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When I was making the programs/fans, I didn't know what to put on the back, so I thought about what I wanted to see when I looked out at the crowd. Of course! My aunt with a mustache.
Photo by www.flickr.com/photos/kriegsaz/
Soldiers from 2nd Canadian Division practice drills on April 7, 2015, in preparation for sentry duty at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The National Sentry Program will see sentries posted at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier from April 9 to November 10, 2015.
Photo: Cpl Wesley, Directorate of Army Public Affairs
LF2015-0016-14
Des soldats de la 2e Division du Canada exécutent des exercices militaires le 7 avril 2015, en vue de leur affectation à titre de sentinelles à la Tombe du Soldat inconnu. Dans le cadre du Programme des sentinelles, des sentinelles seront postées à la Tombe du Soldat inconnu du 9 avril au 10 novembre 2015.
Photo: Cpl Wesley, Direction des Affaires publiques de l’Armée de terre
LF2015-0016-14
Part of the JavaScript code that was attached to an e-mail as a fake invoice in a zip file.
Once the user opens the malicious zip file the JavaScript code is executed and the ransomware software is downloaded from an infected website.
When the ransomware software is running it will encrypt all files that match particular extensions.
After encryption, a message (displayed on the user's desktop) instructs them to download the Tor browser and visit a specific criminal-operated Web site for further information.
Read more: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware
012617: Washington, D.C - U.S. Customs and Border Protection hosted the Martin Luther King Jr. program with multiple speakers featuring the theme "Remember, Celebrate, Act!". Seen here reciting the "I Have a Dream" speech is Maurice Gill, Assistant Chief, U.S. Border Patrol.
Photographer: Donna Burton
Part of the JavaScript code that was attached to an e-mail as a fake invoice in a zip file.
Once the user opens the malicious zip file the JavaScript code is executed and the ransomware software is downloaded from an infected website.
When the ransomware software is running it will encrypt all files that match particular extensions.
After encryption, a message (displayed on the user's desktop) instructs them to download the Tor browser and visit a specific criminal-operated Web site for further information.
Read more: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware
Part of the JavaScript code that was attached to an e-mail as a fake invoice in a zip file.
Once the user opens the malicious zip file the JavaScript code is executed and the ransomware software is downloaded from an infected website.
When the ransomware software is running it will encrypt all files that match particular extensions.
After encryption, a message (displayed on the user's desktop) instructs them to download the Tor browser and visit a specific criminal-operated Web site for further information.
Read more: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware
November 20, 2019 - Attendees of the Office of Indian Energy 2019 Program Review chat during a break in the presentations at the event at the Sheraton Denver West. (Photo by Werner Slocum / NREL)
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Catalog #: 08_01027
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: North American Rockwell Two Stage Winged Space Shuttle
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00909
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Mock up and engineers
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00907
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
From the Solidarity with Ferguson rally in Madison, Wisconsin. 09/07/2014
Dorothy Krause is a progressive-minded Supervisor at Dane County Board of Supervisors and Common Council Alder at City of Fitchburg.
Here is a link to the petition:
www.change.org/p/joe-parisi-we-want-solidarity-with-fergu...
Here are the demands:
1. Diversity training - All common council members and All law enforcement departments within Dane county must participate in an ongoing, diversity training program approved by a diverse group of council members, officers and civilian experts on issues of diversity and policing such as Gloria Ladson-Billings, Seema Kapani and David Couper.
•All law enforcement departments within Dane county must commission an annual poll to determine the success and needs for diversity training.
•The poll must be commissioned through an independent non-law enforcement institution approved by civilian experts on issues of diversity and policing. Examples of such civilians would be Gloria Ladson-Billings, Seema Kapani and David Couper.
2. Sensitivity training - All common council and all law enforcement departments within Dane county must participate in an ongoing sensitivity training program approved by a diverse group of officers and civilian experts on issues of diversity and policing. Examples of such civilians would be Gloria Ladson-Billings, Seema Kapani and David Couper.
•All law enforcement departments within Dane county must commission an annual poll to determine the success and needs for sensitivity training.
•The poll must be commissioned through an independent non-law enforcement institution approved by civilian experts on issues of diversity and policing. Examples of such civilians would be Gloria Ladson-Billings, Seema Kapani and David Couper.
•All law enforcement departments within Dane county must meet with Community Solutions Teams in each district to determine a plan for developing greater and more honest communication between themselves and their respective communities, particularly the communities of color.
3. Racially diverse employees who live in the city they police -All law enforcement departments within Dane county must strive to employ people whose race reflect that of the community they police most often and hire employees who are live or are willing to live in the city they police.
4. Independent CRIMINAL and INTERNAL investigations -for all injuries inflicted by law enforcement officers within Dane County to be performed by an agency that does not employ anyone from the department of the officer involved. It has become clear that police cannot be “objective” in their pursuit of “reasonableness.” Bias lays waste to justice. Let's prevent it as best we can.
•The race of the investigative leads must equally represent the race of those involved in the incident.
•The names of the investigative leads must be revealed to the public within 48 hours of the incident.
•Photographs of the civilians that are released to the media must be offered and approved by the civilian's next of kin.
•Civilians must have the right to redact information from police records before they are made public.
•If a department breaks this law and investigates itself as we are seeing in Milwaukee with the Dontre Hamilton investigation, the chief of police must be reprimanded with 6 months minimum jail time for misuse of confidential information and tampering with evidence.
5. Front facing cameras for all law enforcement officers - an investment in having the advantage of complete video footage of officer-involved incidents would save lives and money and it would restore some trust in the police.
•Everyone would think twice about behaving inappropriately, trust in that transparency would be inevitable and money in that far fewer days and hours would be spent piecing together multiple takes of a single incident. Cameras must not be turned off at the officer's discretion. To do so is tampering with and attempting to conceal evidence.
•The footage must not be altered in any way.
•Civilian and officer witnesses must be permitted to view the exact same footage, no more or less than one another, in the company of their attorneys, before giving their statements to anyone.
•Civilians must be allowed to redact elements of footage that if released to the public would cause further trauma or damage to their lives.
6. The District Attorney must not review or make the determination in criminal investigations. In the history of Wisconsin policing, there has been only 1 case when a D.A. charged an officer involved in a fatality. The D.A., who cannot win re-election if s/he loses the law enforcement vote and who depends on good rapport with officers to try and win cases, must no longer make the final determination in the criminal investigations of officers involved in potentially criminal activity - nor should they prosecute. To date, there is no greater conflict of interest built into the infrastructure of law enforcement.
•A diverse grand jury must make the determination for criminal investigations of officer-involved excessive force and fatal incidents.
•A special prosecutor must prosecute in these cases and be appointed by the grand jury or an ombudsman
7. The chief or sheriff must not review or make the determination in officer-involved injury or death investigation.
•In the past 129 years, not a single Wisconsin police chief, sheriff or police and fire commission has found an officer in the wrong for excessive force or taking a life. This proves that chiefs and sheriffs will not or feel that cannot find one of their own officers guilty of excessive force.
•All officer-involved injury and death investigations must be reviewed and determined by a diverse grand jury
8. If an officer is found to have used excessive force, they must be fired.
9. All law enforcement departments within Dane county must terminate every officer named in settled lawsuits - This seems like common sense, but the fact is that officers that cost millions in lawsuits are routinely allowed to keep their jobs. If a jurisdiction chooses to settle a lawsuit against an officer for excessive force, civil rights violations, or other abuses of power, the department must terminate the officer and the officer will be placed on the National Police Offender Registry.
10. Firing vs Resigning - As with the military, officers who are charged internally with policy violations that would have them fired should have to go before their commission and be fired. A firing and a resignation look different on a job or gun owner application, as they should. The former West Allis officer who went on to be a security guard before he killed two woman and put them in suitcases is one example of why officers must be held fully accountable, on paper, for their actions.
11. Early Warning System: There is no worse time and place for a chief or sheriff to find that they have a bigot or loose canon in their department than at the scene of an officer-involved injury or death. The development of early warning systems for all law enforcement departments within Dane county that tracks all complaints made against police officers and flags destructive patterns is needed. These systems should be reviewed by the police and fire commission.
12. MDC Screening: As we learned from Rodney King's beating and the 2012 forced resignation of former Madison Police Officer Heimsness, it is essential for all police communication systems for all law enforcement departments within Dane county to be screened.
13. Screening for drugs and mental fitness: All law enforcement departments within Dane county must conduct random drug and mental fitness screening. The program used for screening for and supporting mental fitness must be developed by an impartial institution. For example: "Force Science" is is not an impartial institution. The UW Center For Investigating Healthy Minds is.
14. STATS: All law enforcement departments within Dane countymust report to the FBI's UCR (uniform crime reporting) program for more accurate data. Additionally, they must release all statistics involving their employees and complaints made against them for all injuries afflicted on civilians to a database housed by an independent location that is easily accessible to the public.
15. National Police Offender Registry: All law enforcement officers within Dane county that violate the public’s trust should not be treated differently than sex offenders. "If an officer is found to have used excessive force, violated a citizen’s civil rights, or abused the power of their office, they should be added to the registry and be barred from holding a law enforcement related position for life. " - Justin King
16. No death penalty by WI Police: Fatal shooting is too often employed in circumstances when public safety could have been secured with far less drastic measures. All law enforcement departments within Dane county must commit to researching and developing non-deadly and non-injurious methods for stopping a threat, to codifying the precedence of these methods in procedural policy, and to employing them in practice.
17. Shifts for law enforcement employees with the sole purpose of decompressing and restoration: Traumatic events occur in the everyday lives of officers. It would benefit everyone if the resulting trauma were taken seriously. When an officer commits a crime, we often hear from his/her co-workers that "we saw no signs." All law enforcement departments within Dane county must be required to go before psychologists on a regular basis in order that those signs be detected. Additionally, officers should have shifts that include scientifically-supported decompression and restoration techniques. UW Center for Investigating Healthy Minds would be a good resource for compiling these techniques.
18. Rate Leadership: All law officers with in Dane county must be polled anonymously by an independent and impartial group to gauge whether their needs are being met by their leadership and whether or not they feel comfortable upholding justice at the expense of their department's reputation.
19. Dash cameras must not be turned off at the officer's discretion.
20. Two-way radios should stay on throughout officer interactions with civilians for backup evidence.
21. Ask for help when needed: Develop an interface through which the police can solicit community assistance and collaboration, ideas and programs that foster better communication, transparency and relations with the community.
22. Stop accepting and maintaining military equipment. Dane County, there is no war but the one you are waging with yourselves!
23. Re-examination of Graham Vs Connor and the Objective Reasonableness Standard: In the past 129 years, not a single police chief or sheriff has found an officer in the wrong for taking a life. That means in 129 years, WI officers have never made a mistake when taking a life. Impossible. This statistic represents a systemic failure of oversight and malpractice on the part of those supposedly keeping watch. How does this happen?
The Objective Reasonableness Standard is used as a guide for deadly force policy by a chief or sheriff to determine whether or not the amount of force used against a civilian was reasonable. Chiefs and sheriffs look to past cases to determine what a "reasonable officer" would have done and so the criteria for such a decision can essentially be determined after the fact.
The highly flexible ways in which the Standard has been interpreted have only served the interests of the police force and, in fact, no officer has been found to have taken a “wrong" action in any of these investigations by a chief, sheriff or commission. This irresponsible looseness is legally, systemically supported at every level of law enforcement, from the statutes to the rulings of District Attorneys. This fact serves virtually to eliminate accountability in policing and, placing little value on the lives of civilians.
Though serving our community poorly, the looseness of this Standard serves well the elected officials who make determinations on controversial Officer-involved injuries and fatalities etc. in that sheriffs and D.A.s can stay elected and appointed chiefs are allowed to keep their records of “perfection” intact.
The general public has no idea how little value this standard places on all of our lives. Currently, if an officer has a civilian within reach of their weapon, s/he can at any time claim the civilian went for his/her gun, that s/he feared for his/her life, and that s/he therefore shot to kill.
•Because all of this is true, Dane County and its cities must commission a poll through an independent institution approved by impartial civilian experts on deadly force such as Michael Scott at the center of Problem Oriented Policing and former Madison Chief of Police, David Couper. The purpose of this poll would be to determine how comfortable Dane County civilians are with both current and historical applications of the Objective Reasonableness Standard, use of force policies and Wisconsin's 129 year record of perfect policing in all officer-involved fatalities.
•The Objective Reasonableness Standard allows officers to be conveniently selective as to what information coming from the suspect or witnesses can be interpreted as "fact". This flexibility allows officers to get away with intentional recklessness and negligence as we saw in the in the 1989 case of Graham vs Connor, the 2012 shooting death of unarmed Madison resident Paul Heenan, the 2004 shooting death of handcuffed Kenosha resident, Michael Bell and the 2012 suffocation death of Milwaukee resident, Derek Williams.
•The Objective Reasonableness Standard must be re-examined and changed to better protect civilians and to place value where it belongs: on human life.
•The exoneration of an officer must be supported by proof of prior and current mental fitness and drug screening of that police officer.
Without an agreed upon definition of justice, there can be no peace. These changes represent a justice that protects all human life no matter what color we are or badge we wear. I ask that you to take this stand and act as if the lives of all who live in Dane County are invaluable and irreplaceable.
Catalog #: 08_00825
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: shows a mockup of a mission control module
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00917
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
An oak sapling take root at private forestland in Jackson County, IN owned by David Ray May 24, 2022. Ray purchased 310 acres of forestland in Jackson County, IN in 1995 to use for recreational purposes including hunting, hiking and foraging. Ray enrolled his land in NRCS’ Environmental Quality Incentives Program in 2017 for forest stand improvement and brush management. After the conclusion of his EQIP contract, he enrolled the acres in NRCS’ Conservation Stewardship Program to complete herbaceous weed treatment, help facilitate oak forest regeneration, and plant conservation cover for pollinators and beneficial insects. Ray said his and his family’s goal is to make each of 310 acres as good as they can be, and he has a four-year rotation that enables him to go through every acre of the woods and make improvements. (NRCS photo by Brandon O’Connor)
Photo credit: Elena Olivo
Copyright: NYU Photo Bureau
The Fall 2010 Student Hackathon brought in hundreds of students from 30 universities to NYU's Courant Institute for 24 hours of creative hacking on New York City startups' APIs.
Selected startups presented their technologies at the beginning of the event, and students formed groups to brainstorm and begin coding on their ideas. Many students worked into the night, foregoing sleep to fulfill their visions.
On Sunday afternoon students presented their projects to an audience including a judging panel, which selected the final winners.
hackNY hosts hackathons one each semester, as well as a Summer Fellows Program, which pairs quantitative and computational students with startups which can demonstrate a strong mentoring environment, a problem for a student to work on, a person to mentor them, and a place for them to work. Startups selected to host a student are expected to compensate student Fellows. Students enjoy free housing together and a pedagogical lecture series to introduce them to the ins and outs of joining and founding a startup.
For more information on hackNY's initiatives, please visit www.hackNY.org and follow us on twitter @hackNY
Catalog #: 08_00839
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Proposed Shuttle Ground Equipment
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Part of the JavaScript code that was attached to an e-mail as a fake invoice in a zip file.
Once the user opens the malicious zip file the JavaScript code is executed and the ransomware software is downloaded from an infected website.
When the ransomware software is running it will encrypt all files that match particular extensions.
After encryption, a message (displayed on the user's desktop) instructs them to download the Tor browser and visit a specific criminal-operated Web site for further information.
Read more: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransomware
Catalog #: 08_00908
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Spaceflight (or space flight) is ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union was the first human to conduct a spaceflight. Examples of human spaceflight include the U.S. Apollo Moon landing and Space Shuttle programs and the Russian Soyuz program, as well as the ongoing International Space Station. Examples of unmanned spaceflight include space probes that leave Earth orbit, as well as satellites in orbit around Earth, such as communications satellites. These operate either by telerobotic control or are fully autonomous.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of the Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft – both when unpropelled and when under propulsion – is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
History
Main articles: History of spaceflight and Timeline of spaceflight
Tsiolkovsky, early space theorist
The first theoretical proposal of space travel using rockets was published by Scottish astronomer and mathematician William Leitch, in an 1861 essay "A Journey Through Space".[1] More well-known (though not widely outside Russia) is Konstantin Tsiolkovsky's work, "Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами" (The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices), published in 1903.
Spaceflight became an engineering possibility with the work of Robert H. Goddard's publication in 1919 of his paper A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes. His application of the de Laval nozzle to liquid fuel rockets improved efficiency enough for interplanetary travel to become possible. He also proved in the laboratory that rockets would work in the vacuum of space;[specify] nonetheless, his work was not taken seriously by the public. His attempt to secure an Army contract for a rocket-propelled weapon in the first World War was defeated by the November 11, 1918 armistice with Germany. Working with private financial support, he was the first to launch a liquid-fueled rocket in 1926. Goddard's paper was highly influential on Hermann Oberth, who in turn influenced Wernher von Braun. Von Braun became the first to produce modern rockets as guided weapons, employed by Adolf Hitler. Von Braun's V-2 was the first rocket to reach space, at an altitude of 189 kilometers (102 nautical miles) on a June 1944 test flight.[2]
Tsiolkovsky's rocketry work was not fully appreciated in his lifetime, but he influenced Sergey Korolev, who became the Soviet Union's chief rocket designer under Joseph Stalin, to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles to carry nuclear weapons as a counter measure to United States bomber planes. Derivatives of Korolev's R-7 Semyorka missiles were used to launch the world's first artificial Earth satellite, Sputnik 1, on October 4, 1957, and later the first human to orbit the Earth, Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1, on April 12, 1961.[3]
At the end of World War II, von Braun and most of his rocket team surrendered to the United States, and were expatriated to work on American missiles at what became the Army Ballistic Missile Agency. This work on missiles such as Juno I and Atlas enabled launch of the first US satellite Explorer 1 on February 1, 1958, and the first American in orbit, John Glenn in Friendship 7 on February 20, 1962. As director of the Marshall Space Flight Center, Von Braun oversaw development of a larger class of rocket called Saturn, which allowed the US to send the first two humans, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, to the Moon and back on Apollo 11 in July 1969. Over the same period, the Soviet Union secretly tried but failed to develop the N1 rocket to give them the capability to land one person on the Moon.
Phases
Launch
Main article: Rocket launch
See also: List of space launch system designs
Rockets are the only means currently capable of reaching orbit or beyond. Other non-rocket spacelaunch technologies have yet to be built, or remain short of orbital speeds. A rocket launch for a spaceflight usually starts from a spaceport (cosmodrome), which may be equipped with launch complexes and launch pads for vertical rocket launches, and runways for takeoff and landing of carrier airplanes and winged spacecraft. Spaceports are situated well away from human habitation for noise and safety reasons. ICBMs have various special launching facilities.
A launch is often restricted to certain launch windows. These windows depend upon the position of celestial bodies and orbits relative to the launch site. The biggest influence is often the rotation of the Earth itself. Once launched, orbits are normally located within relatively constant flat planes at a fixed angle to the axis of the Earth, and the Earth rotates within this orbit.
A launch pad is a fixed structure designed to dispatch airborne vehicles. It generally consists of a launch tower and flame trench. It is surrounded by equipment used to erect, fuel, and maintain launch vehicles. Before launch, the rocket can weigh many hundreds of tonnes. The Space Shuttle Columbia, on STS-1, weighed 2,030 tonnes (4,480,000 lb) at take off.
Reaching space
The most commonly used definition of outer space is everything beyond the Kármán line, which is 100 kilometers (62 mi) above the Earth's surface. The United States sometimes defines outer space as everything beyond 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.
Rockets are the only currently practical means of reaching space. Conventional airplane engines cannot reach space due to the lack of oxygen. Rocket engines expel propellant to provide forward thrust that generates enough delta-v (change in velocity) to reach orbit.
For manned launch systems launch escape systems are frequently fitted to allow astronauts to escape in the case of emergency.
Alternatives
Main article: Non-rocket spacelaunch
Many ways to reach space other than rockets have been proposed. Ideas such as the space elevator, and momentum exchange tethers like rotovators or skyhooks require new materials much stronger than any currently known. Electromagnetic launchers such as launch loops might be feasible with current technology. Other ideas include rocket assisted aircraft/spaceplanes such as Reaction Engines Skylon (currently in early stage development), scramjet powered spaceplanes, and RBCC powered spaceplanes. Gun launch has been proposed for cargo.
Leaving orbit
This section possibly contains original research. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk:Spaceflight. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (June 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Main articles: Escape velocity and Parking orbit
Launched in 1959, Luna 1 was the first known man-made object to achieve escape velocity from the Earth.[4] (replica pictured)
Achieving a closed orbit is not essential to lunar and interplanetary voyages. Early Russian space vehicles successfully achieved very high altitudes without going into orbit. NASA considered launching Apollo missions directly into lunar trajectories but adopted the strategy of first entering a temporary parking orbit and then performing a separate burn several orbits later onto a lunar trajectory. This costs additional propellant because the parking orbit perigee must be high enough to prevent reentry while direct injection can have an arbitrarily low perigee because it will never be reached.
However, the parking orbit approach greatly simplified Apollo mission planning in several important ways. It substantially widened the allowable launch windows, increasing the chance of a successful launch despite minor technical problems during the countdown. The parking orbit was a stable "mission plateau" that gave the crew and controllers several hours to thoroughly check out the spacecraft after the stresses of launch before committing it to a long lunar flight; the crew could quickly return to Earth, if necessary, or an alternate Earth-orbital mission could be conducted. The parking orbit also enabled translunar trajectories that avoided the densest parts of the Van Allen radiation belts.
Apollo missions minimized the performance penalty of the parking orbit by keeping its altitude as low as possible. For example, Apollo 15 used an unusually low parking orbit (even for Apollo) of 92.5 nmi by 91.5 nmi (171 km by 169 km) where there was significant atmospheric drag. But it was partially overcome by continuous venting of hydrogen from the third stage of the Saturn V, and was in any event tolerable for the short stay.
Robotic missions do not require an abort capability or radiation minimization, and because modern launchers routinely meet "instantaneous" launch windows, space probes to the Moon and other planets generally use direct injection to maximize performance. Although some might coast briefly during the launch sequence, they do not complete one or more full parking orbits before the burn that injects them onto an Earth escape trajectory.
Note that the escape velocity from a celestial body decreases with altitude above that body. However, it is more fuel-efficient for a craft to burn its fuel as close to the ground as possible; see Oberth effect and reference.[5] This is another way to explain the performance penalty associated with establishing the safe perigee of a parking orbit.
Plans for future crewed interplanetary spaceflight missions often include final vehicle assembly in Earth orbit, such as NASA's Project Orion and Russia's Kliper/Parom tandem.
Astrodynamics
Main article: Orbital mechanics
Astrodynamics is the study of spacecraft trajectories, particularly as they relate to gravitational and propulsion effects. Astrodynamics allows for a spacecraft to arrive at its destination at the correct time without excessive propellant use. An orbital maneuvering system may be needed to maintain or change orbits.
Non-rocket orbital propulsion methods include solar sails, magnetic sails, plasma-bubble magnetic systems, and using gravitational slingshot effects.
Ionized gas trail from Shuttle reentry
Recovery of Discoverer 14 return capsule by a C-119 airplane
Transfer energy
The term "transfer energy" means the total amount of energy imparted by a rocket stage to its payload. This can be the energy imparted by a first stage of a launch vehicle to an upper stage plus payload, or by an upper stage or spacecraft kick motor to a spacecraft.[6][7]
Reentry
Main article: Atmospheric reentry
Vehicles in orbit have large amounts of kinetic energy. This energy must be discarded if the vehicle is to land safely without vaporizing in the atmosphere. Typically this process requires special methods to protect against aerodynamic heating. The theory behind reentry was developed by Harry Julian Allen. Based on this theory, reentry vehicles present blunt shapes to the atmosphere for reentry. Blunt shapes mean that less than 1% of the kinetic energy ends up as heat that reaches the vehicle, and the remainder heats up the atmosphere.
Landing
The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo capsules all splashed down in the sea. These capsules were designed to land at relatively low speeds with the help of a parachute. Russian capsules for Soyuz make use of a big parachute and braking rockets to touch down on land. The Space Shuttle glided to a touchdown like a plane.
Recovery
After a successful landing the spacecraft, its occupants and cargo can be recovered. In some cases, recovery has occurred before landing: while a spacecraft is still descending on its parachute, it can be snagged by a specially designed aircraft. This mid-air retrieval technique was used to recover the film canisters from the Corona spy satellites.
Types
Uncrewed
See also: Uncrewed spacecraft and robotic spacecraft
Sojourner takes its Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer measurement of Yogi Rock on Mars
The MESSENGER spacecraft at Mercury (artist's interpretation)
Uncrewed spaceflight (or unmanned) is all spaceflight activity without a necessary human presence in space. This includes all space probes, satellites and robotic spacecraft and missions. Uncrewed spaceflight is the opposite of manned spaceflight, which is usually called human spaceflight. Subcategories of uncrewed spaceflight are "robotic spacecraft" (objects) and "robotic space missions" (activities). A robotic spacecraft is an uncrewed spacecraft with no humans on board, that is usually under telerobotic control. A robotic spacecraft designed to make scientific research measurements is often called a space probe.
Uncrewed space missions use remote-controlled spacecraft. The first uncrewed space mission was Sputnik I, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Space missions where other animals but no humans are on-board are considered uncrewed missions.
Benefits
Many space missions are more suited to telerobotic rather than crewed operation, due to lower cost and lower risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as Venus or the vicinity of Jupiter are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.
Telepresence
Telerobotics becomes telepresence when the time delay is short enough to permit control of the spacecraft in close to real time by humans. Even the two seconds light speed delay for the Moon is too far away for telepresence exploration from Earth. The L1 and L2 positions permit 400-millisecond round trip delays, which is just close enough for telepresence operation. Telepresence has also been suggested as a way to repair satellites in Earth orbit from Earth. The Exploration Telerobotics Symposium in 2012 explored this and other topics.[8]
Human
Main article: Human spaceflight
ISS crew member stores samples
The first human spaceflight was Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, on which cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin of the USSR made one orbit around the Earth. In official Soviet documents, there is no mention of the fact that Gagarin parachuted the final seven miles.[9] Currently, the only spacecraft regularly used for human spaceflight are the Russian Soyuz spacecraft and the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft. The U.S. Space Shuttle fleet operated from April 1981 until July 2011. SpaceShipOne has conducted two human suborbital spaceflights.
Sub-orbital
Main article: Sub-orbital spaceflight
The International Space Station in Earth orbit after a visit from the crew of STS-119
On a sub-orbital spaceflight the spacecraft reaches space and then returns to the atmosphere after following a (primarily) ballistic trajectory. This is usually because of insufficient specific orbital energy, in which case a suborbital flight will last only a few minutes, but it is also possible for an object with enough energy for an orbit to have a trajectory that intersects the Earth's atmosphere, sometimes after many hours. Pioneer 1 was NASA's first space probe intended to reach the Moon. A partial failure caused it to instead follow a suborbital trajectory to an altitude of 113,854 kilometers (70,746 mi) before reentering the Earth's atmosphere 43 hours after launch.
The most generally recognized boundary of space is the Kármán line 100 km above sea level. (NASA alternatively defines an astronaut as someone who has flown more than 50 miles (80 km) above sea level.) It is not generally recognized by the public that the increase in potential energy required to pass the Kármán line is only about 3% of the orbital energy (potential plus kinetic energy) required by the lowest possible Earth orbit (a circular orbit just above the Kármán line.) In other words, it is far easier to reach space than to stay there. On May 17, 2004, Civilian Space eXploration Team launched the GoFast Rocket on a suborbital flight, the first amateur spaceflight. On June 21, 2004, SpaceShipOne was used for the first privately funded human spaceflight.
Point-to-point
Point-to-point is a category of sub-orbital spaceflight in which a spacecraft provides rapid transport between two terrestrial locations. Consider a conventional airline route between London and Sydney, a flight that normally lasts over twenty hours. With point-to-point suborbital travel the same route could be traversed in less than one hour.[10] While no company offers this type of transportation today, SpaceX has revealed plans to do so as early as the 2020s using its BFR vehicle.[11] Suborbital spaceflight over an intercontinental distance requires a vehicle velocity that is only a little lower than the velocity required to reach low Earth orbit.[12] If rockets are used, the size of the rocket relative to the payload is similar to an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Any intercontinental spaceflight has to surmount problems of heating during atmosphere re-entry that are nearly as large as those faced by orbital spaceflight.
Orbital
Main article: Orbital spaceflight
Apollo 6 heads into orbit
A minimal orbital spaceflight requires much higher velocities than a minimal sub-orbital flight, and so it is technologically much more challenging to achieve. To achieve orbital spaceflight, the tangential velocity around the Earth is as important as altitude. In order to perform a stable and lasting flight in space, the spacecraft must reach the minimal orbital speed required for a closed orbit.
Interplanetary
Main article: Interplanetary spaceflight
Interplanetary travel is travel between planets within a single planetary system. In practice, the use of the term is confined to travel between the planets of our Solar System.
Interstellar
Main article: Interstellar travel
Five spacecraft are currently leaving the Solar System on escape trajectories, Voyager 1, Voyager 2, Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons. The one farthest from the Sun is Voyager 1, which is more than 100 AU distant and is moving at 3.6 AU per year.[13] In comparison, Proxima Centauri, the closest star other than the Sun, is 267,000 AU distant. It will take Voyager 1 over 74,000 years to reach this distance. Vehicle designs using other techniques, such as nuclear pulse propulsion are likely to be able to reach the nearest star significantly faster. Another possibility that could allow for human interstellar spaceflight is to make use of time dilation, as this would make it possible for passengers in a fast-moving vehicle to travel further into the future while aging very little, in that their great speed slows down the rate of passage of on-board time. However, attaining such high speeds would still require the use of some new, advanced method of propulsion.
Intergalactic
Main article: Intergalactic travel
Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.
Spacecraft
Main article: Spacecraft
An Apollo Lunar Module on the lunar surface
Spacecraft are vehicles capable of controlling their trajectory through space.
The first 'true spacecraft' is sometimes said to be Apollo Lunar Module,[14] since this was the only manned vehicle to have been designed for, and operated only in space; and is notable for its non aerodynamic shape.
Propulsion
Main article: Spacecraft propulsion
Spacecraft today predominantly use rockets for propulsion, but other propulsion techniques such as ion drives are becoming more common, particularly for unmanned vehicles, and this can significantly reduce the vehicle's mass and increase its delta-v.
Launch systems
Main article: Launch vehicle
Launch systems are used to carry a payload from Earth's surface into outer space.
Expendable
Main article: Expendable launch system
Most current spaceflight uses multi-stage expendable launch systems to reach space.
Reusable
Main article: Reusable launch system
Ambox current red.svg
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2019)
The first reusable spacecraft, the X-15, was air-launched on a suborbital trajectory on July 19, 1963. The first partially reusable orbital spacecraft, the Space Shuttle, was launched by the USA on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight, on April 12, 1981. During the Shuttle era, six orbiters were built, all of which have flown in the atmosphere and five of which have flown in space. The Enterprise was used only for approach and landing tests, launching from the back of a Boeing 747 and gliding to deadstick landings at Edwards AFB, California. The first Space Shuttle to fly into space was the Columbia, followed by the Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. The Endeavour was built to replace the Challenger, which was lost in January 1986. The Columbia broke up during reentry in February 2003.
The Space Shuttle Columbia seconds after engine ignition on mission STS-1
Columbia landing, concluding the STS-1 mission
Columbia launches again on STS-2
The first automatic partially reusable spacecraft was the Buran (Snowstorm), launched by the USSR on November 15, 1988, although it made only one flight. This spaceplane was designed for a crew and strongly resembled the US Space Shuttle, although its drop-off boosters used liquid propellants and its main engines were located at the base of what would be the external tank in the American Shuttle. Lack of funding, complicated by the dissolution of the USSR, prevented any further flights of Buran.
Per the Vision for Space Exploration, the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011 due mainly to its old age and high cost of the program reaching over a billion dollars per flight. The Shuttle's human transport role is to be replaced by the partially reusable Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) no later than 2021. The Shuttle's heavy cargo transport role is to be replaced by expendable rockets such as the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) or a Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle.
Scaled Composites SpaceShipOne was a reusable suborbital spaceplane that carried pilots Mike Melvill and Brian Binnie on consecutive flights in 2004 to win the Ansari X Prize. The Spaceship Company has built its successor SpaceShipTwo. A fleet of SpaceShipTwos operated by Virgin Galactic planned to begin reusable private spaceflight carrying paying passengers (space tourists) in 2008, but this was delayed due to an accident in the propulsion development.[15]
Challenges
Main article: Effect of spaceflight on the human body
Space disasters
Main article: Space accidents and incidents
All launch vehicles contain a huge amount of energy that is needed for some part of it to reach orbit. There is therefore some risk that this energy can be released prematurely and suddenly, with significant effects. When a Delta II rocket exploded 13 seconds after launch on January 17, 1997, there were reports of store windows 10 miles (16 km) away being broken by the blast.[16]
Space is a fairly predictable environment, but there are still risks of accidental depressurization and the potential failure of equipment, some of which may be very newly developed.
In 2004 the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety was established in the Netherlands to further international cooperation and scientific advancement in space systems safety.[17]
Weightlessness
Main article: Weightlessness
Astronauts on the ISS in weightless conditions. Michael Foale can be seen exercising in the foreground.
In a microgravity environment such as that provided by a spacecraft in orbit around the Earth, humans experience a sense of "weightlessness." Short-term exposure to microgravity causes space adaptation syndrome, a self-limiting nausea caused by derangement of the vestibular system. Long-term exposure causes multiple health issues. The most significant is bone loss, some of which is permanent, but microgravity also leads to significant deconditioning of muscular and cardiovascular tissues.
Radiation
Once above the atmosphere, radiation due to the Van Allen belts, solar radiation and cosmic radiation issues occur and increase. Further away from the Earth, solar flares can give a fatal radiation dose in minutes, and the health threat from cosmic radiation significantly increases the chances of cancer over a decade exposure or more.[18]
Life support
Main article: Life support system
In human spaceflight, the life support system is a group of devices that allow a human being to survive in outer space. NASA often uses the phrase Environmental Control and Life Support System or the acronym ECLSS when describing these systems for its human spaceflight missions.[19] The life support system may supply: air, water and food. It must also maintain the correct body temperature, an acceptable pressure on the body and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites may also be necessary. Components of the life support system are life-critical, and are designed and constructed using safety engineering techniques.
Space weather
Main article: Space weather
Aurora australis and Discovery, May 1991.
Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in outer space. It is distinct from the concept of weather within a planetary atmosphere, and deals with phenomena involving ambient plasma, magnetic fields, radiation and other matter in space (generally close to Earth but also in interplanetary, and occasionally interstellar medium). "Space weather describes the conditions in space that affect Earth and its technological systems. Our space weather is a consequence of the behavior of the Sun, the nature of Earth's magnetic field, and our location in the Solar System."[20]
Space weather exerts a profound influence in several areas related to space exploration and development. Changing geomagnetic conditions can induce changes in atmospheric density causing the rapid degradation of spacecraft altitude in Low Earth orbit. Geomagnetic storms due to increased solar activity can potentially blind sensors aboard spacecraft, or interfere with on-board electronics. An understanding of space environmental conditions is also important in designing shielding and life support systems for manned spacecraft.
Environmental considerations
Rockets as a class are not inherently grossly polluting. However, some rockets use toxic propellants, and most vehicles use propellants that are not carbon neutral. Many solid rockets have chlorine in the form of perchlorate or other chemicals, and this can cause temporary local holes in the ozone layer. Re-entering spacecraft generate nitrates which also can temporarily impact the ozone layer. Most rockets are made of metals that can have an environmental impact during their construction.
In addition to the atmospheric effects there are effects on the near-Earth space environment. There is the possibility that orbit could become inaccessible for generations due to exponentially increasing space debris caused by spalling of satellites and vehicles (Kessler syndrome). Many launched vehicles today are therefore designed to be re-entered after use.
Her Majesty Queen Rania Al Abdullah at workshop held for participants in the Youth Leadership Program.
Amman, Jordan/ June 6, 2011
جلالة الملكة رانيا العبدالله خلال جلسة حوارية مع المشاركين في برنامج "القيادات الشبابية لأجيال قادرة"
عمان، الأردن/ 6 حزيران 2011
© Royal Hashemite Court
Catalog #: 08_00923
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
Catalog #: 08_00926
Title: Space Shuttle Program
Date: 1981-2010
Additional Information: Space Shuttle Mock up
Repository: San Diego Air and Space Museum Archive
The Indiana National Guard was visited by Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic Lt. Gen. Peter Vojtek during the first week of July in support of the State Partnership Program, a Department of Defense program managed by the National Guard that links states with allied nations to enhance partnership capabilities. The Indiana National Guard has been working with the Slovak Republic for almost 20 years now. July 3, 2013, Vojtek had the opportunity to fire a practice round out of an M119 howitzer while visiting 1st Battalion, 163rd Field Artillery in Evansville, Ind. (Photo by Sgt. 1st Class Matt Scotten)
More information about the State Partnership Program: owl.li/mKZnf
Photo credit: Elena Olivo
Copyright: NYU Photo Bureau
The Fall 2010 Student Hackathon brought in hundreds of students from 30 universities to NYU's Courant Institute for 24 hours of creative hacking on New York City startups' APIs.
Selected startups presented their technologies at the beginning of the event, and students formed groups to brainstorm and begin coding on their ideas. Many students worked into the night, foregoing sleep to fulfill their visions.
On Sunday afternoon students presented their projects to an audience including a judging panel, which selected the final winners.
hackNY hosts hackathons one each semester, as well as a Summer Fellows Program, which pairs quantitative and computational students with startups which can demonstrate a strong mentoring environment, a problem for a student to work on, a person to mentor them, and a place for them to work. Startups selected to host a student are expected to compensate student Fellows. Students enjoy free housing together and a pedagogical lecture series to introduce them to the ins and outs of joining and founding a startup.
For more information on hackNY's initiatives, please visit www.hackNY.org and follow us on twitter @hackNY
Photo credit: Elena Olivo
Copyright: NYU Photo Bureau
The Fall 2010 Student Hackathon brought in hundreds of students from 30 universities to NYU's Courant Institute for 24 hours of creative hacking on New York City startups' APIs.
Selected startups presented their technologies at the beginning of the event, and students formed groups to brainstorm and begin coding on their ideas. Many students worked into the night, foregoing sleep to fulfill their visions.
On Sunday afternoon students presented their projects to an audience including a judging panel, which selected the final winners.
hackNY hosts hackathons one each semester, as well as a Summer Fellows Program, which pairs quantitative and computational students with startups which can demonstrate a strong mentoring environment, a problem for a student to work on, a person to mentor them, and a place for them to work. Startups selected to host a student are expected to compensate student Fellows. Students enjoy free housing together and a pedagogical lecture series to introduce them to the ins and outs of joining and founding a startup.
For more information on hackNY's initiatives, please visit www.hackNY.org and follow us on twitter @hackNY
VS Aero Front Spoiler
VS Aero Rear Boot
Wheels:
20" VFE-404 Front
21" VFE-404 Rear
Finish
Brushed Dark Shadow Tint - gloss
4 March 2014. Tawila: A community volunteer measures Sahar Yousif, a 10-month-old child with malnutrition, in a food distribution center in the Rwanda camp for internally displaced people (IDP) in Tawila, North Darfur.
More than 8,000 women and children living in the camp benefit from two nutrition programs run by the World Food Programme (WFP) in the camp. One is Targeted Supplementary Feeding Programme, which is designed to treat moderate acute malnutrition among children under the age of five and pregnant and nursing women. The other is Integrated Blanket Supplementary Feeding Programme meant to prevent malnutrition among children under the age of three. Through both programs, women learn to prepare highly nutritious food by combining corn soya blend with sugar and oil or by using local ingredients such as lentils and cereals. The women also learn basic child care practices that prevent infection and sickness among their children.
Photo by Albert Gonzalez Farran, UNAMID.
This image is from the Reedsburg Public Library's historic photo collection. Information about the entire collection can be found here: www.scls.lib.wi.us/ree/histphotos.htm
Educational or personal use of the image is permitted with appropriate citation. User must contact the Reedsburg Public Library for permission to publish or otherwise distribute the images.
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