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This was the last addition to the Roman Forum, added in 608 A.D.
On Wikipedia's entry, the forum is described as, "the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history." (They used a citation from Michael Grant's book 'The Roman Forum,' published in 1970 to support this.). Everything in this description that follows is a combination of information primarily from the Wikipedia entry and Rick Steves Rome (and possibly another website or two).
"Forum" is a Latin word that simply means "outside." The word essentially exists as such in the majority of Romance languages: Italian (fuori), Spanish (fuera), Portuguese and Catalan (fora), etc. But, outside of what? That'd be the Palatine Hill.
Fora, in Roman times, were mainly marketplaces, but the Roman Forum evolved into something much more. (At the end of this lengthy description, I'll differentiate between the Roman Forum and the other fora in Rome.)
The physical space: We're not talking about a huge space here. The forum lies on a east-west axis (slightly more southeast-northwest) between the foot of the Capitoline Hill in the west and stretching to the Arch of Titus in the east (across the street from the Colosseum more or less). The length of that is about 280 meters (920 feet, or just over three American football fields) with a width of 190 meters (620 feet). The southern end of the Forum runs along the base of the Palatine Hill. (That also gives an idea of how close Palatine and Capitoline Hills are.). The Via Sacra is the "Main Street" of the Forum and runs its length from the Arch of Titus to the Arch of Septimius Severus.
The forum and its structures evolved naturally, over a long period of time (naturally, as opposed to being meticulously planned all at once). The first known structures on the Forum were from the 7th century B.C. (Regia) until 608 A.D. (Column of Phocas). In those roughly 1,300 years, the open space of the forum shrunk from the above dimensions to a main square about 130 meters by 50 meters (at the west end of the Forum; this is where the Rostrum is).
Pre-Roman History:
Pottery deposits discovered here show that humans lived here in the last Bronze Age (1200-975 B.C.). In the 10th century B.C., an area near where the Temple of Antoninus Pius & Faustina are located was used as a cemetery. (They cremated folks back then.). The land, during those centuries, was swampy wetland. Marshy. Not great. (Makes you wonder why people lived there, let alone buried folks there.). So, when was the land converted into something more solid, and usable for building?
Around the 7th century B.C., the first real structure built here was the Cloaca Maxima, a large, covered sewage system that drained the water into the nearby Tiber.
Roman Kingdom (753 B.C. to roughly 500 B.C.):
This is when the buildings (as we can see them today) started to be built. The first two were the Regia (House of the Kings) at the Comitium on the western end of the Forum (where the Rostrum is) and the House of the Vestals. (There were also people's houses here, but they were eventually bought up and used to build more structures during the...)
Roman Republic (~500 B.C. - 44 B.C.)
During this time, we find the first buildings with known dates of construction. The Temple of Saturn (with 8 columns still standing) was built in 497 B.C. The Temple of Castor and Pollux was added in 484 B.C. These are on the western end of the Forum between the House of the Vestals and the Capitoline Hill. The Temple of Concord was also built during the republic, about a century after the Temple of Saturn. (Its ruins are at the base of the Capitoline Hill next to the Tabularium.)
Roman Empire (44.B.C. - about 500 A.D.
The empire officially began with the death of Caesar in 44 B.C. Emperor Augustus completed his dear uncle's construction projects and added a few of his own. (Temple of Caesar, Arch of Augustus, the Curia, Caesar's funeral pyre.)
Other structures, like the Arch of Septimius Severus (western end of the Forum) were added around the 2nd century A.D. Diocletian reorganized and rebuilt the Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vesta, Curia Julia. The last major addition to the Forum came in 312 A.D. with the Basilica of Maxentius (or Basilica of Constantine, since he finished it).
The last addition of any kind came in 608 A.D., about a century after the Roman Empire had fallen. The Column of Phocas was added to honor Emperor Phocas of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine).
Decline of the Forum:
Emperor Constans II (Eastern Roman, of course) visited in 663 A.D., saw the lead roofs and thought, "Say, these would be useful elsewhere!" So, he stripped them all, leaving the structures open to the elements. By the 8th century A.D., the Forum was already falling apart, buried in a lot of debris, and turned into a cattle field.
After the 8th century, the remaining structures were dismantled, rearranged, and used to build towers and castles in the area. This continued until the 13th century when the Forum was basically a dumping ground, buried in debris. This contributed to the rising street level. (If you look at the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, you'll notice the door is rather high -- this was street level when Michelangelo was wandering around in the 16th century.
Italian Renaissance:
Rome was in ruins by this time, and had a very small population
The Forum was really wrecked, ad this was more pronounced during the return of the popes. The Catholic Church had returned from Avignon in 1367. Pope Martin V issued a papal bull in 1425 that essentially said, "This city is a dump. We need to restore it." The Forum was a quarry. Between 1540 and 1550, Pope Paul III took liberally from the Forum to build Saint Peter's Basilica. (I can go on with examples, but you get the point.)
Restoration:
The Forum as we see it now is the process of over 200 years of excavations and restoration. In 1803, the debris around the Arch of Septimius Severus was cleared out and over the subsequent 220 years, the work continues. To this day, if you visit the Forum, you will see evidence of this.
Other fora in Rome:
Way back at the top, I mentioned this isn't the only Forum in Rome. The Imperial Fora are almost directly next door here on the Via dei Fori Imperiali. Those were all established in a traditional style as piazza (town squares, if you will.). As the original fora were for marketplaces, there were plenty of those as well. The Roman Forum is just the one that evolved into something a lot more...substantial. Of the other fora, you would have found: the Forum Boarium (dedicated to the commerce of cattle, located between Palatine Hill and the Tiber River), Forum Holitorium (herb & vegetable market, between Capitoline Hill and the Servian Walls), Forum Piscarium (fish market, between Capitoline Hill and the Tiber -- where the Jewish Ghetto is located), Forum Suarium (pork market, northern part of Campus Martius), and the Forum Vinarium (in modern Testaccio, between the Aventine Hill and the Tiber).
Jason Hummel Photography
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Published in the Manitoba Co-operator - December 20, 2012
TREEHUGGER
A snowscape, or snow-escape? You decide.
This photograph was published in the Illustrated Chronicle on the 8th November 1916
During the Great War the Illustrated Chronicle published photographs of soldiers and sailors from Newcastle and the North East of England, which had been in the news. The photographs were sent in by relatives and give us a glimpse into the past.
The physical collection held by Newcastle Libraries comprises bound volumes of the newspaper from 1910 to 1925. We are keen to find out more about the people in the photographs. If you recognise anyone in the images and have any stories and information to add please comment below.
My photos got published in the June 2009 Avalanche Echoes. Full story by Caroline Clapham is available on the ACC Vancouver website at:
Published in the WESTERN PRODUCER - November 18, 2010
With rain in the forecast, farmers rushed to get canola loaded into a truck Nov. 8 at the Greaves farm near Deerwood, Man.
Here's the original photo I took back in 2006 with my a Canon PowerShot S60. Not bad for a point and shoot. This is the second photo I've had published by Cherbo Publishing.
Their books are always beautiful and well-designed. The Rochester book is no exception and I'm proud to be part of it.
Published by J. Welch & Sons, Portsmouth
Unposted and undated. Good condition.
Swap for one map postcard or buy for 50p plus postage.
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Dopo il suo grande ‘Tuskegee Tour’ con cui ha deliziato il pubblico Europeo nel 2012, Lionel Brockman Richie Jr., conosciuto come Lionel Richie annuncia il suo ritorno nel Vecchio Continente con un tour di 31 in 12 paesi nei primi mesi di quest’anno.
Il 5 volte vincitore di Grammy Award ha lanciato il suo tour negli Usa nel settembre 2013. Da allora ha suonato in 70 show tra stadi, arene e festival.
Parlando del suo tour in Europa Lionel dice: "Non vedo l'ora di tornare in Italia. Il pubblico è fantastico e sto sempre benissimo quando sono in Italia. Lo spettacolo è fatto per cantare insieme quindi non vedo l'ora di cantare insieme al pubblico italiano di nuovo!"
Lo show di Lionel comprende le canzoni di uno dei repertori più amati nella musica internazionale, spaziando per la sua intera carriera dai Commodores a oggi. Il tour ha suscitato incredibili reazioni in tutto il mondo. Le performance di Lionel sono riconosciute per essere molto più che un concerto, i critici di tutto il mondo hanno sottolineato l'atmosfera di festa che riesce a creare riunendo gli spettatori con canzoni come “Dancing On The Ceiling”, “Say You, Say Me”, “Hello”, “Three Times A Lady”, “Easy” and “All Night Long”. Lo show davvero mantieni le promesse del titolo All The Hits All Night Long
Il tour celebra l'incredibile carriera di Lionel. Ha venduto piu di 100 milioni di dischi in tutto il mondo ricevendo premi come Grammy, American Music Award, Golden Globe e anche un Oscar.
Published in YEAR BOOK FANZINE
Photography FABRIZZIO VALENZUELA
Stylist HERNÁN KAEL
Makeup and Hair DANIELA DOMINIQUE
Model CLEMENTE by WE LOVE MODELS CHILE
Publisher: Futura Tintas
Projeto e Desenvolvimento:
Listo! Comunicação (www.agencialisto.com.br)
Direção de Arte e Diagramação:
Thaís Pacheco
Direção de Criação: Nelson Assis
Redação e Revisão:
Caroline Merlo, Cristiane Kulibaba
Direção de Redação:
Renata Dembogurski
My photo of the Chicago Riverwalk has been published in The Chicago River: A History in Photographs by Jonathan Genzen. The book is available from Amazon.com, Borders, Barnes & Noble, and most Chicagoland bookstores.
8th August 2020
Freundschaftsspiel
TV Jahn Dinslaken-Hiesfeld v Rot-Weiß Oberhausen
Stadion am Freibad
FT 0-6
The copyright for all photos remains with the author; me, Ashley Greb (@ashleygrebphoto).
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