrival of the new vehicles, the Japanese military delegation, accompanied by Colonel General Georg Lindemann, the commander of the 18th Army, Klaus Diehls, the heavy tanks demonstrated their capabilities to the high-ranking guests, and Oshima was even allowed to take the commander's seat of a tiger. The ambassador was deeply impressed by the sheer power of the tank.

Oshima knew that the Japanese tanks could not match the firepower and protection of the models in the European theater of war. In 1943 the most modern model was the Type 1 Chi-He, which with a weight of 17.5 tons, a 47 mm gun and an output of 240 hp was just about the same as a German Panzer III from 1940. However, this was not due to any incompetence on the part of Japanese engineers - their specifications were simply different: Since the empire wanted to expand its sphere of influence far into the Pacific, ship portability was an essential criterion when developing its own armored vehicles.

However, since the Japanese defeat in the Battle of Midway in June 1942, the US Marines increasingly used Sherman tanks during the fierce fighting for individual Pacific islands. This medium combat vehicle was clearly superior to the German Panzer III and, depending on the version, roughly equivalent to the Panzer IV; Shooting down Japanese models was no problem at all for its 75mm gun. So, in Japan there was the idea of replicating the most modern German tanks and transporting them to the occupied Pacific islands that had not yet been attacked, in order to stop or at least slow down the advance of the marines.

The time for an indigenous development, so the calculation, could be saved if the Japanese industry simply copied or license-built operational models from Germany. The Japanese delegation was particularly impressed by the firepower of the German “Acht-Achter”, the Tiger's 88 mm gun. With such a weapon it should be possible to stop the Marines' Shermans.

A few weeks later, in July 1943, Oshima and his companions visited the Henschel tank factory in Kassel. Here he had the production of the German super tank explained in detail, experienced a demonstration at the test site near Wilhelmsthal Castle and also viewed a specimen of the new medium-heavy German tank, the Panther. Presumably, the German side rather concealed the weaknesses of the Tiger, which had already become apparent during the first operations in 1942/43: the vertical armor of the hull at the front and the sides was unnecessarily vulnerable. The engine was undersized, the weight too high for many routes and the speed off-road at a maximum of 20 kilometers per hour too low. While the Henschel engineers were developing the successor to the Tiger I, logically called Tiger II, to production maturity in the second half of 1943, the Japanese embassy was negotiating with the Wehrmacht about the delivery of the Tiger I.

In 1943, Germany sent Japan two packages of technical documentation, but Japan also wanted to purchase the tank and import vehicles to Japan by submarine. The cost to produce a Tiger was around 300,000 Reichsmarks in 1943, while the Ministry of Armaments and the Henschel Company requested 645,000 Reichsmarks from the Japanese for a fully loaded tank. The Germans had not simply decided to “cash in” on oversea allies: the cost of technical documentation was also included into the amount; and the tank would be supplied with ammunition, an excellent radio, and optics. Also, Germany was prepared to disassemble and pack the thirty-ton tank for shipment to Japan.

The Allies commanded the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic, so underwater shipping was the only way to get the Tiger to Japan, but few vessels could carry a bulky 30-ton tank hull. The only option were Japanese submarine aircraft carriers that had corresponding characteristics, namely the IJN’s I-400-class submarines. These were the largest submarines of World War II and remained the largest ever built until the construction of nuclear ballistic missile submarines in the 1960s. Measuring more than 120 m (390 ft) long overall, they displaced 5,900 t (6,500 short tons), more than double their typical American contemporaries. The cross-section of its pressure hull had a unique figure-of-eight shape which afforded the necessary strength and stability to handle the weight of a large on-deck aircraft hangar. To allow stowage of three aircraft along the vessel's centerline, the conning tower was offset to port. Located approximately amidships on the top deck was a cylindrical watertight aircraft hangar, 31 m (102 ft) long and 3.5 m (11 ft) in diameter. The outer access door could be opened hydraulically from within or manually from the outside by turning a large hand-wheel connected to a rack and spur gear. The door was made waterproof with a 51-millimetre-thick (2.0 in) rubber gasket.

The I-400 class was designed with the range to travel anywhere in the world and return. A fleet of 18 boats was planned in 1942, and work started on the first in January 1943 at the Kure, Hiroshima arsenal. However, within a year the plan was scaled back to just five ships, and this fleet hardly had any practical value in the aircraft carrier role except for long-range reconnaissance or special strike missions, so that they were frequently used for underwater transport of heavy/bulky items – including the disassembled Tiger I tank!

With this highly limited logistics option, the Tiger tanks had trouble reaching Japan at all. Most optimistic estimates put its arrival in December of 1944. Despite many difficulties, the first tank for Japan was sent to a Bordeaux port in February 1944, and the Japanese paid for the order: officially coming into possession of the Tiger, but not able to use or reverse engineer it. Until summer of 1944, when the Allies landed in Normandy, only a handful of Tiger Is had been sent to Japan through I-400 submarines, re-assembled and put into IJA service, where they were designated Type 99 ‘To-Ra’.

The To-Ra was, even though it looked like the German Tiger I, a unique variant that differed from its ancestor. The hull was the same, with the same level of overall armor, but apparently the “export Tigers” were produced with hardened steel of lower quality than the German tanks, saving material and money. The running gear was simplified, too; it had only twelve wheels instead of the Tiger I’s original arrangement of sixteen interleaved wheels and used the rubber-saving all-metal wheels that were often retrofitted to German tanks during field repairs. The commander cupola on top of the turret was the new, standardized cast model (the same one that was used on the Panzer V Panther, too) that was introduced on late-production Tiger Is; it was easier to produce and offered a better field of view than the Tiger’s early welded “dustbin” model. Another small difference were all-metal drive wheels, another sign of the use of steel with less quality, and the export tanks were not – like late German production Tiger Is – watertight and not capable of deep-fording anymore.

The tanks for Japan mostly retained the original German equipment, including the radio set, optics, engine and the powerful 8.8 cm KwK 36. However, the gun was outfitted with a simpler and slightly longer single-piece L/71 barrel (instead of the original L/56 two-piece barrel), and the machine guns were not fitted upon delievery; they were, upon re-assembly in Japan, replaced with Japanese 7.7mm Type 97 light machine guns. Another, visible domestic modification was the installation of a rigid frame radio antenna on the turret instead of the European whip antenna on the rear hull.

In September 1944, with a worsening control situation in France, the submarine transfers were moved to other ports under German control. However, they ceased altogether in late 1944, due to the worsening war situation, logistics problems, the general dangers of the long naval travel and the increasing lack of fuel to support the deliveries in both Germany and Japan. All in all, probably less than twenty Tiger I tanks reached Japan. All were re-assembled, but only a little more than a dozen became fully operational and ready for combat.

The Type 99 was exclusively allocated to home defense units, where it would have been a powerful asset. They were based on the southern Japanese mainland, waiting for the Allied invasion (operation Olympic), but it never came. Most of the time the Tigers were just used to train crews, or they were enlisted for PR appearances, boosting morale and confusing the enemy with potential massive resistance and firepower.

The To-Ras was, however, due to their sheer bulk and weight, very limited. The Japanese Tigers were relatively immobile and could not be transferred to the continental Japanese colonies, where they were direly needed and where the might have had some impact: When the Soviets invaded Manchuria in August 1945, they found an impressive Japanese tank force, at least on the paper, but a deep ravine separated the IJA and Soviet types. The latter had constantly improved their models in response to German tanks, and were much more advanced in speed, firepower, and protection than the average IJA models, which were light and/or obsolete by any standards of the time. The To-Ra/Tigers would have been a match, even a serious threat at long distance, but they were too few and stuck in homeland defense, so that their overall contribution was negligible. In fact, no Japanese Tiger fired in anger until the end of the war.

Specifications:

Crew: Five (commander, gunner, loader, driver, radio operator)

Weight: 54 tonnes (60 short tons) empty,

57 tonnes (63 short tons) combat weight

Length: 6.32 m (20 ft 8.7 in)

8.85 m (29 ft) overall with gun facing forward

Width: 3.56 m (11 ft 8 in)

Height: 3.00 m (9 ft 10 in)

Ground clearance: 0.47 m (1 ft 7 in)

Suspension: Torsion bar, interleaved road wheels

Fuel capacity: 540 liters

Armor:

25–120 mm (0.98–4.72 in)

Performance:

Maximum speed: 45.4 km/h (28.2 mph) on roads

20–25 km/h (12–16 mph) cross country

Operational range: 195 km (121 mi) on road

110 km (68 mi) cross country

Power/weight: 13 PS (9.5 kW) / tonne

Engine & transmission:

Maybach HL230 P45 V-12 petrol engine with 700 PS (690 hp, 515 kW),

Maybach Olvar Typ OG 40 12 16 gearbox (8 forward and 4 reverse)

Armament:

1× 1× 8.8 cm KwK 36 L/71 with 92 AP and HE rounds

2× 7.7mm Type 97 light machine guns with a total of 4,800 rounds

The kit and its assembly:

This rather romantic what-if model is an interpretation of the real historic desire of Japan to obtain the Tiger I from Germany, and there are actually OOB model kits of this oddity available (e .g. from Border Models in 1:35). However, I am not a big fan of the Tiger I – it looks like a box with tracks and a bulky turret on top, very uninspired. Well, I had a Hasegawa 1:72 Tiger I kit in The Stash™, which I only had bought a while ago because it came with an extra set of road wheels, which had already gone into another conversion problem. The IJA Tiger, aptly called “To-Ra” (which means “Tiger” in Japanese, AFAIK), offered a good story to finally build the leftover kit – even though constructing a plausible background story how this heavy tank might have shown up in Japan called for some serious imagination!

That said, the very simple kit was built almost OOB, using the kit’s late production rubber-saving all-metal wheels and an optional roof top with the late, cast commander cupola. I also used one of the kit’s optional gun mantlets and implanted a longer, single-piece 8.8cm gun barrel from an early-production Jagdpanther (Armorfast), for a slightly different look. For more “Japanism” I scratched a frame antenna from steel wire and sprue material. It's just a small change, but with the antenna the tank looks quite different now, and it has a retro touch?

However, mounting the road wheels turned out to be a bit tricky. The featureless “inner” set of wheels needed its central holes to be considerably widened to fit onto their respective swing arms, and the “outer” wheels lack deep holes on their backs, so that the area that holds them on the swing arm tips(!) is very limited. Everything appears über-tight, all in all a wobbly affair, even though I understand that the Tiger I’s running gear is a complex thing to depict and construct in 1:72. However, I have built the Trumpeter counterpart of this model, and it was much easier to assemble and robust.

Painting and markings:

The more exotic aspect of the model, and I applied a typical IJA paint scheme from earlier war periods – one with the famous yellow contrast stripes, which were probably in real life more subdued than frequently depicted. The four-tone camouflage consists of Humbrol 160 for the “cha-iro” red brown, Humbrol 30 for “midori-iro” (dark green), a mix of Humbrol 155 and 121 for a greenish variant of the light IJA khaki, and Humbrol 81 (Pale Yellow) for the contrast stripes.

The black vinyl tracks were painted with a streaky mix of grey, red brown and some silver.

The markings were applied after an overall washing with dark brown acrylic paint; they were improvised and are purely fictional, even though the white flash icon appeared AFAIK on tanks of the unit the model depicts. The Japanese flags are further romantic geegaw – even though such markings apparently appeared on late-war IJN tanks.

After the decals the model received an overall treatment with dry-brushed dark earth and beige, and some bare metal marks with silver. As final steps, the model was sealed with matt acrylic varnish, assembled, and then lightly dusted with mineral artist pigments around the lower areas.

A rather simple project – something that might make World of Warcraft nerds nervous? The frame antenna was the biggest modeling challenge, the running gear a nuisance. But finding a halfway plausible explanation how even a small number of Tiger I tanks from Germany could appear in Japan at all was a bigger one! However, the result looks surprisingly convincing, and the IJA paint scheme suits the boxy Tiger I well, it looks very natural under the false flag, And I am happy that I eventually found a use for the leftover kit! :-D

Statue Cruises, New York City, New York State, USA. by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

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New York, often called New York City or simply NYC, is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each of which is coextensive with a respective county. It is a global city and a cultural, financial, high-tech, entertainment, and media center with a significant influence on commerce, health care, scientific output, life sciences, research, technology, education, politics, tourism, dining, art, fashion, and sports. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy, and is sometimes described as the world's most important city and the capital of the world.

With an estimated population in 2022 of 8,335,897 distributed over 300.46 square miles (778.2 km2), the city is the most densely populated major city in the United States. New York has more than double the population of Los Angeles, the nation's second-most populous city. New York is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. by both population and urban area. With more than 20.1 million people in its metropolitan statistical area and 23.5 million in its combined statistical area as of 2020, New York City is one of the world's most populous megacities. The city and its metropolitan area are the premier gateway for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. In 2021, the city was home to nearly 3.1 million residents born outside the U.S., the largest foreign-born population of any city in the world.

New York City traces its origins to Fort Amsterdam and a trading post founded on the southern tip of Manhattan Island by Dutch colonists in approximately 1624. The settlement was named New Amsterdam (Dutch: Nieuw Amsterdam) in 1626 and was chartered as a city in 1653. The city came under English control in 1664 and was renamed New York after King Charles II granted the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. The city was temporarily regained by the Dutch in July 1673 and was renamed New Orange; however, the city has been named New York since November 1674. New York City was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. The modern city was formed by the 1898 consolidation of its five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, The Bronx, and Staten Island, and has been the largest U.S. city ever since.

Anchored by Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, New York City has been called both the world's premier financial and fintech center and the most economically powerful city in the world. As of 2022, the New York metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan economy in the world with a gross metropolitan product of over US$2.16 trillion. If the New York metropolitan area were its own country, it would have the tenth-largest economy in the world. The city is home to the world's two largest stock exchanges by market capitalization of their listed companies: the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq. New York City is an established safe haven for global investors. As of 2023, New York City is the most expensive city in the world for expatriates to live. New York City is home to the highest number of billionaires, individuals of ultra-high net worth (greater than US$30 million), and millionaires of any city in the world

The written history of New York City began with the first European explorer, the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. European settlement began with the Dutch in 1608 and New Amsterdam was founded in 1624.

The "Sons of Liberty" campaigned against British authority in New York City, and the Stamp Act Congress of representatives from throughout the Thirteen Colonies met in the city in 1765 to organize resistance to Crown policies. The city's strategic location and status as a major seaport made it the prime target for British seizure in 1776. General George Washington lost a series of battles from which he narrowly escaped (with the notable exception of the Battle of Harlem Heights, his first victory of the war), and the British Army occupied New York and made it their base on the continent until late 1783, attracting Loyalist refugees.

The city served as the national capital under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1789, and briefly served as the new nation's capital in 1789–90 under the United States Constitution. Under the new government, the city hosted the inauguration of George Washington as the first President of the United States, the drafting of the United States Bill of Rights, and the first Supreme Court of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal gave excellent steamboat connections with upstate New York and the Great Lakes, along with coastal traffic to lower New England, making the city the preeminent port on the Atlantic Ocean. The arrival of rail connections to the north and west in the 1840s and 1850s strengthened its central role.

Beginning in the mid-19th century, waves of new immigrants arrived from Europe dramatically changing the composition of the city and serving as workers in the expanding industries. Modern New York traces its development to the consolidation of the five boroughs in 1898 and an economic and building boom following the Great Depression and World War II. Throughout its history, New York has served as a main port of entry for many immigrants, and its cultural and economic influence has made it one of the most important urban areas in the United States and the world. The economy in the 1700s was based on farming, local production, fur trading, and Atlantic jobs like shipbuilding. In the 1700s, New York was sometimes referred to as a breadbasket colony, because one of its major crops was wheat. New York colony also exported other goods included iron ore as a raw material and as manufactured goods such as tools, plows, nails and kitchen items such as kettles, pans and pots.

The area that eventually encompassed modern day New York was inhabited by the Lenape people. These groups of culturally and linguistically related Native Americans traditionally spoke an Algonquian language now referred to as Unami. Early European settlers called bands of Lenape by the Unami place name for where they lived, such as "Raritan" in Staten Island and New Jersey, "Canarsee" in Brooklyn, and "Hackensack" in New Jersey across the Hudson River from Lower Manhattan. Some modern place names such as Raritan Bay and Canarsie are derived from Lenape names. Eastern Long Island neighbors were culturally and linguistically more closely related to the Mohegan-Pequot peoples of New England who spoke the Mohegan-Montauk-Narragansett language.

These peoples made use of the abundant waterways in the New York region for fishing, hunting trips, trade, and occasionally war. Many paths created by the indigenous peoples are now main thoroughfares, such as Broadway in Manhattan, the Bronx, and Westchester. The Lenape developed sophisticated techniques of hunting and managing their resources. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, they were cultivating fields of vegetation through the slash and burn technique, which extended the productive life of planted fields. They also harvested vast quantities of fish and shellfish from the bay. Historians estimate that at the time of European settlement, approximately 5,000 Lenape lived in 80 settlements around the region.

The first European visitor to the area was Giovanni da Verrazzano, an Italian in command of the French ship La Dauphine in 1524. It is believed he sailed into Upper New York Bay, where he encountered native Lenape, returned through the Narrows, where he anchored the night of April 17, and left to continue his voyage. He named the area New Angoulême (La Nouvelle-Angoulême) in honor of Francis I, King of France of the royal house of Valois-Angoulême and who had been Count of Angoulême from 1496 until his coronation in 1515. The name refers to the town of Angoulême, in the Charente département of France. For the next century, the area was occasionally visited by fur traders or explorers, such as by Esteban Gomez in 1525.

European exploration continued on September 2, 1609, when the Englishman Henry Hudson, in the employ of the Dutch East India Company, sailed the Half Moon through the Narrows into Upper New York Bay. Like Christopher Columbus, Hudson was looking for a westerly passage to Asia. He never found one, but he did take note of the abundant beaver population. Beaver pelts were in fashion in Europe, fueling a lucrative business. Hudson's report on the regional beaver population served as the impetus for the founding of Dutch trading colonies in the New World. The beaver's importance in New York's history is reflected by its use on the city's official seal.

The first Dutch fur trading posts and settlements were in 1614 near present-day Albany, New York, the same year that New Netherland first appeared on maps. Only in May 1624 did the Dutch West India Company land a number of families at Noten Eylant (today's Governors Island) off the southern tip of Manhattan at the mouth of the North River (today's Hudson River). Soon thereafter, most likely in 1626, construction of Fort Amsterdam began. Later, the Dutch West Indies Company imported African slaves to serve as laborers; they were forced to build the wall that defended the town against English and Indian attacks. Early directors included Willem Verhulst and Peter Minuit. Willem Kieft became director in 1638 but five years later was embroiled in Kieft's War against the Native Americans. The Pavonia Massacre, across the Hudson River in present-day Jersey City, resulted in the death of 80 natives in February 1643. Following the massacre, Algonquian tribes joined forces and nearly defeated the Dutch. Holland sent additional forces to the aid of Kieft, leading to the overwhelming defeat of the Native Americans and a peace treaty on August 29, 1645.

On May 27, 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was inaugurated as director general upon his arrival and ruled as a member of the Dutch Reformed Church. The colony was granted self-government in 1652, and New Amsterdam was incorporated as a city on February 2, 1653. The first mayors (burgemeesters) of New Amsterdam, Arent van Hattem and Martin Cregier, were appointed in that year. By the early 1660s, the population consisted of approximately 1500 Europeans, only about half of whom were Dutch, and 375 Africans, 300 of whom were slaves.

A few of the original Dutch place names have been retained, most notably Flushing (after the Dutch town of Vlissingen), Harlem (after Haarlem), and Brooklyn (after Breukelen). Few buildings, however, remain from the 17th century. The oldest recorded house still in existence in New York, the Pieter Claesen Wyckoff House in Brooklyn, dates from 1652.

On August 27, 1664, four English frigates under the command of Col. Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender, as part of an effort by King Charles II's brother James, Duke of York, the Lord High Admiral to provoke the Second Anglo-Dutch War. Two weeks later, Stuyvesant officially capitulated by signing Articles of Surrender and in June 1665, the town was reincorporated under English law and renamed "New York" after the Duke, and Fort Orange was renamed "Fort Albany". The war ended in a Dutch victory in 1667, but the colony remained under English rule as stipulated in the Treaty of Breda. During the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch briefly recaptured the city in 1673, renaming the city "New Orange", before permanently ceding the colony of New Netherland to England for what is now Suriname in November 1674 at the Treaty of Westminster.

The colony benefited from increased immigration from Europe and its population grew faster. The Bolting Act of 1678, whereby no mill outside the city was permitted to grind wheat or corn, boosted growth until its repeal in 1694, increasing the number of houses over the period from 384 to 983.

In the context of the Glorious Revolution in England, Jacob Leisler led Leisler's Rebellion and effectively controlled the city and surrounding areas from 1689 to 1691, before being arrested and executed.

Lawyers

In New York at first, legal practitioners were full-time businessmen and merchants, with no legal training, who had watched a few court proceedings, and mostly used their own common sense together with snippets they had picked up about English law. Court proceedings were quite informal, for the judges had no more training than the attorneys.

By the 1760s, the situation had dramatically changed. Lawyers were essential to the rapidly growing international trade, dealing with questions of partnerships, contracts, and insurance. The sums of money involved were large, and hiring an incompetent lawyer was a very expensive proposition. Lawyers were now professionally trained, and conversant in an extremely complex language that combined highly specific legal terms and motions with a dose of Latin. Court proceedings became a baffling mystery to the ordinary layman. Lawyers became more specialized and built their reputation, and their fee schedule, on the basis of their reputation for success. But as their status, wealth and power rose, animosity grew even faster. By the 1750s and 1760s, there was a widespread attack ridiculing and demeaning the lawyers as pettifoggers (lawyers lacking sound legal skills). Their image and influence declined. The lawyers organized a bar association, but it fell apart in 1768 during the bitter political dispute between the factions based in the Delancey and Livingston families. A large fraction of the prominent lawyers were Loyalists; their clientele was often to royal authority or British merchants and financiers. They were not allowed to practice law unless they took a loyalty oath to the new United States of America. Many went to Britain or Canada (primarily to New Brunswick and Nova Scotia) after losing the war.

For the next century, various attempts were made, and failed, to build an effective organization of lawyers. Finally a Bar Association emerged in 1869 that proved successful and continues to operate.

By 1700, the Lenape population of New York had diminished to 200. The Dutch West Indies Company transported African slaves to the post as trading laborers used to build the fort and stockade, and some gained freedom under the Dutch. After the seizure of the colony in 1664, the slave trade continued to be legal. In 1703, 42% of the New York households had slaves; they served as domestic servants and laborers but also became involved in skilled trades, shipping and other fields. Yet following reform in ethics according to American Enlightenment thought, by the 1770s slaves made up less than 25% of the population.

By the 1740s, 20% of the residents of New York were slaves, totaling about 2,500 people.

After a series of fires in 1741, the city panicked over rumors of its black population conspiring with some poor whites to burn the city. Historians believe their alarm was mostly fabrication and fear, but officials rounded up 31 black and 4 white people, who over a period of months were convicted of arson. Of these, the city executed 13 black people by burning them alive and hanged the remainder of those incriminated.

The Stamp Act and other British measures fomented dissent, particularly among Sons of Liberty who maintained a long-running skirmish with locally stationed British troops over Liberty Poles from 1766 to 1776. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York City in 1765 in the first organized resistance to British authority across the colonies. After the major defeat of the Continental Army in the Battle of Long Island in late 1776, General George Washington withdrew to Manhattan Island, but with the subsequent defeat at the Battle of Fort Washington the island was effectively left to the British. The city became a haven for loyalist refugees, becoming a British stronghold for the entire war. Consequently, the area also became the focal point for Washington's espionage and intelligence-gathering throughout the war.

New York was greatly damaged twice by fires of suspicious origin, with the Loyalists and Patriots accusing each other of starting the conflagration. The city became the political and military center of operations for the British in North America for the remainder of the war. Continental Army officer Nathan Hale was hanged in Manhattan for espionage. In addition, the British began to hold the majority of captured American prisoners of war aboard prison ships in Wallabout Bay, across the East River in Brooklyn. More Americans lost their lives aboard these ships than died in all the battles of the war. The British occupation lasted until November 25, 1783. George Washington triumphantly returned to the city that day, as the last British forces left the city.

Starting in 1785 the Congress met in the city of New York under the Articles of Confederation. In 1789, New York became the first national capital under the new Constitution. The Constitution also created the current Congress of the United States, and its first sitting was at Federal Hall on Wall Street. The first Supreme Court sat there. The United States Bill of Rights was drafted and ratified there. George Washington was inaugurated at Federal Hall. New York remained the national capital until 1790, when the role was transferred to Philadelphia.

During the 19th century, the city was transformed by immigration, a visionary development proposal called the Commissioners' Plan of 1811 which expanded the city street grid to encompass all of Manhattan, and the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, which connected the Atlantic port to the vast agricultural markets of the Midwestern United States and Canada. By 1835, New York had surpassed Philadelphia as the largest city in the United States. New York grew as an economic center, first as a result of Alexander Hamilton's policies and practices as the first Secretary of the Treasury.

In 1842, water was piped from a reservoir to supply the city for the first time.

The Great Irish Famine (1845–1850) brought a large influx of Irish immigrants, and by 1850 the Irish comprised one quarter of the city's population. Government institutions, including the New York City Police Department and the public schools, were established in the 1840s and 1850s to respond to growing demands of residents. In 1831, New York University was founded by U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin as a non-denominal institution surrounding Washington Square Park.

This period started with the 1855 inauguration of Fernando Wood as the first mayor from Tammany Hall. It was the political machine based among Irish Americans that controlled the local Democratic Party. It usually dominated local politics throughout this period and into the 1930s. Public-minded members of the merchant community pressed for a Central Park, which was opened to a design competition in 1857; it became the first landscape park in an American city.

During the American Civil War (1861–1865), the city was affected by its history of strong commercial ties to the South; before the war, half of its exports were related to cotton, including textiles from upstate mills. Together with its growing immigrant population, which was angry about conscription, sympathies among residents were divided for both the Union and Confederacy at the outbreak of war. Tensions related to the war culminated in the Draft Riots of 1863 led by Irish Catholics, who attacked black neighborhood and abolitionist homes. Many blacks left the city and moved to Brooklyn. After the Civil War, the rate of immigration from Europe grew steeply, and New York became the first stop for millions seeking a new and better life in the United States, a role acknowledged by the dedication of the Statue of Liberty in 1886.

From 1890 to 1930, the largest cities, led by New York, were the focus of international attention. The skyscrapers and tourist attractions were widely publicized. Suburbs were emerging as bedroom communities for commuters to the central city. San Francisco dominated the West, Atlanta dominated the South, Boston dominated New England; Chicago dominated the Midwest United States. New York City dominated the entire nation in terms of communications, trade, finance, popular culture, and high culture. More than a fourth of the 300 largest corporations in 1920 were headquartered here.

In 1898, the modern City of New York was formed with the consolidation of Brooklyn (until then an independent city), Manhattan, and outlying areas. Manhattan and the Bronx were established as two separate boroughs and joined with three other boroughs created from parts of adjacent counties to form the new municipal government originally called "Greater New York". The Borough of Brooklyn incorporated the independent City of Brooklyn, recently joined to Manhattan by the Brooklyn Bridge; the Borough of Queens was created from western Queens County (with the remnant established as Nassau County in 1899); and the Borough of Richmond contained all of Richmond County. Municipal governments contained within the boroughs were abolished, and the county governmental functions were absorbed by the city or each borough. In 1914, the New York State Legislature created Bronx County, making five counties coterminous with the five boroughs.

The Bronx had a steady boom period during 1898–1929, with a population growth by a factor of six from 200,000 in 1900 to 1.3 million in 1930. The Great Depression created a surge of unemployment, especially among the working class, and a slow-down of growth.

On June 15, 1904, over 1,000 people, mostly German immigrant women and children, were killed when the excursion steamship General Slocum caught fire and sank. It is the city's worst maritime disaster. On March 25, 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in Greenwich Village took the lives of 146 garment workers. In response, the city made great advancements in the fire department, building codes, and workplace regulations.

Throughout the first half of the 20th century, the city became a world center for industry, commerce, and communication, marking its rising influence with such events as the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909. Interborough Rapid Transit (the first New York City Subway company) began operating in 1904, and the railroads operating out of Grand Central Terminal and Pennsylvania Station thrived.

From 1918 to 1920, New York City was affected by the largest rent strike wave in its history. Somewhere between several 10,000's and 100,000's of tenants struck across the city. A WW1 housing and coal shortage sparked the strikes. It became marked both by occasional violent scuffles and the Red Scare. It would lead to the passage of the first rent laws in the nations history.

The city was a destination for internal migrants as well as immigrants. Through 1940, New York was a major destination for African Americans during the Great Migration from the rural American South. The Harlem Renaissance flourished during the 1920s and the era of Prohibition. New York's ever accelerating changes and rising crime and poverty rates were reduced after World War I disrupted trade routes, the Immigration Restriction Acts limited additional immigration after the war, and the Great Depression reduced the need for new labor. The combination ended the rule of the Gilded Age barons. As the city's demographics temporarily stabilized, labor unionization helped the working class gain new protections and middle-class affluence, the city's government and infrastructure underwent a dramatic overhaul under Fiorello La Guardia, and his controversial parks commissioner, Robert Moses, ended the blight of many tenement areas, expanded new parks, remade streets, and restricted and reorganized zoning controls.

For a while, New York ranked as the most populous city in the world, overtaking London in 1925, which had reigned for a century.[58] During the difficult years of the Great Depression, the reformer Fiorello La Guardia was elected as mayor, and Tammany Hall fell after eighty years of political dominance.

Despite the effects of the Great Depression, some of the world's tallest skyscrapers were built during the 1930s. Art Deco architecture—such as the iconic Chrysler Building, Empire State Building, and 30 Rockefeller Plaza— came to define the city's skyline. The construction of the Rockefeller Center occurred in the 1930s and was the largest-ever private development project at the time. Both before and especially after World War II, vast areas of the city were also reshaped by the construction of bridges, parks and parkways coordinated by Robert Moses, the greatest proponent of automobile-centered modernist urbanism in America.

Returning World War II veterans and immigrants from Europe created a postwar economic boom. Demands for new housing were aided by the G.I. Bill for veterans, stimulating the development of huge suburban tracts in eastern Queens and Nassau County. The city was extensively photographed during the post–war years by photographer Todd Webb.

New York emerged from the war as the leading city of the world, with Wall Street leading the United States ascendancy. In 1951, the United Nations relocated from its first headquarters in Flushing Meadows Park, Queens, to the East Side of Manhattan. During the late 1960s, the views of real estate developer and city leader Robert Moses began to fall out of favor as the anti-urban renewal views of Jane Jacobs gained popularity. Citizen rebellion stopped a plan to construct an expressway through Lower Manhattan.

After a short war boom, the Bronx declined from 1950 to 1985, going from predominantly moderate-income to mostly lower-income, with high rates of violent crime and poverty. The Bronx has experienced an economic and developmental resurgence starting in the late 1980s that continues into today.

The transition away from the industrial base toward a service economy picked up speed, while the jobs in the large shipbuilding and garment industries declined sharply. The ports converted to container ships, costing many traditional jobs among longshoremen. Many large corporations moved their headquarters to the suburbs or to distant cities. At the same time, there was enormous growth in services, especially finance, education, medicine, tourism, communications and law. New York remained the largest city and largest metropolitan area in the United States, and continued as its largest financial, commercial, information, and cultural center.

Like many major U.S. cities, New York suffered race riots, gang wars and some population decline in the late 1960s. Street activists and minority groups such as the Black Panthers and Young Lords organized rent strikes and garbage offensives, demanding improved city services for poor areas. They also set up free health clinics and other programs, as a guide for organizing and gaining "Power to the People." By the 1970s the city had gained a reputation as a crime-ridden relic of history. In 1975, the city government avoided bankruptcy only through a federal loan and debt restructuring by the Municipal Assistance Corporation, headed by Felix Rohatyn. The city was also forced to accept increased financial scrutiny by an agency of New York State. In 1977, the city was struck by the New York City blackout of 1977 and serial slayings by the Son of Sam.

The 1980s began a rebirth of Wall Street, and the city reclaimed its role at the center of the worldwide financial industry. Unemployment and crime remained high, the latter reaching peak levels in some categories around the close of the decade and the beginning of the 1990s. Neighborhood restoration projects funded by the city and state had very good effects for New York, especially Bedford-Stuyvesant, Harlem, and The Bronx. The city later resumed its social and economic recovery, bolstered by the influx of Asians, Latin Americans, and U.S. citizens, and by new crime-fighting techniques on the part of the New York Police Department. In 1989, New York City elected its first African American Mayor, David Dinkins. He came out of the Harlem Clubhouse.

In the late 1990s, the city benefited from the nationwide fall of violent crime rates, the resurgence of the finance industry, and the growth of the "Silicon Alley", during the dot com boom, one of the factors in a decade of booming real estate values. New York was also able to attract more business and convert abandoned industrialized neighborhoods into arts or attractive residential neighborhoods; examples include the Meatpacking District and Chelsea (in Manhattan) and Williamsburg (in Brooklyn).

New York's population reached an all-time high in the 2000 census; according to census estimates since 2000, the city has continued to grow, including rapid growth in the most urbanized borough, Manhattan. During this period, New York City was a site of the September 11 attacks of 2001; 2,606 people who were in the towers and in the surrounding area were killed by a terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, an event considered highly traumatic for the city but which did not stop the city's rapid regrowth. On November 3, 2014, One World Trade Center opened on the site of the attack. Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York in the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels, and subway lines in Lower Manhattan. It flooded low-lying areas of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. Electrical power was lost in many parts of the city and its suburbs.

Young solders of wwii colorized by Asar Studios by Asar Studios

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Turbo Terminus by Ruairidh MacVeigh

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Stood at the buffers after working their respective suburban services are First Great Western Thames Turbo Class 165's numbers 165137 and 165111.

The Class 165's have been the power of the London commuter services out of Paddington and Marylebone since their introduction in 1990 to replace a variety of ageing DMU stock.

A member of Network SouthEast's revolutionary fleet of new EMU's and DMU's, the 'Networker' family, the Class 165's and their Class 166 brothers were built by BREL York between 1990 and 1992, with 78 Class 165's and 21 Class 166's being built. The main difference between the 165's and 166's is the addition of air conditioning and a top speed of 90mph, unlike the 75mph on 165/0's, although 165/1's can also operate at 90mph.

The first batch of Class 165's, the 165/0's, were built for the Chiltern Sector of Network SouthEast in order to replace Class 115's that dated back to the 1960's, operating out of London Marylebone to destinations including Birmingham Moor Street, Banbury and Leamington Spa.

The later Class 165/1's were built with a top speed of 90mph and were put to work on the Great Western Mainline out of London Paddington, replacing both Class 117 units and loco-hauled stock such as Class 50's and Class 47's on the Oxford services.

Bedwyn is currently the furthest destination for the Class 165's and 166's on the Great Western Mainline towards Westbury and Exeter, but there is hope to extend these services to Westbury so as to create better connectivity with services between Bristol, Salisbury, Weymouth and Portsmouth.

Native Americans The pictorialist movement, Royal W. (Roland) Reed Jr._colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

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Credit disclaimer: I do not own the original scanned image and believe that it is in the public domain. These images have been collected from Flickr search results. If you know the link to the original image, please kindly put it into comment section as I will update the description to give full credit to the respective owner.

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Hungarian Military Album. album relating to flag team investiture, 1940 by Asar Studios

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Colorized by Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Tool from originally scanned hi-res photo from the respective source.

Credit disclaimer: I do not own the original scanned image and believe that it is in the public domain. These images have been collected from Flickr search results. If you know the link to the original image, please kindly put it into comment section as I will update the description to give full credit to the respective owner.

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Canyonlands National Park, Utah, USA. by PHOTOGRAPHY by DM & DBM.

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Canyonlands National Park is an American national park located in southeastern Utah near the town of Moab. The park preserves a colorful landscape eroded into numerous canyons, mesas, and buttes by the Colorado River, the Green River, and their respective tributaries. Legislation creating the park was signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson on September 12, 1964.

The park is divided into four districts: the Island in the Sky, the Needles, the Maze, and the combined rivers—the Green and Colorado—which carved two large canyons into the Colorado Plateau. While these areas share a primitive desert atmosphere, each retains its own character. Author Edward Abbey, a frequent visitor, described the Canyonlands as "the most weird, wonderful, magical place on earth—there is nothing else like it anywhere."

In the early 1950s, Bates Wilson, then superintendent of Arches National Monument, began exploring the area to the south and west of Moab, Utah. After seeing what is now known as the Needles District of Canyonlands National Park, Wilson began advocating for the establishment of a new national park that would include the Needles. Additional explorations by Wilson and others expanded the areas proposed for inclusion into the new national park to include the confluence of Green and Colorado rivers, the Maze District, and Horseshoe Canyon.

In 1961, Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall was scheduled to address a conference at Grand Canyon National Park. On his flight to the conference, he flew over the Confluence (where the Colorado and Green rivers meet). The view apparently sparked Udall's interest in Wilson's proposal for a new national park in that area and Udall began promoting the establishment of Canyonlands National Park.

Utah Senator Frank Moss first introduced legislation into Congress to create Canyonlands National Park. His legislation attempted to satisfy both nature preservationists' and commercial developers' interests. Over the next four years, his proposal was struck down, debated, revised, and reintroduced to Congress many times before being passed and signed into creation.

In September, 1964, after several years of debate, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed Pub.L. 88–590, which established Canyonlands National Park as a new national park. Bates Wilson became the first superintendent of the new park and is often referred to as the "Father of Canyonlands."

The Colorado River and Green River combine within the park, dividing it into three districts called the Island in the Sky, the Needles, and the Maze. The Colorado River flows through Cataract Canyon below its confluence with the Green River.

The Island in the Sky district is a broad and level mesa in the northern section of the park, between the Colorado and Green rivers. The district has many viewpoints overlooking the White Rim, a sandstone bench 1,200 feet (370 m) below the Island, and the rivers, which are another 1,000 feet (300 m) below the White Rim.

The Needles district is located south of the Island in the Sky, on the east side of the Colorado River. The district is named for the red and white banded rock pinnacles which are a major feature of the area. Various other naturally sculpted rock formations are also within this district, including grabens, potholes, and arches. Unlike Arches National Park, where many arches are accessible by short to moderate hikes, most of the arches in the Needles district lie in backcountry canyons, requiring long hikes or four-wheel drive trips to reach them.

The Ancestral Puebloans inhabited this area and some of their stone and mud dwellings are well-preserved, although the items and tools they used were mostly removed by looters. The Ancestral Puebloans also created rock art in the form of petroglyphs, most notably on Newspaper Rock along the Needles access road.

The Maze district is located west of the Colorado and Green rivers. The Maze is the least accessible section of the park, and one of the most remote and inaccessible areas of the United States.

A geographically detached section of the park located north of the Maze district, Horseshoe Canyon contains panels of rock art made by hunter-gatherers from the Late Archaic Period (2000-1000 BC) pre-dating the Ancestral Puebloans. Originally called Barrier Canyon, Horseshoe's artifacts, dwellings, pictographs, and murals are some of the oldest in America. The images depicting horses date from after 1540 AD, when the Spanish reintroduced horses to America.

Since the 1950s, scientists have been studying an area of 200 acres (81 ha) completely surrounded by cliffs. The cliffs have prevented cattle from ever grazing on the area's 62 acres (25 ha) of grassland. According to the scientists, the site may contain the largest undisturbed grassland in the Four Corners region. Studies have continued biannually since the mid-1990s. The area has been closed to the public since 1993 to maintain the nearly pristine environment.

Mammals that roam this park include black bears, coyotes, skunks, bats, elk, foxes, bobcats, badgers, ring-tailed cats, pronghorns, desert bighorn sheep, and cougars. Desert cottontails, kangaroo rats and mule deer are commonly seen by visitors.

At least 273 species of birds inhabit the park. A variety of hawks and eagles are found, including the Cooper's hawk, the northern goshawk, the sharp-shinned hawk, the red-tailed hawk, the golden and bald eagles, the rough-legged hawk, the Swainson's hawk, and the northern harrier. Several species of owls are found, including the great horned owl, the northern saw-whet owl, the western screech owl, and the Mexican spotted owl. Grebes, woodpeckers, ravens, herons, flycatchers, crows, bluebirds, wrens, warblers, blackbirds, orioles, goldfinches, swallows, sparrows, ducks, quail, grouse, pheasants, hummingbirds, falcons, gulls, and ospreys are some of the other birds that can be found.

Several reptiles can be found, including eleven species of lizards and eight species of snake (including the midget faded rattlesnake). The common kingsnake and prairie rattlesnake have been reported in the park, but not confirmed by the National Park Service.

The park is home to six confirmed amphibian species, including the red-spotted toad, Woodhouse's toad, American bullfrog, northern leopard frog, Great Basin spadefoot toad, and tiger salamander. The canyon tree frog was reported to be in the park in 2000, but was not confirmed during a study in 2004.

Canyonlands National Park contains a wide variety of plant life, including 11 cactus species,[34] 20 moss species, liverworts, grasses and wildflowers. Varieties of trees include netleaf hackberry, Russian olive, Utah juniper, pinyon pine, tamarisk, and Fremont's cottonwood. Shrubs include Mormon tea, blackbrush, four-wing saltbush, cliffrose, littleleaf mountain mahogany, and snakeweed

Cryptobiotic soil is the foundation of life in Canyonlands, providing nitrogen fixation and moisture for plant seeds. One footprint can destroy decades of growth.

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Canyonlands National Park has a cold semi-arid climate ("BSk"). The plant hardiness zones at the Island in the Sky and Needles District Visitor Centers are 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 4.0 °F (-15.6 °C) and 2.9 °F (-16.2 °C), respectively.

The National Weather Service has maintained two cooperative weather stations in the park since June 1965. Official data documents the desert climate with less than 10 inches (250 millimetres) of annual rainfall, as well as hot, mostly dry summers and cold, occasionally wet winters. Snowfall is generally light during the winter.

The station in The Neck region reports an average January temperature of 29.6 °F and an average July temperature of 79.3 °F. Average July temperatures range from a high of 90.8 °F (32.7 °C) to a low of 67.9 °F (19.9 °C). There are an average of 45.7 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 117.3 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The highest recorded temperature was 105 °F (41 °C) on July 15, 2005, and the lowest recorded temperature was −13 °F (−25 °C) on February 6, 1989. Average annual precipitation is 9.33 inches (237 mm). There are an average of 59 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest year was 1984, with 13.66 in (347 mm), and the driest year was 1989, with 4.63 in (118 mm). The most precipitation in one month was 5.19 in (132 mm) in October 2006. The most precipitation in 24 hours was 1.76 in (45 mm) on April 9, 1978. Average annual snowfall is 22.8 in (58 cm). The most snowfall in one year was 47.4 in (120 cm) in 1975, and the most snowfall in one month was 27.0 in (69 cm) in January 1978.

The station in The Needles region reports an average January temperature of 29.7 °F and an average July temperature of 79.1 °F.[44] Average July temperatures range from a high of 95.4 °F (35.2 °C) to a low of 62.4 °F (16.9 °C). There are an average of 75.4 days with highs of 90 °F (32 °C) or higher and an average of 143.6 days with lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower. The highest recorded temperature was 107 °F (42 °C) on July 13, 1971, and the lowest recorded temperature was −16 °F (−27 °C) on January 16, 1971. Average annual precipitation is 8.49 in (216 mm). There are an average of 56 days with measurable precipitation. The wettest year was 1969, with 11.19 in (284 mm), and the driest year was 1989, with 4.25 in (108 mm). The most precipitation in one month was 4.43 in (113 mm) in October 1972. The most precipitation in 24 hours was 1.56 in (40 mm) on September 17, 1999. Average annual snowfall is 14.4 in (37 cm). The most snowfall in one year was 39.3 in (100 cm) in 1975, and the most snowfall in one month was 24.0 in (61 cm) in March 1985.

National parks in the Western US are more affected by climate change than the country as a whole, and the National Park Service has begun research into how exactly this will effect the ecosystem of Canyonlands National Park and the surrounding areas and ways to protect the park for the future. The mean annual temperature of Canyonlands National Park increased by 2.6 °F (1.4 °C) from 1916 to 2018. It is predicted that if current warming trends continue, the average highs in the park during the summer will be over 100 °F (40 °C) by 2100. In addition to warming, the region has begun to see more severe and frequent droughts which causes native grass cover to decrease and a lower flow of the Colorado River. The flows of the Upper Colorado Basin have decreased by 300,000 acre⋅ft (370,000,000 m3) per year, which has led to a decreased amount of sediment carried by the river and rockier rapids which are more frequently impassable to rafters. The area has also begun to see an earlier spring, which will lead to changes in the timing of leaves and flowers blooming and migrational patterns of wildlife that could lead to food shortages for the wildlife, as well as a longer fire season.

The National Park Service is currently closely monitoring the impacts of climate change in Canyonlands National Park in order to create management strategies that will best help conserve the park's landscapes and ecosystems for the long term. Although the National Park Service's original goal was to preserve landscapes as they were before European colonization, they have now switched to a more adaptive management strategy with the ultimate goal of conserving the biodiversity of the park. The NPS is collaborating with other organizations including the US Geological Survey, local indigenous tribes, and nearby universities in order to create a management plan for the national park. Right now, there is a focus on research into which native plants will be most resistant to climate change so that the park can decide on what to prioritize in conservation efforts. The Canyonlands Natural History Association has been giving money to the US Geological Survey to fund this and other climate related research. They gave $30,000 in 2019 and $61,000 in 2020.

A subsiding basin and nearby uplifting mountain range (the Uncompahgre) existed in the area in Pennsylvanian time. Seawater trapped in the subsiding basin created thick evaporite deposits by Mid Pennsylvanian. This, along with eroded material from the nearby mountain range, became the Paradox Formation, itself a part of the Hermosa Group. Paradox salt beds started to flow later in the Pennsylvanian and probably continued to move until the end of the Jurassic. Some scientists believe Upheaval Dome was created from Paradox salt bed movement, creating a salt dome, but more modern studies show that the meteorite theory is more likely to be correct.

A warm shallow sea again flooded the region near the end of the Pennsylvanian. Fossil-rich limestones, sandstones, and shales of the gray-colored Honaker Trail Formation resulted. A period of erosion then ensued, creating a break in the geologic record called an unconformity. Early in the Permian an advancing sea laid down the Halgaito Shale. Coastal lowlands later returned to the area, forming the Elephant Canyon Formation.

Large alluvial fans filled the basin where it met the Uncompahgre Mountains, creating the Cutler red beds of iron-rich arkose sandstone. Underwater sand bars and sand dunes on the coast inter-fingered with the red beds and later became the white-colored cliff-forming Cedar Mesa Sandstone. Brightly colored oxidized muds were then deposited, forming the Organ Rock Shale. Coastal sand dunes and marine sand bars once again became dominant, creating the White Rim Sandstone.

A second unconformity was created after the Permian sea retreated. Flood plains on an expansive lowland covered the eroded surface and mud built up in tidal flats, creating the Moenkopi Formation. Erosion returned, forming a third unconformity. The Chinle Formation was then laid down on top of this eroded surface.

Increasingly dry climates dominated the Triassic. Therefore, sand in the form of sand dunes invaded and became the Wingate Sandstone. For a time climatic conditions became wetter and streams cut channels through the sand dunes, forming the Kayenta Formation. Arid conditions returned to the region with a vengeance; a large desert spread over much of western North America and later became the Navajo Sandstone. A fourth unconformity was created by a period of erosion.

Mud flats returned, forming the Carmel Formation, and the Entrada Sandstone was laid down next. A long period of erosion stripped away most of the San Rafael Group in the area, along with any formations that may have been laid down in the Cretaceous period.

The Laramide orogeny started to uplift the Rocky Mountains 70 million years ago and with it, the Canyonlands region. Erosion intensified and when the Colorado River Canyon reached the salt beds of the Paradox Formation the overlying strata extended toward the river canyon, forming features such as The Grabens. Increased precipitation during the ice ages of the Pleistocene quickened the rate of canyon excavation along with other erosion. Similar types of erosion are ongoing, but occur at a slower rate.

Utah is a landlocked state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It borders Colorado to its east, Wyoming to its northeast, Idaho to its north, Arizona to its south, and Nevada to its west. Utah also touches a corner of New Mexico in the southeast. Of the fifty U.S. states, Utah is the 13th-largest by area; with a population over three million, it is the 30th-most-populous and 11th-least-densely populated. Urban development is mostly concentrated in two areas: the Wasatch Front in the north-central part of the state, which is home to roughly two-thirds of the population and includes the capital city, Salt Lake City; and Washington County in the southwest, with more than 180,000 residents. Most of the western half of Utah lies in the Great Basin.

Utah has been inhabited for thousands of years by various indigenous groups such as the ancient Puebloans, Navajo, and Ute. The Spanish were the first Europeans to arrive in the mid-16th century, though the region's difficult geography and harsh climate made it a peripheral part of New Spain and later Mexico. Even while it was Mexican territory, many of Utah's earliest settlers were American, particularly Mormons fleeing marginalization and persecution from the United States via the Mormon Trail. Following the Mexican–American War in 1848, the region was annexed by the U.S., becoming part of the Utah Territory, which included what is now Colorado and Nevada. Disputes between the dominant Mormon community and the federal government delayed Utah's admission as a state; only after the outlawing of polygamy was it admitted in 1896 as the 45th.

People from Utah are known as Utahns. Slightly over half of all Utahns are Mormons, the vast majority of whom are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), which has its world headquarters in Salt Lake City; Utah is the only state where a majority of the population belongs to a single church. A 2023 paper challenged this perception (claiming only 42% of Utahns are Mormons) however most statistics still show a majority of Utah residents belong to the LDS church; estimates from the LDS church suggests 60.68% of Utah's population belongs to the church whilst some sources put the number as high as 68%. The paper replied that membership count done by the LDS Church is too high for several reasons. The LDS Church greatly influences Utahn culture, politics, and daily life, though since the 1990s the state has become more religiously diverse as well as secular.

Utah has a highly diversified economy, with major sectors including transportation, education, information technology and research, government services, mining, multi-level marketing, and tourism. Utah has been one of the fastest growing states since 2000, with the 2020 U.S. census confirming the fastest population growth in the nation since 2010. St. George was the fastest-growing metropolitan area in the United States from 2000 to 2005. Utah ranks among the overall best states in metrics such as healthcare, governance, education, and infrastructure. It has the 12th-highest median average income and the least income inequality of any U.S. state. Over time and influenced by climate change, droughts in Utah have been increasing in frequency and severity, putting a further strain on Utah's water security and impacting the state's economy.

The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.

Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.

The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:

use of the bow and arrow while hunting,

building pithouse shelters,

growing maize and probably beans and squash,

building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,

creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,

producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.

The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.

These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.

In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.

In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.

Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.

At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.

The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.

A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents. All of what is now Utah was claimed by the Spanish Empire from the 1500s to 1821 as part of New Spain (later as the province Alta California); and subsequently claimed by Mexico from 1821 to 1848. However, Spain and Mexico had little permanent presence in, or control of, the region.

Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.

Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." A 1945 Supreme Court decision found that the land had been treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone had been recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.

Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.

Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.

The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.

Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.

Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896, following the Utah Constitutional Convention of 1895.

In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.

The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.

Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.

After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.

As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.

Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.

Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.

Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.

Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.

On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.

Main article: Latter Day Saint polygamy in the late-19th century

During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.

The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.

Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:

William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859

Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866

3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868

A Black man in Uintah, 1869

Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873

Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874

Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880

William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883

John Murphy in Park City, 1883

George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884

Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886

Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925

Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).

Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.

Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.

During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.

In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.

Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.

Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.

As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.

One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.

It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.

respective time #1 by Takuya Kikuchi

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Kodak Portra400 / Pentax 67II, SMC Pentax 6x7 90mm F2.8

Nara trip #3

JULIA MARGARET CAMERON (1815-79) George Frederic Watts (1817-1904) 1865_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

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Chief Goes To War, Chief Hollow Horn Bear, Sioux. (c) 1898 - American Indian Portraits, colorized by Asar Studios by Asar Studios

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1:72 Messerschmitt Me 510 A-2/U5 "Bremse"; 8./JG26, Flensburg; summer 1946 (Luft ‘46/whif/kitbashing) by Dizzyfugu

respective by KOHEI YAMAMOTO

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tokyo

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+++ DISCLAIMER +++

BEWARE: nothing you see here is real, even though many conversions and their respective background stories were built upon historical facts.

The Messerschmitt Me 510 was a further development of the Me 410 Hornisse ("Hornet"), a German heavy fighter and Schnellbomber used by the Luftwaffe during World War II. The 410 itself had a troubled start, because it essentially had only been a straightforward modification of the Me 210, which had suffered from serious stability flaws and had a bad reputation among its crews.

The 410 handled bettr but did not show much improvement in performance, though. Me 410 deliveries began in January 1943, two years later than the original plan had called for, and continued until September 1944, by which point a total of 1.160 of all versions had been produced by Messerschmitt Augsburg and Dornier München. When it arrived, it was liked by its crews, even though its performance was not enough to protect it from the swarms of high performance allied fighters they faced.

Still not giving up on the original construction (and with the jigs and tools still available), Messerschmitt started in early 1944 with research into further means of improving the Me 410's performance. One direction was the addition of one or two jets under the fuselage as boosters for combat situations.
Another design path, which eventually led to the Me 510, was the development of turboprop and compound engines as propulsion options, which were based on the respective pure jet engines but offered much better performance and fuel economy than the pure jets. It would also be the more efficient solution compared to added turbojets for pure piston planes, since no dead weight had to be carried, and the overall system was less complex than a mixed powerplant system.

This turboprop concept, as best compromise between performance and short-term readiness for service, was chosen and the modified aircraft, called Messerschmitt Me 510, came to be. The design target was to outperform the Me 410 with as little change to the overall construction as possible, so that old tooling could be used for new aircraft cells. Alternatively, old aircraft should potentially be converted to the improved standard.

Core of the new development was the compact HeS 021 turboprop, a PTL development of the HeS 011 jet engine which was also planned for Focke Wulfs FW P.0310226-127 fighter (a turboprop version of the light 'Flitzer' day fighter). This engine was theoretically to deliver up to 3.300hp (2.426 kw) shaft output, plus 1.100kg (2.424 lb) additional thrust, even though serial types would produce less power under the aspect of reliability.

In order to incorporate this engine into the modified Me 410 a new main wing with laminar profile and new engine nacelles had to be designed. The HeS 021sat in the front part of the engine nacelles above the wings, driving four-bladed propellers. The landing gear retracted into the nacelle's lower section, rotating 90°, much like the Me 410, with the exhaust running above the landing gear wells.

In order to improve directional stability further, the tail surfaces were slightly enlarged, receiving characteristic, square tips. The fuselage was more or less taken from the original Me 410, since it offered a very good field of view and appropriate aerodynamics. With this package, the idea of retrofitting former Me 410 cells was kept, even though later flight tests showed that some more detail modifications had to be made. Most of these concerned the internal structures, the most obvious external change was the nose section, where the original glazing had to be reinforced and finally replaced by solid material – an experience similar to the modification from Douglas’ piston-driven XB-42 to the faster, jet-driven XB-43 of the same era.

Maiden flight of the first prototype took place in Augsburg on 6th of May 1945, with little problems. As benchmark, the Me 410's maximum speed was 625 km/h (388 mph), a cruise speed of 579 km/h (360 mph) and a combat range of 2.300 km (1,400 mi) with up to 1.000 kg (2,204 lbs) of disposable stores carried in- and externally.

The overall flying characteristics of the Me 410 did not change much, but rate of climb and top speed were considerably improved. In level flight, the third prototype Me 510 V3 reached a top speed of 812 km/h (504 mph), and even the serial version with added armament and equipment easily reached 750 km/h (465 mph) top speed and a cruising speed with no external stores of 650 km/h (405 mph). At its time, the Me 510, which quickly received the rather inofficial nickname "Bremse" (Horsefly), was superior to its pure piston engine and turbojet rivals, even though it was clear that the turboprop was only a preliminary solution.

Due to its high speed and under the pressure of Allied bomber raids, the Me 510 was primarily used as a Zerstörer against daylight bombers. Many aircraft received additional weapons, both directly incorporated at the factory but also as field accessories. Popular modifications included two extra 30mm guns (MK 108 or 103) in the bomb bay, or provisions for guided and unguided air to air missiles. A camera equipment package (Rüstsatz 'U3') allowed the fast aircraft to be used for daylight reconnaissance.

Many equipment packages from the earlier Me 410 could be fitted, too, including the massive 50mm BK 5 auto cannon against allied bomber groups. Initially, this package (‘U4’ Rüstsatz) comprised the original autocannon which fired at 45 RPM, with 21 shells in a drum magazine.

This weapon soon was replaced by the even more effective MK 214 B gun of 55mm caliber (Rüstsatz 'U5'). The BK 214 B fired at 180 RPM and proved to be a highly effective weapon at long ranges, outside of the bombers’ defensive armament range. As a drawback the heavy system (the gun plus the ammunition belt with 96 shells weighed 1.124 kg/2.475 lb) filled the whole internal bomb bay and precluded heavy external stores. Therefore, the 13mm machine guns in the nose were frequently removed in order to save weight, sometimes the weapons in the side barbettes, too. But: a single hit with one of the 1.54kg (3.4 lb) shells was enough to bring down a four-engined bomber, so that the fast Me 510 with this weapon became a serious threat in the course of late 1946.

510 general characteristics:

Crew: 2

Length: 42 ft (12,60 m)

Wingspan: 49 ft (14.69 m)

Height: 13 ft 1½ in (4.0 m)

Wing area: 480.11 ft² (44.78m²)

Empty weight: 10.665 lb (4.842 kg)

Loaded weight: 14.405 lb (6.540 kg)

Max. take-off weight: 18.678 lb (8.480 kg)

Maximum speed: 790 km/h (490 mph) at 7.200m (23.500 ft)

Range: 1.400 mi (2.300 km ) with full combat TOW

Service ceiling: 40.900 ft (12.500 m)

Rate of climb: 4.635 ft/min (23,6 m/s)

Wing loading: 29.8 lb/ft² (121.9 kg/m²)

Power/mass: 0.24 hp/lb (0.39 kW/kg)

Engine:

2× Heinkel-Hirth HeS 021 turboprop engines, 1.438 kW (2.500 hp) plus 980 kp (2.158 lb) residual thrust each

Armament: Varied, but typical basic equipment was:

2× 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons with 350 rpg, fixed in the nose

2× 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns with 500 rpg in the nose flanks

2× 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns with 500 rpg, each firing rearward from FDSL 131/1B remote-operated turret, one per side;

Up to 1.200 kg (2.643 lb) of disposable stores in- and externally

In the field, many modifications were made and several additional weapon packages with guns, guided and unguided missiles or special weapons were available (so-called ‘Rüstsätze’).

The kit and its assembly:

I am not certain when inspiration struck me for this fantasy aircraft - I guess it was when I tinkered together the Hü 324 whif, which was itself based on a 1:72 scale Il-28 bomber. When I browsed for a respective donation kit I also came across the 1:100 scale kit of the Soviet light bomber from Tamiya, and that stirred something: The Il-28's vintage contours would perfectly suit a Luft '46 aircraft, and with some calculations it was clear that the 1:100 wings would be suitable for something in the class of a 1:72 DH Mosquito or Bf 110. Then, the ill-fated Me 410 came to the scene as a potential late war basis aircraft, and from this starting point the idea of an evolutionary next step of the type, the Messerschmitt Me 510, was born.

Basically this model is a kitbashing of a Tamiya Il-28 in 1:100 (wings & engine nacelles) and the fuselage of a Matchbox Me 410. The IL-28's wings were turned upside down, so that the nacelles would now ride on the wings' top.

This not only looks cool and 'different', it's also plausible because the landing gear could retract into the wings under the nacelles (with the main landing gear doors closed, just like the original Me 410), it would also reduce the angle of the aircraft on the ground to a sensible degree - with the engines under the wings plus the landing gear would have been much to steep!

Fitting the wings to the fuselage was pretty easy, even though the original Me 410 wing profile was much thicker than the slender Il-28 wings. Cleaning and blending the wing root areas was a bit tricky, but the parts get together well.

As a design twist and for a uniform look I also replaced the whole tail section, matching the angular look of the thin new main wings. The horizontal stabilizers are wing tips from a Matchbox Me 262, the vertical fin is a modified outer wing part from a Matchbox Grumman Panther.

The engine nacelles were taken OOB. I just filled the Il-28's landing gear wells and their covers with putty, since they'd end on top of the new engines.

The propellers come from Matchbox P-51 Mustangs, outfitted with pointed spinners and held by a metal pin in a polystyrene tube which runs through the original intake splitter. Looks pretty martial, even though the nacelles ended up a bit close to the fuselage. The overall look reminds of the Short Sturgeon, but is not inplausible. A compact aircraft!

The cockpit received some side panels, news seats and some equipment, since the original Matchbox kit features almost nothing beyond a floor plate, two broad benches as seats and pilot figures. I also opened the cockpit hatches, since the aircraft would be built for ground display, with the landing gear extended.

From the original kit the BK 5 cannon installation was taken over, but I added a scratch-built, bigger muzzle brake. Since the aircraft was to become a high speed interceptor/Zerstörer for daylight operations, I did not add any further external ordnance.

Painting and markings:

I pondered about a potential livery for a long time. Almost any Me 410 was delivered in RLM 74/75/76 livery, and some at the Western front in France were operated in RLM 70/71/65, with a low waterline. But I found this pretty... boring. So I made up a fantasy livery which I found suitable for high altitude operations and based on my knowledge of late Luftwaffe paint scheme - pretty complex:

The aircraft was to be light in color, primarily camouflaged for aerial combat. I ended up with something that was planned as something that could have almost been called 'low-viz': all lower surfaces received a basic tone of RLM 76 (from Testors), with a raised waterline on all flanks. This light blue-grey would blend into a slightly darker FS 36320 on the higher flanks, almost up to the upper surfaces.

But in the end, the flanks received more spots than intended, and I ended up with a rather conservative livery - but it ain't bad at all. But so it goes...

The upper wing surfaces received a wavy scheme in RLM 71 (Drak Green) and 75 (Middel Grey). These are not typical late war colors, I rather used them due to the lighter shades. On the fuselage, just the fuselage crest was painted with more or less dense blotches of these tones, blending into more patches of RLM 02 on the flanks.

To add some more unconventional detail, the fuselage sides and undersides also received large, cloudy patches of RLM 77 - a very light grey. This detail was featured on some late-war He 177 bombers, but you can hardly tell these extra blotches because they have only little contrast to the RLM 76.

The tail fin was painted all white - a formation sign for a squadron leader, typical for German late WWII fighters. The black and white fuselage stripe is the ID of Jagdgeschwader 26 (which operated Fw 190D-9 from airfields in northern Germany, Flensburg was one of them), the red number abd the "+" code identify the machine as being part of the eighth Staffel.

In the end, a very subtle whif. The new engines are most obvious, and they change the look of the Me 410 dramatically. But only on second glance you recognize the other changes. The new wings/stabilizers with their square-shaped tips create a very slender and elegant look, the aircraft just looks fast and agile like a true heavy fighter should. Mission accomplished!

Claude Monet_0001_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

3

Colorized by Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Tool from originally scanned hi-res photo from the respective source.

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Spokesperson Psaki Poses in a New Hat With Russian Counterpart and Their Respective Bosses by U.S. Department of State

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5

U.S. Department of State Spokesperson Jennifer Psaki -- sporting a shapka, or fur hat with ear flaps, given to her by Russian counterpart Maria Zakharova -- stands with Zakharova between U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov in Paris, France, on January 13, 2014. [State Department photo/ Public Domain]

HERBERT GEORGE PONTING (1870-1935) Captain Oates and Siberian ponies on board Terra Nova Nov 1910_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

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Charlie hebdo by slow traffic double vision typing with 2 fingers

7 1

ces photos ne sont pas les miennes, tous les droits vont à leur auteur

All images NOT by myself. Copyrights property of respective owners.

respective time by Takuya Kikuchi

8

Lomo X-pro100(cross process) / Horizon perfekt

Pride of New York City_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

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Credit: Images are from profile of Ronald S. Coddington www.flickr.com/photos/8026096@N04/

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Leaving Camp, Roland W. Reed (Variant)_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

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Rhinoceros, Head to Head by honda1998rrw

4 1

Many respective ton of rhinoceros seeming to eye one another up... Yes, I think the earth would probably move for them !

Taken at Marwell Zoo with the Fuji XT2 and the 60mm macro

2017-11-26_10-37-09_ILCE-6500_DSC07155_DxO_Redo_PL4 by Miguel Discart & Kiri Karma

3

BelgiBeer - BBD - Diole

Brasserie : Diole

Shortly after at high school, Francois opts for farming studies in Gembloux while Julien follows brewing master classes in Brussels. Following their respective trainings, the two friends decide to set up their own brewery and start brewing in pans at home. Brewing equipment from Chateau de Beloeil is later rented to develop a 150 liter pilot brewery. Given the success of their activities, they decide to buy their own brewing equipment. In 2010, they purchased the old town sawmill and Julien transformed it into a brewery. The establishment and construction works last two whole years during which they recover material for the bottling of the beer to French winegrowers. They begin to brew their own beers, the first one is Diole Blonde (75Cl, large bottles) with a first batch created in December 2012. Since then, the blond remains the flagship product of the brewery. The beer won various contests such as the best Walloon beer award in 2014.

* Diole Blonde

see beer : Amber-pale ale with a veiled dress surmounted by a very sustainable white head and fine bubbling.

smell beer : Fruity bouquet (lemon, pear and quince), grassy and yeasty notes.

taste beer : Very fruity beer, gentle on the palate, well balanced on the malt.

Type : Blonde

* Diole Ambree

see beer : Coppery, limpid colour surmounted by a beige head.

smell beer : Notes of caramel and cooked fruits.

taste beer : Lightly acidic beer, grilled malt on the palate, followed by caramelized notes and yellow fruits (apricot and plum).

Type : Amber

* Diole Brune

see beer : Dark color with reddish reflections.

smell beer : Floral and fruity aroma, notes of caramel, roasted notes.

taste beer : Floral and fruity notes accompanied by caramel.

Type : Brown Beer

* Diole De Noel

see beer : Dark dress

smell beer : Floral and leaky aromas, caramel, roasted notes

taste beer : Thirst-quenching beer, fruit and spicy notes, pronounced caramel notes, brown sugar and candy

Type : Dark Beer

( BelgiBeer vous devoile le veritable patrimoine belge, reconnu mondialement pour la qualite et la variete de ses produits, mais pourtant largement meconnu du grand public !

BelgiBeer, des Box bieres 100% artisanales !

Dans nos box bieres, nous mettons pour vous chaque mois le meilleur des petites et moyennes brasseries belges, que nous allons chercher directement chez elles. Chaque mois, BelgiBeer vous fait decouvrir une brasserie artisanale differente. )

Neapolitan boys posing in a line. Photographic postcard, by Asar Studios

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1:72 Airbus Helicopters EC665 "Tiger" (UHT KWS-M); "75+13" of the German Marinefliegergeschwader (MFG) 5; Nordhausen, on board of the Fregatte “Bayern” (F 217) during "Operation Atalanta", Somalia, summer 2016 (Whif/modified Italeri kit) by Dizzyfugu

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2

+++ DISCLAIMER +++

Nothing you see here is real, even though the conversion or the presented background story might be based on historical facts. BEWARE!

Some background:

Airbus Helicopters Tiger, formerly known as the Eurocopter Tiger, is a four-bladed, twin-engined attack helicopter, which first entered service in 2003. It is manufactured by Eurocopter (now Airbus Helicopters), the successor company to Aérospatiale's and DASA's respective helicopter divisions, which designate it as the EC665. In Germany and Australia it is known as the 'Tiger'; in France and Spain it is called the 'Tigre'.

Development of the Tiger started during the Cold War and it was initially intended as a dedicated anti-tank helicopter platform to be used against a Soviet ground invasion of Western Europe. During its prolonged development period, the Soviet Union collapsed, but France and Germany chose to proceed with the Tiger, developing it instead as a multirole attack helicopter. It achieved operational readiness in 2008 and since the type's introduction to service, Tigers have been used in combat in Afghanistan, Libya, and Mali.

The Tiger has the distinction of being the first all-composite helicopter developed in Europe. Even the earliest models also incorporated other advanced features such as a glass cockpit, stealth technology and high agility to increase its survivability. The Tiger has a tandem-seat cockpit and is operated by a two-man crew; the pilot is placed in the forward position, with the gunner seated behind. Either of the crew members can manage the weapon systems or the primary flight controls, switching roles if necessitated. In addition to flying the aircraft, the Tiger's pilot would typically be in control of the self-defense systems and communications, as well as some secondary weapon functions.

Amongst the Tiger's notable qualities, it possesses very high levels of agility, much of which is attributed to the design of its 13-meter four-bladed hinge-less main rotor; the Tiger can perform full loops and negative g manoeuvers. Power is provided by a pair of FADEC-controlled MTU Turbomeca Rolls-Royce MTR390 turboshaft engines.

In Germany, the EC 665 is also known as the PAH-2 (Panzerabwehrhubschrauber 2 for “Second Anti-tank helicopter, the Bo 105 was PAH-1) and UHT (from Unterstützungshubschrauber Tiger German for "Support Helicopter Tiger"). As delivered, the German Tiger was originally a medium-weight multi-role fire support helicopter. The UHT can carry PARS 3 LR "fire and forget" and/or HOT3 anti-tank missiles as well as 70 mm (2.8 in) Hydra 70 air-to-ground fire support rockets. Four AIM-92 Stinger missiles (two on each side) can be mounted to the stub wings' tips for air-to-air combat. Unlike the HAP/HCP version (operated by France) it has no integrated gun turret, but a 12.7 mm (0.50 in) gunpod can be fitted if needed. The weapon configuration was designed to be multirole and easily convertible to cover the whole spectrum of possible mission scenarios and to be effective against a broad range of targets. Another difference is the use of a mast-mounted sight, which has second-generation infrared and CCD TV cameras (range 18 km).

Its introduction was not without trouble, though. In fact, the 68 ordered German EC 665s were hardly operational at all: In August 2009, the German magazine Der Spiegel reported that the ten operational Tigers in the German Army were only suitable for pilot training, while others had not been accepted due to defects. In May 2010, Germany suspended deliveries over "serious defects particularly with wiring"; in response Eurocopter stated that "Corrective measures related to wiring problems have been developed, agreed by the customer and are being implemented". These problems lasted, though, and under an agreement between the German government and Eurocopter made in March 2013, only a total of 51 Tiger UHs would remain in service – effectively, a 40 were operated in the helicopter's original role in a single unit, the Kampfhubschrauberregiment 36 (KHR 36) „Kurhessen“ in Fritzlar.

In order to mend the program and widen the helicopter’s capabilities, Eurocopter launched in 2014 an upgrade program for the rest of the German Tiger order, the so-called Tiger KWS (Kampfwertsteigerung, for combat capabilities update). A central upgrade was the introduction of more powerful engines, primarily for a better performance under hot/high climatic conditions. Further modifications of the Tiger KWS included a new tail section with a 10 blade Fenestron rotor system with a variable angular spacing, so that the noise was distributed over different frequencies and overall noise reduced The ducted tail rotor was also shielding both the tail rotor itself from collision damage and ground personnel from the hazard posed by a traditional spinning rotor. The stabilizing tail surfaces had to be re-located, though, but overall the helicopter became more compact thorugh this change.

The core of the program was the integration of the Artemis millimeter-wave fire-control radar (FCR) target acquisition system and the Radar Frequency Interferometer (RFI), housed in a dome located above the main rotor, replacing the UHT’s optical Osiris system, which was relocated to a chin position. The radome's raised position enables 360° target detection while the helicopter is behind obstacles (e.g. terrain, trees or buildings). The Artemis system is capable of simultaneously tracking up to 128 aerial and ground targets and engaging up to 16 at once; an attack could be initiated within 30 seconds. A radio modem integrated with the sensor suite allowed data to be shared with ground units and other helicopters, allowing them to fire on targets detected by a single helicopter. In fact, this coordinating role was the Tiger KWS' prime role within the Bundeswehr structure, so only a small number of these machines was eventually necessary.

Beyond the UHT’s standard armament, the Tiger KWS could be equipped with a wide range of guided air-to-ground missiles, including the AGM-65 Maverick against small targets and the Sea Skua ASM for anti-ship duties (for which the Marineflieger helicopters, designated KWS-M, had a GEC-Ferranti Seaspray I illumination radar installed in a thimble radome above the Osiris system).
The Artemis system also allowed full-fledged air-to-air missiles to be effectively deployed. Beyond the AIM-9 Sidewinder for self-defense, the UHT KWS could also fire the mid-range AIM-120 and therefore fulfill air space surveillance duties and point defense against incoming aircraft, even against low-flying targets like cruise missiles. The integration of air-to-air missiles was a major step forward for the Tiger’s mission envelope, and was requested especially by the German Navy as a protection measure for its ships on worldwide NATO and UN peacekeeping missions. Heavier gun pods, carrying a Mauser BK 27 machine cannon with 150 RPG, were introduced, too, as a more effective weapon against both ground and air targets and with a longer range.

In February 2016, the first of twelve newly built Tiger KWS was delivered to the German Bundeswehr and allocated to Luftwaffe and the Marineflieger units (each receiving six). Eight standard UHTs were to be updated until 2019, too. After initial trials 2016 on board of the German fregate "Bayern" in the course of the peacekeeping Operation Atalanta against pirates at the coast of Somalia, France became interested in the Artemis system, too, and considered the procurement of eight navalized and updated Tigers for the Aéronavale.

General characteristics:

Crew: Two (pilot and weapon systems officer)

Length: 13.21 m fuselage (43 ft 3 1/4 in)

Rotor diameter: 13.00 m (42 ft 8 in)

Disc area: 133 m² (1,430 ft²)

Height: 5.18 m (17 ft 11 in) with radome mast,

3.83 m (12 ft 7 in) w/o

Internal fuel capacity: 1,080 kg (2,380 lb)

Empty weight: 3,060 kg (6,750 lb)

Loaded weight: 5,090 kg (11,311 lb)

Max. takeoff weight: 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)

Powerplant:

2× MTU Turbomeca Rolls-Royce MTR390-G turboshaft engines, 1.102 kW (1.500 shp) each

Performance:

Maximum speed: 290 km/h (157 knots, 181 mph)

Range: 800 km (430 nm, 500 mi) in combat configuration

1,300km with external tanks at the inboard stations

Service ceiling: 4,000 m (13,000 ft)

Rate of climb: 10.7 m/s (2,105 ft/min)

Power/mass: 0.23 hp/lb (0.38 kW/kg)

Armament:

Four stub wing hardpoints for e.g. 12.7mm or 27 mm autocannon pods, 68 mm (2.68 in) SNEB or

70 mm (2.75 in) Hydra 70 unguided rockets pods, AGM-65 Maverick guided missiles or starters with 4x

PARS 3 LR and/or HOT3 anti-tank missiles; additionally, the German navy helicopters could carry up to

four Sea Skua missiles against sea targets

The kit and its assembly:

The second of my Italeri Tiger helicopters that I had purchased in a lot without a real plan some years ago. This one was simply spawned by the question what a) an updated UHT with a radar system like the AH-64D and b) a German Marineflieger UHT would look like? After the German navy got rid of their Tornados, what could be the more compact and economical alternative? This model combines these questions, and as a whif there was even a bit more to it.

The Italeri kit itself ain’t bad, but it has raised details and fit, esp. around the engines and the rotor mast, is rather dubious. PSR is a must. Anyway, it was built more or less OOB, the only changes are the Fenestron (transplanted wholesale from a Revell EC 135) with a corresponding movement of the stabilizers forward, the radome from an Academy AH-64D and the re-located Osiris optical system to the chin. The latter necessitated a fairing, which consists of a piece from a drop tank half.

Since I wanted to add Sea Skuas under the stub wings (taken from an Italeri 1:72 NATO weapon set), I also added a small thimble radome for an illumination radar on top of the nose. This subtly changes the Tiger's profile and adds a purposeful, Mi-28-ish look. Some blade antennae were re-located and radar warning sensors added, as well as a pitot made from thin wire in front of the cockpit.

Beyond the Sea Skuas I gave the model a single AIM-9 Sidewinder with a mathcing launch rail and a scratched gun pod, made from a Soviet GSh-23-2 pod with a single gun barrel (a hollow steel needle).

For later display and beauty pics, a vertical styrene tube was added into the model's center of gravity as an adapter for a holder.

Painting and markings:

The late German Marineflieger Tornados wore some interesting camouflage schemes under the Norm 87 scheme, and I wanted something similar for this navalized Tiger. However, a direct adaptation of the Tornados' scheme and its murky colors (RAL 7009, 7012 and 5008) appeared too dark for the smaller helicopter, lacking contrast that would help breaking up the outlines against sky and ground.

An alternative would have been RAL 7030, 7009 and 7012, but I used this one already on another Marineflieger whif (an Aero L-39 target tug). Another potential option was RAL 7030, 7000 and 7012 (incl. a bluish grey tone "Fehgrau", which is used uniformly on the German navy's ships and on some Marineflieger Do-28D Skyservants and Do 228s operated in the pollution control role), but this would rather have been suitable for a fighter aircraft, operating at medium to high altitudes. For "ground work", both options were IMHO too bright.

I eventually went back to the Tornado colors and replaced the RAL 7012 (Basaltgrau, very similar to Dark Sea Grey) with RAL 7030 (Steingrau, a brownish light grey). This resulted in a good contrast with the RAL 7009 (Grüngrau) and RAL 5008 (Graublau), and I kept the more or less naval color palette with grey/green/blue tones - even though and AFAIK, no German naval aircraft ever carried such a scheme. Still looks quite convincing.

The camouflage pattern was adopted from the land-based German Tigers, just the colors were replaced. I used Revell 75, 67 and a 1:1 mix of Humbrol 77 and 79. The cockpit interior became medium grey (Revell 47), the rotor blades Anthrazit (Revell 9).

The kit received a light wash with black ink and some panel post-shading.

The German roundels, flags as well as the tactical codes were created with material from TL Modellbau. The "MARINE" marking on the IR dampers was made up with single black 3mm letters, also with TL Modellbau material. A few stencils were taken from the OOB sheet, and some additional inscriptions were gathered from an 1:72 MiG-21 sheet from Begemot or simply painted. Finally, everything was sealed with matt acrylic varnish.

An apparently simpel build, but the intergration (and choice) of the Fenestron tail rotor caused some headaches and PSR sessions. But I am happy with the result: fist of all, I finally found a use for the surplus kit (reducing the stash height, marginally...), and the resulting helicopter does not look bad or unrealistic at all.

Paznaun bergauf by Torsten Frank

5

After CP1 and cresting the respective parcours over the Bieler Höhe I restocked in a small market in Galtür. After inhaling some milk rice packs the sunny weather suddenly had disappeared and I was greeted by this sky. Well - what followed was a fun ride in the drops and full gaz down the Paznaun Valley over the road as well as over the mandatory deviations for the tunnels. Some of which where gravel. All the while driven with heavy gusts from behind and just so slightly on the front (and a bit in the front) of a heavy downpour. Managed it and it was worth it. :)

--

Nach CP1 und dem Überwinden des entsprechenden Parcours in Form der Bieler Höhe versorgte ich mich in einem kleinen Laden in Galtür. Nachdem ich ein paar Milchreisbecher inhalierte, war das sonnige Wetter plötzlich verschwunden und ich wurde von diesem Himmel begrüßt. Ok - was folgte war ein spaßiger Ritt im Unterlenker und Vollgas das Paznaun hinab. Über Straße wie über die erforderlichen Tunnelumfahrungen. Einige davon waren unbefestige Schotterwege. Alles, während heftige Sturmböen von hinten schoben und rüttelten und ich so gerade vor - und in Teilen in der Front eines heftigen Regens - fuhr. Weiter unten im Tal hatte ich mich endlich freigefahren. Das war's wert. :)

New Zealand. A albumen print photographs, late 19th century_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

4

Colorized by Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Tool from originally scanned hi-res photo from the respective source.

Credit disclaimer: I do not own the original scanned image and believe that it is in the public domain. These images have been collected from Flickr search results. If you know the link to the original image, please kindly put it into comment section as I will update the description to give full credit to the respective owner.

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Naval Album. A photograph album compiled by Francis Edmond Groube and descendants, c. 1867-1910 6_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

vintage, retro, old, photograph, century, botany, graphics, antique, classic, history, historic, historical, archival, archive, lifestyles, nostalgia, nostalgic, old-fashioned, old-fashion, popular, bw, black and white, past, past times, past time, sepia, floral, 19th, historic photographs, art, image, colorful, art, painting, fineart, drawing, asar studios, portrait, landscape, people, nature, joy, happiness, figure, studio, botanical, flower, hand colored, print, ancestral, colorize, colorized, celestial images, motionage media, ahmet asar, asarstudios, colourise, colourised, vintage, colorized history, history in color, analog images, found photos, archive, poster, wwi, wwii, painting, nature, art, public domain

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vintage, retro, old, photograph, century, botany, graphics, antique, classic, history, historic, historical, archival, archive, lifestyles, nostalgia, nostalgic, old-fashioned, old-fashion, popular, bw, black and white, past, past times, past time, sepia, floral, 19th, historic photographs, art, image, colorful, art, painting, fineart, drawing, asar studios, portrait, landscape, people, nature, joy, happiness, figure, studio, botanical, flower, hand colored, print, ancestral, colorize, colorized, celestial images, motionage media, ahmet asar, asarstudios, colourise, colourised, vintage, colorized history, history in color, analog images, found photos, archive, poster, wwi, wwii, painting, nature, art, public domain

JULIA MARGARET CAMERON (1815-79) Herbert Wilson (1820-1905) Apr 1868_colorSAI_result by Asar Studios

3

Colorized by Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Tool from originally scanned hi-res photo from the respective source.

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Sports--rowing, Wisconsin Crew, Poughkeepsie, June 22, 1910 colorized by Asar Studios by Asar Studios

2

Colorized by Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Tool from originally scanned hi-res photo from the respective source.

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swimmers, colorized by Ahmet Asar by Asar Studios

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Namibia 1931 by Asar Studios

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Pagan Summer (1965) ... Why your memory IMPROVES with age (Well, up to a point, anyway) -- Lost your thingamajig: Not to worry (13th January 2012) ...item 2.. THE MOODY BLUES -- In Search of the Lost Chord -- 1968.wmv ... by marsmettt tallahassee

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Frustratingly, too, we can also find ourselves able to build vivid memory pictures of events that occurred decades ago, but incapable of remembering what we had for breakfast.

This is because the brain creates very different kinds of memories — and in mid-life some of our memory systems can become weaker than others.

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.......***** All images are copyrighted by their respective authors ......

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.....item 1).... Mail Online ... www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/ ... Why your memory IMPROVES with age (Well, up to a point, anyway)

By JOHN NAISH

Last updated at 9:17 AM on 13th January 2012

www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2086003/Why-memory-IMP...

Senior moments? Forget them. Now it’s middle-aged muddle we must worry about. Scientists last week declared that our ability to remember everyday things such as names and numbers starts to go at the tender age of 45.

But before you resign yourself to spending the second half of your life as a mental basket-case, there is positive scientific news, too.

For memory is a strange and complex thing, as this guide to the mind makes clear...

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img code photo ... Lost your thingamajig: Not to worry...

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-0-0F6FF7870000...

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----- First the bad news...

Last week’s study of more than 7,000 Whitehall civil servants revealed how our power of recall starts to decline earlier than previously thought. Men and women suffered the same 3.6 per cent loss in memory power between the ages of 45 and 49, revealed the ten-year study published online in the British Medical Journal.

Fears about age-related memory loss are hardly new. Plato wrote that when a man grows old, he ‘can no more learn much than he can run much’. But evidence of problems in mid-life is worrying because these may be the first signs of a condition called Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). This is an accelerated loss of memory power that can, in about half of cases, turn out to be the first early sign of Alzheimer’s. Scientists believe that Alzheimer’s can begin in the brain two or three decades before serious symptoms appear.

More...

Just ONE cannabis joint ‘can cause psychiatric episodes similar to schizophrenia’ as well as damaging memory

Vitamin B and folic acid 'boosts memory in pensioners'

Nicotine patches 'can slow mental decline' and improve the memory of elderly people, study shows

Struggle to get out of your chair? Puffed-out on the stairs? Could you be growing old before your time?

I don't believe it! We're NOT a nation of Victor Meldrews... because the older we get the HAPPIER we are, study reveals

Regardless of our Alzheimer’s risk, though, we all seem to suffer some loss of mental capacity from a comparatively young age. Studies show that the processing speed in our brains slows down from our 20s onwards. ‘By mid-life, most of our brains show some fraying around the edges,’ says Barbara Strauch, author of The Secret Life Of The Grown-Up Brain.

‘People’s names are often the first edge to go ragged,’ she adds. ‘But the names are not technically gone. For the most part, it’s a problem of retrieval, not storage.’ This difficulty is not caused by a simple loss of brain cells. Scientists used to think that we lost 30 per cent of our brain cells through ageing. But recent studies show that the loss is much smaller. Instead, advancing years can bring a drop in the levels of chemical messengers in our brain — called neurotransmitters. As a result, memory-power can drop, and we can also find ourselves getting distracted more easily.

Research shows that much of what we learn is not missing; it just gets misplaced. Hence that frustrating sense of ‘it’s in there somewhere,’ when names, facts and figures elude our grasp.

Frustratingly, too, we can also find ourselves able to build vivid memory pictures of events that occurred decades ago, but incapable of remembering what we had for breakfast. This is because the brain creates very different kinds of memories — and in mid-life some of our memory systems can become weaker than others.

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img code photo ... Alamy ...

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-2086003-0F7057...

Wisdom of the ancients: Plato wrote that when a man grows old, he ¿can no more learn much than he can run much¿

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----- So how does your memory work?

There are several memory systems at work in the brain. One memory system comes into operation if you try to remember a place name or a phone number. Remembering things that can be expressed in language is called ‘explicit’ memory. Another memory system covers things of which you may not be consciously aware, such as how to ride a bicycle. That is called ‘implicit’ memory.

There is also short-term or ‘working’ memory and long-term memory. Short-term memory would be remembering a phone number for five minutes; long-term involves recalling it in a year’s time.

Such differences in memory types are all too familiar to Joshua Foer, an American writer and international memory champion who has honed his immediate short-term memory so well that he can recall details such as the order of a newly shuffled deck of cards.

But he admits memories that require a little more longevity are more problematic: only a few nights after he won the annual US Memory Championships in 2006, he forgot that he had driven his car into town to eat dinner. He took a train home instead.

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img code photo ... Alamy ...

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-2086003-0D2FCD...

An MRI scan of a human head shows the brain: Short term memories are formed in the hippocampus, scientists say, but where long term memories reside remains a mystery

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Short-term and long-term memories are stored in different parts of the brain. A structure in the brain called the hippocampus is key to short-term memory. This area normally grows new brain cells throughout our lives, and is responsible for processing information and retrieving it. It is one of the major areas that are damaged by Alzheimer’s, which is why short-term memory is one of the first casualties of the disease.

Long-term memory involves many disparate parts around the brain, which are called ‘association cortices’. One current theory of memory is that the hippocampus forms short-term memories and then squirrels some of them away for long-term storage in various cupboards — the association cortices. But we don’t yet know how the brain does this.

In fact, scientists remain unsure about many details of how memories are stored and formed. Mystery also surrounds the question of how we can remember events happening in the right sequence. Recent studies have shown, however, that an area of the brain called the medial temporal lobe is crucial to recalling events correctly: people who have suffered damage to this area through strokes have trouble remembering the plots of films or even personal anecdotes in the right order.

----- Senior moment – or something worse?

In normal age-related memory loss, short-term recall is usually most affected. In moderation, this is quite healthy. It is also natural to worry that such mid-life forgetfulness is a harbinger of something more sinister, such as dementia.

The ‘aha!’ test can indicate if you should be concerned. If you forget a word temporarily, but feel that it is on the tip of your tongue, and finally recall it with a sense of ‘Aha! That’s it,’ then your reaction is healthy.

This does not tend to happen with conditions such as Alzheimer’s, where people lose that sense of recognition when a memory is right.

----- It’s not just age that ruins memory

Growing older is not the only reason that our memory power may dwindle. Our ability to remember things can also be afflicted by our lifestyles. One common problem may be stress.

Studies show that quick bursts of stressful excitement can actually benefit our memory — perhaps because our brains evolved to rally their best resources when faced with an immediate threat such as a tiger in the grass. But long-term chronic stress, the sort that can grind into us with the constant demands of busy modern life, can damage our brain’s ability form new memories.

This is because constant high levels of the stress hormone, cortisol, can damage the hippocampus. Being soaked in cortisol dramatically reduces the ability of the hippocampus to produce new cells. This is linked to significant problems with concentration and memory, says research by the Stanford University scientist Robert Sapolsky.

Such difficulties can be increased because, ironically, in stressful situations we often depend more on memory for recalling certain things to help guide us through the problem.

----- Does modern life make us forget?

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img code photo ... ALEX LENTATI

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-2086003-01EB2E...

'Security protection code overload': The profusion of PINs has many worried that they are losing their memory

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More and more people are anxiously consulting medical experts about ‘problems’ with their memory, in fear that they have early signs of dementia, according to Michael Saling, a neuropsychologist at Melbourne University. But, he says, they are often just suffering from a problem that psychologists have labelled ‘security protection code overload’.

Put simply, the worried patients feel mentally overwhelmed by all the numbers, codes and operating systems that they have to know in order simply to function in a computer-dominated environment.

That can lead to the common experience of ‘PIN-number amnesia’, where you find yourself standing in front of a cash machine, your mind a fearful blank, with an impatient queue forming behind you.

----- The good news...

Stresses and strains aside, modern life has good news for middle-aged brains. Neuroscientists have recently begun to discover how the mid-life brain, rather than giving up, instead reconfigures itself in order to cope.

As researchers at Duke University, North Carolina, and elsewhere have found, people in middle age begin to use two sides of their brains where previously only one might have been employed on a task.

This is called bilateralisation.

Commenting on this research, Barbara Strauch explains that as we age, the two sides of our brains become more intertwined, letting us see bigger patterns and think more broadly. Science may even have witnessed how ‘middle-aged wisdom’ grows in the brain. It used to be thought that the brain steadily lost myelin with age.

Myelin is the white-matter fatty coating of neurons which makes the connections in the brain work well by enabling electrical signals to travel through the brain quickly and efficiently — rather like the insulation on electronic wires.

When myelin withers, we may forget the names of people we’ve just met, or details of how to get to a new address.

New research shows that in mid-life, most of the myelin loss occurs in parts of the brain responsible for learning new things. The parts responsible for long-term memory show no such loss.

That would account for why we have trouble with new memories as we age, but not with our core knowledge. And something else has been found to happen — the level of myelin around people’s brains can continue to grow late into middle age.

Harvard University scientists who have witnessed this say that it may be a physical sign of the growth of ‘middle-aged wisdom’, where accumulated knowledge is being collated and networked more efficiently by the white matter.

----- How to protect your memory

Fortunately, health researchers believe there are ways in which we can significantly help to preserve our memory in later life.

The key is to stave off the sort of physical decline that can lead to mental decline and dementia. Dr Anne Corbett, of the Alzheimer’s Society, says: ‘Preventing dementia is all about everyday healthy living.

‘We have strong evidence for what medical conditions increase your risk. They are high blood pressure, stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol and depression. If you have these in mid-life onwards you are at higher risk of developing dementia.’

The human brain is the most complex piece of thinking equipment that has ever evolved. Your body is the life-support system for this very hungry piece of grey matter.

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img code photo ... Alamy ...

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-2086003-0D6CDD...

Brain training: Just a little daily exercise, like this Zumba class, could reduce the risk of the decline of your mental abilities, many studies have shown

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While your brain constitutes only about 2 per cent of your body’s mass, it uses more than a fifth of its energy production. Efficient supply and maintenance are vital. If your physical health declines, your brain — and its sophisticated systems of memory — are at serious risk of following suit.

Just taking a little more daily exercise could make a huge difference for millions of people. ‘More than 13 studies show that exercise can reduce risk by up to 45 per cent,’ says Corbett. ‘Evidence shows that the exercise does not have to be strenuous to have this benefit: it can involve active walking for around 30 minutes a day, three times a week.

‘The exercise just has to raise the heartbeat by a little, making you feel slightly breathless.’

‘Exercising’ your brain with expensive computerised ‘brain-training games’ will not provide any real benefit, though, says Dr Corbett. Studies show that you may get better at playing the games themselves, but the benefits go no farther, she explains. It is the same with crosswords and Sudoko. They should be enjoyed for themselves, rather than taken as a substitute for a healthy diet and exercise.

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img code photo ... Alamy ...

i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2012/01/13/article-2086003-02F4B0...

Ginko biloba: A study of more than 3,000 adults found that it made no difference at all to memory retension

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And beware any claim about how any single food can boost your memory, says Corbett. Only last year, an important report in the Journal of the American Medical Association punctured the idea that the herbal supplement ginkgo biloba is a brain-saver. The study of more than 3,000 adults found that it made no difference at all.

Adopting broader healthy-eating habits can, however, significantly reduce the risk of dementia. A range of studies indicates that Mediterranean-style diets work best, as they are low in fat and salt and high in oily fish.

Avoiding junk food can have real benefits, too. A study last month in the respected journal Neurology found people with junk diets high in complex ‘trans-fats’ are more likely to experience the kind of brain shrinkage associated with Alzheimer’s than those who consume less of the artery-damaging fats.

There is another compelling reason why healthy eating can boost your memory: it helps to keep your weight in trim. People who are obese in middle age are 74 per cent more likely to develop dementia compared with those of normal weight, according to a 27-year study of more than 10,000 men and women in the British Medical Journal.

Laboratory studies conducted by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences have found that caffeine strengthens brain connections. Drinking two cups of coffee a day appears to boost electrical activity between neurons in the hippocampus. The scientists say stronger connectivity means better learning and memory.

----- Memory plays tricks on us all

No matter how good our powers of memory, they can all be fooled. Because, whatever our age, memory is a slippery thing that can be grossly misleading.

A survey of 1,500 people last August by the University of Illinois found that most of us think that human memory is as reliable as a video camera that records information precisely. Moreover, around half of us think that our memories never change.

But scientific research shows the opposite is true. Even our most closely held recollections can completely change without us noticing.

Researchers who study how people remember momentous events have discovered that although people will swear faithfully that they remember exactly what they were doing when they first heard news of the event, their memory is wrong in about a third of cases.

John Seamon, a professor of psychology and neuroscience at Wesleyan University, Connecticut, has studied this phenomenon and says that, oddly, it is possible that the more frequently we recall an event, the less accurately we remember it.

His research suggests that when we use our minds to recall a particular memory, we do not go back to the event itself, but rather to the last time we remembered it. Each recollection adds new flaws and reinforces previous flaws. Eventually, we settle on a version that we subsequently consider to be gospel truth.

‘This is not done on a conscious level,’ Seamon believes. ‘But people are figuring out: “Where was I?

What is the story I’m going to tell about this event?”’

After about a year of doing this, he says, the memory — including the false elements — solidifies and becomes the person’s constant ‘truth’.

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.....item 2).... youtube video ... THE MOODY BLUES -- In Search of the Lost Chord -- 1968.wmv ...

98:43 minutes

www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8Ja4u8_RGQ

Esferadevidro

Published on May 29, 2012

THE MOODY BLUES -- In Search of the Lost Chord -- 1968(Deluxe Edition 2006)

Disc 1

In Search Of The Lost Chord 00:01

1-1 Departure

1-2 Ride My See-Saw

1-3 Dr. Livingstone, I Presume

1-4 House Of Four Doors (Part 1)

1-5 Legend Of A Mind

1-6 House Of Four Doors (Part 2)

1-7 Voices In The Sky

1-8 The Best Way To Travel

1-9 Visions Of Paradise

1-10 The Actor

1-11 The Word

1-12 Om

Disc 2

Alternate Versions & Out-Takes 42:17

2-1 Departure (Alternate Mix)

2-2 The Best Way To Travel (Additional Vocal Mix)

2-3 Legend Of A Mind (Alternate Mix)

2-4 Visions Of Paradise (Instrumental Version)

2-5 What Am I Doing Here? (Original Version)2-6 The Word (Mellotron Mix)

2-7 Om (Extended Version)

2-8 A Simple Game (Justin Hayward Vocal Mix) - 1968 Studio Recording

2-9 King And Queen - BBC 'Top Gear' Sessions

2-10 Doctor Livingstone I Presume

2-11 Voices In The Sky

2-12 Thinking Is The Best Way To Travel

2-13 Ride My See Saw - BBC 'Afternoon Pop Show' Session

2-14 Tuesday Afternoon - 1968 Single 'B' Side

2-15 A Simple Game

Category

People & Blogs

License

Standard YouTube License

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Mausoleum of Galla Placidia by Евгений Сухарников

5

РАВЕННА

Всё, что минутно, всё, что бренно,

Похоронила ты в веках.

Ты, как младенец, спишь, Равенна,

У сонной вечности в руках.

Рабы сквозь римские ворота

Уже не ввозят мозаик.

И догорает позолота

В стенах прохладных базилик.

От медленных лобзаний влаги

Нежнее грубый свод гробниц,

Где зеленеют саркофаги

Святых монахов и цариц.

Безмолвны гробовые залы,

Тенист и хладен их порог,

Чтоб черный взор блаженной Галлы,

Проснувшись, камня не прожег.

Военной брани и обиды

Забыт и стерт кровавый след,

Чтобы воскресший глас Плакиды

Не пел страстей протекших лет.

Далёко отступило море,

И розы оцепили вал,

Чтоб спящий в гробе Теодорих

О буре жизни не мечтал.

А виноградные пустыни,

Дома и люди - всё гроба.

Лишь медь торжественной латыни

Поет на плитах, как труба.

Лишь в пристальном и тихом взоре

Равеннских девушек, порой,

Печаль о невозвратном море

Проходит робкой чередой.

Лишь по ночам, склонясь к долинам,

Ведя векам грядущим счет,

Тень Данта с профилем орлиным

О Новой Жизни мне поет.

Галла Плацидия

лат. Galla Placidia

Портрет Галлы Плацидии на золотом медальоне

регент

425 — ок. 437

Предшественник: Иоанн

Преемник: Валентиниан III

Рождение: ок. 388 года

Константинополь

Смерть: 27 ноября 450

Рим

Похоронена: в Равенне

Династия: Феодосия Великого

Отец: Феодосий Великий

Мать: Галла

Супруг: 1) Атаульф

2) Констанций III

Дети: Феодосий и Валентиниан,

дочь Гонория

Галла Плацидия на

Галла Плацидия (лат. Galla Placidia; ок. 388—27 ноября 450 гг.) — дочь римского императора Феодосия Великого. В течение двух лет — королева вестготов, впоследствии управляла Западной Римской империей в малолетство своего сына, императора Валентиниана III.

Личная история Галлы Плацидии наложилась на историю гибели Римской империи, её необыкновенная судьба тесно связана с важными событиями 1-й половины V века. Рождённая в последние годы существования единой империи, после её окончательного распада в 395 году Галла осталась в Италии под опекой старшего брата, императора Гонория, и его полководца Стилихона. С 409 года она находится в знатных заложниках у короля вестготов Алариха, а после его смерти Галла в 414 году стала женой нового вестготского короля Атаульфа и даже родила ему сына. Овдовев через год, Галла Плацидия стала предметом торга за хлеб между вестготами и Гонорием.

Она смогла вернуться в Рим в 416 году и скоро против воли была выдана братом замуж за его успешного полководца Констанция, которому родила дочь и сына Валентиниана. Валентиниан в 425 году унаследовал трон Западной Римской империи, но по крайней мере первые 12 лет за него правила его мать, Галла Плацидия. Галла скончалась в 450 году, в канун нашествия на Западную Европу гуннов Аттилы.

Содержание

[убрать]

1 Детство и юность. 388—408 гг.

2 Королева варваров. 409—416 гг.

3 Жена императора Констанция. 417—423 гг.

4 Августа. 424—450 гг.

5 Дети

6 Примечания

7 Ссылки

[править] Детство и юность. 388—408 гг.

Галла Плацидия была дочерью римского императора Феодосия Великого от его второй жены Галлы. Год её рождения точно не известен и определяется около 388[1]. В 395 году последний император единой Римской империи Феодосий Великий скончался, разделив империю между сыновьями (родными братьями Галлы по отцу). Аркадию досталась восточная часть империи, получившая у современных историков название Византийской. Западная часть отошла Гонорию.

Фактическая власть в Западной Римской империи находилась в руках главнокомандующего всеми войсками империи Стилихона. Полуварвар по происхождению[2], он осознавал непрочность своего положения и старался упрочить его родственными браками с императорской семьей. Сам он был женат на племяннице Феодосия Великого Серене, две его дочери (Мария и Ферманция) последовательно выдавались замуж за императора Гонория. Единственный сын Евхерий был помолвлен на Nobilissima Puella (благороднейшей девушке) Галле, и, по словам поэта Клавдиана, ожидался очередной брачный союз с императорской семьей.[3]

Однако планам Стилихона не суждено было сбыться. В августе 408 года, когда Галла Плацидия уже достигла совершеннолетия, всемогущий полководец был казнён Гонорием по подозрению в планах захвата императорского трона в Константинополе[4]. Вскоре был убит и его сын Евхерий.

[править] Королева варваров. 409—416 гг.

После казни Стилихона в Италию немедленно вторглись вестготские племена во главе с Аларихом, к ним присоединились другие варвары и рабы империи. Последовательность событий изложена в статье Захват Рима готами (410 год).

В 1-ю осаду Рима Аларихом осенью 408 года сенат с одобрения Плацидии принял решение казнить жену Стилихона Серену (двоюродную сестру Плацидии), считая её виновной в нашествии вестготов[5]. При 2-й осаде Рима в конце 409 года сенат вступил в вынужденный союз с Аларихом, в то время как император Гонорий, осаждённый в Равенне, отказывался удовлетворить требования вестготов. Согласно Зосиме, в числе знатных заложников у Алариха оказалась Галла Плацидия[6]. По словам Олимпиодора в изложении Фотия, Плацидия попала в плен после захвата Рима готами в следующем году[7]. Такой версии развития событий придерживаются и остальные историки V века.

В августе 410 года Аларих захватил и разграбил Рим; в конце того же года он умер на юге Италии. Его преемник, брат его жены Атаульф, вывел вестготов в Галлию в 412 году. Готский историк Иордан (VI век) заметил, что Атаульф женился на своей пленнице Галле Плацидии ещё в Италии, то есть примерно в 411 году, однако его сообщение довольно путанно[8].

Гонорий с помощью переговоров пытается вызволить свою сестру из варварского плена. Современник и очевидец событий Олимпиодор, основной источник сведений об этом этапе биографии Плацидии, так сообщает о ходе переговоров (в изложении Фотия):

«Атаульф, у которого требовали Плацидию, ответил требованием хлеба, ему назначенного. У обещавших не было возможности его дать, но они тем не менее соглашались предоставить его, если получат Плацидию. Варвар ответил им примерно так же [...] Атаульф задумал жениться на Плацидии, а так как Констанций требовал её, то он предъявил еще более тяжёлые притязания, рассчитывая при невыполнении этих требований на благовидный предлог для её удержания.»[9]

В 413 году Атаульф сражается в Галлии против врагов Гонория. Как заявлял сам Атаульф, он желал создать государство готов и, более того, восстановить величие Римской империи силами готов[10]. Улучшение отношений между вестготами и империей завершилось беспрецедентным браком германского вождя-варвара и благородной римской принцессы.

В январе 414 года в Нарбонне (Галлия) состоялась свадьба Атаульфа, уже имевшего 6 детей от прежней жены, и 26-летней Галлы Плацидии. Церемония прошла в римских традициях: «Плацидия сидела в украшенном по-римски атрии, в царском уборе; рядом с ней сидел Атаульф, облаченный в хланиду и другие римские одеяния.»[11]. Вскоре Галла родила сына, названного Феодосием. Само его имя свидетельствовало в пользу планов Атаульфа соединить вестготов с Римской империей, однако ребёнок умер в младенчестве, и был похоронен в испанской Барселоне, ставшей столицей вестготов.[12]

В августе 415 года король вестготов Атаульф был убит своим дружинником. Власть на 7 дней захватил Сигерих, который истребил детей Атаульфа от первой жены. Галлу Плацидию он заставил «идти перед [своей] лошадью вместе с прочими пленницами, а расстояние, на которое они должны были его провожать, тянулось до двенадцатой мили от города»[13]. После скорого убийства Сигериха новый король вестготов Валия вступил в переговоры с представителем Гонория неким Евплутием. В 416 году за 600 тысяч мер[14] хлеба Валия освободил Галлу Плацидию[15]. Кроме того, вестготы стали федератами империи, обязавшись сражаться с её врагами.

[править] Жена императора Констанция. 417—423 гг.

Галла Плацидия на монете, отчеканенной ее сыном Валентинианом III. На реверсе крест, типичный для всех монет с Галлой Плацидией, которая была глубоко верующей христианкой.

Сразу после освобождения Плацидии император Гонорий выдал сестру замуж за своего успешного полководца Флавия Констанция. По описанию Олимпиодора, Констанций «имел вид угрюмый и мрачный; пучеглазый, с толстым затылком и плоской головой». Плацидия упорно не соглашалась на брак[16], но не смогла противиться воле брата-императора.

1 января 417 года состоялась пышная свадьба. В том же или следующем году Плацидия родила дочь Гонорию, а 2 июля 419 года у неё появился сын — Плацид Валентиниан (Placidus Valentinianus), будущий император.

8 февраля 421 года Гонорий сделал Констанция своим соправителем. Как жена императора Плацидия удостоилась титула августы («императрицы»). Её сын Валентиниан получил титул нобилиссима, что означало признание его наследником императорского трона (сам Гонорий не имел сыновей). 2 сентября 421 года Констанций умер.

Несмотря на вдовство, влияние Плацидии на императора даже усилилось:

«Расположение Гонория к собственной сестре после смерти ее мужа Констанция стало таково, что их безмерная любовь и частые поцелуи в уста внушили многим постыдные подозрения.»[17]

Однако борьба за власть дворцовых партий, сложившихся вокруг Гонория и его сестры, привела к разрыву. За Плацидию стояли варвары из её окружения (наследие брака с Атаульфом) и варварский элемент в имперской армии. Хронист Кассиодор сообщил о слухах, что Плацидия обратилась за помощью к неназванным врагам империи, в которых можно увидеть вестготов в Галлии. На улицах столицы Равенны случились «побоища», после чего Гонорий, лишив Плацидию титула августы, выслал её в 423 году[18] вместе с детьми в Константинополь, где правил его племянник, император Феодосий Младший.

В августе 423 года император Гонорий скончался, освободив трон для сына Галлы Плацидии Валентиниана.

[править] Августа. 424—450 гг.

Пока известия о смерти Гонория шли в Константинополь, пока там принимали решение о преемнике, трон Западной Римской империи захватил начальник имперской канцелярии в Равенне Иоанн. Император Феодосий послал в 424 году войска, высвободившиеся после войны с персами, на запад для свержения Иоанна и передачи трона своему двоюродному брату Валентиниану.

В том же году Плацидия была восстановлена Феодосием в статусе августы, а её сын провозглашён цезарем[19]. 23 октября 425 года 7-летний сын Плацидии цезарь Валентиниан был провозглашён в Риме императором.

С этого года Галла Плацидия единолично правила Западной Римской империей в качестве регента над сыном до достижения им в 437 году совершеннолетия. Да и после совершеннолетия Валентиниан не проявлял особого интереса к государственным делам. Прокопий так отозвался об императоре:

«Его мать Плацидия вырастила и воспитала этого василевса в распущенной неге и роскоши, и поэтому он с детства предавался всяким порокам. Он по большей части общался со знахарями и с теми, кто гадает по звёздам; он безумно предавался любовным связям с чужими жёнами, ведя беззаконный образ жизни.»[20]

Интерьер мавзолея Галлы Плацидии в Равенне.

Плацидия с самого начала была вынуждена делиться властью с полководцем Аэцием (прославившимся позднее, в 451 году, разгромом гуннов Аттилы). Аэций поднялся при узурпаторе Иоанне. Когда византийское войско с Плацидией двинулось на запад, Аэций был послан Иоанном в Паннонию за помощью к гуннам. Он вернулся с 60 тысячами гуннов уже после низвержения Иоанна и, признав Плацидию, сумел добиться от неё поста командующего войсками в Галлии. Главнокомандующим (magister militum) при Плацидии в 425—429 гг. стал некий Феликс, который ничем себя не проявил.

В 429 году Аэций заменил Феликса на посту главнокомандующего[21]. Опасаясь чрезмерного усиления Аэция, Галла Плацидия пыталась противопоставить ему Бонифация, наместника в Северной Африке. О борьбе между двумя военачальниками за влияние на Плацидию подробно рассказал Прокопий[22]. В 432 году, потерпев поражение от вандалов, Бонифаций появляется в Италии, где между ним и Аэцием разгорелась настоящая война («ingens bellum»). Видимо, в одном из сражений Бонифаций был смертельно ранен и скончался через 3 месяца[23].

В 437 году Валентиниан, достигнув совершеннолетия, женился на дочери императора Феодосия Младшего Лицинии Евдоксии. У них родились дочери Евдокия и Плацидия (сына в браке не было). Влияние Галлы Плацидии на государственные дела неизбежно должно было ослабнуть, по крайней мере её имя в хрониках исчезает.

В течение жизни Галла Плацидия покровительствовала церкви, принимала активное участие в утверждении христианской веры в империи, в последние годы пожертвовала большие средства церквям в Равенне. В Равенне ею была построена церковь Сан Джованни Эванджелиста в ознаменование чудесного спасения на море[24].

27 ноября 450 года Галла Плацидия скончалась в Риме и, более чем вероятно, была погребена в родовой усыпальнице императора Феодосия Сан-Петронила недалеко от собора святого Петра[25]. В Равенне находится гробница, называемая мавзолей Галлы Плацидии, но ни один античный историк не упоминал о погребении августы в Равенне, молчит об этом и Андрео Агнелло в своей хронике «Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis». Имеющиеся в мавзолее саркофаги, приписываемые самой Галле и её ближайшим родственникам, по мнению ряда исследователей, изначально не находились в нём[26], первый раз о них упоминает в XIV веке епископ Ринальдо да Конкореджио[27]. После XIV века многочисленные источники уже уверенно называют здание мавзолеем Галлы Плацидии. Среди возможных причин этого можно назвать как определённое внешнее сходство мозаик мавзолея с мозаиками римской церкви Санта-Констанца (местом погребения одной из дочерей Константина Великого), так и необычная форма погребения тела в одном из саркофагов (тело было усажено на кипарисовый трон)[27].

[править] Дети

Феодосий (414—415 гг.) — сын от короля вестготов Атаульфа, умер младенцем.

Юста Грата Гонория (417—после 452 года) — дочь от полководца Констанция. В 449 году забеременела от приближённого чиновника, после чего её насильственно выдали замуж за престарелого сенатора. Чтобы избежать замужества, она призвала на помощь вождя гуннов Аттилу, который воспользовался этим предлогом для разорения Галлии, а затем вторжения в Италию[28]. После 452 года известия о судьбе Гонории отсутствуют, предположительно она могла быть казнена.

Флавий Плацид Валентиниан (419—455 гг.) — сын от полководца Констанция. Стал императором в 425 году. Сначала за него правила его мать Галла Плацидия, затем фактическую власть осуществлял полководец Аэций. Убит телохранителем-готом в 455 году.

Galla Placidia

Empress-Mother of the Western Roman Empire

Galla Placidia on a coin ca. 430

Reign Regent for Emperor Valentinian III: 423 – July 2, 437 (14 years)

Full name Aelia Galla Placidia

Born 392

Birthplace Ravenna

Died November 27, 450

Place of death Rome

Buried [Unknown. She died in Rome and IS NOT buried in "" in Ravenna]

Consort to Ataulf

Consort to Constantius III

Offspring Flavius Placidius Valentinianus, Justa Grata Honoria

Dynasty Theodosian

Father Theodosius I

Mother Galla

Aelia Galla Placidia (392 – November 27, 450), daughter of the Roman Emperor Theodosius I, was the Regent for Emperor Valentinian III from 423 until his majority in 437, and a major force in Roman politics for most of her life. She was consort to Ataulf king of the Goths from 414-415 until his death, and Empress consort to Constantius III from 417-422 until his death.

Contents

[hide]

1 Family

2 Early life

3 First marriage

4 Second marriage

5 Widow

6 Regent

6.1 Conflict between Bonifacius and Aetius

6.2 Rise of Aetius

7 Depictions in popular culture

8 Public works

9 Notes

10 References

11 External links

[edit] Family

Placidia was the daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius I and his second wife Galla,[1], who was herself daughter of Emperor Valentinian I and his second wife Justina.[2] Her older brother Gratian died young. Her mother died in childbirth in 394, giving birth to John, who died with their mother.[3] Placidia was a younger, paternal half-sister of Emperors Arcadius and Honorius. Her older half-sister Pulcheria predeceased her parents as mentioned in the writings of Gregory of Nyssa, placing the death of Pulcheria prior to the death of Aelia Flaccilla, first wife of Theodosius I, in 385.[4]

[edit] Early life

Placidia was granted her own household by her father in the early 390s and was thus financially independent while underage. She was summoned to the court of her father in Mediolanum during 394. She was present at Theodosius' death on January 17, 395. She was granted the title of "Nobilissima Puella" ("Most Noble Girl") during her childhood.[5]

Placidia spent most of her early years in the household of Stilicho the Vandal and his wife Serena. She is presumed to have learned weaving and embroidery. She might have also been given a classical education though no details are known.[5] Serena was a first cousin of Arcadius, Honorius and Placidia. The poem "In Praise of Serena" by Claudian and the "Historia Nova" by Zosimus clarify that Serena's father was an elder Honorius, a brother to Theodosius I.[6][7] According to "De Consulatu Stilichonis" by Claudian, Placidia was betrothed to Eucherius, only known son of Stilicho and Serena. Her scheduled marriage is mentioned in the text as the third union between Stilicho's family and the Theodosian dynasty, following those of Stilicho to Serena and Maria, their daughter, to Honorius.[8]

Stilicho was the magister militum of the Western Roman Empire. He was the only known person to hold the rank of "magister militum in praesenti" from 394 to 408 in both the Western and the Eastern Roman Empire. He was also titled "magister equitum et peditum" ("Master of the Horse and of Foot"), placing him in charge of both the cavalry and infantry forces of the Western Roman Empire.[9] In 408, Arcadius died and was succeeded by his son Theodosius II, only seven years old. Stilicho planned to proceed to Constantinople and "undertake the management of the affairs of Theodosius", convincing Honorius not to travel to the East himself. Shortly after, Olympius, "an officer of rank in the court-guards" attempted to convince Honorius that Stilicho was in fact conspiring to depose Theodosius II, to replace him with Eucherius. Olympius proceeded to lead a military coup d'état which left him in control of Honorius and his court. Stilicho was arrested and executed on August 22, 408. Eucherius sought refuge in Rome but was arrested there by Arsacius and Tarentius, two eunuchs following imperial command. They executed him not long after. Honorius appointed Tarentius imperial chamberlain, and gave the next post under him to Arsacius.[7] Their deaths left Placidia effectively unattached.

[edit] First marriage

In the disturbances that followed the fall of Stilicho, throughout the Italian Peninsula the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The foederati were considered loyalists of Stilicho and treated accordingly. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric I, King of the Visigoths, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. Alaric accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September 408, stood before the Aurelian Walls and began a strict blockade.[10] Rome was under siege, with minor interruptions, from 408 to August 24, 410. Zosimus records that Placidia was within the city during the siege. When Serena was accused of conspiring with Alaric, "the whole senate therefore, with Placidia, uterine sister to the emperor, thought it proper that she should suffer death".[7] Her reasons for concurring to the execution of her cousin are not stated in the account.[5]

Prior to the fall of Rome, Placidia was captured by Alaric. Her captivity was recorded by both Jordanes and Marcellinus Comes, though the exact circumstances are not mentioned.[1] She followed the Visigoths in their move from the Italian Peninsula to Gaul in 412. Their ruler Ataulf, having succeeded Alaric, entered an alliance with Honorius against Jovinus and Sebastianus, rival Western Roman emperors located in Gaul. He managed to defeat and execute both Gallo-Roman emperors in 413.[11]

After the heads of Sebastianus and Jovinus arrived at Honorius' court in Ravenna in late August, to be forwarded for display among other usurpers on the walls of Carthage, relations between Ataulf and Honorius improved sufficiently for Ataulf to cement them by marrying Galla Placidia at Narbonne on January 1, 414. The nuptials were celebrated with high Roman festivities and magnificent gifts from the Gothic booty. Priscus Attalus gave the wedding speech, a classical epithalamium. The marriage was recorded by Hydatius.[1] The historian Jordanes states that they married earlier, in 411 at Forum Livii (Forlì). Jordanes's date may actually be when she and the Gothic king first became more than captor and captive.

Placidia and Ataulf had a single known son, Theodosius. He was born in Barcelona by the end of 414. Theodosius died early in the following year, thus eliminating an opportunity for a Romano-Visigothic line.[5][12] Years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. In Hispania, Ataulf imprudently accepted into his service a man identified as "Dubius" or "Eberwolf", a former follower of Sarus. Sarus was a Germanic chieftain who was killed while fighting under Jovinus and Sebastianus. His follower harbored a secret desire to avenge the death of his beloved patron. And so, in the palace at Barcelona, the man brought Ataulf's reign to a sudden end by killing him while he bathed in August/September, 415.[12]

The Amali faction proceeded to proclaim Sigeric, a brother of Sarus, as the next king of the Visigoths. According to The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, the first act of Sigeric's reign "was the inhuman murder" of Ataulf's six children from a former marriage "whom he tore, without pity, from the feeble arms of a venerable bishop." (the latter being Sigesar, Bishop of the Goths[12]). As for Galla Placidia, as Ataulf's widow, she was "treated with cruel and wanton insult" by being forced to walk more than twelve miles on foot among the crowd of captives driven ahead of the mounted Sigeric. Seeing the noble widow's sufferings, however, became one of the factors that roused indignant opponents of the usurper, who quickly assassinated Sigeric and replaced him with Wallia, Ataulf's relative.[13]

[edit] Second marriage

Interior of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna

According to the Chronicon Albeldense, included in the Roda Codex, Wallia was desperate for food supplies. He surrendered to Constantius III, at the time magister militum of Honorius, negotiating terms giving foederati status for the Visigoths. Placidia was returned to Honorius as part of the peace treaty.[14] Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to Constantius III on January 1, 417.[5] Their daughter Justa Grata Honoria was probably born in 417 or 418. The history of Paul the Deacon mentions her first among the children of the marriage, suggesting that she was the eldest. Their son Valentinian III was born July 2, 419.[15]

Placidia intervened in the succession crisis following the death of Pope Zosimus on December 26, 418. Two factions of the Roman clergy had proceeded to elect their own popes, the first electing Eulalius (27 December) and the other electing Boniface I (28 December). They acted as rival popes, both in Rome, and their factions plunged the city into tumult. Symmachus, Prefect of Rome, sent his report to the imperial court at Ravenna, requesting an imperial decision on the matter.[16] Placidia and, presumably, Constantius petitioned the emperor in favor of Eulalius.[5] This was arguably the first intervention by an Emperor in the Papal election.

Honorius initially confirmed Eulalius as the legitimate pope. As this failed to put an end to the controversy, Honorius called a synod of Italian bishops at Ravenna to decide the matter. The synod met from February to March 419 but failed to reach a conclusion. Honorius called a second synod in May, this time including Gaulish and African bishops. In the meantime, the two rival popes were ordered to leave Rome. As Easter approached, however, Eulalius returned to the city and attempted to seize the Basilica of St. John Lateran in order to "preside at the paschal ceremonies". Imperial troops managed to repel him, and on Easter (March 30, 419) the ceremonies were led by Achilleus, Bishop of Spoleto. The conflict cost Eulalius the imperial favor, and Boniface was proclaimed the legitimate pope as of April 3, 419, returning to Rome a week later.[16] Placidia had personally written to the African bishops, summoning them to the second synod. Three of her letters are known to have survived.[5]

On February 8, 421, Constantius was proclaimed an Augustus, becoming co-ruler with the childless Honorius. Placidia was proclaimed an Augusta. She was the only Empress in the West, since Honorius had divorced his second wife Thermantia in 408 and had never remarried. Neither title was recognised by Theodosius II, the Eastern Roman Emperor. Constantius reportedly complained about the loss of personal freedom and privacy that came with the imperial office. He died of an illness on September 2, 421.[17]

[edit] Widow

Medallions of Honorius and Galla Placidia, Ravenna, 425

Galla Placidia herself was now forced from the Western Empire. Though the motivation for this remains unclear, the public issue was the increasingly scandalous public caresses she received from her own brother Honorius—this at least was the interpretation of Olympiodorus of Thebes, a historian used as a source by Zosimus, Sozomen and probably Philostorgius, as J.F. Matthews has demonstrated.[18] Gibbon had a different opinion: "The power of Placidia; and the indecent familiarity of her brother, which might be no more than the symptoms of a childish affection, were universally attributed to incestuous love."[19]

According to Gibbon, "On a sudden, by some base intrigues of a steward and a nurse, this excessive fondness was converted into an irreconcilable quarrel: the debates of the emperor and his sister were not long confined within the walls of the palace; and as the Gothic soldiers adhered to their queen, the city of Ravenna was agitated with bloody and dangerous tumults, which could only be appeased by the forced or voluntary retreat of Placidia and her children. The royal exiles landed at Constantinople, soon after the marriage of Theodosius, during the festival of the Persian victories. They were treated with kindness and magnificence; but as the statues of the emperor Constantius had been rejected by the Eastern court, the title of Augusta could not decently be allowed to his widow".[20] The passage places the arrival of Placidia and her children after the marriage of Theodosius II to Aelia Eudocia, known to have occurred on June 7, 421.[21] The "Persian victories" mentioned were probably victory celebrations over a brief Roman-Persian War, under the respective leadership of Theodosius II and Bahram V of the Sassanid Empire. This conflict took place from c. 420 to 422. "The general Ardaburius operated in Arzanene and gained a victory, autumn 421, which forced the Persians to retreat to Nisibis, which Ardaburius then besieged. He raised the siege on the arrival of an army under Varahran, who proceeded to attack Resaina. Meanwhile the Saracens of Hira, under Al‑Mundhir, were sent to invade Syria, and were defeated by Vitianus. During the peace negotiations the Persians attacked the Romans and were defeated by Procopius, son-in‑law of Anthemius (Socrates, VII.18, 20). The Empress Eudocia celebrated the war in a poem in heroic metre (ib. 21)."[22] The "Saracens of Hira" were the Lakhmids of Al-Hirah.

On August 15, 423, Honorius died of dropsy, perhaps pulmonary edema.[23] With no member of the Theodosian dynasty present at Ravenna to claim the throne, Theodosius II was expected to nominate a Western co-emperor. However, Theodosius hesitated and the decision was delayed. Taking advantage of the power vacuum, Castinus the Patrician proceeded to become a kingmaker. He declared Joannes, the primicerius notariorum ("chief notary", head of the civil service), to be the new Western Roman Emperor. Among their supporters was Flavius Aetius. Aetius was a son of Flavius Gaudentius, magister militum, and Aurelia. Joannes' rule was accepted in the provinces of Italia, Gaul, Hispania, but not in Africa Province.[11]

Theodosius II reacted by preparing Valentinian III for eventual promotion to the imperial office. In 423/424, Valentinian was named nobilissimus. In 424, Valentinian was betrothed to Licinia Eudoxia, his first cousin once removed. She was a daughter of Theodosius II and Aelia Eudocia. The year of their betrothal was recorded by Marcellinus Comes. At the time of their betrothal, Valentinian was approximately four years old, Licinia only two.[24][25] Gibbon attributes the betrothal to "the agreement of the three females who governed the Roman world", meaning Placidia and her nieces Eudocia and Pulcheria.[20] In the same year, Valentinian was proclaimed a Caesar in the Eastern court.[24]

The campaign against Joannes also started in the same year. Forces of the Eastern Roman army gathered at Thessaloniki, and were placed under the general command of Ardaburus, the victorious general of the Roman-Persian War. The invasion force was to cross the Adriatic Sea by two routes. Aspar, son of Ardaburius, led the cavalry by land, following the coast of the Adriatic from the Western Balkans to Northern Italy. Placidia and Valentinian joined this force. Ardaburius and the infantry boarded ships of the Eastern Roman navy in an attempt to reach Ravenna by sea. Aspar marched his forces to Aquileia, taking the city by surprise and with virtually no resistance. The fleet, on the other hand, was dispersed by a storm. Ardaburius and two of his galleys were captured by forces loyal to Joannes and were held prisoners in Ravenna.[11][20]

Ardaburius was treated well by Joannes, who probably intended to negotiate with Theodosius for an end to the hostilities. The prisoner was allowed the "courteous freedom" of walking the court and streets of Ravenna during his captivity. He took advantage of this privilege to come into contact with the forces of Joannes and convinced some of them to defect to Theodosius' side. The conspirators contacted Aspar and beckoned him to Ravenna. A shepherd led Aspar's cavalry force through the marshes of the Po River to the gates of Ravenna; with the besiegers outside the walls and the defectors within, the city was quickly captured. Joannes was taken and his right hand cut off; he was then mounted on a donkey and paraded through the streets, and finally beheaded in the Hippodrome of Aquileia.[11][20]

With Joannes dead, Valentinian was officially proclaimed the new Augustus of the Western Roman Empire on October 23, 425, in the presence of the Roman Senate. Three days following Joannes' death, Aetius brought reinforcements for his army, a reported number of sixty thousand Huns from across the Danube. After some skirmishing, Placidia and Aetius came to an agreement that established the political landscape of the Western Roman Empire for the next thirty years. The Huns were paid off and sent home, while Aetius received the position of magister militum per Gallias (commander-in-chief of the Roman army in Gaul).[11][20]

[edit] Regent

Galla Placidia was regent of the Western Roman Empire from 425 to 437, her regency ending when Valentinian reached his eighteenth birthday on July 2, 437. Among her early supporters was Bonifacius, governor of the Diocese of Africa.[5][24] Aetius, his rival for influence, managed to secure Arles against Theodoric I of the Visigoths.[26] The Visigoths concluded a treaty and were given Gallic noblemen as hostages. The later Emperor Avitus visited Theodoric, lived at his court and taught his sons.[27]

[edit] Conflict between Bonifacius and Aetius

Conflict between Placidia and Bonifacius started in 429. Placidia appointed Bonifacius general of Libya. Procopius records that Aetius played the two against each other, warning Placidia against Bonifacius and advising her to recall him to Rome; simultaneously writing to Bonifacius, warning him that Placidia was about to summon him for no good reason in order to put him away.[28]

Bonifacius, trusting the warning from Aetius, refused the summons; and, thinking his position untenable, sought an alliance with the Vandals in Spain. The Vandals subsequently crossed from Spain into Libya to join him. To friends of Bonifacius in Rome, this apparent act of hostility toward the Empire seemed entirely out of character for Bonifacius. They traveled to Carthage at Placidia's behest to intercede with him, and he showed them the letter from Aetius. The plot now revealed, his friends returned to Rome to apprise Placidia of the true situation. She did not move against Aetius, as he wielded great influence, and as the Empire was already in danger; but she urged Bonifacius to return to Rome "and not to permit the empire of the Romans to lie under the hand of barbarians."[28]

Bonifacius now regretted his alliance with the Vandals and tried to persuade them to return to Spain. Gaiseric offered battle instead, and Bonifacius was besieged at Hippo Regius in Numidia by the sea. (St. Augustine was Bishop of Hippo and died in this siege.) Unable to take the city, the Vandals eventually raised the siege. The Romans, with reinforcements under Aspar, renewed the struggle but were routed and lost Africa to the Vandals.[28]

Bonifacius had meanwhile returned to Rome, where Placidia raised him to the rank of patrician and made him "master-general of the Roman armie". Aetius returned from Gaul with an army of "barbarians", and was met by Bonifacius in the bloody Battle of Ravenna (432). Bonifacius won the battle, but was mortally wounded and died a few days later. Aetius was compelled to retire to Pannonia.[28]

[edit] Rise of Aetius

With the generals loyal to her having either died or defected to Aetius, Placidia acknowledged the inevitable: Aetius was recalled from exile in 433 and given the titles "magister militum" and "Patrician". The appointments effectively left Aetius in control of the entire Western Roman Army and gave him considerable influence over imperial policy. Placidia continued to act as regent until 437, though her direct influence over decisions was diminished. She would continue to exercise political influence until her death in 450—no longer, however, the only power at court.[5]

Aetius later played a pivotal role in the defense of the Western Empire against Attila the Hun. Attila was diverted from Constantinople towards Italy by a letter from Placidia's own daughter Justa Grata Honoria in the spring of 450, asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a Roman senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force upon her. Honoria included her engagement ring with the letter. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of Placidia persuaded him not to kill Honoria. Valentinian wrote to Attila denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, unconvinced, sent an emissary to Ravenna to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his. Honoria was quickly married to Flavius Bassus Herculanus, though this did not prevent Attila from pressing his claim.[29]

Placidia died shortly afterwards at Rome in November 450, and did not live to see Attila ravage Italy in 451–453, in a much more brutal campaign than the Goths had waged, using Justa's letter as his sole "legitimate" excuse.

[edit] Depictions in popular culture

Galla Placidia is represented in the BBC's Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire by Natasha Berrero

Spanish musician Jaume Pahissa wrote the opera Gal·la Placídia in 1913.

[edit] Public works

Placidia was a fervent Chalcedonian Christian. She was involved in the building and restoration of various churches throughout her period of influence. She restored and expanded the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. She built San Giovanni Evangelista, Ravenna in thanks for the sparing of her life and those of her children in a storm while crossing the Adriatic Sea. The dedicatory inscription reads "Galla Placidia, along with her son Placidus Valentinian Augustus and her daughter Justa Grata Honoria Augusta, paid off their vow for their liberation from the danger of the sea."[5]

Her Mausoleum in Ravenna was one of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites inscribed in 1996. However there is some doubt whether the building served as her tomb. The building was initially erected as a chapel dedicated to Lawrence of Rome. It is unknown whether the sarcophagi therein contained the bodies of the members of the Theodosian dynasty, or when they were placed in the building.

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