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Finally, the K&F adapter for Nex arrived... Found the previous adapter loose and doesn't feel good. After using K&F adapter for EOS M, think I need the NEX version. too.
I like him. Almost as posable as my Side Show Clonetrooper, easier to carry around and $120 cheaper. I wish he had at least an extra set of hands or they could have made one able to hold the barrel of the longer rifles. Wave 3 has a normal Stormie in it but that close out next year. Wave 2 has Boba in it. Looks like only 4 figures in each wave. At $20 US per I guess that's good for hard core collectors.
New CA Health Order Shuts Down Outdoor Dining In Pasadena. Governor Newsom orders outdoor dining to shut down for three weeks after Thanksgiving. This order comes after COVID-19 cases spike with ICU capacity expected to reach 15%. Los Angeles banned outdoor dining on Thanksgiving until Christmas. On the other hand, Pasadena city council voted unanimously to keep outdoor dining permitted. A week later, Governor Newsom put an end to outdoor dining in all counties with high coronavirus case counts.
Spiders (order Araneae) are air-breathing arthropods that have eight legs and chelicerae with fangs that inject venom. They are the largest order of arachnids and rank seventh in total species diversity among all other orders of organisms. Spiders are found worldwide on every continent except for Antarctica, and have become established in nearly every habitat with the exceptions of air and sea colonization. As of November 2015, at least 45,700 spider species, and 114 families have been recorded by taxonomists. However, there has been dissension within the scientific community as to how all these families should be classified, as evidenced by the over 20 different classifications that have been proposed since 1900.
Anatomically, spiders differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen, and joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel. Unlike insects, spiders do not have antennae. In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax. Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by hydraulic pressure.
Their abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of glands. Spider webs vary widely in size, shape and the amount of sticky thread used. It now appears that the spiral orb web may be one of the earliest forms, and spiders that produce tangled cobwebs are more abundant and diverse than orb-web spiders. Spider-like arachnids with silk-producing spigots appeared in the Devonian period about 386 million years ago, but these animals apparently lacked spinnerets. True spiders have been found in Carboniferous rocks from 318 to 299 million years ago, and are very similar to the most primitive surviving suborder, the Mesothelae. The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appeared in the Triassic period, before 200 million years ago.
A herbivorous species, Bagheera kiplingi, was described in 2008,[5] but all other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects and on other spiders, although a few large species also take birds and lizards. Spiders use a wide range of strategies to capture prey: trapping it in sticky webs, lassoing it with sticky bolas, mimicking the prey to avoid detection, or running it down. Most detect prey mainly by sensing vibrations, but the active hunters have acute vision, and hunters of the genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and ability to develop new ones. Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, and they liquefy their food by flooding it with digestive enzymes and grinding it with the bases of their pedipalps, as they do not have true jaws.
Male spiders identify themselves by a variety of complex courtship rituals to avoid being eaten by the females. Males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Females weave silk egg-cases, each of which may contain hundreds of eggs. Females of many species care for their young, for example by carrying them around or by sharing food with them. A minority of species are social, building communal webs that may house anywhere from a few to 50,000 individuals. Social behavior ranges from precarious toleration, as in the widow spiders, to co-operative hunting and food-sharing. Although most spiders live for at most two years, tarantulas and other mygalomorph spiders can live up to 25 years in captivity.
While the venom of a few species is dangerous to humans, scientists are now researching the use of spider venom in medicine and as non-polluting pesticides. Spider silk provides a combination of lightness, strength and elasticity that is superior to that of synthetic materials, and spider silk genes have been inserted into mammals and plants to see if these can be used as silk factories. As a result of their wide range of behaviors, spiders have become common symbols in art and mythology symbolizing various combinations of patience, cruelty and creative powers. An abnormal fear of spiders is called arachnophobia.
BODY PLAN
Spiders are chelicerates and therefore arthropods.[6] As arthropods they have: segmented bodies with jointed limbs, all covered in a cuticle made of chitin and proteins; heads that are composed of several segments that fuse during the development of the embryo. Being chelicerates, their bodies consist of two tagmata, sets of segments that serve similar functions: the foremost one, called the cephalothorax or prosoma, is a complete fusion of the segments that in an insect would form two separate tagmata, the head and thorax; the rear tagma is called the abdomen or opisthosoma. In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are connected by a small cylindrical section, the pedicel. The pattern of segment fusion that forms chelicerates' heads is unique among arthropods, and what would normally be the first head segment disappears at an early stage of development, so that chelicerates lack the antennae typical of most arthropods. In fact, chelicerates' only appendages ahead of the mouth are a pair of chelicerae, and they lack anything that would function directly as "jaws". The first appendages behind the mouth are called pedipalps, and serve different functions within different groups of chelicerates.
Spiders and scorpions are members of one chelicerate group, the arachnids. Scorpions' chelicerae have three sections and are used in feeding. Spiders' chelicerae have two sections and terminate in fangs that are generally venomous, and fold away behind the upper sections while not in use. The upper sections generally have thick "beards" that filter solid lumps out of their food, as spiders can take only liquid food.[8] Scorpions' pedipalps generally form large claws for capturing prey, while those of spiders are fairly small appendages whose bases also act as an extension of the mouth; in addition, those of male spiders have enlarged last sections used for sperm transfer.
In spiders, the cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, which enables the abdomen to move independently when producing silk. The upper surface of the cephalothorax is covered by a single, convex carapace, while the underside is covered by two rather flat plates. The abdomen is soft and egg-shaped. It shows no sign of segmentation, except that the primitive Mesothelae, whose living members are the Liphistiidae, have segmented plates on the upper surface.
CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION
Like other arthropods, spiders are coelomates in which the coelom is reduced to small areas round the reproductive and excretory systems. Its place is largely taken by a hemocoel, a cavity that runs most of the length of the body and through which blood flows. The heart is a tube in the upper part of the body, with a few ostia that act as non-return valves allowing blood to enter the heart from the hemocoel but prevent it from leaving before it reaches the front end. However, in spiders, it occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax. Hence spiders have open circulatory systems. The blood of many spiders that have book lungs contains the respiratory pigment hemocyanin to make oxygen transport more efficient.
Spiders have developed several different respiratory anatomies, based on book lungs, a tracheal system, or both. Mygalomorph and Mesothelae spiders have two pairs of book lungs filled with haemolymph, where openings on the ventral surface of the abdomen allow air to enter and diffuse oxygen. This is also the case for some basal araneomorph spiders, like the family Hypochilidae, but the remaining members of this group have just the anterior pair of book lungs intact while the posterior pair of breathing organs are partly or fully modified into tracheae, through which oxygen is diffused into the haemolymph or directly to the tissue and organs. The trachea system has most likely evolved in small ancestors to help resist desiccation. The trachea were originally connected to the surroundings through a pair of openings called spiracles, but in the majority of spiders this pair of spiracles has fused into a single one in the middle, and moved backwards close to the spinnerets. Spiders that have tracheae generally have higher metabolic rates and better water conservation. Spiders are ectotherms, so environmental temperatures affect their activity.
FEEDING, DIGESTION AND EXCRETION
Uniquely among chelicerates, the final sections of spiders' chelicerae are fangs, and the great majority of spiders can use them to inject venom into prey from venom glands in the roots of the chelicerae. The family Uloboridae has lost its venom glands, and kills its prey with silk instead. Like most arachnids, including scorpions, spiders have a narrow gut that can only cope with liquid food and spiders have two sets of filters to keep solids out. They use one of two different systems of external digestion. Some pump digestive enzymes from the midgut into the prey and then suck the liquified tissues of the prey into the gut, eventually leaving behind the empty husk of the prey. Others grind the prey to pulp using the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps, while flooding it with enzymes; in these species, the chelicerae and the bases of the pedipalps form a preoral cavity that holds the food they are processing.
The stomach in the cephalothorax acts as a pump that sends the food deeper into the digestive system. The mid gut bears many digestive ceca, compartments with no other exit, that extract nutrients from the food; most are in the abdomen, which is dominated by the digestive system, but a few are found in the cephalothorax.
Most spiders convert nitrogenous waste products into uric acid, which can be excreted as a dry material. Malphigian tubules ("little tubes") extract these wastes from the blood in the hemocoel and dump them into the cloacal chamber, from which they are expelled through the anus. Production of uric acid and its removal via Malphigian tubules are a water-conserving feature that has evolved independently in several arthropod lineages that can live far away from water, for example the tubules of insects and arachnids develop from completely different parts of the embryo. However, a few primitive spiders, the sub-order Mesothelae and infra-order Mygalomorphae, retain the ancestral arthropod nephridia ("little kidneys"), which use large amounts of water to excrete nitrogenous waste products as ammonia.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The basic arthropod central nervous system consists of a pair of nerve cords running below the gut, with paired ganglia as local control centers in all segments; a brain formed by fusion of the ganglia for the head segments ahead of and behind the mouth, so that the esophagus is encircled by this conglomeration of ganglia. Except for the primitive Mesothelae, of which the Liphistiidae are the sole surviving family, spiders have the much more centralized nervous system that is typical of arachnids: all the ganglia of all segments behind the esophagus are fused, so that the cephalothorax is largely filled with nervous tissue and there are no ganglia in the abdomen; in the Mesothelae, the ganglia of the abdomen and the rear part of the cephalothorax remain unfused.
Despite the relatively small central nervous system, some spiders (like Portia) exhibit complex behaviour, including the ability to use a trial-and-error approach.
Sense organs
EYES
Most spiders have four pairs of eyes on the top-front area of the cephalothorax, arranged in patterns that vary from one family to another. The pair at the front are of the type called pigment-cup ocelli ("little eyes"), which in most arthropods are only capable of detecting the direction from which light is coming, using the shadow cast by the walls of the cup. However, the main eyes at the front of spiders' heads are pigment-cup ocelli that are capable of forming images. The other eyes are thought to be derived from the compound eyes of the ancestral chelicerates, but no longer have the separate facets typical of compound eyes. Unlike the main eyes, in many spiders these secondary eyes detect light reflected from a reflective tapetum lucidum, and wolf spiders can be spotted by torch light reflected from the tapeta. On the other hand, jumping spiders' secondary eyes have no tapeta. Some jumping spiders' visual acuity exceeds by a factor of ten that of dragonflies, which have by far the best vision among insects; in fact the human eye is only about five times sharper than a jumping spider's. They achieve this by a telephoto-like series of lenses, a four-layer retina and the ability to swivel their eyes and integrate images from different stages in the scan. The downside is that the scanning and integrating processes are relatively slow.
There are spiders with a reduced number of eyes, of these those with six-eyes are the most numerous and are missing a pair of eyes on the anterior median line, others species have four-eyes and some just two. Cave dwelling species have no eyes, or possess vestigial eyes incapable of sight.
OTHER SENSES
As with other arthropods, spiders' cuticles would block out information about the outside world, except that they are penetrated by many sensors or connections from sensors to the nervous system. In fact, spiders and other arthropods have modified their cuticles into elaborate arrays of sensors. Various touch sensors, mostly bristles called setae, respond to different levels of force, from strong contact to very weak air currents. Chemical sensors provide equivalents of taste and smell, often by means of setae. Pedipalps carry a large number of such setae sensitive to contact chemicals and air-borne smells, such as female pheromones. Spiders also have in the joints of their limbs slit sensillae that detect forces and vibrations. In web-building spiders, all these mechanical and chemical sensors are more important than the eyes, while the eyes are most important to spiders that hunt actively.
Like most arthropods, spiders lack balance and acceleration sensors and rely on their eyes to tell them which way is up. Arthropods' proprioceptors, sensors that report the force exerted by muscles and the degree of bending in the body and joints, are well understood. On the other hand, little is known about what other internal sensors spiders or other arthropods may have.
LOCMOTION
Each of the eight legs of a spider consists of seven distinct parts. The part closest to and attaching the leg to the cephalothorax is the coxa; the next segment is the short trochanter that works as a hinge for the following long segment, the femur; next is the spider's knee, the patella, which acts as the hinge for the tibia; the metatarsus is next, and it connects the tibia to the tarsus (which may be thought of as a foot of sorts); the tarsus ends in a claw made up of either two or three points, depending on the family to which the spider belongs. Although all arthropods use muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton to flex their limbs, spiders and a few other groups still use hydraulic pressure to extend them, a system inherited from their pre-arthropod ancestors. The only extensor muscles in spider legs are located in the three hip joints (bordering the coxa and the trochanter). As a result, a spider with a punctured cephalothorax cannot extend its legs, and the legs of dead spiders curl up. Spiders can generate pressures up to eight times their resting level to extend their legs, and jumping spiders can jump up to 50 times their own length by suddenly increasing the blood pressure in the third or fourth pair of legs. Although larger spiders use hydraulics to straighten their legs, unlike smaller jumping spiders they depend on their flexor muscles to generate the propulsive force for their jumps.
Most spiders that hunt actively, rather than relying on webs, have dense tufts of fine hairs between the paired claws at the tips of their legs. These tufts, known as scopulae, consist of bristles whose ends are split into as many as 1,000 branches, and enable spiders with scopulae to walk up vertical glass and upside down on ceilings. It appears that scopulae get their grip from contact with extremely thin layers of water on surfaces.[8] Spiders, like most other arachnids, keep at least four legs on the surface while walking or running.
SILK PRODUCTION
The abdomen has no appendages except those that have been modified to form one to four (usually three) pairs of short, movable spinnerets, which emit silk. Each spinneret has many spigots, each of which is connected to one silk gland. There are at least six types of silk gland, each producing a different type of silk.
Silk is mainly composed of a protein very similar to that used in insect silk. It is initially a liquid, and hardens not by exposure to air but as a result of being drawn out, which changes the internal structure of the protein. It is similar in tensile strength to nylon and biological materials such as chitin, collagen and cellulose, but is much more elastic. In other words, it can stretch much further before breaking or losing shape.
Some spiders have a cribellum, a modified spinneret with up to 40,000 spigots, each of which produces a single very fine fiber. The fibers are pulled out by the calamistrum, a comb-like set of bristles on the jointed tip of the cribellum, and combined into a composite woolly thread that is very effective in snagging the bristles of insects. The earliest spiders had cribella, which produced the first silk capable of capturing insects, before spiders developed silk coated with sticky droplets. However, most modern groups of spiders have lost the cribellum.
Tarantulas also have silk glands in their feet.
Even species that do not build webs to catch prey use silk in several ways: as wrappers for sperm and for fertilized eggs; as a "safety rope"; for nest-building; and as "parachutes" by the young of some species.
REPRODUCTION AND LIFE CYCLE
Spiders reproduce sexually and fertilization is internal but indirect, in other words the sperm is not inserted into the female's body by the male's genitals but by an intermediate stage. Unlike many land-living arthropods, male spiders do not produce ready-made spermatophores (packages of sperm), but spin small sperm webs on to which they ejaculate and then transfer the sperm to special syringe-like structures, palpal bulbs or palpal organs, borne on the tips of the pedipalps of mature males. When a male detects signs of a female nearby he checks whether she is of the same species and whether she is ready to mate; for example in species that produce webs or "safety ropes", the male can identify the species and sex of these objects by "smell".
Spiders generally use elaborate courtship rituals to prevent the large females from eating the small males before fertilization, except where the male is so much smaller that he is not worth eating. In web-weaving species, precise patterns of vibrations in the web are a major part of the rituals, while patterns of touches on the female's body are important in many spiders that hunt actively, and may "hypnotize" the female. Gestures and dances by the male are important for jumping spiders, which have excellent eyesight. If courtship is successful, the male injects his sperm from the palpal bulbs into the female's genital opening, known as the epigyne, on the underside of her abdomen. Female's reproductive tracts vary from simple tubes to systems that include seminal receptacles in which females store sperm and release it when they are ready.
Males of the genus Tidarren amputate one of their palps before maturation and enter adult life with one palp only. The palps are 20% of male's body mass in this species, and detaching one of the two improves mobility. In the Yemeni species Tidarren argo, the remaining palp is then torn off by the female. The separated palp remains attached to the female's epigynum for about four hours and apparently continues to function independently. In the meantime, the female feeds on the palpless male. In over 60% of cases, the female of the Australian redback spider kills and eats the male after it inserts its second palp into the female's genital opening; in fact, the males co-operate by trying to impale themselves on the females' fangs. Observation shows that most male redbacks never get an opportunity to mate, and the "lucky" ones increase the likely number of offspring by ensuring that the females are well-fed. However, males of most species survive a few matings, limited mainly by their short life spans. Some even live for a while in their mates' webs.
Females lay up to 3,000 eggs in one or more silk egg sacs, which maintain a fairly constant humidity level. In some species, the females die afterwards, but females of other species protect the sacs by attaching them to their webs, hiding them in nests, carrying them in the chelicerae or attaching them to the spinnerets and dragging them along.
Baby spiders pass all their larval stages inside the egg and hatch as spiderlings, very small and sexually immature but similar in shape to adults. Some spiders care for their young, for example a wolf spider's brood cling to rough bristles on the mother's back, and females of some species respond to the "begging" behaviour of their young by giving them their prey, provided it is no longer struggling, or even regurgitate food.
Like other arthropods, spiders have to molt to grow as their cuticle ("skin") cannot stretch. In some species males mate with newly molted females, which are too weak to be dangerous to the males. Most spiders live for only one to two years, although some tarantulas can live in captivity for over 20 years.
SIZE
Spiders occur in a large range of sizes. The smallest, Patu digua from Colombia, are less than 0.37 mm in body length. The largest and heaviest spiders occur among tarantulas, which can have body lengths up to 90 mm and leg spans up to 250 mm.
COLORATION
Only three classes of pigment (ommochromes, bilins and guanine) have been identified in spiders, although other pigments have been detected but not yet characterized. Melanins, carotenoids and pterins, very common in other animals, are apparently absent. In some species, the exocuticle of the legs and prosoma is modified by a tanning process, resulting in brown coloration. Bilins are found, for example, in Micrommata virescens, resulting in its green color. Guanine is responsible for the white markings of the European garden spider Araneus diadematus. It is in many species accumulated in specialized cells called guanocytes. In genera such as Tetragnatha, Leucauge, Argyrodes or Theridiosoma, guanine creates their silvery appearance. While guanine is originally an end-product of protein metabolism, its excretion can be blocked in spiders, leading to an increase in its storage. Structural colors occur in some species, which are the result of the diffraction, scattering or interference of light, for example by modified setae or scales. The white prosoma of Argiope results from hairs reflecting the light, Lycosa and Josa both have areas of modified cuticle that act as light reflectors.
ECOGOGY AND BEHAVIOR
NON-PREDATORY FEEDING
Although spiders are generally regarded as predatory, the jumping spider Bagheera kiplingi gets over 90% of its food from fairly solid plant material produced by acacias as part of a mutually beneficial relationship with a species of ant.
Juveniles of some spiders in the families Anyphaenidae, Corinnidae, Clubionidae, Thomisidae and Salticidae feed on plant nectar. Laboratory studies show that they do so deliberately and over extended periods, and periodically clean themselves while feeding. These spiders also prefer sugar solutions to plain water, which indicates that they are seeking nutrients. Since many spiders are nocturnal, the extent of nectar consumption by spiders may have been underestimated. Nectar contains amino acids, lipids, vitamins and minerals in addition to sugars, and studies have shown that other spider species live longer when nectar is available. Feeding on nectar avoids the risks of struggles with prey, and the costs of producing venom and digestive enzymes.
Various species are known to feed on dead arthropods (scavenging), web silk, and their own shed exoskeletons. Pollen caught in webs may also be eaten, and studies have shown that young spiders have a better chance of survival if they have the opportunity to eat pollen. In captivity, several spider species are also known to feed on bananas, marmalade, milk, egg yolk and sausages.
METHODS OF CAPTURING PREY
The best-known method of prey capture is by means of sticky webs. Varying placement of webs allows different species of spider to trap different insects in the same area, for example flat horizontal webs trap insects that fly up from vegetation underneath while flat vertical webs trap insects in horizontal flight. Web-building spiders have poor vision, but are extremely sensitive to vibrations.
Females of the water spider Argyroneta aquatica build underwater "diving bell" webs that they fill with air and use for digesting prey, molting, mating and raising offspring. They live almost entirely within the bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the threads that anchor it. A few spiders use the surfaces of lakes and ponds as "webs", detecting trapped insects by the vibrations that these cause while struggling.
Net-casting spiders weave only small webs, but then manipulate them to trap prey. Those of the genus Hyptiotes and the family Theridiosomatidae stretch their webs and then release them when prey strike them, but do not actively move their webs. Those of the family Deinopidae weave even smaller webs, hold them outstretched between their first two pairs of legs, and lunge and push the webs as much as twice their own body length to trap prey, and this move may increase the webs' area by a factor of up to ten. Experiments have shown that Deinopis spinosus has two different techniques for trapping prey: backwards strikes to catch flying insects, whose vibrations it detects; and forward strikes to catch ground-walking prey that it sees. These two techniques have also been observed in other deinopids. Walking insects form most of the prey of most deinopids, but one population of Deinopis subrufa appears to live mainly on tipulid flies that they catch with the backwards strike.
Mature female bolas spiders of the genus Mastophora build "webs" that consist of only a single "trapeze line", which they patrol. They also construct a bolas made of a single thread, tipped with a large ball of very wet sticky silk. They emit chemicals that resemble the pheromones of moths, and then swing the bolas at the moths. Although they miss on about 50% of strikes, they catch about the same weight of insects per night as web-weaving spiders of similar size. The spiders eat the bolas if they have not made a kill in about 30 minutes, rest for a while, and then make new bolas. Juveniles and adult males are much smaller and do not make bolas. Instead they release different pheromones that attract moth flies, and catch them with their front pairs of legs.
The primitive Liphistiidae, the "trapdoor spiders" of the family Ctenizidae and many tarantulas are ambush predators that lurk in burrows, often closed by trapdoors and often surrounded by networks of silk threads that alert these spiders to the presence of prey. Other ambush predators do without such aids, including many crab spiders, and a few species that prey on bees, which see ultraviolet, can adjust their ultraviolet reflectance to match the flowers in which they are lurking. Wolf spiders, jumping spiders, fishing spiders and some crab spiders capture prey by chasing it, and rely mainly on vision to locate prey.Some jumping spiders of the genus Portia hunt other spiders in ways that seem intelligent, outflanking their victims or luring them from their webs. Laboratory studies show that Portia's instinctive tactics are only starting points for a trial-and-error approach from which these spiders learn very quickly how to overcome new prey species. However, they seem to be relatively slow "thinkers", which is not surprising, as their brains are vastly smaller than those of mammalian predators.Ant-mimicking spiders face several challenges: they generally develop slimmer abdomens and false "waists" in the cephalothorax to mimic the three distinct regions (tagmata) of an ant's body; they wave the first pair of legs in front of their heads to mimic antennae, which spiders lack, and to conceal the fact that they have eight legs rather than six; they develop large color patches round one pair of eyes to disguise the fact that they generally have eight simple eyes, while ants have two compound eyes; they cover their bodies with reflective hairs to resemble the shiny bodies of ants. In some spider species, males and females mimic different ant species, as female spiders are usually much larger than males. Ant-mimicking spiders also modify their behavior to resemble that of the target species of ant; for example, many adopt a zig-zag pattern of movement, ant-mimicking jumping spiders avoid jumping, and spiders of the genus Synemosyna walk on the outer edges of leaves in the same way as Pseudomyrmex. Ant-mimicry in many spiders and other arthropods may be for protection from predators that hunt by sight, including birds, lizards and spiders. However, several ant-mimicking spiders prey either on ants or on the ants' "livestock", such as aphids. When at rest, the ant-mimicking crab spider Amyciaea does not closely resemble Oecophylla, but while hunting it imitates the behavior of a dying ant to attract worker ants. After a kill, some ant-mimicking spiders hold their victims between themselves and large groups of ants to avoid being attacked.
DEFENSE
There is strong evidence that spiders' coloration is camouflage that helps them to evade their major predators, birds and parasitic wasps, both of which have good color vision. Many spider species are colored so as to merge with their most common backgrounds, and some have disruptive coloration, stripes and blotches that break up their outlines. In a few species, such as the Hawaiian happy-face spider, Theridion grallator, several coloration schemes are present in a ratio that appears to remain constant, and this may make it more difficult for predators to recognize the species. Most spiders are insufficiently dangerous or unpleasant-tasting for warning coloration to offer much benefit. However, a few species with powerful venoms, large jaws or irritant hairs have patches of warning colors, and some actively display these colors when threatened.
Many of the family Theraphosidae, which includes tarantulas and baboon spiders, have urticating hairs on their abdomens and use their legs to flick them at attackers. These hairs are fine setae (bristles) with fragile bases and a row of barbs on the tip. The barbs cause intense irritation but there is no evidence that they carry any kind of venom. A few defend themselves against wasps by including networks of very robust threads in their webs, giving the spider time to flee while the wasps are struggling with the obstacles. The golden wheeling spider, Carparachne aureoflava, of the Namibian desert escapes parasitic wasps by flipping onto its side and cartwheeling down sand dunes.
SOCIAL SPIDERS
A few spider species that build webs live together in large colonies and show social behavior, although not as complex as in social insects. Anelosimus eximius (in the family Theridiidae) can form colonies of up to 50,000 individuals. The genus Anelosimus has a strong tendency towards sociality: all known American species are social, and species in Madagascar are at least somewhat social. Members of other species in the same family but several different genera have independently developed social behavior. For example, although Theridion nigroannulatum belongs to a genus with no other social species, T. nigroannulatum build colonies that may contain several thousand individuals that co-operate in prey capture and share food. Other communal spiders include several Philoponella species (family Uloboridae), Agelena consociata (family Agelenidae) and Mallos gregalis (family Dictynidae). Social predatory spiders need to defend their prey against kleptoparasites ("thieves"), and larger colonies are more successful in this. The herbivorous spider Bagheera kiplingi lives in small colonies which help to protect eggs and spiderlings. Even widow spiders (genus Latrodectus), which are notoriously cannibalistic, have formed small colonies in captivity, sharing webs and feeding together.
WEB TYPES
There is no consistent relationship between the classification of spiders and the types of web they build: species in the same genus may build very similar or significantly different webs. Nor is there much correspondence between spiders' classification and the chemical composition of their silks. Convergent evolution in web construction, in other words use of similar techniques by remotely related species, is rampant. Orb web designs and the spinning behaviors that produce them are the best understood. The basic radial-then-spiral sequence visible in orb webs and the sense of direction required to build them may have been inherited from the common ancestors of most spider groups. However, the majority of spiders build non-orb webs. It used to be thought that the sticky orb web was an evolutionary innovation resulting in the diversification of the Orbiculariae. Now, however, it appears that non-orb spiders are a sub-group that evolved from orb-web spiders, and non-orb spiders have over 40% more species and are four times as abundant as orb-web spiders. Their greater success may be because sphecid wasps, which are often the dominant predators of spiders, much prefer to attack spiders that have flat webs.
ORB WEBS
About half the potential prey that hit orb webs escape. A web has to perform three functions: intercepting the prey (intersection), absorbing its momentum without breaking (stopping), and trapping the prey by entangling it or sticking to it (retention). No single design is best for all prey. For example: wider spacing of lines will increase the web's area and hence its ability to intercept prey, but reduce its stopping power and retention; closer spacing, larger sticky droplets and thicker lines would improve retention, but would make it easier for potential prey to see and avoid the web, at least during the day. However, there are no consistent differences between orb webs built for use during the day and those built for use at night. In fact, there is no simple relationship between orb web design features and the prey they capture, as each orb-weaving species takes a wide range of prey.
The hubs of orb webs, where the spiders lurk, are usually above the center, as the spiders can move downwards faster than upwards. If there is an obvious direction in which the spider can retreat to avoid its own predators, the hub is usually offset towards that direction.
Horizontal orb webs are fairly common, despite being less effective at intercepting and retaining prey and more vulnerable to damage by rain and falling debris. Various researchers have suggested that horizontal webs offer compensating advantages, such as reduced vulnerability to wind damage; reduced visibility to prey flying upwards, because of the back-lighting from the sky; enabling oscillations to catch insects in slow horizontal flight. However, there is no single explanation for the common use of horizontal orb webs.
Spiders often attach highly visible silk bands, called decorations or stabilimenta, to their webs. Field research suggests that webs with more decorative bands captured more prey per hour. However, a laboratory study showed that spiders reduce the building of these decorations if they sense the presence of predators.
There are several unusual variants of orb web, many of them convergently evolved, including: attachment of lines to the surface of water, possibly to trap insects in or on the surface; webs with twigs through their centers, possibly to hide the spiders from predators; "ladder-like" webs that appear most effective in catching moths. However, the significance of many variations is unclear.
In 1973, Skylab 3 took two orb-web spiders into space to test their web-spinning capabilities in zero gravity. At first, both produced rather sloppy webs, but they adapted quickly.
TANGLEWEB SPIDERS (COBWEB SPIDERS)
Members of the family Theridiidae weave irregular, tangled, three-dimensional webs, popularly known as cobwebs. There seems to be an evolutionary trend towards a reduction in the amount of sticky silk used, leading to its total absence in some species. The construction of cobwebs is less stereotyped than that of orb-webs, and may take several days.
OTHER TYPES OF WEBS
The Linyphiidae generally make horizontal but uneven sheets, with tangles of stopping threads above. Insects that hit the stopping threads fall onto the sheet or are shaken onto it by the spider, and are held by sticky threads on the sheet until the spider can attack from below.
EVOLUTION
FOSSIL RECORD
Although the fossil record of spiders is considered poor, almost 1000 species have been described from fossils. Because spiders' bodies are quite soft, the vast majority of fossil spiders have been found preserved in amber. The oldest known amber that contains fossil arthropods dates from 130 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous period. In addition to preserving spiders' anatomy in very fine detail, pieces of amber show spiders mating, killing prey, producing silk and possibly caring for their young. In a few cases, amber has preserved spiders' egg sacs and webs, occasionally with prey attached; the oldest fossil web found so far is 100 million years old. Earlier spider fossils come from a few lagerstätten, places where conditions were exceptionally suited to preserving fairly soft tissues.
The oldest known exclusively terrestrial arachnid is the trigonotarbid Palaeotarbus jerami, from about 420 million years ago in the Silurian period, and had a triangular cephalothorax and segmented abdomen, as well as eight legs and a pair of pedipalps. Attercopus fimbriunguis, from 386 million years ago in the Devonian period, bears the earliest known silk-producing spigots, and was therefore hailed as a spider at the time of its discovery. However, these spigots may have been mounted on the underside of the abdomen rather than on spinnerets, which are modified appendages and whose mobility is important in the building of webs. Hence Attercopus and the similar Permian arachnid Permarachne may not have been true spiders, and probably used silk for lining nests or producing egg-cases rather than for building webs. The largest known fossil spider as of 2011 is the araneid Nephila jurassica, from about 165 million years ago, recorded from Daohuogo, Inner Mongolia in China. Its body length is almost 25 mm.
Several Carboniferous spiders were members of the Mesothelae, a primitive group now represented only by the Liphistiidae. The mesothelid Paleothele montceauensis, from the Late Carboniferous over 299 million years ago, had five spinnerets. Although the Permian period 299 to 251 million years ago saw rapid diversification of flying insects, there are very few fossil spiders from this period.
The main groups of modern spiders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, first appear in the Triassic well before 200 million years ago. Some Triassic mygalomorphs appear to be members of the family Hexathelidae, whose modern members include the notorious Sydney funnel-web spider, and their spinnerets appear adapted for building funnel-shaped webs to catch jumping insects. Araneomorphae account for the great majority of modern spiders, including those that weave the familiar orb-shaped webs. The Jurassic and Cretaceous periods provide a large number of fossil spiders, including representatives of many modern families.
WIKIPEDIA
A female Vulcan sits in the command chair on the bridge of the U.S.S. Enterprise. While the senior crew and some cadets work at their consoles, the officer, Saavik (Kirstie Alley), makes a log entry, then orders Commander Sulu (George Takei) to project a course to avoid entering the Neutral Zone at the Klingon frontier.
Suddenly, Uhura (Nichelle Nichols) receives a distress call from the Kobayashi Maru, a ship that has struck a "gravitic" mine near Altair VI, inside the Neutral Zone. Despite warnings from both Sulu and Spock (Leonard Nimoy), Saavik orders the ship to enter the Zone in order to beam the survivors aboard. Upon entering the Zone, the Enterprise is confronted with three Klingon battle cruisers, which open fire. The Enterprise is heavily damaged; many of the bridge officers are killed. Saavik has no alternative but to order the surviving crew to abandon ship.
Then the filtered voice of Admiral Kirk (William Shatner) is heard. The bridge viewscreen slides aside, revealing a lighted room beyond. The Kobayashi Maru was a Starfleet Academy test, one Saavik does not believe to have been a fair test of her abilities. Kirk explains that the no-win scenario is a situation every commander may face, and that how one faces death is equally important as how one faces life. Saavik seems ruffled at the advice, but Kirk offers that now she has "something new to think about." As he leaves, McCoy asks Kirk why the Enterprise will not receive an experienced crew. Kirk replies that space exploration should be left to younger crews, a remark that puzzles Uhura.
Outside the simulator room, Spock awaits Kirk's opinion of the cadets' performance. Kirk notes that the trainees wreaked havoc with the simulator room and Spock alike. Spock recalls Kirk's own Kobayashi Maru, noting that Kirk himself took the test three times and that his final solution was "unique." Kirk then thanks Spock for his birthday present, an antique copy of Charles Dicken's "A Tale of Two Cities." Spock then leaves on a shuttlecraft to board the Enterprise and await Kirk's arrival--he will later inspect the ship.
Kirk then retreats to his apartment, to be greeted by Dr. Leonard McCoy (DeForest Kelley), who presents him with two gifts; a bottle of finely-aged Romulan ale and a pair of antique eyeglasses. Noticing Kirk is going through a mid-life crisis, he questions whether Kirk really wants to carry on the duties of an admiral, or to be "galaxy hopping" in a starship. McCoy urges Kirk to get back his starship command, and the two share a drink sitting by the fireplace.
Meanwhile, Commander Chekov (Walter Koenig) is on board the U.S.S. Reliant, which is orbiting the planet Ceti Alpha VI. The crew is searching for a lifeless planet to satisfy the requirements of a test site for the "Project Genesis" experiment, a terraforming program proposed to the Federation by a group of scientists. Although Ceti Alpha VI should be incapable of supporting life, Chekov detects a minor energy reading on a scanning device. Chekov and Captain Terrell (Paul Winfield) beam down to the surface to investigate. Upon arrival, they fight their way through a blinding sandstorm until they discover and enter what appears to be a crashed derelict vessel.
They soon discover that the derelict is actually cargo containers assembled together from the S.S. Botany Bay, a ship Chekov remembers all too well. Panicking, he rushes a confused Terrell toward the exit, only to find that a group of people are waiting outside. Chekov and Terrell are taken prisoner, and their captor reveals himself as Khan Noonien Singh (Ricardo Montalban). He identifies the rest of his group as the remaining survivors of his crew. Khan reveals that 15 years earlier, Captain Kirk exiled Khan and his followers to Ceti Alpha V after the genetically-engineered supermen nearly captured the Enterprise. Khan says that six months after they were marooned, Ceti Alpha VI exploded, destroying Ceti Alpha V's ecosystem and shifting its orbit and position in space. The crew of the Reliant thought they were orbiting Ceti Alpha VI, when in reality they were orbiting Ceti Alpha V instead.
Khan blames Kirk for the death of his wife (presumably Lt. Marla McGivers, an Enterprise crewmember who joined Khan in exile) and plans to avenge her. In order to find out why the two are there, Khan forces juvenile Ceti eels (unpleasant-looking creatures) into their ears. Once inside their victims, Khan explains, the eels wrap themselves around the cerebral cortex of the brain, rendering the victim subservient to any command. Khan explains further: As the eels grow and mature inside the brain, the victim is slowly driven insane, followed later by death. Using Chekov and Terrell as his servant, Khan and his henchmen to seize control of the Reliant and escape Ceti Alpha V.
Under the command of now-Captain Spock, the Enterprise is being used to train Starfleet Academy cadets, and Kirk, McCoy, Uhura, and Sulu come aboard to assist in a short training cruise. Kirk is inspecting the trainee crew, who are learning the ropes on Enterprise. Later, Kirk receives a distress call from Regula I, a research station that is the Project Genesis base. Kirk orders the call to be patched through to his quarters, a communication he is nervous about since he and the head of the Genesis project, Dr Carol Marcus, (Bibi Besch), were romantically involved in the past, a relationship that went sour and resulted in the birth of their son, David.
A furious Carol asks him why he is taking the Genesis Project away from her. Kirk is confused and incredulously denies having any involvement with it. The transmission becomes garbled and communication is soon lost: Khan is luring Kirk to Regula I by having a now-brainwashed Chekov inform Carol that Kirk had ordered them to take possession of the Genesis Device. The Reliant will be coming to the station in three days to take the Genesis equipment. Carol contacted Kirk to confirm the order, but the signal is jammed by Khan, with only bits and pieces of the message going through. Kirk, after consulting with Starfleet Command, assumes command and orders Enterprise to set a course for Regula I.
While en route, Kirk asks Spock and McCoy to join him in familiarizing himself with the Genesis project. A video, hosted by Carol Marcus explains that the project involves the sophisticated terraforming of dead planets, making them habitable. Because the video was produced a year before, Kirk assumes they've reached "Stage Two" of the project. McCoy asks what the result of using such a device on a living world would be and Spock concludes it would destroy any existing life. McCoy sees the project as a dangerous venture that could be turned into a deadly weapon. Just at that moment, Saavik calls them over the intercom and tells them that they've made contact with Reliant.
The Enterprise approaches Reliant. Despite being unable to contact Reliant, Kirk is unconcerned at first and is reluctant to raise shields as, Saavik reminds him, regulations prescribe. He orders a yellow alert. The Reliant raises its shields, powers up its weapons, and opens fire. The Enterprise is caught off-guard and is badly damaged. Khan knows exactly where its weak points are, disabling the Enterprises' main energizers and warp core, leaving only auxiliary power on the ship, and mortally injuring several cadets, including Midshipman 1st Class Peter Preston (Ike Eisenmann), Scotty's (James Doohan) nephew. Engines are down, shields inoperative, and there is only enough power for a few short phaser shots, which isn't enough against Reliant's shields.
Khan hails Kirk, who is shocked to see Khan in command of the Reliant. Khan arrogantly announces his plans to destroy the Enterprise, to which Kirk pleads with Khan to take him as prisoner and spare his crew. Khan agrees, but also demands all information on the Genesis Device. Kirk pretends to comply, but he actually has Spock transmit a signal using Reliant's prefix code that causes Reliant to lower her shields. Despite Khan's intelligence he is still very inexperienced with a starship. When he realizes what Kirk is doing he is unable to immediately locate the controls to override the command lowering the shields. With the few shots auxiliary power can give him, Kirk is able to fire at the Reliant, damaging photon control and the warp drive. Khan is reluctant to withdraw, but his followers remind him that Enterprise, with its disabled power systems, can't escape. Both ships limp away for repairs and the match ends in a stalemate. Sulu congratulates Kirk on his victory, however Kirk admits that he'd misjudged the situation and encourages Saavik to quote Starfleet regulations.
Kirk surveys the wounded in sickbay and attends to Peter Preston on his deathbed. With impulse power restored, the Enterprise arrives at Regula I. Kirk assembles a landing party, and Saavik reminds him of General Order 15 barring him from beaming into a dangerous situation without armed escort. They find several of the station's scientists murdered, and discover Chekov and Terrell, semi-conscious and abandoned inside a storage compartment. Terrell and Chekov, still quite dazed, relate their experiences with Khan and tell Kirk that Khan is quite insane. When asked where the crew of the Reliant are, Terrell says they were marooned by Khan on Ceti Alpha V. They find that the station's records of the Genesis Device have been erased by the Regula staff. Exploring the station leads them to a transporter that has recently been activated. Checking the coordinates, Kirk realizes they beamed into the Regula asteroid nearby. Kirk asks for a damage report from the Enterprise. Knowing that Khan is listening to their communications, Spock exaggerates and reports that "by the book, hours would seem like days" and that transporters will be available in two days, hinting to Kirk that they will be beamed back in two hours.
Using the transporter coordinates, they beam down to the asteroid and materialize inside a chamber. The Genesis Device is there, but before Kirk can move, he is attacked by his and Carol's son, David Marcus (Merritt Butrick), who accuses Kirk of trying to steal Genesis. Carol tries to defuse the situation, but before she can elaborate, the team is threatened by Chekov and Terrell. Terrell and Chekov reveal they are still under Khan's control. The Genesis Device is beamed away and Terrell is ordered by Khan to kill Kirk. Terrell, however, resists Khan and the eel causes him extreme pain. To escape it he turns his phaser on himself and is vaporized. Chekov collapses and the Ceti eel slurps out of his ear and is promptly destroyed by Kirk. Khan, shocked to find Kirk alive and well, vows to leave him marooned on Regula for eternity.
Kirk avoids Carol and David's questions about Khan by asking for food. Carol and David show Kirk, McCoy and Saavik the Genesis cave, which was created by a smaller Genesis Device: deep within Regula a stable ecosystem now exists, having been created in one day. Before Kirk and Carol join them, the two talk briefly about their past relationship and reach a moment of reconciliation.
In the cave, Saavik asks Kirk, who is casually eating an apple, about his performance on the Kobayashi Maru scenario. McCoy tells her that Kirk is the only one to beat the no-win scenario. However, Kirk admits he reprogrammed the simulation. David chuckles and says he cheated, and Kirk qualifies that he "changed the conditions of the test" also citing that he'd received praise for "original thinking" and that he does not believe in the "no-win" scenario of the Kobayashi Maru test. Kirk then promptly contacts Enterprise and Spock says they should prepare for transport. Kirk smiles at a dumbfounded Saavik and asserts that he doesn't like to lose. Saavik questions what happened throughout the transport and Kirk reminds her of Regulation 46A: Spock had modified his report to deceive Khan because their adversary may have been monitoring Enterprise's transmissions.
Unfortunately, the Enterprise cannot defend itself against Reliant. Spock suggests the Enterprise set course for the nearby Mutara Nebula, whose ionized gases will disrupt the sensors and shields of both vessels, essentially rendering them blind and evening the odds. Khan orders Reliant to pursue, but his crew is reluctant, as they know the shielding and sensor systems will be rendered useless.
Back on the Enterprise, Spock notes that Reliant is reducing speed and seems to be backing away from the pursuit. To ensure that Khan will follow him, Kirk has Uhura contact Reliant and proceeds to taunt his nemesis, saying "We tried it once your way, Khan. Are you game for a rematch? Khan ... I'm laughing at the superior intellect." Enraged by the mockery, Khan acts irrationally and orders full impulse power and despite Joachim's (Khan's most trusted lieutenant) protests, recklessly launches into the pursuit again. The Battle of the Mutara Nebula ensues. Both ships are quite hampered by the conditions whereas in open space Enterprise would have been the more vulnerable vessel.
A game of cat-and-mouse follows. Computer targeting does not function, so both crews must rely on manual firing commands based on their view of the opposing ships on the visual display, which is mostly static. Sulu, being more experienced, is able to make better guesses and inflict slight damage but both vessels largely miss each other.
As they maneuver half-blind around the nebula, suddenly the static on the Enterprise screen clears enough to reveal that the ships are about to collide. They veer apart and narrowly miss colliding, and at such point-blank range even manual firing is sufficient for each vessel to inflict key hits on the other. The Reliant manages to destroy the port torpedo launcher of the Enterprise, which then returns fire and damages the Reliant's bridge, causing an explosion that kills several of the ship's bridge crew including Joachim, whom Khan vows to avenge.
Kirk is nevertheless able to ambush the Reliant because of his superior starship combat experience. When Spock suggests that Khan is inexperienced, Kirk orders the Enterprise to drop below Reliant. Reliant glides past above Enterprise. A shaken, but physically recovered Chekov enters the bridge and offers his assistance. Kirk asks him to go to the weapons station. Khan, thinking on a 2-dimensional scale, isn't prepared for Enterprise to descend before he passes overhead and then ascend directly behind him. Reliant is hit with several phaser blasts, and a torpedo breaks off its port nacelle. Reliant is crippled and drifts away, trailing plasma. Most of Khan's crew is killed in the process, and Khan himself is left crippled and barely alive.
In a final attempt to kill Kirk, Khan activates the Genesis Device, knowing that the blast wave from it will destroy the Enterprise and its crew. The Enterprise's warp drive is off-line from the earlier battle, and she cannot escape the large explosion that the device will trigger. Spock exits the bridge and decides to sacrifice his life by entering the radiation-filled engine room and fixing the broken warp drive, while Kirk orders a withdrawal at "best possible speed." On Reliant's bridge, Khan, believing the Enterprise cannot escape the blast, quotes Moby Dick: "From hell's heart, I stab at thee. For hate's sake I spit my last breath at thee." Spock arrives in engineering, only to be stopped by Dr. McCoy from entering a lethally irradiated compartment that is part of the warp drive system. After initially appearing to comply with McCoy, an apologetic Spock nerve-pinches McCoy, and mind melds with the doctor, saying simply "Remember..." He then dons work gloves, enters the chamber, and begins to repair the main reactor. Shortly after, McCoy regains consciousness and he and Scotty plead in vain to Spock to stop what he is doing.
Spock is successful and the warp engines come on line just in time, and Enterprise streaks away just as the Genesis Device, and the Reliant, explodes. The Mutara Nebula condenses around the explosion, creating a new planet. Kirk contacts engineering to congratulate Scotty, but he is unconscious due to the radiation. McCoy gravely replies that Kirk needs to come down; Kirk notices the empty chair at the science station. A look of complete horror fills Kirk's face as he rushes down to Engineering to find Spock, dying. Kirk calls out for Spock and follows as the Vulcan staggers to the side of the transparent radiation barrier, finally resting against it.
Spock attempts with difficulty to explain to Kirk his reasoning: "Do not grieve, Admiral. It is logical. The needs of the many outweigh ..." to which Kirk finishes, "the needs of the few," and Spock nods. "Or the one ..." Spock states that he himself never took the Kobayashi Maru simulation "until now," and asked Kirk, "What do you think of my solution?"
Kirk, stricken with grief, can't reply. "I have been and always shall be your friend. Live long and prosper." He holds out his hand, in the traditional Vulcan salute, and Kirk presses his hand up to the glass as well, watching as Spock slumps to the floor, and dies. It takes all of his resolve to keep his composure as he sees his closest friend die in front of him. This time, there is no going back.
Spock's funeral is held later, on the torpedo deck. Kirk says a few words in Spock's honor, concluding with a befitting statement: "Of all the souls I have encountered in my travels, his was the most... human." While Scotty plays "Amazing Grace" on the bagpipes, Spock's body is launched in a torpedo casing into the atmosphere of the newborn Genesis Planet.
Later, in his quarters, Kirk tries to read his copy of A Tale of Two Cities. He sees that the glasses given to him by McCoy are broken. David visits him and the two reconcile, accepting that they are father and son. Kirk is humbled, especially when David mentions that Kirk had faced death before but never the death of a close and trusted friend like Spock.
On the bridge, the crew and Carol Marcus look at the new world formed by the Genesis Wave. McCoy expresses the feelings of Kirk by saying "He's not really gone as long as we find a way to remember him." The Enterprise sets it's course for Earth, with a stop at Ceti Alpha V to pick up Reliant's crew.
The shot dissolves to various scenes of the ecosystem of the Genesis planet, finally arriving at Spock's photon tube. In voiceover, we hear Spock's voice reciting the Star Trek motto.
Ely Cathedral, Ely, Cambridgeshire
A recent acquisition by the Cathedral. These English panels were found at Ulverston Manor, Leicestershire, but their origin is unknown. Now in the stained glass museum.
on the back patio at the Panorama Music House during the opening weekend (that coincided with Mardi Gras)
CVSR personnel simulate handing up train orders at Jaite during a railfan special. (Scanned from color negative film)
Sound track link
Opening scene
It is late in the 22nd Century. United Planet cruiser C57D a year out from Earth base on the way to Altair for a special mission. Commander J.J Adams (Leslie Neilsen) orders the crew to the deceleration booths as the ship drops from light speed to normal space.
Adams orders pilot Jerry Farman (Jack Kelly) to lay in a course for the fourth planet. The captain then briefs the crew that they are at their destination, and that they are to look for survivors from the Bellerophon expedition 20 years earlier.
As they orbit the planet looking for signs of life, the ship is scanned by a radar facility some 20 square miles in area. Morbius (Walter Pigeon) contacts the ship from the planet asking why the ship is here. Morbius goes on to explain he requires nothing, no rescue is required and he can't guarantee the safety of the ship or its crew.
Adams confirms that Morbius was a member of the original crew, but is puzzled at the cryptic warning Morbius realizes the ship is going to land regardless, and gives the pilot coordinates in a desert region of the planet. The ship lands and security details deploy. Within minutes a high speed dust cloud approaches the ship. Adams realizes it is a vehicle, and as it arrives the driver is discovered to be a robot (Robby). Robby welcomes the crew to Altair 4 and invites members of the crew to Morbious residence.
Adams, Farman and Doc Ostrow (Warren Stevens) arrive at the residence and are greeted by Morbius. They sit down to a meal prepared by Robbys food synthesizer and Morbius shows the visitors Robbys other abilities, including his unwavering obedience. Morbius then gives Robby a blaster with orders to shoot Adams. Robby refuses and goes into a mechanical mind lock, disabling him till the order is changed.
Morbius then shows the men the defense system of the house (A series of steel shutters). When questioned, Morbius admits that the Belleraphon crew is dead, Morbius and his wife being the only original survivors. Morbius's wife has also died, but months after the others and from natural causes. Morbius goes on to explain many of the crew were torn limb from limb by a strange creature or force living on the planet. The Belleraphon herself was destroyed when the final three surviving members tried to take off for Earth.
Adams wonders why this force has remained dormant all these years and never attacked Morbius. As discussions continue, a young woman Altaira (Anne Francis) introduces herself as Morbius daughter. Farman takes an immediate interest in Altaira, and begins to flirt with her . Altaira then shows the men her ability to control wild animals by petting a wild tiger. During this display the ship checks in on the safety of the away party. Adams explains he will need to check in with Earth for further orders and begins preparations for sending a signal. Because of the power needed the ship will be disabled for up to 10 days. Morbius is mortified by this extended period and offers Robby's services in building the communication facility
The next day Robby arrives at ship as the crew unloads the engine to power the transmitter. To lighten the tense moment the commander instructs the crane driver to pick up Cookie (Earl Holliman) and move him out of the way. Quinn interrupts the practical joke to report that the assembly is complete and they can transmit in the morning.
Meanwhile Cookie goes looking for Robby and organizes for the robot to synthesize some bourbon. Robby takes a sample and tells Cookie he can have 60 gallons ready the next morning for him.
Farman continues to court Altair by teaching her how to kiss, and the health benefits of kissing. Adams interrupts the exercise, and is clearly annoyed with a mix of jealous. He then explains to Altair that the clothes she wears are inappropriate around his crew. Altair tries to argue till Adams looses patience and order Altair to leave the area.
That night, Altair, still furious, explains to her father what occurred. Altair takes Adams advice to heart and orders Robby to run up a less revealing dress. Meanwhile back at the ship two security guards think they hear breathing in the darkness but see nothing.
Inside the ship, one of the crew half asleep sees the inner hatch opened and some material moved around. Next morning the Captain holds court on the events of the night before. Quinn advises the captain that most of the missing and damaged equipment can be replaced except for the Clystron monitor. Angry the Capt and Doc go back to Morbius to confront him about what has occurred.
Morbius is unavailable, so the two men settle in to wait. Outside Adams sees Altair swimming and goes to speak to her. Thinking she is naked, Adams becomes flustered and unsettled till he realizes she wants him to see her new dress. Altair asks why Adams wont kiss her like everyone else has. He gives in and plants one on her. Behind them a tiger emerges from the forest and attacks Altair, Adams reacts by shooting it. Altair is badly troubled by the incident, the tiger had been her friend, but she can't understand why acted as if she was an enemy.
Returning to the house, Doc and Adams accidently open Morbius office. They find a series of strange drawings but no sign of Morbius. He appears through a secret door and is outraged at the intrusion. Adams explains the damage done to the ship the previous night and his concern that Morbius was behind the attack.
Morbius admits it is time for explanations. He goes on to tell them about a race of creatures that lived on the planet called the Krell. In the past they had visited Earth, which explains why there are Earth animals on the planet. Morbius believes the Krell civilization collapsed in a single night, right on the verge of their greatest discovery. Today 2000 centuries later, nothing of their cities exists above ground.
Morbius then takes them on a tour of the Krell underground installation. Morbius first shows them a device for projecting their knowledge; he explains how he began to piece together information. Then an education device that projects images formed in the mind. Finally he explains what the Krell were expected to do, and how much lower human intelligence is in comparison.
Doc tries the intelligence tester but is confused when it does not register as high as Morbius. Morbius then explains it can also boost intelligence, and that the captain of the Belleraphon died using it. Morbius himself was badly injured but when he recovered his IQ had doubled.
Adams questions why all the equipment looks brand new. It is explained that all the machines left on the planet are self repairing and Morbius takes them on a tour of the rest of the installation. First they inspect a giant air vent that leads to the core of the planet. There are 400 other such shafts in the area and 9200 thermal reactors spread through the facilities 8000 cubic miles.
Later that night the crew has completed the security arrangements and tests the force field fence. Cookie asks permission to go outside the fence. He meets Robby who gives him the 60 gallons of bourbon. Outside, something hits the fence and shorts it out. The security team checks the breach but finds nothing. A series of foot like depressions begin forming leading to the ship. Something unseen enters the ship. A scream echos through the compound.
Back at the Morbius residence he argues that only he should be allowed to control the flow of Krell technology back to Earth. In the middle of the discussion, Adams is paged and told that the Chief Quinn has been murdered. Adams breaks of his discussions and heads back to the ship.
Later that night Doc finds the footprints and makes a cast. The foot makes no evolutionary sense. It seems to have elements of a four footed and biped creature; also it seems a predator and herbivore. Adams questions Cookie who was with the robot during the test and decides the robot was not responsible.
The next day at the funeral for Chief Morbius again warns him of impending doom facing the ship and crew. Adams considers this a challenge and spends the day fortifying the position around the ship. After testing the weapons and satisfied all that could be done has, the radar station suddenly reports movement in the distance moving slowly towards the ship.
No one sees anything despite the weapons being under radar fire control. The controller confirms a direct hit, but the object is still moving towards the ship. Suddenly something hits the force field fence, and a huge monster appears outlined in the energy flux. The crew open fire, but seem to do little good. A number of men move forward but a quickly killed.
Morbious wakes hearing the screams of Altair. Shes had a dream mimicking the attack that has just occurred. As Morbious is waking the creature in the force field disappears. Doc theories that the creature is made of some sort of energy, renewing itself second by second.
Adams takes Doc in the tractor to visit Morbius intending to evacuate him from the planet. He leaves orders for the ship to be readied for lift off. If he and Doc dont get back, the ship is to leave without them. They also want to try and break into Morbious office and take the brain booster test.
They are met at the door by Robby, who disarms them. Altair appears and countermands the orders given to Robby by her father. Seeing a chance Doc sneaks into the office. Altair argues with Adams about trying to make Morbius return home, she ultimately declares her love for him.
Robby appears carrying the injured Doc. Struggling to speak and heavy pain, Doc explains that the Krell succeeded in their great experiment. However they forgot about the sub conscious monsters they would release. Monsters from the id.
Morbius sees the dead body of Doc, and makes a series of ugly comments. His daughter reminds him that Doc is dead. Morbius lack of care convinces Altair she is better off going with Adams. Morbius tries to talk Adams out of taking Altair.
Adams demands an explanation of the id. Morbius realizes he is the source of the creature killing everyone. The machine the Krell built was able to release his inner beast, the sub conscious monster dwelling deep inside his ancestral mind.
Robby interrupts the debate to report something approaching the house. Morbius triggers the defensive shields of the house, which the creature begins to destroy. Morbius then orders Robby to destroy the creature, however Robby short circuits. Adams explained that it was useless; Robby knew it was Morbius self.
Adams, Altair and Morbius retreat to the Krell lab and sealed themselves in by sealing a special indestructible door. Adams convinces Morbius that he is really the monster, and that Morbius can not actually control his subconscious desires.
The group watch as the creature beings the slow process of burning through the door. Panicked Morbius implores Altair to say it is not so. Suddenly the full realization comes, and he understands that he could endanger or even kill Altair.
As the creature breaks through Morbius rushes forward and denies its existence. Suddenly the creature disappears but Morbius is mortally wounded. With his dying breath he instructs Adams to trigger a self destruct mechanism linked to the reactors of the great machine. The ship and crew have 24 hours to get as far away from the planet as possible
The next day we see the ship deep in space. Robby and Altair are onboard watching as the planet brightens and is destroyed. Adams assures Altair that her fathers memory will shine like a beacon.
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by Toxxic Rhiannyr
Virtual World Graphic Designer
SecondLife, VRChat, IMVU, Sims 4, Roblox
The Fired Up! Photo Charter produced quite a number of period scenes. Handing up train orders is one of the scenes that I remember from childhood. This scene occurred thousands of times every day. Eventually electronic media in the locomotives did away with the necessity for telegraphy and handing written train orders up to the crew.
This is the Inaugural Run for 611 after it's approximately year long restoration back to service at the North Carolina Transportation Museum. It enroute to the Virginia Transportation Museum in Roanoke VA via Lynchburg Va. Fun day chasing trains, although as the run got nearer to Roanoke, the crowds got larger and 100,000 were expected to witness the triumphal return of 611, 1 day past it's 65th birthday(it's younger than me and been rebuilt twice; I am still me unrebuilt). It is returning to the city of it's birth at the Norfolk and Western Shops in Roanoke
A member of the Dripping Springs High School Tiger Band holds their marching set instruction folder in place of their instrument during a rehearsal.
I would greatly appreciate your vote in the 2015 Photoblog Awards (or here if you don't want to create an account). Thanks!
Canadian National 2-6-0 Mogul type steam engine, 89, idles away at the Strasburg Station as the Strasburg Rail Road crew talk about the plans for todays operation.
Meanwhile steam wafts from various valves and pipes on the 114 year old locomotive. Built by the Canadian Locomotive works in 1910, 89 was originally built for the Grand Trunk Railway before it was merged into the Canadian National Railway. 89 served for a stint on the Green Mountain Railroad before being sold to the Strasburg Rail Road where it operates to this day
Sorting out two bricklink orders for next months festivities.
This is also the first time for me to be bricklinking parts for shiptember. The past 2 years I used parts I already had with a little PAB help for some basic bulk I was a little sort on the first year.
Argent following her doctor's order to stay warm. The vet said she (Argent) should be kept warm, so wearing a tunic next to a heater will certainly do the trick.
(Norio was in this spot but got bored (or too warm) and wandered off, letting Argent take over the prime spot near Mr. Heater.)
Christina Trevanion and Serhat Ahmet.
R.A.O.B. Royal Andalusian Order of Buffalos. The middle spins around read ‘Strict Order’ to quiet the brethren when the lodge is at work.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Antediluvian_Order_of_Buffaloes
Christina Trevanion & Serhat Ahmet | Day 2 Season 21 | Antiques Road Trip:
mer British Empire. Buffalo lodges have also existed in other countries not associated with the empire or the Commonwealth of Nations such as the United States of America. Lodges have existed onboard ships, at army bases, and at Royal Air Force bases. Bletchley Park had a lodge at its local pub. Most of the post-Second World War West German lodges were related to the British armed forces stationed in Germany. In the United Kingdom hundreds of pubs have been home to Buffalo Lodges.[2] The largest Buffalo order in history, based purely on the number of dispensations issued, is the Grand Lodge of England (GLE, also known as the Birmingham section). The GLE has issued over 10,672 "dispensations" to establish lodges in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland, and other places around the world.[3][4][5]
There are still a number of lodges worldwide that come under the Grand Lodge of England directly, such as Eastern Lodge 8686 in Nova Scotia.[6]
Membership
There are two types of banners in the RAOB movement: the "affiliated" orders and independents.
Membership within the affiliated orders requires that a man must be 18 years of age or over and must be a "True and Loyal Supporter of the British Crown and Constitution".[7] There are Buffalo lodges which do not come under the affiliated orders and that have different requirements.[n 1] Lodges of the RAOB that have been set up in countries such as the United States have amended their rules to simply require that a prospective member be a "True and Loyal Supporter of the Constitution" of the country in which they operate.
The Buffalo lodge is a fun fraternity in which men of any religious or political views are allowed to join. Discussion of politics and religion are forbidden from meetings. The standard of dress is usually a shirt and tie, coat or jacket, and trousers. The Lodge is structured like an "Ancient City". The chief officer is called the Worthy Primo, and subordinate officers, as city officers. Officers wear chain collar regalia, whilst individual members have their own regalia or medals, known as jewels. Meetings are begun when members are standing and the Worthy Primo constitutes the lodge. This process varies depending on the Buffalo order. Once this formal part of lodge is complete, the lodge moves into "harmony". During harmony, mock charges are held, or brothers are asked to render items of harmony, which usually includes jokes or songs, sometimes accompanied by instruments if allowed in the respective Buffalo banner.[9]
Most lodges meet together for fellowship and mutual social enjoyment. The desire to cultivate the spirit of brotherhood, to pool funds, for the purposes of helping others. To keep alive the old traditions, ceremonies and usages of the movement.
The Buffalo order for the most part has never been a registered friendly society. Unlike a friendly society, the Buffalos do not provide a system of benefits funded by contributions. The order in its various forms is a collective funded by the charitable giving of its members. Benevolent funds are being supported by and large by the voluntary giving of its members. The only fixed charges being the "Registration Fee", and "Initiation Fee". In most orders these are split between the lodge and the Grand Lodge,[10] in others this is retained entirely by the minor lodge.
For much of its history Buffalo Lodges functioned as a means of raising funds to help sick and indigent members, their families, and dependents of former members. Charity has always been at the heart of the Buffaloes and as the movement grew so did the benevolent aspirations culminating in the establishment of orphanages and convalescent homes.[11] The Buffs are regarded as charitable organisations.
In the lodges there is a small amount of ritual and ceremony.[12] Officers wear ornate chain collars and their respective jewels. The use of aprons is not widespread at regular meetings of Buffalo lodges. New members are "initiated". After two years and having gained their intermediate certificate, the new member is then "raised" to the degree of a Certified Primo. The Knight Order of Merit and Roll of Honour degrees are granted to those who have been members of ten years or more after the raising to the second degree.[13]
Structure
The Buffalo order has three tiers:
Minor (Private) Lodges;
Provincial Grand Lodges (under a local governing body) and
Grand Lodge.
Each Province may also have a Knights Chapter and Roll of Honour (RoH) Assembly. In the Grand Council Order, there is no Roll of Honour Assembly whilst in other Buffalo Orders, the Roll of Honour Assembly is called an RoH Chapel.
Degrees
Members of the Buffalo order can attain up to four levels "learning." The levels are the grades within the Buffalo movement and are called "Degrees". To attain the final level takes 10 years. In the early days, there were two degrees. The Kangaroo or First Degree, and the Primo or Second Degree.
In 1872, a higher order within the Buffaloes was formed called "The Knights of the Golden Horn", with its Headquarters in Hull and local units called Encampments set up around Great Britain. The KGH was established as a higher body to carry out and conduct ceremonies. In 1888 a number of Encampments of the Knights of the Golden Horn, split off, and became independent. Full separation did not occur from RAOB until 1926. Today the Grand United Order Knights of the Golden Horn remain in existence.
The Grand Australasian Banner has a fifth degree the Roll of Honour Chain Collar.
Another higher order was created within the Buffaloes called the Guild Companions of the Ark. It opened in 1887 by five Primos of the Order, and only had one lodge, Armenia. The Companions of the Ark disappeared before the Great Depression.
Brother (1st degree) (Kangaroo)
Certified Primo (2nd degree)
Knight of the Order of Merit (Knight Sir) (3rd degree)
Roll Of Honour (Right Honourable Sir) (4th degree)
Roll of Honour Chain Collar (5th Degree of the Grand Australasian Banner)
Minor Lodges
The Minor Lodges are structured along the lines of an "ancient" City. The Lodge room is properly known as "the city". There are 13 officers in a Lodge in total though in the Grand Executive Banner, there are two additional Officers, The City Physician and City Barber:
Worthy Primo (Sitting Primo in GEB and Grand Council) Chief Presiding Officer.
City Marshall (Deputy Presiding Officer equivalent to what the Odd Fellows call the Vice Grand)
City Secretary
City Treasurer
City Chamberlain (City Warden in the Grand Council)
City Tyler
City Constable
City Registrar
City Minstrel
City Waiter
City Taster (in Grand Council Lodges)
Alderman of Benevolence (Almoner of Benevolence in Grand Council Lodges)
City Auditors
Lodge Trustees x 3
The Order is structured on the lines of the classic fraternal structure, of Local Minor Lodges, Provincial Governing Authorities and a Grand Body, often styled as the Grand Lodge. All Members are known by the appellation of "Brother" with degree honorifics used in lodges.
Knights Chapters and RoH assemblies exist for members of those degrees and are operated alongside the Provincial Grand Lodges but have no function other than as ceremonial bodies. Chapters are responsible for the 3rd degree ceremony. RoH assemblies the 4th degree ceremony.
The Buffaloes were once a very large worldwide fraternal movement made up of a number of "orders" and over 15,000 lodges having been established around the globe at one point or another. The largest Buffalo order is the Grand Lodge of England (originally the Birmingham section) with over 10,672 Lodges having been issued dispensations since 1897 or before then.
Banners
By the 1850s there existed dozens of Lodges across Britain, with Mother Lodges or District Lodges, acting as the head of the movement in their respective area. Each of these Lodges or Mother Lodges worked their own ritual and had their own rules. In order to create uniformity in rules, rituals and operation, The first national Governing Body, the Grand Primo Lodge of England, was organised in 1866 as a result of a meeting of delegates from various Lodges. In the years following, various schisms emanated from the Grand Primo Lodge, owing to disagreements and infighting. The first of these was the Grand Surrey Lodge. In 1874 the Grand Primo Lodge had 112 Lodges under it. In 1897 the mother of all divisions occurred and Lodges either went with the Metropolitan movement or the Provincial (or Birmingham) Movement. The two movements would rename themselves as the Grand Lodge of England Limited (Metropolitan) and the Grand Lodge of England (Birmingham).[14]
The Grand Lodge of England Limited is simply known as "the limited section", while the Grand Lodge of England Inc is known as the GLE. The GLE is the largest of the Buffalo orders. There have been a number of Buffalo orders, thus leading to a general opinion that there have been close to 20,000 Buffalo lodges formed since the movement began in 1822, all the result of schism after schism: the Grand Surrey Lodge, The Grand Surrey Banner (Mother Lodge) and Grand Surrey Banner (Mother Banner), Grand Middlesex Banner and Grand Executive Banner being examples of these. In their day these various orders were competing against each other with lodges of each order often meeting in the same town and it was not unusual to find in a reasonable sized town four or more Buffalo lodges of four different orders.[3] Over time the established orders have settled their differences and now largely co-operate.
All of the different RAOB orders are very similar, save for minor differences and peculiarities. Each has Minor Lodges, which are the basic unit of the whole movement. Overseeing Minor Lodges are what is known as "Governing Authorities" and, over those, a "Grand Lodge" (or Council), made up of Grand Primo, Officers as well as delegates representing Governing Authority areas. Each Buffalo Order has a Rule Book, Manual of Instruction and Ceremony Lectures issued by the parent body. There are generally 4 Degrees of membership. Kangaroo (1st degree) Primo (2nd degree) Knight of Merit (3rd Degree) and the Roll of Honour (4th Degree).
The Grand Lodge of England was one half of two banners born from the separation of the Grand Primo Lodge, in 1897.[11][15]
In the various banners, each Grand Lodge or Grand Council holds annual meetings known as "conferences" to which delegates from all the provinces attend, and at which remits are passed, and other matters dealt with.
Use of "Royal"
The Seditious Meetings Act 1817 affected the gatherings of clubs throughout Britain. To counteract this and show the Buffaloes were not subversive to the interests of the state, the Order described itself as the "Loyal Order of Buffaloes". The addition of "antediluvian" (meaning before the time of the flood in the Bible and referring to the Order's principles)[16] occurred in the 1850s. Hence the honorifics of "royal" and "antediluvian" are simply a decoration. The movement under the Home Orders has always professed a Loyalty to the Crown and the Order was widespread amongst the British Armed Forces during the 20th century. Reference to before the flood is questionable. The usage of such an appellation being to impress upon the minds of members and the public that the movement has great antiquity. This would make sense given the preposterous list of ancient members used in the old Initiation Ceremonies.[17]
The use of the word "Royal" in any organisational or business title in the United Kingdom requires a royal warrant from a reigning monarch. Under legislation in Section 4 (1) of the Trade Marks Act 1994, the Lord Chamberlain's Office has the right to take legal action if permission for the term "royal" is not granted. As the Buffaloes have been using the prefix "royal" since the 1840s, the Lord Chamberlain's Office permits its continued use on the grounds of long usage.
Dispensations
The Dispensation is the name given within the RAOB to the lodge warrant or charter. The name Dispensation appears to originate from the City of Lushington, which had a certificate on the wall of its meeting room, called the Dispensation.
The dispensations of lodges are issued by the Governing Body of each Order to the Minor Lodges formed under them. Such dispensation empowers the Lodges to exist and operate as part of the Order, and to initiate gentlemen into that Order.
Motto
The Latin motto of Buffalo orders is "No Man Is At All Times Wise" (Latin: Nemo Mortalium Omnibus Horis Sapit) and it has the maxim of "Justice, Truth and Philanthropy". The Grand Lodge of England also has its own motto, used by itself and its affiliated branches on the official seal, which is "In things Essential Unity, In things Doubtful Liberty and in all things Charity."
Lodge names and associations
Over the years there have been Lodges formed that were associated with various industries and professions, or named in honour of people, such as respected lodge members or prominent people in the community.[2]
Having been started by actors and stagehands, other lodges were formed by members of the theatre profession. There have been many actors and entertainers' lodges, including up until the late 20th century in London.[18] In Newcastle Upon Tyne in 1884, the Joey Grimaldi 150 was opened under Dispensation issued by the Grand Primo Lodge of England and is an example of a Lodge that at its formation, was connected with the theatrical trade.[19] Over the years this seems to have significantly changed and by the time of its closure in 2018, there were no entertainers or theatre members.
There was also a Lodge that met at or in the vicinity of the Shaftsbury Theatre. Often the Lodges formed by those connected to the theatre and entertainment business had names that either demonstrated clearly their association such as simply "The Theatre Lodge", or that were named in honour of a famous theatrical personage such as "Garrick Lodge" or "Sheridan Lodge".[2]
Over the years there have been some well-known men associated with the movement, encompassing all professions and trades including the legal profession. There was a Royal Courts of Justice Lodge GLE Ltd being an example of a Lodge connected to the Legal profession it met at the Inns of Court [20]
There was a Dreadnought Lodge GLE Limited, clearly a Naval Lodge. There have been Lodges connected with the Home Guard, simply using the name "Home Guard". Lodges connected with Railways often called "Railway Lodge" or something else railway related such as "Locomotive Lodge". Coal miners lodges such as Mt Rochfort Lodge No 29 GLNZ (4656 GLE). Naval and Passenger liner lodges usually have a ship's name, that is not the case with the Oriana-based lodge whose name was "Princess Alexandra" and was numbered "10051" on the Roll of the Grand Lodge of England. The now-closed Leyland Lodge was originally formed by the management of the Leyland Motor Company in the 1920s. Kings Own Military Lodge had a close connection with the British forces.
Some lodges were named simply in honour of famous personages of the day, such as General Redvers Buller or Edith Cavell. Other Lodges have been named in honour of well-respected past members such as the Mervyn Payne Lodge.
Absent Brothers Toast
The AB Toast used by the Grand Lodge of England was penned by Bro. J Ord-Hume to the Tune of Sandon Lead Kindly Light.
Spirit of truth, before we homeward wend
On thee we call
Assist us each to succor and defend
Good brethren all
From Cares and Sorrows, Absent Brethren Free
Where'er they roam, in air, on land or sea
Let thy kind spirit hover round them now
And so enthrall
That they will keep, their obligation vow
So say we all
And when on us, the ivy leaves descend
Grant we may join, thy link, our brothers friend.
Grand Council Absent Brothers Toast
First Verse of Eternal Father Strong to Save followed by fifteen seconds silence and the ode:
Let us Toast our Absent Brothers
Wheresoever they may be
Trusting soon to have them with us
Joining in our Jovial Harmony
Brothers Kept away by sickness
soon we trust their health regain
Whilst we wish good luck and safety to our Brothers on the main
Our Brothers know they are not forgotten
If on land, Air or sea
So stand your glass and drink right hearty
To our Grand RAOB
ABSENT BROTHERS
SPEEDY RETURN
History
Early history
In so far as the recorded history goes, a club was formed in the Harp Tavern, Drury Lane London, by actors and entertainers in the mid 18th century, and may have included the owners of the theatre itself. The club was called the "City of Lushington" and was styled along the lines of a mock "City Council", possibly in parody of the "City of London". Named the "City of Lushington" (possibly after the drink "lush") The club had a "Lord Mayor" and "Four Aldermen". The Lord Mayor was a pompous figure in a wig and robe. The Aldermen were in charge of the four wards of the city, the aptly named "Poverty", "Juniper", "Suicide", and "lunatic" wards. In these Wards the members sat. This club was immensely popular, leading to restriction on membership as the room could not accommodate all the prospective citizens of the city. This left quite a few of the lesser lights of the acting and theatre business, including stagehands, out in the cold. In 1822 a Buffalo Society was formed in the same meeting room as the City of Lushington, and with references to the City of Lushington, such as the title and style of the Lodge Officers and the naming of the Lodge Room as "the City" practices which continue to this day. The Buffalo Society was formed by the artist Joseph Lisle and comedian William Sinnett, along with stagehands and theatre technicians, in August 1822. It drew its then name of The Buffaloes from a popular song of the time: We'll chase the Buffalo. The Buffalo Society is mentioned in Peirce Egan's "an end to life in London".[21]
The Harponian Lodge is regarded as the first Buffalo Lodge, formed in 1822 by actors and stagehands denied membership in the City of Lushington. The date of closure of that first Buffalo Lodge is unknown.
From the outset the Buffalo Society existed for social convivial enjoyment and for benevolent purposes. By way of small fines, donations and fees, money would be raised to assist an indigant member who was in need.
The Buffalo Lodges were spread across London and further abroad by the members of the theatrical profession who were Buffs who travelled around for work. Wherever they went new Lodges were formed. When a lodge opened in a new area, it became a Mother Lodge, from which subsequent Minor Lodges would be opened. The Mother Lodge would support and advise new lodges on rules and administration of membership. These Mother Lodges developed into the body responsible for administration and organisation, and as the Order grew District Grand Lodges and later Provincial Grand Lodges were opened.
One of the "big" centres of the movement in its early days was the St Georges Tavern, home of the Grand Surrey Lodge, a popular haunt of those in the Theatre business. Several Lodges owed their allegiance to the Surrey Lodge, who was Mother to a number of Lodges. Later on, the first schism from the Grand Primo Lodge would be by those connected to the Surrey Lodge.
Well known proprietors of the Theatre Royal in Drury Lane in the 18th and 19th centuries respectively were David Garrick and later, Brinsley Sheridan. During Garrick's time managing the Theatre, it was rebuilt twice, whilst during Sheridans tenure, the Theatre burnt down and was rebuilt. It is one of the oldest Theatres still operating in Great Britain today. Some of the names of early GLE Lodges being "Garrick" and "Brinsley Sheridan", two of the proprietors of the Theatre Royal. Another of those early GLE lodges of interest is The Clown Lodge No 32, most likely founded by Clowns whilst the Shakespeare Lodge and Joey Grimaldi Lodge No 150 were both formed in Newcastle upon Tyne by actors and entertainers.[22]
Early lodges
Grand Primo Lodge England [14]
Adelphi
Apollo
Beehive
Blomsbury
Brittania
Cardowgan
Carlton
Caxton
Cock Robin
Emanuel
Frankling
Hoxton
Lambeth
Marlborough
The Grand Surrey
Flowers of Forest Lodge
First Ten Grand Primos, Grand Primo Lodge England
The first ten Grand Primos were:[23]
1866 Bro G.T.Wright
1867 Bro E Scates
1869 Bro.E Mitchell
1870 Bro.W James
1872 Bro.J Worth
1873 Bro.H Albert
1874 Bro.R Willis
1875 Bro.F.C Hunt
1876 Bro. C Woodward
1877 Bro. E Geake
1878 Bro. J Lewis
1879 Bro. J C Smith
1880 Bro. J Alexander
1881 Bro. G Eshelby
1882 Bro. C Ranson
1883 Bro. H Stroud
1884 Bro. H Barret
1885 Bro. W G Rennel
1886 Bro. W Hedderwick
GLE No 1
A Lodge in Liverpool, Albion Lodge No 1, is currently at the top of the roll of the Grand Lodge of England (Birmingham Section). Its number is deceiving as the lodge was not the first to be formed under the Grand Primo Lodge. Albion has held that distinction for some time of being No 1 on the GLE (Birmingham Section Roll). In the 1920s the GLE (Birmingham Section) undertook a renumbering of lodges, with lodges moving up one to fill in spaces left by closed lodges. It was at that time that Albion became No 1.[2]
The Elks
Charles Vivian, an actor and member of the Buffaloes was a key founding father of the Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks in the United States.
Overseas lodges
The Buffaloes went wherever the members went. The RAOB reached Australia by the 1870s. In New Zealand, the early Lodges were concentrated in the Canterbury region and were established in the 1880s.
By the end of the 19th century, various orders of Buffaloes had spread from England to Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, Northern Ireland, Scotland, the Middle East, India, Africa, Gibraltar and Cyprus.
20th century
First World War RAOB GLE Ambulance c. 1916
In 1901 the first Lodge in Scotland, Clan Ord, was opened, by Bro's Johnson and Ord Hume. On the 23rd of May 1902, the Royal Edinburgh Lodg No 854 was opened. on the Roll of the Grand Lodge of England (Birmingham section). This was the second Scottish Lodge. The Third lodge to be opened up in Scotland was St Kentgern 858 in Glasgow. On February 25, 1903. Bro. J Ord Hume officially opened the Maritime Lodge No 897 GLE in Australia on behalf of the Grand Lodge of England.[14]
The movement achieved a significant goal with the opening of one of its first orphanages, Aldridge, in 1904. This was funded by a Hapenny registration fee in every Lodge under the Grand Lodge of England. There were that many members and lodges meeting back then that the scheme paid for itself.[14]
By 1915 the Grand Lodge of England were already into the 1000 series of numbers. By the end of 1919 the Grand Lodge of England reached over the 3000 series. In the 1920s Lodge numbers in the GLE Order were in the 4000-5000 series.
Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes Civil and Military Lodge, Whittington, Staffordshire, c. 1920
The First World War led to temporary or even permanent closure of many Lodges due to the enlistment of members. The Buffs supported the war effort through supplying motor ambulances to bring wounded soldiers back from the front lines. Initially six motorised ambulances were purchased and sent with each one operated by volunteer Buffs. More followed, with the figure quoted being between 18 and 22.[23]
Three Buffalo Lodges were formed in the back of Motor Ambulances. On their return after the war, the ambulances formed the first ambulance service in England.[24]
In 1919 Ye Petitor Lodge No 2674 was opened which would become No 1 on the roll of Grand Lodge of New Zealand. Also in 1919, a Lodge was opened in Iraq at the Royal Air Force base. Lodges continued to be extended around the globe as well as in China, India and Germany.
The first RAOB Lodge in Germany was opened in 1920 and connected with the British Armed Forces. By 1926 a Provincial Grand Lodge of the Rheinland was opened. By that stage several Minor Lodges were in operation.
In the 1920s several Royal Naval ships had Lodges attached to them.
In 1926, Lord Alverstone succeeded in persuading the Order to purchase Grove House, Harrogate, for use as an orphanage to which every active member contributed a ha'penny (half of one old penny).[25] When the orphanage was no longer a requirement after the state took over responsibility for orphans, the Order began a new charity fund which is still in place today.
Ingham, Queensland, 1935
In the late 1920's a Lodge was opened in Baluchistan, India (closed 1949).[26]
On 5 October 1930 the Airship the R101 Crashed in France and the resulting fire, killed most of those on board which included at least 24 members of the RAOB Bedford Province including Lord Thomson the Air Minister.[27]
In the 1930s a very remote Buffalo Lodge was formed, the "Up the Khyber" Lodge in India, up near the border with Afghanistan, at the furthestmost British outpost.[28]
In the 1930s the Grand Lodge of South Africa were supplied a number of dispensations in the 6000 series. This explains an anomaly why some South African Lodges continued to be opened under the 6000 series, long after that series had been surpassed by the GLE.
Grand Council Buffalo order
The Grand Council RAOB was formed in 1924 as a result of a conference of various independent Buffalo orders in Great Britain, led by the Grand Surrey Banner. The outcome was the formation of the Grand Council which then issued new dispensations to all Lodges. In New Zealand for instance, the Grand Surrey Banner Lodge No 3010 become New Zealand No 1. It lost its original English-issued number.
Second World War
Lodges continued to operate through the war years throughout the British Empire, where and when they could meet. During the Second World War, the order offered Grove House for use as a military hospital.
Two lodges stand out during the war years. They were the Changi Prisoner of War Lodge, formed without dispensation, in Changi POW Camp.[29] The other was the Hohenfels Lodge in Stalag 383.[30]
Post Second World War
The post-war period was a boom time for the order, particularly in the British forces. There was a lodge opened in Japan as part of Japan occupation forces following the end of the war. There were Lodges opened in Royal Air Force bases all over West Germany. There was a Buffalo Lodge set up on Christmas Island. There was a Lodge opened in Korea during the Korean War as well and Lodges opened in Malaya, and Borneo and Singapore. Buffalo Lodges were opened in Royal Air Force bases in Great Britain while new Lodges were also opened in communities such as Jinja, in Uganda.
In 1949, an international convention in Glasgow reported over 1000 attendees from around 4000 lodges and was to celebrate 130 years of the Order. Sir Andrew Murray, the Lord Provost, addressed the conference.[31]
The order continued to expand well into the 1960s. One such lodge that was formed in the 1950s under the Grand Lodge of England direct being the Eastern Lodge No 8686, Eastern Passage, Nova Scotia, Canada. New lodges continued to be formed including at Sharjah Air Force Base and Lodges at other bases, still under the RAF.
It was not just the Grand Lodge of England that experienced massive growth in the post war years.
There were over two thousand lodges under the GLE formed in the years following the Second World War. Between 1945 and 1985 new dispensations issued went from the mid 7000 series to the mid 10,000 series.
The RAOB expanded in West Germany following the Second World War with up to six provincial grand lodges being formed to manage the dozens of lodges established. Most of those lodges were connected directly with the Royal Air Force.
Asia
The early Lodges in Asia had been set up associated with the Maritime sector, British Army and industries. Hong Kong was where you would expect to find such lodges. The first Lodge in Hong Kong was in the 3000 series numbers under the GLE (Birmingham) and so would have been formed in or around 1919–1920. Singapore was the next place, and several Lodges were formed there before the Japanese invasion of the Second World War. A "Lodge" was opened in Changi POW Camp of which a history has been compiled by Bro Mick Walker RoH of the Grand Lodge of England.
Following the end of the Second World War, there was a Lodge formed by members of the Japan Occupation Forces. A Lodge was opened in Korea during the time of the Korean War, and was associated with the Cameron Highlanders. New Lodges were formed also in Singapore, one of which was the "Enterprise" Lodge GLE. Another Lodge was associated with a Royal Air Force Base.[32]
From the mid-1950s Lodges spread across South East Asia due greatly to the influx of British servicemen as a result of increasing tensions in the region that culminated in the Malayan Emergency. By 1965 There were Lodges in Borneo, Singapore, Malaysia. Virtually all of these Lodges were "military" lodges and met at the various British Army Bases and Camps. One such lodge was Straits Commonwealth Lodge.[32]
The Buffs continued to exist in South East Asia after the conflict. The Rumah Pantai Lodge GLE on Borneo was formed in 1980 by the merger of two old Military Lodges. Rumah Pantai soldiered on until 2015 by which time it was the last RAOB Lodge in Asia.[33]
List of places where RAOB lodges existed
RAOB Lodges once existed in the following:[34]
Korea
Japan
Baluchistan between Afghanistan, Iran and India (now Pakistan)
India
Iraq
Libya
Egypt
Aden
Oman
Israel
Benghazi
Jinja
Kenya
Accra Ghana
Sierra Leone
Tobruk
Ceylon
Nigeria
Tripoli
Gan
India
Malaya
Hong Kong
Singapore
Borneo
Papua New Guinea
Most of those Lodges, if not all, were associated with the British Armed Forces.[35]
Today
The post Second World War years were undeniably a golden age for the Buffaloes. Worldwide membership increased and the number of Lodges expanded to reach their zenith in the 1960s-early 1970s. It was at this time to, in the post war period leading up to 1970, that the largest number of RAOB lodges in the Armed Forces came about.[36]
As with many organisations dating from the pre-Victorian period, there has been a noticeable decline in membership since a boom in the 1970s. With the reduction in the size and scale of the British Armed Forces, and social changes as mentioned, the Buffaloes movement has shrunk in size, and a significant number of Lodges around the world have closed.[37]
By 2012 Scotland's oldest lodge, the Royal Edinburgh Lodge No. 854, was down to 25 members.[38]
The Grand Lodge of England remains the largest Buffalo Order, it now only has 700 or less active Lodges. Some of the most historic Lodges remain open such as Albion No 1 in Liverpool. There are Grand Lodges within the GLE system in operation in New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Cyprus, and Northern Ireland.
The Grand Lodge of England sold its two convalescent homes in 2014.[39]
South Africa
The earliest known Lodges were United No 1 and Anchor 631, both of the Grand Surrey Banner, set up in the 1880s.
In 1921, Several Lodges operating under the Grand Surrey Banner, Grand Surrey Lodge and Grand Lodge of England Limited seceded to the Grand Lodge of England (Birmingham section) taking up the numbers 4004–4016 on the Roll of the said Grand Lodge of England. In the same year, the Grand Lodge of England granted a Warrant for the formation of a Grand Lodge of South Africa and Rhodesia. This was inaugurated on the 21st of August 1921. The First Grand Primo being Bro. Lawrence Pascoe KoM
One of the more notable members of the Order in South Africa was Bro.John Christie P.B. who was Leader of the South African Labour Party from 1946 to 1953.
Australia
History
The earliest Buffalo Lodges were formed in Australia, in Sydney, the 1860s–1870s. A couple of articles appeared in various Buffalo Magazines in Australasia dealing of those early days.
Lodges spread all over Australia under a number of different Buffalo Orders: the Grand Surrey Lodge, the Grand Surrey Banner, the Grand Lodge of England. There was also a Grand Marine Banner.
In 1902, Bro. J Ord-Hume was appointed as a Grand Lodge of England Travelling Commissioner, with the power to open Lodges in his travels abroad to Australia. Maritime Lodge was recorded as the first GLE Lodge in Australia.[40]
In 1914 the Grand Marine Banner merged with another Buffalo order to form the Grand Australasian Banner. This Order is unique in that it has a fifth degree, the Roll of Honour Chain Collar.
In the 1920s the first State Grand Lodges under the Grand Lodge of England were opened.
Around the time of the Second World War, Lodges were extended under the GLE and GAB to Papua and New Guinea (later Territory of Papua and New Guinea and independent Papua New Guinea).
In the 1950s a lodge was opened on the Peel Island leper colony.[41]
In the early 1980s an attempt was made to form a GAB lodge in New Zealand. This was opposed by the Grand Council in New Zealand.[42]
Present
Today the GLE has the Grand Lodge of Queensland, Grand Lodge of Victoria, Grand Lodge of New South Wales East, Grand Lodge New South Wales West, Grand Lodge of South Australia & Grand Lodge of Tasmania still exist, as does the Grand Australasian Banner in the following states - Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales & Tasmania.
New Zealand
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There have been around 400 Buffalo Lodges established in New Zealand in the period from the 1880s to 2000. As of May 2022, there remain at least 78 minor lodges in operation, spread across four orders.[43] The Grand Lodge of New Zealand of the GLE with at least 60 minor lodges, the Grand Council with 14 minor lodges, and Progressive Lodge of New Zealand with five.[43] Of these, the Grand Council and Progressive Lodge have no Lodges outside of the North Island.
Grand Surrey Lodges in Canterbury
The earliest surviving references to Buffalo Lodges operating in New Zealand are to be found in a now rare out of print book. The History of Lyttleton Lodge No 8, by Bro. James Tihema RoH. Tihema delves into the subject of the early Lodges in Canterbury, of the Lodges established under the Grand Surrey Lodge in the 1880s. There was a Grand Lodge of New Zealand formed, under the Grand Surrey Lodge. There were at least 6 Minor Lodges formed in the Canterbury Region including the masonic sounding "Royal Arch of Friendship Lodge" opened in Ashburton, and the "Royal Lyttleton Lodge No 756".[44]
According to old New Zealand Buffalo Review reports from Lyttleton Lodge No 8, the present day Lyttleton Lodge No 8 was formed in the early 1920s from the merger of the old Grand Surrey Lodge in Canterbury with the new emerging Grand Lodge of England movement. Lyttleton Lodge is often referred to in the old RAOB GLNZ Journals as Lyttleton 6461 just as Ye Petitor would often report under the Name and Number Ye Petitor 2674 [45]
Grand Surrey Banner in Wellington
In Petone Wellington in 1916, Bro Earnest Lacy RoH led the formation of the first Lodge in Wellington, established under the Grand Surrey Banner. It was called Tuatahi Lodge no 2041 GSB, Tuatahi being Maori for "One" or "First". From this Lodge was begun a short lived Grand New Zealand Banner.[46][42][47]
Grand Lodge of New Zealand GLE
At the end of the First World War soldiers in the Torquay Demobilization Camp formed the Ye Petitor Lodge No 2674. A GLE dispensation was granted to the lodge in 1919. The lodge was then transported to Christchurch, New Zealand. In 1922, at the formation of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand, Ye Petitor 2674 became No 1 on the Roll of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand of GLE. It was not the only GLE lodge to be formed in New Zealand prior to 1922. Other Lodges included Auckland City Lodge in Auckland.[48]
Attempts to establish a Grand Lodge of New Zealand of GLE are known to have begun in 1920. The first recorded meetings of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand of GLE were in Christchurch in February 1922. On Sunday 19 March 1922 the First Grand Lodge was elected with Bro. W.G Brooks RoH being the first Grand Primo of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand of GLE Edwin Clark in his history of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand states, based on original minutes, that a motion was passed for the Grand Lodge Dispensation to be framed.[48]
According to the original minutes as mentioned by Edwin Clark in his history of the first 25 years of Grand Lodge, the meetings of the new Grand Lodge were to be held at 8pm, on the last Thursday of each month.
Lodges formed under The Grand Lodge of New Zealand of GLE would continue to have an English GLE Number issued to them until at least as late as 1930.
Grand Lodge of England Granted the Grand Lodge of New Zealand its independence around 1931. It is still in fraternal accord with the GLE and is part of the GLE banner, but is independent of the Grand Lodge of England.
Grand Primos of the Grand Lodge of New Zealand GLE
Bro. W.G. Brooks RoH 1922[48]
Bro. A.B.Simpson KOM 1923
Bro. W Pennington KOM 1924
Bro. C W Jones KOM 1925
Bro. A J Smith 1925–1926
Bro. A.D.Pickard 1926–1927
Bro G.A.Denning RoH 1927/1928
Bro. W.Drain K.O.M 1928/1929
Bro.W.W.M.Watt R.O.H 1929/1930
Bro.W.J.W.Neate RoH 1930/1931
The Order of Solomon was the highest order of the Ethiopian Empire. It was only given to the Emperor and Empress, and foriegn monarchs.
Originally the Order of Solomon was the highest grade of the Order of Solomon's Seal, but was made into it's own seperate order by Emperor Haile Selassie
John Snow (15 March 1813 – 16 June 1858) was an English physician and a leader in the adoption of anesthesia and medical hygiene. He is considered one of the fathers of modern epidemiology, in part because of his work in tracing the source of a cholera outbreak in Soho, London, in 1854. His findings inspired fundamental changes in the water and waste systems of London, which led to similar changes in other cities, and a significant improvement in general public health around the world.
Snow was born 15 March 1813 in York, England. He was the first of nine children born to William and Frances Snow in their North Street home. His neighbourhood was one of the poorest in the city and was always in danger of flooding because of its proximity to the River Ouse. His father was a labourer who may have worked at a local coal yard, by the Ouse, probably constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but later was a farmer in a small village to the north of York. Snow was baptised at All Saints' Church, North Street, York
Snow studied in York until the age of 14, when he was apprenticed to William Hardcastle, a surgeon in Newcastle upon Tyne. It was there, in 1831, that he first encountered cholera, which entered Newcastle via the seaport of Sunderland and devastated the town. Between 1833 and 1836 Snow worked as an assistant to a colliery surgeon, first in Burnopfield, County Durham, and then in Pateley Bridge, West Riding of Yorkshire. In October 1836 he enrolled at the Hunterian school of medicine on Great Windmill Street, London.
In 1837 Snow began working at the Westminster Hospital. Admitted as a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England on 2 May 1838, he graduated from the University of London in December 1844 and was admitted to the Royal College of Physicians in 1850. In 1850 he was also one of the founding members of the Epidemiological Society of London, formed in response to the cholera outbreak of 1849.
In 1857 Snow made an early and often overlooked contribution to epidemiology in a pamphlet, On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets
John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of ether and chloroform as surgical anaesthetics, allowing patients to undergo surgical and obstetric procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. He designed the apparatus to safely administer ether to the patients and also designed a mask to administer chloroform. He personally administered chloroform to Queen Victoria when she gave birth to the last two of her nine children, Leopold in 1853 and Beatrice in 1857, leading to wider public acceptance of obstetric anaesthesia. Snow published an article on ether in 1847 entitled On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether. A longer version entitled On Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administration was published posthumously in 1858.
Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases such as cholera and bubonic plague were caused by pollution or a noxious form of "bad air". The germ theory of disease had not yet been developed, so Snow did not understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. His observation of the evidence led him to discount the theory of foul air. He first publicised his theory in an 1849 essay, On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in the Soho epidemic of 1854.
By talking to local residents (with the help of Reverend Henry Whitehead), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle. This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline:
There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.
Snow later used a dot map to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science of epidemiology.
Snow wrote:
On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the [Broad Street] pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street...
With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally...
The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump well.
I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst [7 September], and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day.
— John Snow, letter to the editor of the Medical Times and Gazette
Researchers later discovered that this public well had been dug only 3 feet (0.9 m) from an old cesspit, which had begun to leak fecal bacteria. The cloth nappy of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.
Thomas Shapter had conducted similar studies and used a point-based map for the study of cholera in Exeter, Devon years before John Snow, although this did not identify the water supply problem that was later held responsible.
After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the oral-fecal method of transmission of disease, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate.[14]
It wasn't until 1866 that William Farr, one of Snow's chief opponents, realized the validity of his diagnosis when investigating another outbreak of cholera at Bromley by Bow and issued immediate orders that unboiled water was not to be drunk.
Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly the contaminated water spread cholera, although he did accept that water had a role in the spread of the illness. In fact, some of Farr's statistical data that he collected helped promote John Snow's views.
Public health officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have often become entangled. During the Annual Pumphandle Lecture in England, members of the John Snow Society remove and replace a pump handle to symbolise the continuing challenges for advances in public health.
n 1830 Snow became a member of the Temperance Movement, and lived for a decade or so as a vegetarian and teetotaler. In the mid-1840s his health deteriorated, and he returned to meat-eating and drinking wine. He continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult life. He never married.
Snow lived at 18 Sackville Street, London, from 1852 to his death in 1858.
Snow suffered a stroke while working in his London office on 10 June 1858. He was 45 years old at the time. He never recovered, dying on 16 June 1858.
Brompton Cemetery
The Order of Solomon was the highest order of the Ethiopian Empire. It was only given to the Emperor and Empress, and foriegn monarchs.
Originally the Order of Solomon was the highest grade of the Order of Solomon's Seal, but was made into it's own seperate order by Emperor Haile Selassie
Title: Hauling Retail Orders to the Loading Station
Creator: Unknown
Date: ca. 1904-1918
Part of: George W. Cook Dallas/Texas image Collection
Series: Series 3: Photographs
Series 3, Subseries 4, Albums
Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas, Photo Series
Place: Sherman, Grayson County, Texas
Physical Description: 1 photographic print (postcard); gelatin silver, part of 1 volume (37 prints); 9 x 14 cm
File: a2014_0020_3_4_02_08_r_hauling.jpg
Rights: Please cite DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University when using this file. A high-resolution version of this file may be obtained for a fee. For details see the sites.smu.edu/cul/degolyer/research/permissions/ web page. For other information, contact degolyer@smu.edu.
For more Information, see: digitalcollections.smu.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/gcd/...
On Explore/Flickr Top 500, Feb. 7, 2009
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January 18, 2009
Sinulog 2009
Cebu City
Cebu, Philippines
The Fabulous Fizz Bar, Proms and Prosecco in the Park 2019; Chetwynd Deer Park, Newport, Shropshire.
The Order of the Queen of Sheba was the third highest order of the Ethiopian Empire. It was granted to the Emperor and Empress, the female members of the Imperial family, non-christian monarchs and heads of state as well as christian royal consorts and princes and princesses around the world.
the Cordon was a deep purple sash bordered in emerald green worn from the right shoulder to the left hip with the plack at the left hip.
A win for St. Peter’s by 242 runs
St. Peter’s won the toss and elected to bat on a green pitch. Openers Greg Lee and Toby Pierce set about the Chiddlingly attack with a vengeance, making 146 for the first wicket and scoring at seven an over. They fell in consecutive overs, with Pierce making 84 and Lee, 52. However, this did little to stem the run-rate. Marco Lincoln came in at three and scored 45 from 35 balls and captain Max Wheatley hit 35 from only 15 deliveries, including three sixes, two of which were hit out of the ground.
Duncan Andrews and Rohan Doyle both faced 37 deliveries as they scored 67 and 62 not out respectively to complete the carnage. At the end of their 45 overs, St. Peter’s had scored 389 for 6, so Chiddingly were therefore set an unlikely 390 to win at a required rate of 8.67 runs per over.
In reply, Chiddingly started briskly as the new ball came off the bat quickly. However, they soon started to lose wickets as Wazir Khan tore the heart out of the top and middle orders. Opener Freddie Marlow top scored with 39 and there were scores of 34 from Chris Parker and 31 from George Lofthouse, but there was only one highlight of an innings that never looked to come close to the target and that was Wazir Khan’s amazing 6 for 7 from 7.3 overs.
Orders that I made these days!
If you liked, please, contact-me!
zikatrika@hotmail.com
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Encomendas que eu fiz esses ultimos dias!
Ursinho carinhoso em azul para a Monique! Ela pediu um rosa também mas como já tinha fotos na minha galeria, deixei só esse (:
Vendas por encomen.da!
Se interessou? Mande-me uma mensagem!
e-mail: zikatrika@hotmail.com
www.facebook.com/MissStarryHat
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Até amanhã pretendo postar mais encomendas! O trabalho por aqui não para e eu ainda tenho muitas encomendas para fazer!
Caso você pediu algo comigo e ainda não está na minha galeria, por favor, espere só mais um pouquinho!
podem me mandar mensagens o quanto quiser, terei o prazer em responder! Caso eu não responda no flickr, me mandem um e-mail! ^^
Continuem vivendo com entusiasmo!
Amor,
Babi!
The Order of the Queen of Sheba was the third highest order of the Ethiopian Empire. It was granted to the Emperor and Empress, the female members of the Imperial family, non-christian monarchs and heads of state as well as christian royal consorts and princes and princesses around the world.
the Cordon was a deep purple sash bordered in emerald green worn from the right shoulder to the left hip with the plack at the left hip.